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data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Biology" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Biology" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-viewsource" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Biology&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.viewsource" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-viewsource"> View source </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Biology_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Biology (disambiguation)">Biology (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Biological" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Biological_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Biological (disambiguation)">Biological (disambiguation)</a>.</div> Biology is the scientific study of <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a>.<a href="#cite_note-urry2017a-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-hillis2020-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-freeman2017a-3">[3]</a> It is a <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a> with a broad scope but has several unifying themes that tie it together as a single, coherent field.<a href="#cite_note-urry2017a-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-hillis2020-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-freeman2017a-3">[3]</a> For instance, all <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> are made up of at least one <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> that processes hereditary information encoded in <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>, which can be transmitted to future generations. Another major theme is <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, which explains the unity and diversity of life.<a href="#cite_note-urry2017a-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-hillis2020-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-freeman2017a-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Energy processing</a> is also important to life as it allows organisms to <a href="/wiki/Animal_locomotion" title="Animal locomotion">move</a>, grow, and <a href="/wiki/Reproduce" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproduce">reproduce</a>.<a href="#cite_note-urry2017a-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-hillis2020-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-freeman2017a-3">[3]</a> Finally, all organisms are able to regulate their own <a href="/wiki/Internal_environment" title="Internal environment">internal environments</a>.<a href="#cite_note-urry2017a-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-hillis2020-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-freeman2017a-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-modell2015-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-davies2013-5">[5]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Biology-0001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Biology-0001.jpg/261px-Biology-0001.jpg" decoding="async" width="261" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Biology-0001.jpg/392px-Biology-0001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Biology-0001.jpg/522px-Biology-0001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1049" data-file-height="829"></a><figcaption>Biology is the science of life. It spans multiple levels from biomolecules and cells to organisms and populations.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> <a href="/wiki/Biologist" title="Biologist">Biologists</a> are able to study life at multiple <a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">levels of organization</a>,<a href="#cite_note-urry2017a-1">[1]</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a> of a cell to the <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> of plants and animals, and evolution of populations.<a href="#cite_note-urry2017a-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-aquarenagloss-6">[6]</a> Hence, there are multiple <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology#Branches" title="Outline of biology">subdisciplines within biology</a>, each defined by the nature of their <a href="/wiki/Research_question" title="Research question">research questions</a> and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_research_methods_in_biology" title="List of research methods in biology">tools</a> that they use.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-AB-20141208-9">[9]</a> Like other scientists, biologists use the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> to make <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observations</a>, pose questions, generate <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypotheses</a>, perform experiments, and form conclusions about the world around them.<a href="#cite_note-urry2017a-1">[1]</a> Life on Earth, which emerged more than 3.7 billion years ago,<a href="#cite_note-Pearce_343%E2%80%93364-10">[10]</a> is immensely diverse. Biologists have sought to study and classify the various forms of life, from <a href="/wiki/Prokaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Prokaryotic">prokaryotic</a> organisms such as <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> and bacteria to <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> organisms such as <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a>, fungi, plants, and animals. These various organisms contribute to the <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>, where they play specialized roles in the <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">cycling</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a> and energy through their <a href="/wiki/Biophysical_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Biophysical environment">biophysical environment</a>. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History">1 History</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Chemical_basis">2 Chemical basis</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Atoms_and_molecules">2.1 Atoms and molecules</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Water">2.2 Water</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Organic_compounds">2.3 Organic compounds</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Macromolecules">2.4 Macromolecules</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Cells">3 Cells</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Cell_structure">3.1 Cell structure</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Metabolism">3.2 Metabolism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Cellular_respiration">3.3 Cellular respiration</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Photosynthesis">3.4 Photosynthesis</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Cell_signaling">3.5 Cell signaling</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Cell_cycle">3.6 Cell cycle</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Sexual_reproduction_and_meiosis">3.7 Sexual reproduction and meiosis</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Genetics">4 Genetics</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Inheritance">4.1 Inheritance</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Genes_and_DNA">4.2 Genes and DNA</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Gene_expression">4.3 Gene expression</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Gene_regulation">4.4 Gene regulation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Genes,_development,_and_evolution">4.5 Genes, development, and evolution</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Evolution">5 Evolution</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Evolutionary_processes">5.1 Evolutionary processes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Speciation">5.2 Speciation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Phylogeny">5.3 Phylogeny</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#History_of_life">5.4 History of life</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#Diversity">6 Diversity</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Bacteria_and_Archaea">6.1 Bacteria and Archaea</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Eukaryotes">6.2 Eukaryotes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Viruses">6.3 Viruses</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#Ecology">7 Ecology</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Ecosystems">7.1 Ecosystems</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Populations">7.2 Populations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Communities">7.3 Communities</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Biosphere">7.4 Biosphere</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Conservation">7.5 Conservation</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#See_also">8 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#References">9 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#Further_reading">10 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#External_links">11 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hooke-bluefly.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="A drawing of a fly from facing up, with wing detail" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Hooke-bluefly.jpg/170px-Hooke-bluefly.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1176" data-file-height="1786"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 258px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Hooke-bluefly.jpg/170px-Hooke-bluefly.jpg" data-alt="A drawing of a fly from facing up, with wing detail" data-width="170" data-height="258" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Hooke-bluefly.jpg/255px-Hooke-bluefly.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Hooke-bluefly.jpg/340px-Hooke-bluefly.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Diagram of a fly from <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a>'s innovative <a href="/wiki/Micrographia" title="Micrographia">Micrographia</a>, 1665</figcaption></figure> The earliest of roots of science, which included medicine, can be traced to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> in around 3000 to 1200 <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">BCE</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg1-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grant2007a-12">[12]</a> Their contributions shaped ancient Greek <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg1-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grant2007a-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greek</a> philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BCE) contributed extensively to the development of biological knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> He explored biological causation and the diversity of life. His successor, <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a>, began the scientific study of plants.<a href="#cite_note-eb1911-17">[17]</a> Scholars of the <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">medieval Islamic world</a> who wrote on biology included <a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">al-Jahiz</a> (781–869), <a href="/wiki/Al-D%C4%ABnawar%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Dīnawarī">Al-Dīnawarī</a> (828–896), who wrote on botany,<a href="#cite_note-Fahd-815-18">[18]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakar%C4%ABya_R%C4%81zi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi">Rhazes</a> (865–925) who wrote on <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>. Medicine was especially well studied by <a href="/wiki/Islamic_scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic scholars">Islamic scholars</a> working in Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian thought. Biology began to quickly develop with <a href="/wiki/Anton_van_Leeuwenhoek" class="mw-redirect" title="Anton van Leeuwenhoek">Anton van Leeuwenhoek</a>'s dramatic improvement of the <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a>. It was then that scholars discovered <a href="/wiki/Spermatozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatozoa">spermatozoa</a>, bacteria, <a href="/wiki/Infusoria" title="Infusoria">infusoria</a> and the diversity of microscopic life. Investigations by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Jan Swammerdam</a> led to new interest in <a href="/wiki/Entomology" title="Entomology">entomology</a> and helped to develop techniques of microscopic <a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">dissection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Staining" title="Staining">staining</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Advances in microscopy had a profound impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, biologists pointed to the central importance of the <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a>. In 1838, <a href="/wiki/Matthias_Jakob_Schleiden" title="Matthias Jakob Schleiden">Schleiden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Schwann" title="Theodor Schwann">Schwann</a> began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells, continuing to support <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">spontaneous generation</a>. However, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Remak" title="Robert Remak">Robert Remak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Virchow" title="Rudolf Virchow">Rudolf Virchow</a> were able to reify the third tenet, and by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets which consolidated into <a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">cell theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians. <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> published a basic <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a> for the natural world in 1735, and in the 1750s introduced <a href="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">scientific names</a> for all his species.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon</a>, treated species as artificial categories and living forms as malleable—even suggesting the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">common descent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg/170px-Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="398" data-file-height="487"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 208px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg/170px-Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="208" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg/255px-Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg/340px-Charles_Darwin_aged_51.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>In 1842, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> penned his first sketch of <a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></figcaption></figure> Serious evolutionary thinking originated with the works of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a>, who presented a coherent theory of evolution.<a href="#cite_note-Gould_2002_187-25">[25]</a> The British <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">naturalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>, combining the biogeographical approach of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Humboldt</a>, the uniformitarian geology of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Lyell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Malthus">Malthus's</a> writings on population growth, and his own morphological expertise and extensive natural observations, forged a more successful evolutionary theory based on <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>; similar reasoning and evidence led <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> to independently reach the same conclusions.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The basis for modern genetics began with the work of <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a> in 1865.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> This outlined the principles of biological inheritance.<a href="#cite_note-miko2008a-29">[29]</a> However, the significance of his work was not realized until the early 20th century when evolution became a unified theory as the <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">modern synthesis</a> reconciled Darwinian evolution with <a href="/wiki/Classical_genetics" title="Classical genetics">classical genetics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Futuyma2017a-30">[30]</a> In the 1940s and early 1950s, a <a href="/wiki/Hershey%E2%80%93Chase_experiment" title="Hershey–Chase experiment">series of experiments</a> by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hershey" title="Alfred Hershey">Alfred Hershey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martha_Chase" title="Martha Chase">Martha Chase</a> pointed to <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> as the component of <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a> that held the trait-carrying units that had become known as <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>. A focus on new kinds of model organisms such as <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA by <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> in 1953, marked the transition to the era of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular genetics</a>. From the 1950s onwards, biology has been vastly extended in the <a href="/wiki/Molecular_Biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular Biology">molecular</a> domain. The <a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">genetic code</a> was cracked by <a href="/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khorana" title="Har Gobind Khorana">Har Gobind Khorana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Holley" title="Robert W. Holley">Robert W. Holley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Warren_Nirenberg" title="Marshall Warren Nirenberg">Marshall Warren Nirenberg</a> after DNA was understood to contain <a href="/wiki/Codon" class="mw-redirect" title="Codon">codons</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a> was launched in 1990 to map the human <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Chemical_basis">Chemical basis</h2></div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atoms_and_molecules">Atoms and molecules</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a></div> All organisms are made up of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a>;<a href="#cite_note-urry2017b-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> account for most (96%) of the mass of all organisms, with <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> constituting essentially all the remainder. Different elements can combine to form <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">compounds</a> such as water, which is fundamental to life.<a href="#cite_note-urry2017b-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> is the study of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_process" title="Chemical process">chemical processes</a> within and relating to living <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>. <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a> is the branch of biology that seeks to understand the molecular basis of biological activity in and between cells, including <a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">molecular</a> synthesis, modification, mechanisms, and interactions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water">Water</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Planetary_habitability" title="Planetary habitability">Planetary habitability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_habitable_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumstellar habitable zone">Circumstellar habitable zone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Water_distribution_on_Earth" title="Water distribution on Earth">Water distribution on Earth</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3D_model_hydrogen_bonds_in_water.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/3D_model_hydrogen_bonds_in_water.svg/220px-3D_model_hydrogen_bonds_in_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="397"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 218px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/3D_model_hydrogen_bonds_in_water.svg/220px-3D_model_hydrogen_bonds_in_water.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="218" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/3D_model_hydrogen_bonds_in_water.svg/330px-3D_model_hydrogen_bonds_in_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/3D_model_hydrogen_bonds_in_water.svg/440px-3D_model_hydrogen_bonds_in_water.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules of <a href="/wiki/Properties_of_water" title="Properties of water">water</a> </figcaption></figure> Life arose from the Earth's first ocean, which formed some 3.8 billion years ago.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a> Since then, water continues to be the most abundant molecule in every organism. Water is important to life because it is an effective <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvent</a>, capable of dissolving solutes such as sodium and <a href="/wiki/Chloride" title="Chloride">chloride</a> ions or other small molecules to form an <a href="/wiki/Aqueous_solution" title="Aqueous solution">aqueous</a> <a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">solution</a>. Once dissolved in water, these solutes are more likely to come in contact with one another and therefore take part in <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reactions</a> that sustain life.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a> In terms of its <a href="/wiki/Properties_of_water#Molecular_structure" title="Properties of water">molecular structure</a>, water is a small <a href="/wiki/Chemical_polarity#Polar_molecules" title="Chemical polarity">polar molecule</a> with a bent shape formed by the polar covalent bonds of two hydrogen (H) atoms to one oxygen (O) atom (H2O).<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a> Because the O–H bonds are polar, the oxygen atom has a slight negative charge and the two hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a> This polar <a href="/wiki/Properties_of_water" title="Properties of water">property</a> of water allows it to attract other water molecules via hydrogen bonds, which makes water <a href="/wiki/Cohesion_(chemistry)" title="Cohesion (chemistry)">cohesive</a>.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">Surface tension</a> results from the cohesive force due to the attraction between molecules at the surface of the liquid.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a> Water is also <a href="/wiki/Adhesion" title="Adhesion">adhesive</a> as it is able to adhere to the surface of any polar or charged non-water molecules.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a> Water is <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">denser</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Water#Liquid_water" title="Water">liquid</a> than it is as a solid (or ice).<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a> This unique property of water allows ice to float above liquid water such as ponds, lakes, and oceans, thereby <a href="/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation">insulating</a> the liquid below from the cold air above.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a> Water has the capacity to absorb energy, giving it a higher <a href="/wiki/Specific_heat_capacity" title="Specific heat capacity">specific heat capacity</a> than other solvents such as <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a> Thus, a large amount of energy is needed to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules to convert liquid water into <a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">water vapor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a> As a molecule, water is not completely stable as each water molecule continuously dissociates into hydrogen and <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxyl">hydroxyl</a> ions before reforming into a water molecule again.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Purified_water" title="Purified water">pure water</a>, the number of hydrogen ions balances (or equals) the number of hydroxyl ions, resulting in a <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> that is neutral. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organic_compounds">Organic compounds</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic chemistry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glucose_Haworth.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Glucose_Haworth.png/220px-Glucose_Haworth.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1341" data-file-height="1069"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 175px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Glucose_Haworth.png/220px-Glucose_Haworth.png" data-width="220" data-height="175" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Glucose_Haworth.png/330px-Glucose_Haworth.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Glucose_Haworth.png/440px-Glucose_Haworth.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Organic compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> are vital to organisms.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic compounds</a> are molecules that contain carbon bonded to another element such as hydrogen.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a> With the exception of water, nearly all the molecules that make up each organism contain carbon.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-urry2017d-34">[34]</a> Carbon can form <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bonds</a> with up to four other atoms, enabling it to form diverse, large, and complex molecules.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-urry2017d-34">[34]</a> For example, a single carbon atom can form four single covalent bonds such as in <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, two <a href="/wiki/Double_bond" title="Double bond">double covalent bonds</a> such as in <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO2), or a <a href="/wiki/Triple_bond" title="Triple bond">triple covalent bond</a> such as in <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> (CO). Moreover, carbon can form very long chains of interconnecting <a href="/wiki/Carbon%E2%80%93carbon_bond" title="Carbon–carbon bond">carbon–carbon bonds</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Octane" title="Octane">octane</a> or ring-like structures such as <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>. The simplest form of an organic molecule is the <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a>, which is a large family of organic compounds that are composed of hydrogen atoms bonded to a chain of carbon atoms. A hydrocarbon backbone can be substituted by other elements such as oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S), which can change the chemical behavior of that compound.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a> Groups of atoms that contain these elements (O-, H-, P-, and S-) and are bonded to a central carbon atom or skeleton are called <a href="/wiki/Functional_group" title="Functional group">functional groups</a>.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a> There are six prominent functional groups that can be found in organisms: <a href="/wiki/Amine" title="Amine">amino group</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carboxylic_acid" title="Carboxylic acid">carboxyl group</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbonyl_group" title="Carbonyl group">carbonyl group</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydroxy_group" title="Hydroxy group">hydroxyl group</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate group</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thiol" title="Thiol">sulfhydryl group</a>.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a> In 1953, the <a href="/wiki/Miller%E2%80%93Urey_experiment" title="Miller–Urey experiment">Miller–Urey experiment</a> showed that organic compounds could be synthesized abiotically within a closed system mimicking the conditions of <a href="/wiki/Early_Earth" title="Early Earth">early Earth</a>, thus suggesting that complex organic molecules could have arisen spontaneously in early Earth (see <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">abiogenesis</a>).<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014d-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-freeman2017b-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Macromolecules">Macromolecules</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Macromolecule" title="Macromolecule">Macromolecule</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:225_Peptide_Bond-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/225_Peptide_Bond-01.jpg/220px-225_Peptide_Bond-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2219" data-file-height="1886"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 187px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/225_Peptide_Bond-01.jpg/220px-225_Peptide_Bond-01.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="187" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/225_Peptide_Bond-01.jpg/330px-225_Peptide_Bond-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/225_Peptide_Bond-01.jpg/440px-225_Peptide_Bond-01.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The (a) primary, (b) secondary, (c) tertiary, and (d) quaternary structures of a <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</a> protein</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Macromolecule" title="Macromolecule">Macromolecules</a> are large molecules made up of smaller subunits or <a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">monomers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017c-36">[36]</a> Monomers include sugars, amino acids, and nucleotides.<a href="#cite_note-urry2017e-37">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">Carbohydrates</a> include monomers and polymers of sugars.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017e-38">[38]</a> Lipids are the only class of macromolecules that are not made up of polymers. They include <a href="/wiki/Steroid" title="Steroid">steroids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phospholipid" title="Phospholipid">phospholipids</a>, and fats,<a href="#cite_note-urry2017e-37">[37]</a> largely nonpolar and hydrophobic (water-repelling) substances.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017f-39">[39]</a> Proteins are the most diverse of the macromolecules. They include <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transport_protein" title="Transport protein">transport proteins</a>, large <a href="/wiki/Cell_signal" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell signal">signaling</a> molecules, <a href="/wiki/Antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibodies">antibodies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Structural_proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural proteins">structural proteins</a>. The basic unit (or monomer) of a protein is an <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017c-36">[36]</a> Twenty amino acids are used in proteins.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017c-36">[36]</a> Nucleic acids are polymers of <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017d-40">[40]</a> Their function is to store, transmit, and express hereditary information.<a href="#cite_note-urry2017e-37">[37]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Cells">Cells</h2></div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell (biology)</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a> states that <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> are the fundamental units of life, that all living things are composed of one or more cells, and that all cells arise from preexisting cells through <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell division</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mazzarello1999-41">[41]</a> Most cells are very small, with diameters ranging from 1 to 100 <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">micrometers</a> and are therefore only visible under a <a href="/wiki/Light_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Light microscope">light</a> or <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">electron microscope</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> There are generally two types of cells: <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic">eukaryotic</a> cells, which contain a <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prokaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Prokaryotic">prokaryotic</a> cells, which do not. Prokaryotes are <a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">single-celled organisms</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Bacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterium">bacteria</a>, whereas eukaryotes can be single-celled or multicellular. In <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular organisms">multicellular organisms</a>, every cell in the organism's body is derived ultimately from a <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">single cell</a> in a fertilized <a href="/wiki/Egg_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg (biology)">egg</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cell_structure">Cell structure</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Biological_cell.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Biological_cell.svg/220px-Biological_cell.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1466" data-file-height="891"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 134px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Biological_cell.svg/220px-Biological_cell.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="134" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Biological_cell.svg/330px-Biological_cell.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Biological_cell.svg/440px-Biological_cell.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Structure of an animal <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> depicting various <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a></figcaption></figure> Every cell is enclosed within a <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membrane</a> that separates its <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_space" title="Extracellular space">extracellular space</a>.<a href="#cite_note-urry2017g-43">[43]</a> A cell membrane consists of a <a href="/wiki/Lipid_bilayer" title="Lipid bilayer">lipid bilayer</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterols</a> that sit between phospholipids to maintain their <a href="/wiki/Membrane_fluidity" title="Membrane fluidity">fluidity</a> at various temperatures. Cell membranes are <a href="/wiki/Semipermeable_membrane" title="Semipermeable membrane">semipermeable</a>, allowing small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water to pass through while restricting the movement of larger molecules and charged particles such as <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MBOC-44">[44]</a> Cell membranes also contain <a href="/wiki/Membrane_protein" title="Membrane protein">membrane proteins</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Integral_membrane_protein" title="Integral membrane protein">integral membrane proteins</a> that go across the membrane serving as <a href="/wiki/Membrane_transporter" class="mw-redirect" title="Membrane transporter">membrane transporters</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Peripheral protein">peripheral proteins</a> that loosely attach to the outer side of the cell membrane, acting as enzymes shaping the cell.<a href="#cite_note-Tom_Herrmann_2019-45">[45]</a> Cell membranes are involved in various cellular processes such as <a href="/wiki/Cell_adhesion" title="Cell adhesion">cell adhesion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Membrane_potential" title="Membrane potential">storing electrical energy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cell_signalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell signalling">cell signalling</a> and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures such as a <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell wall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glycocalyx" title="Glycocalyx">glycocalyx</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cytoskeleton" title="Cytoskeleton">cytoskeleton</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plant_cell_structure-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Plant_cell_structure-en.svg/220px-Plant_cell_structure-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="649" data-file-height="475"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 161px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Plant_cell_structure-en.svg/220px-Plant_cell_structure-en.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="161" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Plant_cell_structure-en.svg/330px-Plant_cell_structure-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Plant_cell_structure-en.svg/440px-Plant_cell_structure-en.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Structure of a plant cell</figcaption></figure> Within the cytoplasm of a cell, there are many biomolecules such as <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Alberts2002-46">[46]</a> In addition to biomolecules, eukaryotic cells have specialized structures called <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a> that have their own lipid bilayers or are spatially units.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014f-47">[47]</a> These organelles include the <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">cell nucleus</a>, which contains most of the cell's DNA, or <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a>, which generate <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">adenosine triphosphate</a> (ATP) to power cellular processes. Other organelles such as <a href="/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum" title="Endoplasmic reticulum">endoplasmic reticulum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi apparatus</a> play a role in the synthesis and packaging of proteins, respectively. Biomolecules such as proteins can be engulfed by <a href="/wiki/Lysosome" title="Lysosome">lysosomes</a>, another specialized organelle. <a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a> have additional organelles that distinguish them from <a href="/wiki/Animal_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal cell">animal cells</a> such as a cell wall that provides support for the plant cell, <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> that harvest sunlight energy to produce sugar, and <a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">vacuoles</a> that provide storage and structural support as well as being involved in reproduction and breakdown of plant seeds.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014f-47">[47]</a> Eukaryotic cells also have cytoskeleton that is made up of <a href="/wiki/Microtubule" title="Microtubule">microtubules</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_filament" title="Intermediate filament">intermediate filaments</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Microfilament" title="Microfilament">microfilaments</a>, all of which provide support for the cell and are involved in the movement of the cell and its organelles.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014f-47">[47]</a> In terms of their structural composition, the microtubules are made up of <a href="/wiki/Tubulin" title="Tubulin">tubulin</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Tubulin#%CE%B1-Tubulin" title="Tubulin">α-tubulin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tubulin#%CE%B2-Tubulin" title="Tubulin">β-tubulin</a>) whereas intermediate filaments are made up of fibrous proteins.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014f-47">[47]</a> Microfilaments are made up of <a href="/wiki/Actin" title="Actin">actin</a> molecules that interact with other strands of proteins.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014f-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metabolism">Metabolism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bioenergetics" title="Bioenergetics">Bioenergetics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Activation2_updated.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Activation2_updated.svg/220px-Activation2_updated.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="504" data-file-height="395"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 172px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Activation2_updated.svg/220px-Activation2_updated.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="172" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Activation2_updated.svg/330px-Activation2_updated.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Activation2_updated.svg/440px-Activation2_updated.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Example of an enzyme-catalysed <a href="/wiki/Exothermic_reaction" title="Exothermic reaction">exothermic</a> reaction</figcaption></figure> All cells require energy to sustain cellular processes. <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a> is the set of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical reactions">chemical reactions</a> in an organism. The three main purposes of metabolism are: the conversion of food to energy to run cellular processes; the conversion of food/fuel to monomer building blocks; and the elimination of <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_waste" title="Metabolic waste">metabolic wastes</a>. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolic reactions may be categorized as <a href="/wiki/Catabolic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catabolic">catabolic</a>—the breaking down of compounds (for example, the breaking down of glucose to pyruvate by <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">cellular respiration</a>); or <a href="/wiki/Anabolic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabolic">anabolic</a>—the building up (<a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">synthesis</a>) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids). Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy. The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">metabolic pathways</a>, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, each step being facilitated by a specific enzyme. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy that will not occur by themselves, by <a href="/wiki/Coupling_(physics)" title="Coupling (physics)">coupling</a> them to <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_process" title="Spontaneous process">spontaneous reactions</a> that release energy. Enzymes act as <a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">catalysts</a>—they allow a reaction to proceed more rapidly without being consumed by it—by reducing the amount of <a href="/wiki/Activation_energy" title="Activation energy">activation energy</a> needed to convert <a href="/wiki/Reactant" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactant">reactants</a> into <a href="/wiki/Product_(chemistry)" title="Product (chemistry)">products</a>. Enzymes also allow the <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway#Regulation" title="Metabolic pathway">regulation</a> of the rate of a metabolic reaction, for example in response to changes in the cell's environment or to signals from other cells. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cellular_respiration">Cellular respiration</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CellRespiration.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/CellRespiration.svg/300px-CellRespiration.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="744"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 212px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/CellRespiration.svg/300px-CellRespiration.svg.png" data-width="300" data-height="212" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/CellRespiration.svg/450px-CellRespiration.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/CellRespiration.svg/600px-CellRespiration.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Respiration in a <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic cell</a> </figcaption></figure> Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in cells to convert <a href="/wiki/Energy#Energy_and_life" title="Energy">chemical energy</a> from <a href="/wiki/Nutrients" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrients">nutrients</a> into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> The reactions involved in respiration are <a href="/wiki/Catabolism" title="Catabolism">catabolic reactions</a>, which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity. The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, some of which are <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> reactions. Although cellular respiration is technically a <a href="/wiki/Combustion_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Combustion reaction">combustion reaction</a>, it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a cell because of the slow, controlled release of energy from the series of reactions. Sugar in the form of glucose is the main nutrient used by animal and plant cells in respiration. Cellular respiration involving oxygen is called aerobic respiration, which has four stages: <a href="/wiki/Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis">glycolysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle" title="Citric acid cycle">citric acid cycle</a> (or Krebs cycle), <a href="/wiki/Electron_transport_chain" title="Electron transport chain">electron transport chain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation" title="Oxidative phosphorylation">oxidative phosphorylation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lodish2008l-49">[49]</a> Glycolysis is a metabolic process that occurs in the cytoplasm whereby glucose is converted into two <a href="/wiki/Pyruvic_acid" title="Pyruvic acid">pyruvates</a>, with two net molecules of ATP being produced at the same time.<a href="#cite_note-lodish2008l-49">[49]</a> Each pyruvate is then oxidized into <a href="/wiki/Acetyl-CoA" title="Acetyl-CoA">acetyl-CoA</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Pyruvate_dehydrogenase_complex" title="Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex">pyruvate dehydrogenase complex</a>, which also generates <a href="/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide" title="Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide">NADH</a> and carbon dioxide. Acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle, which takes places inside the mitochondrial matrix. At the end of the cycle, the total yield from 1 glucose (or 2 pyruvates) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP molecules. Finally, the next stage is oxidative phosphorylation, which in eukaryotes, occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Crista" title="Crista">mitochondrial cristae</a>. Oxidative phosphorylation comprises the electron transport chain, which is a series of four <a href="/wiki/Protein_complex" title="Protein complex">protein complexes</a> that transfer electrons from one complex to another, thereby releasing energy from NADH and FADH2 that is coupled to the pumping of protons (hydrogen ions) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (<a href="/wiki/Chemiosmosis" title="Chemiosmosis">chemiosmosis</a>), which generates a <a href="/wiki/Chemiosmosis#Proton-motive_force" title="Chemiosmosis">proton motive force</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lodish2008l-49">[49]</a> Energy from the proton motive force drives the enzyme <a href="/wiki/ATP_synthase" title="ATP synthase">ATP synthase</a> to synthesize more ATPs by <a href="/wiki/Phosphorylation" title="Phosphorylation">phosphorylating</a> <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_diphosphate" title="Adenosine diphosphate">ADPs</a>. The transfer of electrons terminates with molecular oxygen being the final <a href="/wiki/Electron_acceptor" title="Electron acceptor">electron acceptor</a>. If oxygen were not present, pyruvate would not be metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of <a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">fermentation</a>. The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to <a href="/wiki/Cellular_waste_product" title="Cellular waste product">waste products</a> that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides NAD+ for glycolysis. This waste product varies depending on the organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">lactic acid</a>. This type of fermentation is called <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid_fermentation" title="Lactic acid fermentation">lactic acid fermentation</a>. In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain cannot process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH. During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate. Lactate formation is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase in a reversible reaction. Lactate can also be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen. During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or <a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fermentation" title="Ethanol fermentation">ethanol fermentation</a>. The ATP generated in this process is made by <a href="/wiki/Substrate-level_phosphorylation" title="Substrate-level phosphorylation">substrate-level phosphorylation</a>, which does not require oxygen. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg/220px-Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="830" data-file-height="1027"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 272px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg/220px-Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="272" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg/330px-Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg/440px-Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Photosynthesis changes sunlight into chemical energy, splits water to liberate O2, and fixes CO2 into sugar.</figcaption></figure> Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to <a href="/wiki/Energy_transformation" title="Energy transformation">convert</a> <a href="/wiki/Light_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Light energy">light energy</a> into <a href="/wiki/Chemical_energy" title="Chemical energy">chemical energy</a> that can later be released to fuel the organism's metabolic activities via cellular respiration. This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water.<a href="#cite_note-OnlineEtDict_photosynthesis-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-LSJ1-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-LSJ2-52">[52]</a> In most cases, oxygen is released as a waste product. Most plants, <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> perform photosynthesis, which is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_oxygen" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric oxygen">oxygen content</a> of the Earth's atmosphere, and supplies most of the energy necessary for life on Earth.<a href="#cite_note-bryantfrigaard-53">[53]</a> Photosynthesis has four stages: <a href="/wiki/Light_absorption" class="mw-redirect" title="Light absorption">Light absorption</a>, electron transport, ATP synthesis, and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">carbon fixation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lodish2008l-49">[49]</a> Light absorption is the initial step of photosynthesis whereby light energy is absorbed by <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a> pigments attached to proteins in the <a href="/wiki/Thylakoid#Membrane" title="Thylakoid">thylakoid membranes</a>. The absorbed light energy is used to remove electrons from a donor (water) to a primary electron acceptor, a <a href="/wiki/Quinone" title="Quinone">quinone</a> designated as Q. In the second stage, electrons move from the quinone primary electron acceptor through a series of electron carriers until they reach a final electron acceptor, which is usually the oxidized form of NADP+, which is reduced to NADPH, a process that takes place in a protein complex called <a href="/wiki/Photosystem_I" title="Photosystem I">photosystem I</a> (PSI). The transport of electrons is coupled to the movement of protons (or hydrogen) from the stroma to the thylakoid membrane, which forms a pH gradient across the membrane as hydrogen becomes more concentrated in the lumen than in the stroma. This is analogous to the proton-motive force generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane in aerobic respiration.<a href="#cite_note-lodish2008l-49">[49]</a> During the third stage of photosynthesis, the movement of protons down their <a href="/wiki/Concentration_gradient" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentration gradient">concentration gradients</a> from the thylakoid lumen to the stroma through the ATP synthase is coupled to the synthesis of ATP by that same ATP synthase.<a href="#cite_note-lodish2008l-49">[49]</a> The NADPH and ATPs generated by the <a href="/wiki/Light-dependent_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Light-dependent reaction">light-dependent reactions</a> in the second and third stages, respectively, provide the energy and electrons to drive the synthesis of glucose by fixing atmospheric carbon dioxide into existing organic carbon compounds, such as <a href="/wiki/Ribulose_bisphosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ribulose bisphosphate">ribulose bisphosphate</a> (RuBP) in a sequence of light-independent (or dark) reactions called the <a href="/wiki/Calvin_cycle" title="Calvin cycle">Calvin cycle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-321-73975-2-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cell_signaling">Cell signaling</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">Cell signaling</a></div> Cell signaling (or communication) is the ability of <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> to receive, process, and transmit signals with its environment and with itself.<a href="#cite_note-neitzelrasband2021-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-cellsignalling-56">[56]</a> Signals can be non-chemical such as light, <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">electrical impulses</a>, and heat, or chemical signals (or <a href="/wiki/Ligand" title="Ligand">ligands</a>) that interact with <a href="/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">receptors</a>, which can be found <a href="/wiki/Cell_surface_receptor" title="Cell surface receptor">embedded</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membrane</a> of another cell or <a href="/wiki/Intracellular_receptor" title="Intracellular receptor">located deep inside</a> a cell.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014e-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-cellsignalling-56">[56]</a> There are generally four types of chemical signals: <a href="/wiki/Autocrine_signaling" title="Autocrine signaling">autocrine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paracrine_signaling" title="Paracrine signaling">paracrine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Juxtacrine_signalling" title="Juxtacrine signalling">juxtacrine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormones</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014e-57">[57]</a> In autocrine signaling, the ligand affects the same cell that releases it. <a href="/wiki/Neoplasm" title="Neoplasm">Tumor</a> cells, for example, can reproduce uncontrollably because they release signals that initiate their own self-division. In paracrine signaling, the ligand diffuses to nearby cells and affects them. For example, brain cells called <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> release ligands called <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitters</a> that diffuse across a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse#Structure" title="Chemical synapse">synaptic cleft</a> to bind with a receptor on an adjacent cell such as another neuron or <a href="/wiki/Muscle_cell" title="Muscle cell">muscle cell</a>. In juxtacrine signaling, there is direct contact between the signaling and responding cells. Finally, hormones are ligands that travel through the <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulatory systems</a> of animals or <a href="/wiki/Vascular_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Vascular system">vascular systems</a> of plants to reach their target cells. Once a ligand binds with a receptor, it can influence the behavior of another cell, depending on the type of receptor. For instance, neurotransmitters that bind with an <a href="/wiki/Ligand-gated_ion_channel" title="Ligand-gated ion channel">inotropic receptor</a> can alter the <a href="/wiki/Cell_excitability" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell excitability">excitability</a> of a target cell. Other types of receptors include <a href="/wiki/Protein_kinase" title="Protein kinase">protein kinase</a> receptors (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Insulin_receptor" title="Insulin receptor">receptor</a> for the hormone <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a>) and <a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptor" title="G protein-coupled receptor">G protein-coupled receptors</a>. Activation of G protein-coupled receptors can initiate <a href="/wiki/Second_messenger_system" title="Second messenger system">second messenger</a> cascades. The process by which a chemical or physical signal is transmitted through a cell as a <a href="/wiki/Biochemical_cascade" title="Biochemical cascade">series of molecular events</a> is called <a href="/wiki/Signal_transduction" title="Signal transduction">signal transduction</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cell_cycle">Cell cycle</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meiosis_Overview_new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Meiosis_Overview_new.svg/300px-Meiosis_Overview_new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="189" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="322"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 189px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Meiosis_Overview_new.svg/300px-Meiosis_Overview_new.svg.png" data-width="300" data-height="189" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Meiosis_Overview_new.svg/450px-Meiosis_Overview_new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Meiosis_Overview_new.svg/600px-Meiosis_Overview_new.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>In meiosis, the chromosomes duplicate and the <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">homologous chromosomes</a> exchange genetic information during meiosis I. The daughter cells divide again in meiosis II to form haploid <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">Cell cycle</a></div> The cell cycle is a series of events that take place in a <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> that cause it to divide into two daughter cells. These events include the <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">duplication of its DNA</a> and some of its <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a>, and the subsequent partitioning of its cytoplasm into two daughter cells in a process called <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell division</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> (i.e., animal, plant, <a href="/wiki/Fungal" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungal">fungal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protist</a> cells), there are two distinct types of cell division: <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-59">[59]</a> Mitosis is part of the cell cycle, in which replicated <a href="/wiki/Chromosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosomes">chromosomes</a> are separated into two new nuclei. Cell division gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the total number of chromosomes is maintained. In general, mitosis (division of the nucleus) is preceded by the S stage of <a href="/wiki/Interphase" title="Interphase">interphase</a> (during which the DNA is replicated) and is often followed by <a href="/wiki/Telophase" title="Telophase">telophase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cytokinesis" title="Cytokinesis">cytokinesis</a>; which divides the <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membrane</a> of one cell into two new <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. The different stages of mitosis all together define the mitotic phase of an animal cell cycle—the division of the mother cell into two genetically identical daughter cells.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> The cell cycle is a vital process by which a single-celled <a href="/wiki/Fertilized_egg" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilized egg">fertilized egg</a> develops into a mature organism, as well as the process by which hair, skin, <a href="/wiki/Blood_cell" title="Blood cell">blood cells</a>, and some <a href="/wiki/Viscus" class="mw-redirect" title="Viscus">internal organs</a> are renewed. After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the <a href="/wiki/Interphase" title="Interphase">interphase</a> of a new cycle. In contrast to mitosis, meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells by undergoing one round of DNA replication followed by two divisions.<a href="#cite_note-freeman2017m-61">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">Homologous chromosomes</a> are separated in the first division (<a href="/wiki/Meiosis#Meiosis_I" title="Meiosis">meiosis I</a>), and sister chromatids are separated in the second division (<a href="/wiki/Meiosis#Meiosis_II" title="Meiosis">meiosis II</a>). Both of these cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle. Both are believed to be present in the last eukaryotic common ancestor. <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryotes</a> (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> and bacteria) can also undergo cell division (or <a href="/wiki/Binary_fission" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary fission">binary fission</a>). Unlike the processes of <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> in eukaryotes, binary fission in prokaryotes takes place without the formation of a <a href="/wiki/Spindle_apparatus" title="Spindle apparatus">spindle apparatus</a> on the cell. Before binary fission, DNA in the bacterium is tightly coiled. After it has uncoiled and duplicated, it is pulled to the separate poles of the bacterium as it increases the size to prepare for splitting. Growth of a new cell wall begins to separate the bacterium (triggered by <a href="/wiki/FtsZ" title="FtsZ">FtsZ</a> polymerization and "Z-ring" formation).<a href="#cite_note-:32046082-62">[62]</a> The new cell wall (<a href="/wiki/Septum_(cell_biology)" title="Septum (cell biology)">septum</a>) fully develops, resulting in the complete split of the bacterium. The new daughter cells have tightly coiled DNA rods, <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosomes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmids</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_reproduction_and_meiosis">Sexual reproduction and meiosis</h3></div> Meiosis is a central feature of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes, and the most fundamental function of <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> appears to be conservation of the integrity of the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> that is passed on to progeny by parents.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Two aspects of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">meiotic recombination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outcrossing" title="Outcrossing">outcrossing</a>, are likely maintained respectively by the adaptive advantages of recombinational repair of genomic <a href="/wiki/DNA_damage_(naturally_occurring)" title="DNA damage (naturally occurring)">DNA damage</a> and genetic <a href="/wiki/Complementation_(genetics)" title="Complementation (genetics)">complementation</a> which masks the expression of deleterious recessive <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bernstein1985-65">[65]</a> The beneficial effect of genetic complementation, derived from outcrossing (cross-fertilization) is also referred to as hybrid vigor or heterosis. Charles Darwin in his 1878 book The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> at the start of chapter XII noted “The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented.” <a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Genetic variation</a>, often produced as a byproduct of sexual reproduction, may provide long-term advantages to those sexual lineages that engage in <a href="/wiki/Outcrossing" title="Outcrossing">outcrossing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bernstein1985-65">[65]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2></div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inheritance">Inheritance</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classical_genetics" title="Classical genetics">Classical genetics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg/220px-Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 220px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg/220px-Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="220" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg/330px-Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg/440px-Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Punnett_square" title="Punnett square">Punnett square</a> depicting a cross between two pea plants heterozygous for purple (B) and white (b) blossoms</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a> is the scientific study of inheritance.<a href="#cite_note-griffithsetal2014l-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-griffiths2000sect60-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hartl_and_Jones-69">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a>, specifically, is the process by which genes and traits are passed on from parents to offspring.<a href="#cite_note-miko2008a-29">[29]</a> It has several principles. The first is that genetic characteristics, <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a>, are discrete and have alternate forms (e.g., purple vs. white or tall vs. dwarf), each inherited from one of two parents. Based on the <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance#Law_of_Dominance_and_Uniformity" title="Mendelian inheritance">law of dominance and uniformity</a>, which states that some alleles are <a href="/wiki/Dominance_(genetics)" title="Dominance (genetics)">dominant</a> while others are <a href="/wiki/Dominance_(genetics)" title="Dominance (genetics)">recessive</a>; an organism with at least one dominant allele will display the <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a> of that dominant allele. During gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate, so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene. <a href="/wiki/Heterozygous" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterozygous">Heterozygotic</a> individuals produce gametes with an equal frequency of two alleles. Finally, the <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance#Law_of_Independent_Assortment" title="Mendelian inheritance">law of independent assortment</a>, states that genes of different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes, i.e., genes are unlinked. An exception to this rule would include traits that are <a href="/wiki/Sex_linkage" title="Sex linkage">sex-linked</a>. <a href="/wiki/Test_cross" title="Test cross">Test crosses</a> can be performed to experimentally determine the underlying <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotype</a> of an organism with a dominant phenotype.<a href="#cite_note-miko2008b-70">[70]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Punnett_square" title="Punnett square">Punnett square</a> can be used to predict the results of a test cross. The <a href="/wiki/Boveri%E2%80%93Sutton_chromosome_theory" title="Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory">chromosome theory of inheritance</a>, which states that genes are found on chromosomes, was supported by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Morgans</a>'s experiments with <a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">fruit flies</a>, which established the <a href="/wiki/Sex_linkage" title="Sex linkage">sex linkage</a> between eye color and sex in these insects.<a href="#cite_note-miko2008c-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genes_and_DNA">Genes and DNA</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">Gene</a> and <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_animation.gif" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/DNA_animation.gif/170px-DNA_animation.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="294" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="181" data-file-height="313"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 294px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/DNA_animation.gif/170px-DNA_animation.gif" data-width="170" data-height="294" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/DNA_animation.gif 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Bases lie between two spiraling DNA strands.</figcaption></figure> A gene is a unit of <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">heredity</a> that corresponds to a region of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that carries genetic information that controls form or function of an organism. DNA is composed of two <a href="/wiki/Polynucleotide" title="Polynucleotide">polynucleotide</a> chains that coil around each other to form a <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_double_helix" title="Nucleic acid double helix">double helix</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014i-72">[72]</a> It is found as linear <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a> in <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>, and circular chromosomes in <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a>. The set of chromosomes in a cell is collectively known as its <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>. In eukaryotes, DNA is mainly in the <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">cell nucleus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-russell2001-73">[73]</a> In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within the <a href="/wiki/Nucleoid" title="Nucleoid">nucleoid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> The genetic information is held within genes, and the complete assemblage in an organism is called its <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotype</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Semiconservative_replication" title="Semiconservative replication">semiconservative</a> process whereby each strand serves as a template for a new strand of DNA.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014i-72">[72]</a> Mutations are heritable changes in DNA.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014i-72">[72]</a> They can arise <a href="/wiki/Mutation#Spontaneous_mutation" title="Mutation">spontaneously</a> as a result of replication errors that were not corrected by proofreading or can be <a href="/wiki/Mutation#Induced_mutation" title="Mutation">induced</a> by an environmental <a href="/wiki/Mutagen" title="Mutagen">mutagen</a> such as a chemical (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_acid" title="Nitrous acid">nitrous acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benzopyrene" title="Benzopyrene">benzopyrene</a>) or radiation (e.g., <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">x-ray</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma ray</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet radiation</a>, particles emitted by unstable isotopes).<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014i-72">[72]</a> Mutations can lead to phenotypic effects such as loss-of-function, <a href="/wiki/Gain-of-function_research" title="Gain-of-function research">gain-of-function</a>, and conditional mutations.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014i-72">[72]</a> Some mutations are beneficial, as they are a source of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">genetic variation</a> for evolution.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014i-72">[72]</a> Others are harmful if they were to result in a loss of function of genes needed for survival.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014i-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gene_expression">Gene expression</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Extended_Central_Dogma_with_Enzymes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Extended_Central_Dogma_with_Enzymes.jpg/300px-Extended_Central_Dogma_with_Enzymes.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="153" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="762" data-file-height="389"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 153px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Extended_Central_Dogma_with_Enzymes.jpg/300px-Extended_Central_Dogma_with_Enzymes.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="153" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Extended_Central_Dogma_with_Enzymes.jpg/450px-Extended_Central_Dogma_with_Enzymes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Extended_Central_Dogma_with_Enzymes.jpg/600px-Extended_Central_Dogma_with_Enzymes.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The extended <a href="/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">central dogma of molecular biology</a> includes all the processes involved in the flow of genetic information.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">Gene expression</a></div> Gene expression is the molecular process by which a <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotype</a> encoded in DNA gives rise to an observable <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a> in the proteins of an organism's body. This process is summarized by the <a href="/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">central dogma of molecular biology</a>, which was formulated by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> in 1958.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> According to the Central Dogma, genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein. There are two gene expression processes: <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcription</a> (DNA to RNA) and <a href="/wiki/Translation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Translation (genetics)">translation</a> (RNA to protein).<a href="#cite_note-linelowitz2015-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gene_regulation">Gene regulation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Regulation of gene expression</a></div> The regulation of gene expression by environmental factors and during different stages of <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">development</a> can occur at each step of the process such as <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(biology)" title="Transcription (biology)">transcription</a>, <a href="/wiki/RNA_splicing" title="RNA splicing">RNA splicing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Translation_(biology)" title="Translation (biology)">translation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Post-translational_modification" title="Post-translational modification">post-translational modification</a> of a protein.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014k-80">[80]</a> Gene expression can be influenced by positive or negative regulation, depending on which of the two types of regulatory proteins called <a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">transcription factors</a> bind to the DNA sequence close to or at a promoter.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014k-80">[80]</a> A cluster of genes that share the same promoter is called an <a href="/wiki/Operon" title="Operon">operon</a>, found mainly in prokaryotes and some lower eukaryotes (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a>).<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014k-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-keeneandtenenbaum2002-81">[81]</a> In positive regulation of gene expression, the <a href="/wiki/Activator_(genetics)" title="Activator (genetics)">activator</a> is the transcription factor that stimulates transcription when it binds to the sequence near or at the promoter. Negative regulation occurs when another transcription factor called a <a href="/wiki/Repressor" title="Repressor">repressor</a> binds to a DNA sequence called an <a href="/wiki/Operon#Operator" title="Operon">operator</a>, which is part of an operon, to prevent transcription. Repressors can be inhibited by compounds called <a href="/wiki/Inducer" title="Inducer">inducers</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Allolactose" title="Allolactose">allolactose</a>), thereby allowing transcription to occur.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014k-80">[80]</a> Specific genes that can be activated by inducers are called <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression#Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Gene expression">inducible genes</a>, in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression#Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Gene expression">constitutive genes</a> that are almost constantly active.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014k-80">[80]</a> In contrast to both, <a href="/wiki/Structural_gene" title="Structural gene">structural genes</a> encode proteins that are not involved in gene regulation.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014k-80">[80]</a> In addition to regulatory events involving the promoter, gene expression can also be regulated by <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">epigenetic</a> changes to <a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">chromatin</a>, which is a complex of DNA and protein found in eukaryotic cells.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014k-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genes,_development,_and_evolution">Genes, development, and evolution</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Development</a> is the process by which a <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular organism</a> (plant or animal) goes through a series of changes, starting from a single cell, and taking on various forms that are characteristic of its life cycle.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014n-82">[82]</a> There are four key processes that underlie development: <a href="/wiki/Cell_fate_determination" title="Cell fate determination">Determination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">differentiation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morphogenesis" title="Morphogenesis">morphogenesis</a>, and growth. Determination sets the developmental fate of a cell, which becomes more restrictive during development. Differentiation is the process by which specialized cells arise from less specialized cells such as <a href="/wiki/Stem_cell" title="Stem cell">stem cells</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Stem cells are <a href="/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">undifferentiated</a> or partially differentiated <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> that can differentiate into various <a href="/wiki/Types_of_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Types of cells">types of cells</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cell_proliferation" title="Cell proliferation">proliferate</a> indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell.<a href="#cite_note-:7-85">[85]</a> Cellular differentiation dramatically changes a cell's size, shape, <a href="/wiki/Membrane_potential" title="Membrane potential">membrane potential</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolic activity</a>, and responsiveness to signals, which are largely due to highly controlled modifications in <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">epigenetics</a>. With a few exceptions, cellular differentiation almost never involves a change in the <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> sequence itself.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Thus, different cells can have very different physical characteristics despite having the same <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>. Morphogenesis, or the development of body form, is the result of spatial differences in gene expression.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014n-82">[82]</a> A small fraction of the genes in an organism's genome called the <a href="/wiki/Evo-devo_gene_toolkit" title="Evo-devo gene toolkit">developmental-genetic toolkit</a> control the development of that organism. These toolkit genes are highly conserved among <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a>, meaning that they are ancient and very similar in widely separated groups of animals. Differences in deployment of toolkit genes affect the body plan and the number, identity, and pattern of body parts. Among the most important toolkit genes are the <a href="/wiki/Hox_gene" title="Hox gene">Hox genes</a>. Hox genes determine where repeating parts, such as the many <a href="/wiki/Vertebra" title="Vertebra">vertebrae</a> of snakes, will grow in a developing embryo or larva.<a href="#cite_note-CarrollNatHist-87">[87]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2></div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolutionary_processes">Evolutionary processes</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mutation_and_selection_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Mutation_and_selection_diagram.svg/220px-Mutation_and_selection_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="331" data-file-height="300"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 199px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Mutation_and_selection_diagram.svg/220px-Mutation_and_selection_diagram.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="199" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Mutation_and_selection_diagram.svg/330px-Mutation_and_selection_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Mutation_and_selection_diagram.svg/440px-Mutation_and_selection_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a> for darker traits</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> is a central organizing concept in biology. It is the change in <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">heritable</a> <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_trait" title="Phenotypic trait">characteristics</a> of populations over successive <a href="/wiki/Generation" title="Generation">generations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Artificial_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial selection">artificial selection</a>, animals were selectively bred for specific traits. <a href="#cite_note-urry2017v-90">[90]</a> Given that traits are inherited, populations contain a varied mix of traits, and reproduction is able to increase any population, Darwin argued that in the natural world, it was nature that played the role of humans in selecting for specific traits.<a href="#cite_note-urry2017v-90">[90]</a> Darwin inferred that individuals who possessed heritable traits better adapted to their environments are more likely to survive and produce more offspring than other individuals.<a href="#cite_note-urry2017v-90">[90]</a> He further inferred that this would lead to the accumulation of favorable traits over successive generations, thereby increasing the match between the organisms and their environment.<a href="#cite_note-lewontin70-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-futuyma2017a-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-urry2017v-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014o-94">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Speciation">Speciation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></div> A species is a group of organisms that mate with one another and speciation is the process by which one lineage splits into two lineages as a result of having evolved independently from each other.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014q-95">[95]</a> For speciation to occur, there has to be <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_isolation" title="Reproductive isolation">reproductive isolation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014q-95">[95]</a> Reproductive isolation can result from incompatibilities between genes as described by <a href="/wiki/Bateson%E2%80%93Dobzhansky%E2%80%93Muller_model" title="Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model">Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model</a>. Reproductive isolation also tends to increase with <a href="/wiki/Genetic_divergence" title="Genetic divergence">genetic divergence</a>. Speciation can occur when there are physical barriers that divide an ancestral species, a process known as <a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">allopatric speciation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014q-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phylogeny">Phylogeny</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right noresize" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Phylogenetic_tree.svg/450px-Phylogenetic_tree.svg.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="244" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1860" data-file-height="1010" usemap="#ImageMap_0c0915e250536ee7" resource="/wiki/File:Phylogenetic_tree.svg"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 450px;height: 244px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Phylogenetic_tree.svg/450px-Phylogenetic_tree.svg.png" data-width="450" data-height="244" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Phylogenetic_tree.svg/675px-Phylogenetic_tree.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Phylogenetic_tree.svg/900px-Phylogenetic_tree.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element" data-usemap="#ImageMap_0c0915e250536ee7"> <map name="ImageMap_0c0915e250536ee7"><area href="/wiki/Bacteria" shape="rect" coords="60,1,126,19" alt="Bacteria" title="Bacteria"><area href="/wiki/Archaea" shape="rect" coords="197,1,263,19" alt="Archaea" title="Archaea"><area href="/wiki/Eukaryota" shape="rect" coords="313,1,392,19" alt="Eukaryota" title="Eukaryota"><area href="/wiki/Aquificota" shape="rect" coords="6,187,44,200" alt="Aquifex" title="Aquifex"><area href="/wiki/Thermotogota" shape="rect" coords="6,168,60,180" alt="Thermotoga" title="Thermotoga"><area href="/wiki/Bacteroidota" shape="rect" coords="5,139,60,161" alt="Bacteroides–Cytophaga" title="Bacteroides–Cytophaga"><area href="/wiki/Planctomycetota" shape="rect" coords="3,113,68,125" alt="Planctomyces" title="Planctomyces"><area href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" shape="rect" coords="8,99,74,109" alt='"Cyanobacteria"' title='"Cyanobacteria"'><area href="/wiki/Pseudomonadota" shape="rect" coords="41,82,107,94" alt="Proteobacteria" title="Proteobacteria"><area href="/wiki/Spirochaetota" shape="rect" coords="60,48,114,60" alt="Spirochetes" title="Spirochetes"><area href="/wiki/Gram-positive_bacteria" shape="rect" coords="113,63,156,85" alt="Gram-positives" title="Gram-positives"><area href="/wiki/Chloroflexota" shape="rect" coords="156,47,207,59" alt="Chloroflexi" title="Chloroflexi"><area href="/wiki/Thermoproteota" shape="rect" coords="156,117,226,138" alt="Thermoproteus–Pyrodictium" title="Thermoproteus–Pyrodictium"><area href="/wiki/Thermococcus_celer" shape="rect" coords="166,99,232,117" alt="Thermococcus celer" title="Thermococcus celer"><area href="/wiki/Methanococcus" shape="rect" coords="170,87,248,99" alt="Methanococcus" title="Methanococcus"><area href="/wiki/Methanobacterium" shape="rect" coords="167,75,268,87" alt="Methanobacterium" title="Methanobacterium"><area href="/wiki/Methanosarcina" shape="rect" coords="198,62,267,75" alt="Methanosarcina" title="Methanosarcina"><area href="/wiki/Halobacteria" shape="rect" coords="261,76,318,88" alt="Haloarchaea" title="Haloarchaea"><area href="/wiki/Entamoebae" shape="rect" coords="253,47,311,59" alt="Entamoebae" title="Entamoebae"><area href="/wiki/Slime_mold" shape="rect" coords="323,44,353,66" alt="Slime molds" title="Slime molds"><area href="/wiki/Animal" shape="rect" coords="367,48,407,60" alt="Animals" title="Animals"><area href="/wiki/Fungus" shape="rect" coords="381,62,410,74" alt="Fungi" title="Fungi"><area href="/wiki/Plant" shape="rect" coords="381,83,412,95" alt="Plants" title="Plants"><area href="/wiki/Ciliate" shape="rect" coords="380,97,416,109" alt="Ciliates" title="Ciliates"><area href="/wiki/Flagellate" shape="rect" coords="379,119,428,131" alt="Flagellates" title="Flagellates"><area href="/wiki/Trichomonad" shape="rect" coords="377,139,441,151" alt="Trichomonads" title="Trichomonads"><area href="/wiki/Microsporidia" shape="rect" coords="373,162,437,174" alt="Microsporidia" title="Microsporidia"><area href="/wiki/Diplomonad" shape="rect" coords="371,184,432,196" alt="Diplomonads" title="Diplomonads"></map><figcaption>Phylogenetic tree showing the domains of <a href="/wiki/Bacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterium">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a></figcaption></figure> A phylogeny is an evolutionary history of a specific group of organisms or their genes.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014p-96">[96]</a> It can be represented using a <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">phylogenetic tree</a>, a diagram showing lines of descent among organisms or their genes. Each line drawn on the time axis of a tree represents a <a href="/wiki/Lineage_(evolution)" title="Lineage (evolution)">lineage</a> of descendants of a particular species or population. When a lineage divides into two, it is represented as a fork or split on the phylogenetic tree.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014p-96">[96]</a> Phylogenetic trees are the basis for comparing and grouping different species.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014p-96">[96]</a> Different species that share a feature inherited from a common ancestor are described as having <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous</a> features (or <a href="/wiki/Apomorphy_and_synapomorphy" title="Apomorphy and synapomorphy">synapomorphy</a>).<a href="#cite_note-kitchingetal2001-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Futuyma2017p-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014p-96">[96]</a> Phylogeny provides the basis of biological classification.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014p-96">[96]</a> This classification system is rank-based, with the highest rank being the <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">domain</a> followed by <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a>, <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">family</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014p-96">[96]</a> All organisms can be classified as belonging to one of <a href="/wiki/Three-domain_system" title="Three-domain system">three domains</a>: <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a> (originally Archaebacteria), bacteria (originally eubacteria), or <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukarya</a> (includes the fungi, plant, and animal kingdoms).<a href="#cite_note-domain-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_life">History of life</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></div> The history of life on Earth traces how organisms have evolved from the earliest emergence of life to present day. Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago and all life on Earth, both living and extinct, descended from a <a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">last universal common ancestor</a> that lived about <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of evolution">3.5 billion years ago</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-deduve2002-101">[101]</a> Geologists have developed a <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">geologic time scale</a> that divides the history of the Earth into major divisions, starting with four eons (<a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">Hadean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a>), the first three of which are collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a>, which lasted approximately 4 billion years.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014r-102">[102]</a> Each eon can be divided into eras, with the Phanerozoic eon that began 539 million years ago<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> being subdivided into <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a> eras.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014r-102">[102]</a> These three eras together comprise eleven <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale#Terminology" title="Geologic time scale">periods</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tertiary" title="Tertiary">Tertiary</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a>).<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014r-102">[102]</a> The similarities among all known present-day <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> indicate that they have diverged through the process of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> from their common ancestor.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Biologists regard the ubiquity of the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">genetic code</a> as evidence of universal <a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">common descent</a> for all <a href="/wiki/Bacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterium">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Futuyma-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pearce_343%E2%80%93364-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rosing_674%E2%80%93676-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ohtomo_25%E2%80%9328-107">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mats</a> of coexisting bacteria and archaea were the dominant form of life in the early <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a> eon and many of the major steps in early evolution are thought to have taken place in this environment.<a href="#cite_note-NisbetFowler1999-108">[108]</a> The earliest evidence of <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> dates from 1.85 billion years ago,<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-fedonkin2003-110">[110]</a> and while they may have been present earlier, their diversification accelerated when they started using oxygen in their <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>. Later, around 1.7 billion years ago, <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular organisms</a> began to appear, with <a href="/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">differentiated cells</a> performing specialised functions.<a href="#cite_note-bonner1999-111">[111]</a> Algae-like multicellular land plants are dated back to about 1 billion years ago,<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> although evidence suggests that <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> formed the earliest <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_ecosystem" title="Terrestrial ecosystem">terrestrial ecosystems</a>, at least 2.7 billion years ago.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Microorganisms are thought to have paved the way for the inception of land plants in the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> period. Land plants were so successful that they are thought to have contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction" title="Late Devonian extinction">Late Devonian extinction event</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AlgeoScheckler1998-114">[114]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ediacara_biota" class="mw-redirect" title="Ediacara biota">Ediacara biota</a> appear during the <a href="/wiki/Ediacaran" title="Ediacaran">Ediacaran</a> period,<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>, along with most other modern <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a> originated about 525 million years ago during the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-D-G.Shu_et_al._1999-116">[116]</a> During the Permian period, <a href="/wiki/Synapsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapsid">synapsids</a>, including the ancestors of <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, dominated the land,<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> but most of this group became extinct in the <a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic extinction event</a> 252 million years ago.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> During the recovery from this catastrophe, <a href="/wiki/Archosaur" title="Archosaur">archosaurs</a> became the most abundant land vertebrates;<a href="#cite_note-TannerLucas2004-119">[119]</a> one archosaur group, the dinosaurs, dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> 66 million years ago killed off the non-avian dinosaurs,<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> mammals <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">increased rapidly in size and diversity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Such <a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">mass extinctions</a> may have accelerated evolution by providing opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify.<a href="#cite_note-Van_Valkenburgh_1999_463%E2%80%93493-123">[123]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Diversity">Diversity</h2></div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bacteria_and_Archaea">Bacteria and Archaea</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gemmatimonas_aurantiaca.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Gemmatimonas_aurantiaca.jpg/220px-Gemmatimonas_aurantiaca.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1260" data-file-height="909"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 159px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Gemmatimonas_aurantiaca.jpg/220px-Gemmatimonas_aurantiaca.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="159" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Gemmatimonas_aurantiaca.jpg/330px-Gemmatimonas_aurantiaca.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Gemmatimonas_aurantiaca.jpg/440px-Gemmatimonas_aurantiaca.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Bacteria – <a href="/wiki/Gemmatimonas_aurantiaca" title="Gemmatimonas aurantiaca">Gemmatimonas aurantiaca</a> (-=1 Micrometer)</figcaption></figure> Bacteria are a type of <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> that constitute a large <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">domain</a> of <a href="/wiki/Prokaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Prokaryotic">prokaryotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>. Typically a few <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">micrometers</a> in length, bacteria have a <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure#Cell_morphology" title="Bacterial cell structure">number of shapes</a>, ranging from <a href="/wiki/Coccus" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccus">spheres</a> to <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_(shape)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacillus (shape)">rods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spiral_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiral bacteria">spirals</a>. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitats</a>. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, <a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">acidic hot springs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">radioactive waste</a>,<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Deep_biosphere" title="Deep biosphere">deep biosphere</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">Earth's crust</a>. Bacteria also live in <a href="/wiki/Symbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiotic">symbiotic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parasitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitic">parasitic</a> relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only about 27 percent of the <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_phyla" title="Bacterial phyla">bacterial phyla</a> have species that can be <a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">grown</a> in the laboratory.<a href="#cite_note-Dudek-125">[125]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Halobacteria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Halobacteria.jpg/220px-Halobacteria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="251"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 197px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Halobacteria.jpg/220px-Halobacteria.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="197" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Halobacteria.jpg 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a> – <a href="/wiki/Haloarchaea" title="Haloarchaea">Haloarchaea</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a> constitute the other domain of prokaryotic cells and were initially <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">classified</a> as bacteria, receiving the name archaebacteria (in the Archaebacteria <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdom</a>), a term that has fallen out of use.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Archaeal cells have unique properties separating them from the other <a href="/wiki/Three-domain_system" title="Three-domain system">two domains</a>, Bacteria and <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a>. Archaea are further divided into multiple recognized <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a>. Archaea and bacteria are generally similar in size and shape, although a few archaea have very different shapes, such as the flat and square cells of <a href="/wiki/Haloquadratum_walsbyi" title="Haloquadratum walsbyi">Haloquadratum walsbyi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Despite this <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphological</a> similarity to bacteria, archaea possess <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> and several <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">metabolic pathways</a> that are more closely related to those of eukaryotes, notably for the <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> involved in <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcription</a> and <a href="/wiki/Translation_(biology)" title="Translation (biology)">translation</a>. Other aspects of archaeal biochemistry are unique, such as their reliance on <a href="/wiki/Ether_lipid" title="Ether lipid">ether lipids</a> in their <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membranes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> including <a href="/wiki/Archaeol" title="Archaeol">archaeols</a>. Archaea use more energy sources than eukaryotes: these range from <a href="/wiki/Organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic compounds">organic compounds</a>, such as sugars, to <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">metal ions</a> or even <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen gas</a>. <a href="/wiki/Halophile" title="Halophile">Salt-tolerant</a> archaea (the <a href="/wiki/Haloarchaea" title="Haloarchaea">Haloarchaea</a>) use sunlight as an energy source, and other species of archaea <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">fix carbon</a>, but unlike plants and <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>, no known species of archaea does both. Archaea <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">reproduce asexually</a> by <a href="/wiki/Binary_fission" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary fission">binary fission</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fragmentation_(reproduction)" title="Fragmentation (reproduction)">fragmentation</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Budding" title="Budding">budding</a>; unlike bacteria, no known species of Archaea form <a href="/wiki/Endospore" title="Endospore">endospores</a>. The first observed archaea were <a href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">extremophiles</a>, living in extreme environments, such as <a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">hot springs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salt_lake" title="Salt lake">salt lakes</a> with no other organisms. Improved molecular detection tools led to the discovery of archaea in almost every <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a>, including soil, oceans, and <a href="/wiki/Marshland" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshland">marshlands</a>. Archaea are particularly numerous in the oceans, and the archaea in <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a> may be one of the most abundant groups of organisms on the planet. Archaea are a major part of <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Earth's life</a>. They are part of the <a href="/wiki/Microbiota" title="Microbiota">microbiota</a> of all organisms. In the <a href="/wiki/Human_microbiome" title="Human microbiome">human microbiome</a>, they are important in the <a href="/wiki/Colon_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Colon (anatomy)">gut</a>, mouth, and on the skin.<a href="#cite_note-Bang2015-129">[129]</a> Their morphological, metabolic, and geographical diversity permits them to play multiple ecological roles: carbon fixation; nitrogen cycling; organic compound turnover; and maintaining microbial symbiotic and <a href="/wiki/Syntrophy" title="Syntrophy">syntrophic</a> communities, for example.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eukaryotes">Eukaryotes</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Euglena_diagram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Euglena_diagram.jpg/300px-Euglena_diagram.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="197" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="524"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 197px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Euglena_diagram.jpg/300px-Euglena_diagram.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="197" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Euglena_diagram.jpg/450px-Euglena_diagram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Euglena_diagram.jpg/600px-Euglena_diagram.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Euglena" title="Euglena">Euglena</a>, a single-celled eukaryote that can both move and photosynthesize</figcaption></figure> Eukaryotes are hypothesized to have split from archaea, which was followed by their <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbioses</a> with bacteria (or <a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a>) that gave rise to mitochondria and chloroplasts, both of which are now part of modern-day eukaryotic cells.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014t-131">[131]</a> The major lineages of eukaryotes diversified in the <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a> about 1.5 billion years ago and can be classified into eight major <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clades</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alveolate" title="Alveolate">alveolates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Excavata" title="Excavata">excavates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stramenopile" title="Stramenopile">stramenopiles</a>, plants, <a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">rhizarians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">amoebozoans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a>, and animals.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014t-131">[131]</a> Five of these clades are collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a>, which are mostly microscopic <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic">eukaryotic</a> organisms that are not plants, fungi, or animals.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014t-131">[131]</a> While it is likely that protists share a <a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">common ancestor</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Last_eukaryotic_common_ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Last eukaryotic common ancestor">last eukaryotic common ancestor</a>),<a href="#cite_note-O'Malley_Leger_Wideman_Ruiz-Trillo_pp._338%E2%80%93344-132">[132]</a> protists by themselves do not constitute a separate clade as some protists may be more closely related to plants, fungi, or animals than they are to other protists. Like groupings such as <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoans</a>, the protist grouping is not a formal taxonomic group but is used for convenience.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014t-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Taylor_pp._1707%E2%80%931714-133">[133]</a> Most protists are unicellular; these are called microbial eukaryotes.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014t-131">[131]</a> Plants are mainly multicellular <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>, predominantly <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic">photosynthetic</a> eukaryotes of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdom</a> Plantae, which would exclude fungi and some <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>. Plant cells were derived by endosymbiosis of a <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanobacterium">cyanobacterium</a> into an early eukaryote about one billion years ago, which gave rise to chloroplasts.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014u-134">[134]</a> The first several clades that emerged following primary endosymbiosis were aquatic and most of the aquatic photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms are collectively described as algae, which is a term of convenience as not all algae are closely related.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014u-134">[134]</a> Algae comprise several distinct clades such as <a href="/wiki/Glaucophyte" title="Glaucophyte">glaucophytes</a>, which are microscopic freshwater algae that may have resembled in form to the early unicellular ancestor of Plantae.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014u-134">[134]</a> Unlike glaucophytes, the other algal clades such as <a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">red</a> and <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a> are multicellular. Green algae comprise three major clades: <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorophyte">chlorophytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coleochaetophyceae" title="Coleochaetophyceae">coleochaetophytes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stonewort" class="mw-redirect" title="Stonewort">stoneworts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014u-134">[134]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a> are eukaryotes that digest foods outside their bodies,<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014v-135">[135]</a> secreting digestive enzymes that break down large food molecules before absorbing them through their cell membranes. Many fungi are also <a href="/wiki/Saprobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Saprobe">saprobes</a>, feeding on dead organic matter, making them important <a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">decomposers</a> in ecological systems.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014v-135">[135]</a> Animals are multicellular eukaryotes. With few exceptions, animals <a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">consume organic material</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration#Aerobic_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">breathe oxygen</a>, are <a href="/wiki/Motility" title="Motility">able to move</a>, can <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">reproduce sexually</a>, and grow from a hollow sphere of <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Blastula" class="mw-redirect" title="Blastula">blastula</a>, during <a href="/wiki/Embryogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryogenesis">embryonic development</a>. Over 1.5 million <a href="/wiki/Extant_taxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Extant taxon">living</a> animal <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> have been <a href="/wiki/Species_description" title="Species description">described</a>—of which around 1 million are <a href="/wiki/Insecta" class="mw-redirect" title="Insecta">insects</a>—but it has been estimated there are over 7 million animal species in total. They have <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">complex interactions</a> with each other and their environments, forming intricate <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food webs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014w-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Viruses">Viruses</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Phage.jpg/220px-Phage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1480" data-file-height="1733"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 258px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Phage.jpg/220px-Phage.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="258" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Phage.jpg/330px-Phage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Phage.jpg/440px-Phage.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophages</a> attached to a bacterial cell wall</figcaption></figure> Viruses are <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/submicroscopic" class="extiw" title="wikt:submicroscopic">submicroscopic</a> <a href="/wiki/Infectious_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious agent">infectious agents</a> that <a href="/wiki/Viral_replication" title="Viral replication">replicate</a> inside the <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> of <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NG-20200415-137">[137]</a> Viruses infect all types of <a href="/wiki/Life_forms" class="mw-redirect" title="Life forms">life forms</a>, from animals and plants to <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>, including bacteria and <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid16984643-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20210226-139">[139]</a> More than 6,000 <a href="/wiki/Virus_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Virus species">virus species</a> have been described in detail.<a href="#cite_note-ictv2019-140">[140]</a> Viruses are found in almost every <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> on Earth and are the most numerous type of biological entity.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> The origins of viruses in the <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">evolutionary history of life</a> are unclear: some may have <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolved</a> from <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmids</a>—pieces of DNA that can move between cells—while others may have evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a>, which increases <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a> in a way analogous to <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Canchaya-143">[143]</a> Because viruses possess some but not all characteristics of life, they have been described as "organisms at the edge of life",<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-144">[144]</a> and as <a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">self-replicators</a>.<a href="#cite_note-kooninstarokadomskyy2016-145">[145]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2></div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></div> Ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of life, the interaction between organisms and their <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecosystems">Ecosystems</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">community</a> of living (<a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">biotic</a>) organisms in conjunction with the nonliving (<a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">abiotic</a>) components (e.g., water, light, radiation, temperature, <a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">humidity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Acidity">acidity</a>, and soil) of their environment is called an <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-habitats_of_the_world-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014ao-149">[149]</a> These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">nutrient cycles</a> and energy flows.<a href="#cite_note-Odum1971-150">[150]</a> Energy from the sun enters the system through <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> and is incorporated into plant tissue. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals move <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> and energy through the system. They also influence the quantity of plant and <a href="/wiki/Microbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbe">microbial</a> <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a> present. By breaking down dead <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">decomposers</a> release <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> back to the atmosphere and facilitate <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrient cycling">nutrient cycling</a> by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes.<a href="#cite_note-chapinetal2002a-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Populations">Populations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population ecology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Logistic_Carrying_Capacity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Logistic_Carrying_Capacity.svg/220px-Logistic_Carrying_Capacity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="385"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Logistic_Carrying_Capacity.svg/220px-Logistic_Carrying_Capacity.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Logistic_Carrying_Capacity.svg/330px-Logistic_Carrying_Capacity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Logistic_Carrying_Capacity.svg/440px-Logistic_Carrying_Capacity.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Reaching carrying capacity through a logistic growth curve</figcaption></figure> A population is the group of <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> of the same <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> that occupies an <a href="/wiki/Geographical_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographical area">area</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">reproduce</a> from generation to generation.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014ap-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-urry2017ba-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> <a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a> can be estimated by multiplying population density by the area or volume. The <a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">carrying capacity</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environment</a> is the maximum population size of a <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> that can be sustained by that specific environment, given the food, <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">water</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Resource" title="Resource">resources</a> that are available.<a href="#cite_note-:32-157">[157]</a> The carrying capacity of a population can be affected by changing environmental conditions such as changes in the availability of resources and the cost of maintaining them. In <a href="/wiki/Human_population" class="mw-redirect" title="Human population">human populations</a>, new <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technologies</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Green_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Green revolution">Green revolution</a> have helped increase the Earth's carrying capacity for humans over time, which has stymied the attempted predictions of impending population decline, the most famous of which was by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Thomas Malthus</a> in the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014ap-152">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communities">Communities</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community (ecology)</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TrophicWeb.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/TrophicWeb.jpg/370px-TrophicWeb.jpg" decoding="async" width="370" height="153" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3260" data-file-height="1350"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 370px;height: 153px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/TrophicWeb.jpg/370px-TrophicWeb.jpg" data-width="370" data-height="153" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/TrophicWeb.jpg/555px-TrophicWeb.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/TrophicWeb.jpg/740px-TrophicWeb.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A (a) trophic pyramid and a (b) simplified food web. The trophic pyramid represents the biomass at each level.<a href="#cite_note-Odum05-158">[158]</a></figcaption></figure> A community is a group of populations of species occupying the same geographical area at the same time.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">biological interaction</a> is the effect that a pair of <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> living together in a community have on each other. They can be either of the same species (intraspecific interactions), or of different species (interspecific interactions). These effects may be short-term, like <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predation</a>, or long-term; both often strongly influence the <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> of the species involved. A long-term interaction is called a <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiosis</a>. Symbioses range from <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualism</a>, beneficial to both partners, to <a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">competition</a>, harmful to both partners.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Every species participates as a consumer, resource, or both in <a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">consumer–resource interactions</a>, which form the core of <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chains</a> or <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food webs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014aq-161">[161]</a> There are different <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">trophic levels</a> within any food web, with the lowest level being the primary producers (or <a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">autotrophs</a>) such as plants and algae that convert energy and inorganic material into <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a>, which can then be used by the rest of the community.<a href="#cite_note-bryantfrigaard-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> At the next level are the <a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">heterotrophs</a>, which are the species that obtain energy by breaking apart organic compounds from other organisms.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014aq-161">[161]</a> Heterotrophs that consume plants are primary consumers (or <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a>) whereas heterotrophs that consume herbivores are secondary consumers (or <a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">carnivores</a>). And those that eat secondary consumers are tertiary consumers and so on. <a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivorous</a> heterotrophs are able to consume at multiple levels. Finally, there are <a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">decomposers</a> that feed on the waste products or dead bodies of organisms.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014aq-161">[161]</a> On average, the total amount of energy incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> of a trophic level per unit of time is about one-tenth of the energy of the trophic level that it consumes. Waste and dead material used by decomposers as well as heat lost from metabolism make up the other ninety percent of energy that is not consumed by the next trophic level.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014ar-164">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biosphere">Biosphere</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carbon_cycle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Carbon_cycle.jpg/250px-Carbon_cycle.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="211" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="2192"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 211px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Carbon_cycle.jpg/250px-Carbon_cycle.jpg" data-width="250" data-height="211" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Carbon_cycle.jpg/375px-Carbon_cycle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Carbon_cycle.jpg/500px-Carbon_cycle.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle#Types_of_dynamics" title="Carbon cycle">Fast carbon cycle</a> showing the movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, and oceans in billions of tons per year. Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red are human contributions, white are stored carbon. Effects of the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle#Types_of_dynamics" title="Carbon cycle">slow carbon cycle</a>, such as volcanic and tectonic activity, are not included.<a href="#cite_note-nasacc-165">[165]</a></figcaption></figure> In the global ecosystem or biosphere, matter exists as different interacting compartments, which can be biotic or abiotic as well as accessible or inaccessible, depending on their forms and locations.<a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014as-166">[166]</a> For example, matter from terrestrial autotrophs are both biotic and accessible to other organisms whereas the matter in rocks and minerals are abiotic and inaccessible. A <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">biogeochemical cycle</a> is a pathway by which specific <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a> of matter are turned over or moved through the biotic (<a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>) and the abiotic (<a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">hydrosphere</a>) compartments of Earth. There are biogeochemical cycles for <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle" title="Nitrogen cycle">nitrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conservation">Conservation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></div> Conservation biology is the study of the conservation of Earth's <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> with the aim of protecting <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, their <a href="/wiki/Habitats" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitats">habitats</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystems">ecosystems</a> from excessive rates of <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a> and the erosion of biotic interactions.<a href="#cite_note-SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-ConsBiol80-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> It is concerned with factors that influence the maintenance, loss, and restoration of biodiversity and the science of sustaining evolutionary processes that engender <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a>, population, <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, and ecosystem diversity.<a href="#cite_note-Hunter96-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-Groom06-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dyke08-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates-173">[173]</a> The concern stems from estimates suggesting that up to 50% of all species on the planet will disappear within the next 50 years,<a href="#cite_note-Koh-174">[174]</a> which has contributed to poverty, starvation, and will reset the course of evolution on this planet.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jackson-176">[176]</a> <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a> affects the functioning of ecosystems, which provide a variety of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">services</a> upon which people depend. Conservation biologists research and educate on the trends of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a>, species <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinctions</a>, and the negative effect these are having on our capabilities to <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustain</a> the well-being of human society. Organizations and citizens are responding to the <a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">current biodiversity crisis</a> through conservation action plans that direct research, monitoring, and education programs that engage concerns at local through global scales.<a href="#cite_note-Soule86-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hunter96-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-Groom06-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dyke08-172">[172]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biology_in_fiction" title="Biology in fiction">Biology in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Glossary of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idiobiology" title="Idiobiology">Idiobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biological_websites" class="mw-redirect" title="List of biological websites">List of biological websites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biologists" title="List of biologists">List of biologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_journals" title="List of biology journals">List of biology journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of biology topics">List of biology topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" title="List of life sciences">List of life sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_omics_topics_in_biology" title="List of omics topics in biology">List of omics topics in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Biology_Teachers" title="National Association of Biology Teachers">National Association of Biology Teachers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline of biology</a></li> <li>Periodic table of life sciences in <a href="/wiki/Tinbergen%27s_four_questions" title="Tinbergen's four questions">Tinbergen's four questions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_tourism" title="Science tourism">Science tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Biology_terminology" title="Category:Biology terminology">Terminology of biology</a></li></ul> </div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-urry2017a-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-urry2017a_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-urry2017a_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-urry2017a_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-urry2017a_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-urry2017a_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-urry2017a_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-urry2017a_1-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-urry2017a_1-7">h</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output 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Bio Systems. 111 (1): 1–10. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013BiSys.111....1D">2013BiSys.111....1D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biosystems.2012.10.005">10.1016/j.biosystems.2012.10.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3712629">3712629</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23159919">23159919</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bio+Systems&rft.atitle=Self-organization+and+entropy+reduction+in+a+living+cell&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-10&rft.date=2013-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3712629%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23159919&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.biosystems.2012.10.005&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013BiSys.111....1D&rft.au=Davies%2C+PC&rft.au=Rieper%2C+E&rft.au=Tuszynski%2C+JA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3712629&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-aquarenagloss-6"><a href="#cite_ref-aquarenagloss_6-0">^</a> Based on definition from: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040608113114/http://www.bio.txstate.edu/~wetlands/Glossary/glossary.html">"Aquarena Wetlands Project glossary of terms"</a>. 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CRC Press. pp. 133–44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-91100-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-91100-6"><bdi>978-0-203-91100-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150324125937/http://books.google.com/books?id=YKJ6gVYbrGwC">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-03-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Life+Sciences%2C+Revised+and+Expanded&rft.pages=133-44&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-203-91100-6&rft.aulast=Magner&rft.aufirst=Lois+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYKJ6gVYbrGwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapp2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Sapp" title="Jan Sapp">Sapp, Jan</a> (2003). 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Cambridge: Printed at the University Press. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/61057537">61057537</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1184581">1184581</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304111606/http://darwin-online.org.uk/converted/pdf/1909_Foundations_F1555.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. 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Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 56–65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1464175121" title="Special:BookSources/978-1464175121"><bdi>978-1464175121</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Carbon+and+molecular+diversity+of+life&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Life&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+Mass.&rft.pages=56-65&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1464175121&rft.aulast=Hillis&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft.au=Sadava%2C+David&rft.au=Hill%2C+Richard+W.&rft.au=Price%2C+Mary+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-freeman2017c-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-freeman2017c_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-freeman2017c_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-freeman2017c_36-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreemanQuillinAllisonBlack2017" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Protein structure and function". Biological Science (6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 78–92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0321976499" title="Special:BookSources/978-0321976499"><bdi>978-0321976499</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Protein+structure+and+function&rft.btitle=Biological+Science&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+N.J.&rft.pages=78-92&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0321976499&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft.au=Quillin%2C+Kim&rft.au=Allison%2C+Lizabeth&rft.au=Black%2C+Michael&rft.au=Podgorski%2C+Greg&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Emily&rft.au=Carmichael%2C+Jeff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-urry2017e-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-urry2017e_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-urry2017e_37-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-urry2017e_37-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrryCainWassermanMinorsky2017" class="citation book cs1">Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "The structure and function of large biological molecules". Campbell Biology (11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 66–92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0134093413" title="Special:BookSources/978-0134093413"><bdi>978-0134093413</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+structure+and+function+of+large+biological+molecules&rft.btitle=Campbell+Biology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=66-92&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0134093413&rft.aulast=Urry&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft.au=Cain%2C+Michael&rft.au=Wasserman%2C+Steven&rft.au=Minorsky%2C+Peter&rft.au=Reece%2C+Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-freeman2017e-38"><a href="#cite_ref-freeman2017e_38-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreemanQuillinAllisonBlack2017" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "An introduction to carbohydrate". Biological Science (6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 107–118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0321976499" title="Special:BookSources/978-0321976499"><bdi>978-0321976499</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+introduction+to+carbohydrate&rft.btitle=Biological+Science&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+N.J.&rft.pages=107-118&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0321976499&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft.au=Quillin%2C+Kim&rft.au=Allison%2C+Lizabeth&rft.au=Black%2C+Michael&rft.au=Podgorski%2C+Greg&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Emily&rft.au=Carmichael%2C+Jeff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-freeman2017f-39"><a href="#cite_ref-freeman2017f_39-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreemanQuillinAllisonBlack2017" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Lipids, membranes, and the first cells". Biological Science (6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 119–141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0321976499" title="Special:BookSources/978-0321976499"><bdi>978-0321976499</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lipids%2C+membranes%2C+and+the+first+cells&rft.btitle=Biological+Science&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+N.J.&rft.pages=119-141&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0321976499&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft.au=Quillin%2C+Kim&rft.au=Allison%2C+Lizabeth&rft.au=Black%2C+Michael&rft.au=Podgorski%2C+Greg&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Emily&rft.au=Carmichael%2C+Jeff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-freeman2017d-40"><a href="#cite_ref-freeman2017d_40-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreemanQuillinAllisonBlack2017" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Nucleic acids and the RNA world". Biological Science (6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 93–106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0321976499" title="Special:BookSources/978-0321976499"><bdi>978-0321976499</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nucleic+acids+and+the+RNA+world&rft.btitle=Biological+Science&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+N.J.&rft.pages=93-106&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0321976499&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft.au=Quillin%2C+Kim&rft.au=Allison%2C+Lizabeth&rft.au=Black%2C+Michael&rft.au=Podgorski%2C+Greg&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Emily&rft.au=Carmichael%2C+Jeff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mazzarello1999-41"><a href="#cite_ref-mazzarello1999_41-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMazzarello1999" class="citation journal cs1">Mazzarello, P. (May 1999). "A unifying concept: the history of cell theory". Nature Cell Biology. 1 (1): E13–15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F8964">10.1038/8964</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10559875">10559875</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7338204">7338204</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Cell+Biology&rft.atitle=A+unifying+concept%3A+the+history+of+cell+theory&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=E13-15&rft.date=1999-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7338204%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10559875&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F8964&rft.aulast=Mazzarello&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbellWilliamsonHeyden2006" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Neil A.; Williamson, Brad; Heyden, Robin J. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html">Biology: Exploring Life</a>. Boston: Pearson Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0132508827" title="Special:BookSources/978-0132508827"><bdi>978-0132508827</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-11-02. Retrieved 2021-05-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology%3A+Exploring+Life&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0132508827&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Neil+A.&rft.au=Williamson%2C+Brad&rft.au=Heyden%2C+Robin+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phschool.com%2Fel_marketing.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-urry2017g-43"><a href="#cite_ref-urry2017g_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrryCainWassermanMinorsky2017" class="citation book cs1">Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Membrane structure and function". Campbell Biology (11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 126–142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0134093413" title="Special:BookSources/978-0134093413"><bdi>978-0134093413</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Membrane+structure+and+function&rft.btitle=Campbell+Biology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=126-142&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0134093413&rft.aulast=Urry&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft.au=Cain%2C+Michael&rft.au=Wasserman%2C+Steven&rft.au=Minorsky%2C+Peter&rft.au=Reece%2C+Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MBOC-44"><a href="#cite_ref-MBOC_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlberts,_B.Johnson,_A.Lewis,_J.2002" class="citation book cs1">Alberts, B.; Johnson, A.; Lewis, J.; et al. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21054/?term=Molecular%20Biology%20of%20the%20Cell">Molecular Biology of the Cell</a> (4th ed.). New York: Garland Science. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-3218-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-3218-3"><bdi>978-0-8153-3218-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171220092628/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21054/?term=Molecular%20Biology%20of%20the%20Cell">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-12-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecular+Biology+of+the+Cell&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Garland+Science&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8153-3218-3&rft.au=Alberts%2C+B.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+A.&rft.au=Lewis%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK21054%2F%3Fterm%3DMolecular%2520Biology%2520of%2520the%2520Cell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tom_Herrmann_2019-45"><a href="#cite_ref-Tom_Herrmann_2019_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTom_HerrmannSandeep_Sharma2019" class="citation journal cs1">Tom Herrmann; Sandeep Sharma (March 2, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538211/">"Physiology, Membrane"</a>. StatPearls. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30855799">30855799</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220217034021/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538211/">Archived</a> from the original on February 17, 2022. Retrieved May 14, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=StatPearls&rft.atitle=Physiology%2C+Membrane&rft.date=2019-03-02&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30855799&rft.au=Tom+Herrmann&rft.au=Sandeep+Sharma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK538211%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alberts2002-46"><a href="#cite_ref-Alberts2002_46-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbertsJohnsonLewisRaff2002" class="citation journal cs1">Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26863/">"Cell Movements and the Shaping of the Vertebrate Body"</a>. Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200122055346/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26863/">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-01-22. Retrieved 2021-05-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Biology+of+the+Cell&rft.atitle=Cell+Movements+and+the+Shaping+of+the+Vertebrate+Body&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Alberts&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Julian&rft.au=Raff%2C+Martin&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Keith&rft.au=Walter%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK26863%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryos</a>. It is also common to describe small molecules such as <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a> as "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&db=books&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=%22all+cells%22+AND+mboc4%5Bbook%5D+AND+372023%5Buid%5D&rid=mboc4.section.4#23">molecular building blocks</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200122055404/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books?cmd=Search&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=%22all%2Bcells%22%2BAND%2Bmboc4%5Bbook%5D%2BAND%2B372023%5Buid%5D&rid=mboc4.section.4#23">Archived</a> 2020-01-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". </li> <li id="cite_note-hillisetal2014f-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hillisetal2014f_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hillisetal2014f_47-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hillisetal2014f_47-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hillisetal2014f_47-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hillisetal2014f_47-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHillisSadavaHillPrice2014" class="citation book cs1">Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Cells: The working units of life". Principles of Life (2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 60–81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1464175121" title="Special:BookSources/978-1464175121"><bdi>978-1464175121</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cells%3A+The+working+units+of+life&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Life&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+Mass.&rft.pages=60-81&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1464175121&rft.aulast=Hillis&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft.au=Sadava%2C+David&rft.au=Hill%2C+Richard+W.&rft.au=Price%2C+Mary+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBailey" class="citation web cs1">Bailey, Regina. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biology.about.com/od/cellularprocesses/a/cellrespiration.htm">"Cellular Respiration"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120505043947/http://biology.about.com/od/cellularprocesses/a/cellrespiration.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-05-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cellular+Respiration&rft.aulast=Bailey&rft.aufirst=Regina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbiology.about.com%2Fod%2Fcellularprocesses%2Fa%2Fcellrespiration.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lodish2008l-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lodish2008l_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lodish2008l_49-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lodish2008l_49-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lodish2008l_49-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lodish2008l_49-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lodish2008l_49-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLodishBerkKaiserKrieger2008" class="citation book cs1">Lodish, Harvey; Berk, Arnold.; Kaiser, Chris A.; Krieger, Monty; Scott, Matthew P.; Bretscher, Anthony; Ploegh, Hidde; Matsudaira, Paul (2008). "Cellular energetics". Molecular Cell Biology (6th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 479–532. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0716776017" title="Special:BookSources/978-0716776017"><bdi>978-0716776017</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cellular+energetics&rft.btitle=Molecular+Cell+Biology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=479-532&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman+and+Company&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0716776017&rft.aulast=Lodish&rft.aufirst=Harvey&rft.au=Berk%2C+Arnold.&rft.au=Kaiser%2C+Chris+A.&rft.au=Krieger%2C+Monty&rft.au=Scott%2C+Matthew+P.&rft.au=Bretscher%2C+Anthony&rft.au=Ploegh%2C+Hidde&rft.au=Matsudaira%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-OnlineEtDict_photosynthesis-50"><a href="#cite_ref-OnlineEtDict_photosynthesis_50-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=photosynthesis&allowed_in_frame=0">"photosynthesis"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130307020959/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=photosynthesis&allowed_in_frame=0">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-03-07. 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(2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781256158769/page/235">Biology</a> (International ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Pearson_Education" title="Pearson Education">Pearson Education</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781256158769/page/235">235, 244</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-73975-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-73975-9"><bdi>978-0-321-73975-9</bdi></a>. <q>This initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds is known as carbon fixation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=235%2C+244&rft.edition=International&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-321-73975-9&rft.au=Reece%2C+J.&rft.au=Urry%2C+L.&rft.au=Cain%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9781256158769%2Fpage%2F235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-neitzelrasband2021-55"><a href="#cite_ref-neitzelrasband2021_55-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeitzelRasband" class="citation journal cs1">Neitzel, James; Rasband, Matthew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/topic/cell-communication-14122659/">"Cell communication"</a>. 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Retrieved 2021-05-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioScience&rft.atitle=What+is+Conservation+Biology%3F&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=727-34&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1310054&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1310054%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Soul%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Michael+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.michaelsoule.com%2Fresource_files%2F85%2F85_resource_file1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hunter96-170">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hunter96_170-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hunter96_170-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter,_Malcolm_L.1996" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Malcolm L. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofco00hunt">Fundamentals of conservation biology</a>. Oxford: Blackwell Science. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86542-371-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86542-371-8"><bdi>978-0-86542-371-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+conservation+biology&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell+Science&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-86542-371-8&rft.au=Hunter%2C+Malcolm+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffundamentalsofco00hunt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Groom06-171">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Groom06_171-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Groom06_171-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeffe,_Gary_K.Martha_J._Groom2006" class="citation book cs1">Meffe, Gary K.; Martha J. Groom (2006). Principles of conservation biology (3rd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-518-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-518-5"><bdi>978-0-87893-518-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+conservation+biology&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+Mass.&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-87893-518-5&rft.au=Meffe%2C+Gary+K.&rft.au=Martha+J.+Groom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dyke08-172">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dyke08_172-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dyke08_172-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Dyke2008" class="citation book cs1">Van Dyke, Fred (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Evh1UD3ZYWcC">Conservation biology: foundations, concepts, applications</a> (2nd ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer-Verlag</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-6891-1">10.1007/978-1-4020-6891-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11059%2F14777">11059/14777</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1402068904" title="Special:BookSources/978-1402068904"><bdi>978-1402068904</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/232001738">232001738</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200727115147/https://books.google.com/books?id=Evh1UD3ZYWcC">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-07-27. Retrieved 2021-05-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conservation+biology%3A+foundations%2C+concepts%2C+applications&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11059%2F14777&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4020-6891-1&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F232001738&rft.isbn=978-1402068904&rft.aulast=Van+Dyke&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEvh1UD3ZYWcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates-173"><a href="#cite_ref-SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates_173-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSahneyBentonFerry2010" class="citation journal cs1">Sahney, S.; Benton, M. J.; Ferry, P. A. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2936204">"Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land"</a>. Biology Letters. 6 (4): 544–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbl.2009.1024">10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2936204">2936204</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20106856">20106856</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biology+Letters&rft.atitle=Links+between+global+taxonomic+diversity%2C+ecological+diversity+and+the+expansion+of+vertebrates+on+land&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=544-7&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2936204%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20106856&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbl.2009.1024&rft.aulast=Sahney&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Benton%2C+M.+J.&rft.au=Ferry%2C+P.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2936204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koh-174"><a href="#cite_ref-Koh_174-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohDunnSodhiColwell2004" class="citation journal cs1">Koh, Lian Pin; Dunn, Robert R.; Sodhi, Navjot S.; Colwell, Robert K.; Proctor, Heather C.; Smith, Vincent S. (2004). "Species coextinctions and the biodiversity crisis". Science. 305 (5690): 1632–4. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Sci...305.1632K">2004Sci...305.1632K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1101101">10.1126/science.1101101</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15361627">15361627</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30713492">30713492</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Species+coextinctions+and+the+biodiversity+crisis&rft.volume=305&rft.issue=5690&rft.pages=1632-4&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1101101&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30713492%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15361627&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004Sci...305.1632K&rft.aulast=Koh&rft.aufirst=Lian+Pin&rft.au=Dunn%2C+Robert+R.&rft.au=Sodhi%2C+Navjot+S.&rft.au=Colwell%2C+Robert+K.&rft.au=Proctor%2C+Heather+C.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Vincent+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis. World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191014033601/http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf">Archived</a> 2019-10-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson-176"><a href="#cite_ref-Jackson_176-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2008" class="citation journal cs1">Jackson, J. B. C. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2556419">"Ecological extinction and evolution in the brave new ocean"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (Suppl 1): 11458–65. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PNAS..10511458J">2008PNAS..10511458J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0802812105">10.1073/pnas.0802812105</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2556419">2556419</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18695220">18695220</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Ecological+extinction+and+evolution+in+the+brave+new+ocean&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=Suppl+1&rft.pages=11458-65&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2556419%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18695220&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0802812105&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PNAS..10511458J&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=J.+B.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2556419&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Soule86-177"><a href="#cite_ref-Soule86_177-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoule1986" class="citation book cs1">Soule, Michael E. (1986). Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity. Sinauer Associates. p. 584. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-795-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-795-0"><bdi>978-0-87893-795-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conservation+Biology%3A+The+Science+of+Scarcity+and+Diversity&rft.pages=584&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-87893-795-0&rft.aulast=Soule&rft.aufirst=Michael+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_biology" title="Bibliography of biology">Bibliography of biology</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Alberts, B.; Johnson, A.; Lewis, J.; Raff, M.; Roberts, K.; Walter, P. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/molecularbiolog000wils">Molecular Biology of the Cell</a> (4th ed.). Garland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-3218-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-3218-3"><bdi>978-0-8153-3218-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/145080076">145080076</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecular+Biology+of+the+Cell&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Garland&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F145080076&rft.isbn=978-0-8153-3218-3&rft.aulast=Alberts&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+A.&rft.au=Lewis%2C+J.&rft.au=Raff%2C+M.&rft.au=Roberts%2C+K.&rft.au=Walter%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmolecularbiolog000wils&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Begon, M.; Townsend, C. R.; Harper, J. L. (2005). <a href="/wiki/Ecology:_From_Individuals_to_Ecosystems" title="Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems">Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems</a> (4th ed.). Blackwell Publishing Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1117-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1117-1"><bdi>978-1-4051-1117-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/57639896">57639896</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ecology%3A+From+Individuals+to+Ecosystems&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing+Limited&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F57639896&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-1117-1&rft.au=Begon%2C+M.&rft.au=Townsend%2C+C.+R.&rft.au=Harper%2C+J.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Neil_Campbell_(scientist)" title="Neil Campbell (scientist)">Campbell, Neil</a> (2004). Biology (7th ed.). Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8053-7146-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8053-7146-8"><bdi>978-0-8053-7146-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/71890442">71890442</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Benjamin-Cummings+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F71890442&rft.isbn=978-0-8053-7146-8&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Neil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Colinvaux" title="Paul Colinvaux">Colinvaux, Paul</a> (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whybigfierceanim00paul">Why Big Fierce Animals are Rare: An Ecologist's Perspective</a> (reissue ed.). Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02364-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02364-9"><bdi>978-0-691-02364-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10081738">10081738</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+Big+Fierce+Animals+are+Rare%3A+An+Ecologist%27s+Perspective&rft.edition=reissue&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10081738&rft.isbn=978-0-691-02364-9&rft.aulast=Colinvaux&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhybigfierceanim00paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Mayr, Ernst (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pHThtE2R0UQC">The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-36446-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-36446-2"><bdi>978-0-674-36446-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151003080726/https://books.google.com/books?id=pHThtE2R0UQC">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-10-03. Retrieved 2015-06-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Growth+of+Biological+Thought%3A+Diversity%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Inheritance&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-674-36446-2&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpHThtE2R0UQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Hoagland, Mahlon (2001). The Way Life Works. Jones and Bartlett Publishers inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-1688-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-1688-2"><bdi>978-0-7637-1688-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/223090105">223090105</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Way+Life+Works&rft.pub=Jones+and+Bartlett+Publishers+inc&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F223090105&rft.isbn=978-0-7637-1688-2&rft.aulast=Hoagland&rft.aufirst=Mahlon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Janovy, John (2004). On Becoming a Biologist (2nd ed.). Bison Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-7620-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-7620-8"><bdi>978-0-8032-7620-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55138571">55138571</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Becoming+a+Biologist&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Bison+Books&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55138571&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-7620-8&rft.aulast=Janovy&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Johnson_George_B." class="mw-redirect" title="Johnson George B.">Johnson, George B.</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/holtbiologyvisua00john">Biology, Visualizing Life</a>. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-016723-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-016723-2"><bdi>978-0-03-016723-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/36306648">36306648</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology%2C+Visualizing+Life&rft.pub=Holt%2C+Rinehart%2C+and+Winston&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F36306648&rft.isbn=978-0-03-016723-2&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=George+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fholtbiologyvisua00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Tobin, Allan; Dusheck, Jennie (2005). Asking About Life (3rd ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-40653-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-40653-0"><bdi>978-0-534-40653-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asking+About+Life&rft.place=Belmont%2C+California&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Wadsworth&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-534-40653-0&rft.aulast=Tobin&rft.aufirst=Allan&rft.au=Dusheck%2C+Jennie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiology" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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lecture series on biology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.onezoom.org/">OneZoom Tree of Life</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10739">Journal of the History of Biology (springer.com)</a></li></ul> Journal links <ul><li><a href="/wiki/PLOS_One" title="PLOS One">PLOS ONE</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLOS Biology</a> A peer-reviewed, open-access journal published by the <a href="/wiki/Public_Library_of_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Library of Science">Public Library of Science</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cell.com/current-biology/">Current Biology</a>: General journal publishing <a href="/wiki/Original_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Original research">original research</a> from all areas of biology</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Biology Letters</a>: A <a href="/wiki/Impact_factor" title="Impact factor">high-impact</a> <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> journal publishing <a href="/wiki/Peer-review" class="mw-redirect" title="Peer-review">peer-reviewed</a> biology papers of general interest</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/collections">Science</a>: Internationally renowned <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">AAAS</a> science journal – see sections of the life sciences</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ijbs.com/">International Journal of Biological Sciences</a>: A biological journal publishing significant peer-reviewed scientific papers</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/perspectives-biology-and-medicine">Perspectives in Biology and Medicine</a>: An <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">interdisciplinary</a> <a href="/wiki/Scholarly_method" title="Scholarly method">scholarly</a> journal publishing essays of broad relevance</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/21px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 15px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/21px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" data-alt="icon" data-width="21" data-height="15" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/42px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" 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href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/21px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="18" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 18px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/21px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" data-alt="icon" data-width="21" data-height="18" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/42px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment</a></li><li 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biology&oldid=1256382891">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biology&oldid=1256382891</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Biology&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 9 November 2024, at 17:58 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%A5%E1%8A%90_%E1%88%95%E1%8B%AD%E1%8B%88%E1%89%B5" title="ሥነ ሕይወት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሥነ ሕይወት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B0" title="Абиологиа – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Абиологиа" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="علم الأحياء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الأحياء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioloch%C3%ADa" title="Biolochía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Biolochía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Կենսաբանութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Կենսաբանութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A7%B1%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="জীৱবিজ্ঞান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="জীৱবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa" title="Bioloxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Bioloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E2%80%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="जीवशास्‍त्र – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="जीवशास्‍त्र" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekovekuaaty" title="Tekovekuaaty – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tekovekuaaty" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologiya" title="Biologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Biologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C" title="بیولوژی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بیولوژی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="জীববিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জীববিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaji_hayat" title="Kaji hayat – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Kaji hayat" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seng-bu%CC%8Dt-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Seng-bu̍t-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Seng-bu̍t-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Banyumasan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Біялогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Біялогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Біялёгія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Біялёгія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="जीवविज्ञान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="जीवविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyolohiya" title="Biyolohiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Biyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baeoloji" title="Baeoloji – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Baeoloji" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bislama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%90%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%BA%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%91%E0%BD%84%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="སྐྱེ་དངོས་རིག་པ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="སྐྱེ་དངོས་རིག་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologija" title="Biologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Biologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bevoniezh" title="Bevoniezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Bevoniezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Биологи – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Биологи" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Биологи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Биологи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyolohiya" title="Biyolohiya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Biyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ch mw-list-item"><a href="https://ch.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioloyia" title="Bioloyia – Chamorro" lang="ch" hreflang="ch" data-title="Bioloyia" data-language-autonym="Chamoru" data-language-local-name="Chamorro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chamoru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chavacano de Zamboanga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruambamhenyu" title="Ruambamhenyu – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ruambamhenyu" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolugia" title="Biolugia – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Biolugia" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bywydeg" title="Bywydeg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Bywydeg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binni%C9%9Bma_vihigu" title="Binniɛma vihigu – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Binniɛma vihigu" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dagbanli</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="لبيولوجيا – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لبيولوجيا" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%8B%DE%A8%DE%83%DE%AA%DE%89%DE%A7%DE%84%DE%AC%DE%80%DE%AD_%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%8D%DE%B0%DE%89%DE%AA" title="ދިރުމާބެހޭ އިލްމު – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ދިރުމާބެހޭ އިލްމު" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioloogia" title="Bioloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Bioloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Βιολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βιολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8C-%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Биологиясь-эриеньсодамось – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Биологиясь-эриеньсодамось" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolog%C3%ADa" title="Biología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Biología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologio" title="Biologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Biologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="زیست‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زیست‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiu_vigyan" title="Jiu vigyan – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Jiu vigyan" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADvfr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Lívfrøði – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Lívfrøði" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Biology" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologjie" title="Biologjie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Biologjie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitheola%C3%ADocht" title="Bitheolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Bitheolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bea-oaylleeaght" title="Bea-oaylleeaght – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Bea-oaylleeaght" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bith-e%C3%B2las" title="Bith-eòlas – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Bith-eòlas" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa" title="Bioloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Bioloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Биологи – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Биологи" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayoroj%C4%A9" title="Bayorojĩ – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Bayorojĩ" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gĩkũyũ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="زیویشتشناسی – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="زیویشتشناسی" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9E%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A8" title="જીવવિજ્ઞાન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="જીવવિજ્ઞાન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A2ng-vu%CC%8Dt-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Sâng-vu̍t-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Sâng-vu̍t-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3" title="Биолог – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Биолог" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC%ED%95%99" title="생물학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="생물학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Biology" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81laimeaola" title="Kālaimeaola – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Kālaimeaola" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Կենսաբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կենսաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="जीव विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जीव विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologija" title="Biologija – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Biologija" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologija" title="Biologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Biologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Hulontalo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologio" title="Biologio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Biologio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolohia" title="Biolohia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Biolohia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%90%86%E1%92%AA%E1%94%85%E1%93%B1%E1%93%AF%E1%96%83%E1%95%90%E1%91%90%E1%93%95%E1%95%86%E1%93%82%E1%96%85" title="ᐆᒪᔅᓱᓯᖃᕐᑐᓕᕆᓂᖅ – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᐆᒪᔅᓱᓯᖃᕐᑐᓕᕆᓂᖅ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Биологи – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Биологи" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBayoloji" title="IBayoloji – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="IBayoloji" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umchazampilo" title="Umchazampilo – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Umchazampilo" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADffr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Líffræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Líffræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="ביולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ביולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomna%C9%A3_l%C9%9B%C9%A3t%CA%8B" title="Tomnaɣ lɛɣtʋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Tomnaɣ lɛɣtʋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uumassusililerineq" title="Uumassusililerineq – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Uumassusililerineq" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kalaallisut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಜೀವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜೀವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბიოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბიოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%9B%D9%88%D9%97%D8%AF%D9%8F%D8%AA" title="زیٛوٗدُت – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="زیٛوٗدُت" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologij%C3%B4" title="Biologijô – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Biologijô" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bywonieth" title="Bywonieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Bywonieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolojia" title="Biolojia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Biolojia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bliopa" title="Bliopa – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Bliopa" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kotava</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyoloji" title="Biyoloji – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Biyoloji" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byoloji" title="Byoloji – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Byoloji" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyoloj%C3%AE" title="Biyolojî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Biyolojî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolojiya" title="Biolojiya – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Biolojiya" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B5%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ຊີວະສາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຊີວະສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolo%C4%A3ija" title="Bioloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Bioloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologija" title="Biologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Biologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamb%C3%AD_ma_bom%C9%94i" title="Mambí ma bomɔi – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Mambí ma bomɔi" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolojia" title="Biolojia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Biolojia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolougii" title="Biolougii – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Biolougii" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/mivyske" title="mivyske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="mivyske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essomabiramu" title="Essomabiramu – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Essomabiramu" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Luganda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolojia" title="Biolojia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Biolojia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biol%C3%B3gia" title="Biológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Biológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Madhurâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Биологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Биологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi%C3%B4l%C3%B4jia" title="Biôlôjia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Biôlôjia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ജീവശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജീവശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijolo%C4%A1ija" title="Bijoloġija – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Bijoloġija" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="जीवशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जीवशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბიოლოგია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბიოლოგია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="بيولوجيا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بيولوجيا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%8A%EA%AF%8B%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%A2%EA%AF%84%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%9F%EA%AF%95_%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%A9%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯊꯋꯥꯢꯄꯥꯟꯕ ꯅꯩꯅꯂꯣꯟ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯊꯋꯥꯢꯄꯥꯟꯕ ꯅꯩꯅꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%95ng-%C5%ADk-h%C5%8Fk" title="Sĕng-ŭk-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Sĕng-ŭk-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Амин судлал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Амин судлал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%87%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9D%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ဇီဝဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဇီဝဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yolizmatiliztli" title="Yolizmatiliztli – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Yolizmatiliztli" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilanibula" title="Kilanibula – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Kilanibula" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="जीव विज्ञान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जीव विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="जीवशास्त्र – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="जीवशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="生物学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="生物学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologgia" title="Biologgia – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Biologgia" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%A3%DF%8C%DF%A1%DF%8A%DF%9E%DF%8A%DF%99%DF%8A%DF%B2" title="ߣߌߡߊߞߊߙߊ߲ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߣߌߡߊߞߊߙߊ߲" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">ߒߞߏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Биологи – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Биологи" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologii" title="Biologii – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Biologii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biiolojii" title="Biiolojii – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Biiolojii" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Биологий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Биологий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%80%E0%AC%AC_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ଜୀବ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଜୀବ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiinjiree" title="Xiinjiree – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Xiinjiree" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologiya" title="Biologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Biologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B5_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਜੀਵ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜੀਵ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pälzisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%BE%DA%91%DA%BE%D8%AA" title="جیون پڑھت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جیون پڑھت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%87%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9D%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ဇီဝဗေဒ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ဇီဝဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D9%88%D9%86%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="ژونپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ژونپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bailoji" title="Bailoji – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Bailoji" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6" title="ជីវវិទ្យា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ជីវវិទ្យា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolog%C3%ACa" title="Biologìa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Biologìa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Save_long_laip" title="Save long laip – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Save long laip" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologiya" title="Biologiya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Biologiya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayatiyat" title="Ayatiyat – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Ayatiyat" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawsay_yachay" title="Kawsay yachay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Kawsay yachay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D2%91%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Біолоґія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Біолоґія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paiolo" title="Paiolo – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Paiolo" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="जीवशास्त्रम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="जीवशास्त्रम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="حیاتیات – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="حیاتیات" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Biology" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baeloji" title="Baeloji – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Baeloji" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="Southern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutaphedi" title="Thutaphedi – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Thutaphedi" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho sa Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologjia" title="Biologjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Biologjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolugg%C3%ACa" title="Bioluggìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Bioluggìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%93%E0%B7%80_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="ජීව විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ජීව විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Biology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="حياتيات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="حياتيات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibhayoloji" title="Ibhayoloji – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="Ibhayoloji" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target">SiSwati</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biol%C3%B3gia" title="Biológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Biológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologija" title="Biologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Biologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologij%C5%8F" title="Biologijŏ – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Biologijŏ" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayoloji" title="Bayoloji – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Bayoloji" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="ژینناسی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ژینناسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Биологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Биологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologija" title="Biologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Biologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyolohiya" title="Biyolohiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Biyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="உயிரியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உயிரியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnudrt" title="Tasnudrt – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tasnudrt" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnudert" title="Tasnudert – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tasnudert" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B5_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="జీవ శాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జీవ శాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a href="https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolojia" title="Biolojia – Tetum" lang="tet" hreflang="tet" data-title="Biolojia" data-language-autonym="Tetun" data-language-local-name="Tetum" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tetun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2" title="ชีววิทยา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ชีววิทยา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C3%B6c%C3%ABp%C3%AFr" title="Piöcëpïr – Dinka" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Piöcëpïr" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="Dinka" class="interlanguage-link-target">Thuɔŋjäŋ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%A3%E1%8B%AE%E1%88%8E%E1%8C%82" title="ባዮሎጂ – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ባዮሎጂ" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="Tigrinya" class="interlanguage-link-target">ትግርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Зистшиносӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Зистшиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B5_%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಜೀವ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಜೀವ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyoloji" title="Biyoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Biyoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi%C3%BDa" title="Biologiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Biologiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug mw-list-item"><a href="https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%A8%85%E1%A8%97%E1%A8%95%E1%A8%9A%E1%A8%92%E1%A8%9A%E1%A8%81%E1%A8%97" title="ᨅᨗᨕᨚᨒᨚᨁᨗ – Buginese" lang="bug" hreflang="bug" data-title="ᨅᨗᨕᨚᨒᨚᨁᨗ" data-language-autonym="Basa Ugi" data-language-local-name="Buginese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Ugi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Біологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Біологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="حیاتیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="حیاتیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%89%D8%A6%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%AF%D9%89%D9%8A%DB%95" title="بىئولوگىيە – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="بىئولوگىيە" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swnghvuzyoz" title="Swnghvuzyoz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Swnghvuzyoz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio%C5%82ozia" title="Biołozia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Biołozia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologii" title="Biologii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Biologii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Sinh học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sinh học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolog" title="Biolog – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Biolog" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioloogia" title="Bioloogia – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Bioloogia" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyolodjeye" title="Biyolodjeye – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Biyolodjeye" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="生物學 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="生物學" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyolohiya" title="Biyolohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Biyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="生物學 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="生物學" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ntivo-Vutomi" title="Ntivo-Vutomi – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Ntivo-Vutomi" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A2" title="ביאלאגיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ביאלאגיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="生物學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="生物學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyolociye" title="Biyolociye – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Biyolociye" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioluog%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Bioluogėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Bioluogėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="生物学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="生物学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88lmu_hayat" title="Èlmu hayat – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Èlmu hayat" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologij%C9%99" title="Biologijə – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Biologijə" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%9C%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%99%E2%B5%8F%E2%B5%93%E2%B4%B7%E2%B5%94%E2%B5%9C" title="ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target">ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 9 November 2024, at 17:58 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a 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class="mw-notification-area" data-mw="interface"></div>  <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-wfhcx","wgBackendResponseTime":289,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.787","walltime":"3.151","ppvisitednodes":{"value":13321,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":509692,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":2361,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":45,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":755280,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2564.973 1 -total"," 59.53% 1526.900 2 Template:Reflist"," 24.91% 638.809 86 Template:Cite_book"," 14.86% 381.102 61 Template:Cite_journal"," 6.97% 178.653 1 Template:TopicTOC-Biology"," 6.88% 176.578 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 4.83% 123.890 1 Template:Harvnb"," 4.47% 114.582 2 Template:LSJ"," 4.37% 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[\"CITEREFChapin_IIIMatsonMooney2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapmanByron2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisholm1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColeman1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCraig2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrick1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrick1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD-G.H-L.Conway_MorrisX-L._Zhang1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarwin1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies,_PCRieper,_ETuszynski,_JA2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Duve2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDudek,_N._K.Sun,_C._L.Burstein,_D.2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwards\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwards,_R.A.Rohwer,_F.2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFahd1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFastovskySheehan2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFedonkin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFredrickson,_J._K.Zachara,_J._M.Balkwill,_D._L.2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreemanQuillinAllisonBlack2017\"] = 7,\n [\"CITEREFFutuyma2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFutuymaKirkpatrick2017\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFGrant2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffiths2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffithsMillerSuzukiLewontin2000\"] = 1,\n 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[\"CITEREFRussell2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRybicki1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSahneyBenton2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSahneyBentonFerry2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanmartín2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSapp2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSerafini2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlack2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith,_AL1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSoule1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSoulé,_Michael_E.Wilcox,_Bruce_A.1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSoulé1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoeckenius1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrotherBattisonBrasierWellman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTannerLucasChapman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThanbichler,_MWang,_SCShapiro,_L2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTom_HerrmannSandeep_Sharma2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUrryCainWassermanMinorsky2017\"] = 7,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Dyke2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Valkenburgh1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWibleRougierNovacekAsher2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoese,_CRKandler,_OWheelis,_ML1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoottonEmmerson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWu2020\"] = 1,\n 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