CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Right to keep and bear arms in the United States - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"70fc35f2-2375-47ea-ad16-5836965d9620","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States","wgTitle":"Right to keep and bear arms in the United States","wgCurRevisionId":1238794302,"wgRevisionId":1238794302,"wgArticleId":40589862,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1: long volume value","Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 maint: archived copy as title","All articles with broken links to citations","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from June 2016","Civil liberties in the United States","Gun politics in the United States","Human rights in the United States"], "wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States","wgRelevantArticleId":40589862,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":80000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q16932144", "wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc", "skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.15"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Right to keep and bear arms in the United States - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States rootpage-Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Right+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Right+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Right+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Right+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-English_precedent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English_precedent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>English precedent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_precedent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception_statutes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception_statutes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Reception statutes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reception_statutes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civilian_usage_meaning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civilian_usage_meaning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Civilian usage meaning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civilian_usage_meaning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_service_and_civilian_usage_meanings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_service_and_civilian_usage_meanings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Military service and civilian usage meanings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_service_and_civilian_usage_meanings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_commentary_in_federal_courts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_commentary_in_federal_courts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Early commentary in federal courts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_commentary_in_federal_courts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early commentary in federal courts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_commentary_in_federal_courts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dred_Scott_v._Sandford"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span><i>Dred Scott v. Sandford</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dred_Scott_v._Sandford-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_commentary_in_state_courts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_commentary_in_state_courts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Early commentary in state courts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_commentary_in_state_courts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early commentary in state courts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_commentary_in_state_courts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bliss" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bliss"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span><i>Bliss</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bliss-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aymette" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aymette"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span><i>Aymette</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aymette-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nunn" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nunn"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span><i>Nunn</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nunn-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buzzard" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buzzard"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span><i>Buzzard</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buzzard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Salina_v._Blaksley" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salina_v._Blaksley"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span><i>Salina v. Blaksley</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salina_v._Blaksley-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_commentary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_commentary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Modern commentary</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_commentary-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern commentary subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_commentary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Interpretive_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interpretive_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Interpretive models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interpretive_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Federal_case_commentary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federal_case_commentary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Federal case commentary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federal_case_commentary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States_v._Miller" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_v._Miller"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span><i>United States v. Miller</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_v._Miller-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#District_of_Columbia_v._Heller"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span><i>District of Columbia v. Heller</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-District_of_Columbia_v._Heller-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-McDonald_v._Chicago" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#McDonald_v._Chicago"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.3</span> <span><i>McDonald v. Chicago</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-McDonald_v._Chicago-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_politics_of_the_right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_politics_of_the_right_to_keep_and_bear_arms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>The politics of the right to keep and bear arms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_politics_of_the_right_to_keep_and_bear_arms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_opinion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_opinion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Public opinion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Public_opinion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Public opinion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Public_opinion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-2023" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2023"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>2023</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2023-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Right to keep and bear arms in the United States</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 4 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-4" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">4 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B8_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A9_%D9%88%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%84%D9%87%D8%A7_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="حق الاحتفاظ بالأسلحة وحملها في الولايات المتحدة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حق الاحتفاظ بالأسلحة وحملها في الولايات المتحدة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82_%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%87%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%88_%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%84_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="حق نگهداری و حمل سلاح در ایالات متحده آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حق نگهداری و حمل سلاح در ایالات متحده آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreptul_de_a_de%C8%9Bine_%C8%99i_purta_arme_%C3%AEn_Statele_Unite_ale_Americii" title="Dreptul de a deține și purta arme în Statele Unite ale Americii – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dreptul de a deține și purta arme în Statele Unite ale Americii" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E6%8C%81%E6%A7%8D%E6%AC%8A" title="美國持槍權 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="美國持槍權" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q16932144#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&oldid=1238794302" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&id=1238794302&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FRight_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FRight_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q16932144" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Fundamental right in the United States Constitution</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="font-weight:bold;">Firearm legal topics of the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle">United States</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/90px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/135px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/180px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Amendment II</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assault_weapon" title="Assault weapon">Assault weapon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assault_weapons_legislation_in_the_United_States" title="Assault weapons legislation in the United States">Assault weapons legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipartisan_Safer_Communities_Act" title="Bipartisan Safer Communities Act">Bipartisan Safer Communities Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bump_stock" title="Bump stock">Bump stocks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Alcohol,_Tobacco,_Firearms_and_Explosives" title="Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives">Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco,<br /> Firearms and Explosives (ATF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brady_Handgun_Violence_Prevention_Act" title="Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act">Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campus_carry_in_the_United_States" title="Campus carry in the United States">Campus carry in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_carry_in_the_United_States" title="Concealed carry in the United States">Concealed carry in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Act_Concerning_Gun_Violence_Prevention_and_Children%27s_Safety" title="An Act Concerning Gun Violence Prevention and Children's Safety">Connecticut Children's Safety Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_carry" title="Constitutional carry">Constitutional carry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_Violence_Offender_Gun_Ban" title="Domestic Violence Offender Gun Ban">Domestic Violence Offender Gun Ban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Assault_Weapons_Ban" title="Federal Assault Weapons Ban">Federal Assault Weapons Ban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Firearms_Act_of_1938" title="Federal Firearms Act of 1938">Federal Firearms Act of 1938</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_firearms_license" title="Federal firearms license">Federal firearms license</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearm_case_law_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Firearm case law in the United States">Firearm case law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearm_Owners_Protection_Act" title="Firearm Owners Protection Act">Firearm Owners Protection Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_Control_Act_of_1968" title="Gun Control Act of 1968">Gun Control Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun-Free_School_Zones_Act_of_1990" title="Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990">Gun-Free School Zones Act (GFSZA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_law_in_the_United_States" title="Gun law in the United States">Gun law in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_laws_in_the_United_States_by_state" title="Gun laws in the United States by state">Gun laws in the U.S. by state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_U.S." class="mw-redirect" title="Gun politics in the U.S.">Gun politics in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_show_loophole" title="Gun show loophole">Gun show loophole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-capacity_magazine_ban" title="High-capacity magazine ban">High-capacity magazine ban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_concealed_carry_in_the_U.S." class="mw-redirect" title="History of concealed carry in the U.S.">History of concealed carry in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homemade_firearm" title="Homemade firearm">Homemade firearm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arms_industry#International_treaties_for_arms_control" title="Arms industry">International treaties for arms control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Instant_Criminal_Background_Check_System" title="National Instant Criminal Background Check System">National Instant Criminal<br /> Background Check System (NICS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Firearms_Act" title="National Firearms Act">National Firearms Act (NFA) of 1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NY_SAFE_Act" title="NY SAFE Act">NY SAFE Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_carry_in_the_United_States" title="Open carry in the United States">Open carry in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Right to keep and bear arms in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_sanctuary" title="Second Amendment sanctuary">Second Amendment sanctuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sullivan_Act" title="Sullivan Act">Sullivan Act (New York)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressor#North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressor">Suppressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiahrt_Amendment" title="Tiahrt Amendment">Tiahrt Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violent_Crime_Control_and_Law_Enforcement_Act" title="Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act">Violent Crime Control<br /> and Law Enforcement Act</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:USgunlegalbox" title="Template:USgunlegalbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:USgunlegalbox" title="Template talk:USgunlegalbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:USgunlegalbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:USgunlegalbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law<br />of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Scale_of_justice_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/100px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/150px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/200px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="204" data-file-height="208" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#f5f5dc"> Overview</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">Judicial review</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#f5f5dc"> Principles</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_right#United_States" title="Constitutional right">Individual rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law#United_States" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_footing" title="Equal footing">Equal footing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_review" title="Standard of review">Tiers of scrutiny</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#f5f5dc"> Government structure</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Legislative branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">Executive branch</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Judicial branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">State government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local government</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#f5f5dc"> Individual rights</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of religion in the United States">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">Freedom of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly" title="Freedom of assembly">Freedom of assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Right to petition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association#United_States_Constitution" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Right to keep and bear arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juries_in_the_United_States" title="Juries in the United States">Right to trial by jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">Criminal procedural rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="Privacy laws of the United States">Right to privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Freedom from slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_nationality_law" title="United States nationality law">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballot_access" title="Ballot access">Right to candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagueness_doctrine" title="Vagueness doctrine">Comprehensible rules</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#f5f5dc"> Theory</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Living_Constitution" title="Living Constitution">Living Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Originalism" title="Originalism">Originalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantive_due_process" title="Substantive due process">Substantive due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_process_theory_(law)" title="Political process theory (law)">Political process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_restraint" title="Judicial restraint">Judicial restraint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purposive_approach" title="Purposive approach">Purposivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textualism" title="Textualism">Textualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strict_constructionism" title="Strict constructionism">Strict constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good_constitutionalism" title="Common good constitutionalism">Common good constitutionalism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_constitutional_law" title="Template:United States constitutional law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_constitutional_law" title="Template talk:United States constitutional law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_constitutional_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States constitutional law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #B0161E; border-spacing:0.2em 0;color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Conservatism in the United States">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#B0161E; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:160%; font-weight:normal; color:white; line-height:1em"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFF">Conservatism<br />in the United States</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/90px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/135px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/180px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compassionate_conservatism" title="Compassionate conservatism">Compassionate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_conservatism" title="Fiscal conservatism">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusionism" title="Fusionism">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism#Relation_to_American_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_conservatism" title="Libertarian conservatism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_conservatism" title="Moderate conservatism">Moderate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_conservatism" title="Movement conservatism">Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism">Neo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoconservatism" title="Paleoconservatism">Paleo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postliberalism" title="Postliberalism">Postliberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_populism#United_States" title="Right-wing populism">Populist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_conservatism" title="Progressive conservatism">Progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Social conservatism in the United States">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straussianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Straussianism">Straussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Traditionalist conservatism in the United States">Traditionalist</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">American exceptionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">American nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism#United_States" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_nationalism#United_States" title="Christian nationalism">Christian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism#United_States" title="Classical liberalism">Classical liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism_in_the_United_States" title="Constitutionalism in the United States">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_anti-abortion_movement" title="United States anti-abortion movement">Pro-life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism#United_States" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">States' rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_essentialism" title="Gender essentialism">Gender essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">Limited government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_aristocracy" title="Natural aristocracy">Natural aristocracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_militarism" title="United States militarism">Militarism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peace_through_strength" title="Peace through strength">Peace through strength</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Moral absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americanism_(ideology)" title="Americanism (ideology)">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Right to bear arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Tradition</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loyalist_(American_Revolution)" title="Loyalist (American Revolution)">Loyalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_chivalry" title="Southern chivalry">Southern chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid_South" title="Solid South">Solid South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_humanism_(literature)" title="New humanism (literature)">New Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Agrarians" title="Southern Agrarians">Southern Agrarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Right_(United_States)" title="Old Right (United States)">Old Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Manifesto" title="Conservative Manifesto">Conservative Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_coalition" title="Conservative coalition">Conservative coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/America_First_Committee" title="America First Committee">America First Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_the_1950s" class="mw-redirect" title="United States in the 1950s">United States in the 1950s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater_1964_presidential_campaign" title="Barry Goldwater 1964 presidential campaign">Goldwater campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Right#United_States" title="New Right">New Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_Party_movement" title="Tea Party movement">Tea Party movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism_and_paleoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism and paleoconservatism">Neo- vs. paleoconservatism</a></li> <li>Trump era <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">First term</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="Second presidency of Donald Trump">Second term</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Adams" title="Henry Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Anton" title="Michael Anton">Anton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Babbitt" title="Irving Babbitt">Babbitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Bacevich" title="Andrew Bacevich">Bacevich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Bellow" title="Saul Bellow">Bellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Berger" title="Peter L. Berger">Berger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Bloom" title="Allan Bloom">Bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_J._Boorstin" title="Daniel J. Boorstin">Boorstin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mel_Bradford" title="Mel Bradford">Bradford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Buckley_Jr." title="William F. Buckley Jr.">Buckley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Burgess_(political_scientist)" title="John Burgess (political scientist)">Burgess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whittaker_Chambers" title="Whittaker Chambers">Chambers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Deneen" title="Patrick Deneen">Deneen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Eastman" title="Max Eastman">Eastman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">Eliot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Francis_(writer)" title="Sam Francis (writer)">Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Genovese" title="Eugene Genovese">Genovese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Gottfried" title="Paul Gottfried">Gottfried</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Davis_Hanson" title="Victor Davis Hanson">Hanson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoram_Hazony" title="Yoram Hazony">Hazony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Himmelfarb" title="Gertrude Himmelfarb">Himmelfarb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zora_Neale_Hurston" title="Zora Neale Hurston">Hurston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_V._Jaffa" title="Harry V. Jaffa">Jaffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Kerouac" title="Jack Kerouac">Kerouac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Kimball" title="Roger Kimball">Kimball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeane_Kirkpatrick" title="Jeane Kirkpatrick">Kirkpatrick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kreeft" title="Peter Kreeft">Kreeft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Kristol" title="Irving Kristol">Kristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_von_Kuehnelt-Leddihn" title="Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn">Kuehnelt-Leddihn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Lind" title="Michael Lind">Lind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._P._Lovecraft" title="H. P. Lovecraft">Lovecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_Loury" title="Glenn Loury">Loury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lukacs" title="John Lukacs">Lukacs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._L._Mencken" title="H. L. Mencken">Mencken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Meyer_(political_philosopher)" title="Frank Meyer (political philosopher)">Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Molnar" title="Thomas Molnar">Molnar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Murray_(political_scientist)" title="Charles Murray (political scientist)">Murray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pangle" title="Thomas Pangle">Pangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Crowe_Ransom" title="John Crowe Ransom">Ransom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Rieff" title="Philip Rieff">Rieff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Schaeffer" title="Francis Schaeffer">Schaeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Stein" title="Gertrude Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Viereck" title="Peter Viereck">Viereck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver" title="Richard M. Weaver">Weaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Wharton" title="Edith Wharton">Wharton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Wolfe" title="Tom Wolfe">Wolfe</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greg_Abbott" title="Greg Abbott">Abbott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams (John)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">Adams (John Quincy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bolton" title="John Bolton">Bolton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">Buchanan (James)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Buchanan" title="Pat Buchanan">Buchanan (Pat)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">Bush (George H. W.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">Bush (George W.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Cheney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Cruz" title="Ted Cruz">Cruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_DeSantis" title="Ron DeSantis">DeSantis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everett_Dirksen" title="Everett Dirksen">Dirksen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Dole" title="Bob Dole">Dole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newt_Gingrich" title="Newt Gingrich">Gingrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Goldwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Helms" title="Jesse Helms">Helms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Hoover (Herbert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Huckabee" title="Mike Huckabee">Huckabee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge" title="Henry Cabot Lodge">Lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clare_Boothe_Luce" title="Clare Boothe Luce">Luce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McCain" title="John McCain">McCain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy" title="Joseph McCarthy">McCarthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitch_McConnell" title="Mitch McConnell">McConnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Palin" title="Sarah Palin">Palin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rand_Paul" title="Rand Paul">Paul (Rand)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_Paul" title="Ron Paul">Paul (Ron)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Pence" title="Mike Pence">Pence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Pierce" title="Franklin Pierce">Pierce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Randolph_of_Roanoke" title="John Randolph of Roanoke">Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitt_Romney" title="Mitt Romney">Romney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Rubio" title="Marco Rubio">Rubio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Rumsfeld" title="Donald Rumsfeld">Rumsfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ryan" title="Paul Ryan">Ryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rick_Santorum" title="Rick Santorum">Santorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sherman" title="John Sherman">Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Taft" title="Robert A. Taft">Taft (Robert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">Taft (William)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strom_Thurmond" title="Strom Thurmond">Thurmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JD_Vance" title="JD Vance">Vance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz" title="Paul Wolfowitz">Wolfowitz</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Jurists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Alito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Barrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Bork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_E._Burger" title="Warren E. Burger">Burger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Colson" title="Charles Colson">Colson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_T._Frelinghuysen" title="Frederick T. Frelinghuysen">Frelinghuysen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_P._George" title="Robert P. George">George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Goldsmith" title="Jack Goldsmith">Goldsmith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Gorsuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">Harlan II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Kavanaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Luttig" title="J. Michael Luttig">Luttig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Meese" title="Edwin Meese">Meese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">O'Connor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alton_B._Parker" title="Alton B. Parker">Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">Rehnquist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">Roberts (John)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Terry_Sanford" title="Edward Terry Sanford">Sanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Scalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Sessions" title="Jeff Sessions">Sessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Sutherland" title="George Sutherland">Sutherland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">Taft (William)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Thomas (Clarence)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Vermeule" title="Adrian Vermeule">Vermeule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Whittaker" title="Charles Evans Whittaker">Whittaker</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Commentators</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sohrab_Ahmari" title="Sohrab Ahmari">Ahmari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_Beck" title="Glenn Beck">Beck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Bongino" title="Dan Bongino">Bongino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Breitbart" title="Andrew Breitbart">Breitbart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Buchanan" title="Pat Buchanan">Buchanan (Pat)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Buckley_Jr." title="William F. Buckley Jr.">Buckley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tucker_Carlson" title="Tucker Carlson">Carlson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oren_Cass" title="Oren Cass">Cass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Chodorov" title="Frank Chodorov">Chodorov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Coulter" title="Ann Coulter">Coulter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinesh_D%27Souza" title="Dinesh D'Souza">D'Souza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Derbyshire" title="John Derbyshire">Derbyshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_DiLorenzo" title="Thomas DiLorenzo">DiLorenzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_Dreher" title="Rod Dreher">Dreher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Elder" title="Larry Elder">Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonah_Goldberg" title="Jonah Goldberg">Goldberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Grant_(radio_host)" title="Bob Grant (radio host)">Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alyssa_Farah_Griffin" title="Alyssa Farah Griffin">Griffin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_van_den_Haag" title="Ernest van den Haag">Van den Haag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sean_Hannity" title="Sean Hannity">Hannity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Hart" title="Jeffrey Hart">Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Herberg" title="Will Herberg">Herberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Hoover" title="Margaret Hoover">Hoover (Margaret)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Ingraham" title="Laura Ingraham">Ingraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_Jones" title="Alex Jones">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megyn_Kelly" title="Megyn Kelly">Kelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Kirk" title="Charlie Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Knowles_(political_commentator)" title="Michael Knowles (political commentator)">Knowles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Krauthammer" title="Charles Krauthammer">Krauthammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomi_Lahren" title="Tomi Lahren">Lahren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Levin" title="Mark Levin">Levin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rush_Limbaugh" title="Rush Limbaugh">Limbaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heather_Mac_Donald" title="Heather Mac Donald">Mac Donald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_John_Neuhaus" title="Richard John Neuhaus">Neuhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Ngo" title="Andy Ngo">Ngo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_North" title="Oliver North">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Novak" title="Robert Novak">Novak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_O%27Reilly_(political_commentator)" title="Bill O'Reilly (political commentator)">O'Reilly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candace_Owens" title="Candace Owens">Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Podhoretz" title="Norman Podhoretz">Podhoretz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Pool" title="Tim Pool">Pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Portnoy" class="mw-redirect" title="David Portnoy">Portnoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Prager" title="Dennis Prager">Prager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Robertson" title="Pat Robertson">Robertson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Shapiro" title="Ben Shapiro">Shapiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amity_Shlaes" title="Amity Shlaes">Shlaes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Sullivan" title="Andrew Sullivan">Sullivan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Walsh_(political_commentator)" title="Matt Walsh (political commentator)">Walsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Watters" title="Jesse Watters">Watters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Will" title="George Will">Will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian_Wintrich" title="Lucian Wintrich">Wintrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Woods" title="Tom Woods">Woods</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Activists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Abramoff" title="Jack Abramoff">Abramoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Agostinelli" title="Robert Agostinelli">Agostinelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Ahmanson_Jr." title="Howard Ahmanson Jr.">Ahmanson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Andreessen" title="Marc Andreessen">Andreessen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Atwater" title="Lee Atwater">Atwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Bannon" title="Steve Bannon">Bannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaitlin_Bennett" title="Kaitlin Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Bezmenov" title="Yuri Bezmenov">Bezmenov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Blum_(litigant)" title="Edward Blum (litigant)">Blum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._Brent_Bozell_Jr." title="L. Brent Bozell Jr.">Bozell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Cohn" title="Roy Cohn">Cohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Coors" title="Joseph Coors">Coors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dans" title="Paul Dans">Dans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Dobson" title="James Dobson">Dobson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_Dolan_(activist)" title="Terry Dolan (activist)">Dolan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Drudge" title="Matt Drudge">Drudge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Falwell" title="Jerry Falwell">Falwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Feulner" title="Edwin Feulner">Feulner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Flynn" title="Michael Flynn">Flynn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Gabriel" title="Brigitte Gabriel">Gabriel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Horowitz" title="David Horowitz">Horowitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Kauffman" title="Jeremy Kauffman">Kauffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Krikorian_(activist)" title="Mark Krikorian (activist)">Krikorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Kristol" title="Bill Kristol">Kristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_LaHaye" title="Tim LaHaye">LaHaye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Lindell" title="Mike Lindell">Lindell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Lindbergh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Leo" title="Leonard Leo">Leo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McEntee_(political_aide)" title="John McEntee (political aide)">McEntee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebekah_Mercer" title="Rebekah Mercer">Mercer (Rebekah)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Mercer" title="Robert Mercer">Mercer (Robert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Miller_(political_advisor)" title="Stephen Miller (political advisor)">Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupert_Murdoch" title="Rupert Murdoch">Murdoch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elon_Musk" title="Elon Musk">Musk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Views_of_Elon_Musk" title="Views of Elon Musk">Political views</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_O%27Keefe" title="James O'Keefe">O'Keefe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeonmi_Park" title="Yeonmi Park">Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Phillips_(activist)" title="Howard Phillips (activist)">Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Posobiec" title="Jack Posobiec">Posobiec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Powell" title="Sidney Powell">Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libs_of_TikTok" title="Libs of TikTok">Raichik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Reed" title="Ralph Reed">Reed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Regnery" title="Henry Regnery">Regnery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Roberts_(political_strategist)" title="Kevin Roberts (political strategist)">Roberts (Kevin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Rove" title="Karl Rove">Rove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Rufo" title="Christopher Rufo">Rufo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_A._Rusher" title="William A. Rusher">Rusher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Mellon_Scaife" title="Richard Mellon Scaife">Scaife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Schlafly" title="Andrew Schlafly">Schlafly (Andrew)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phyllis_Schlafly" title="Phyllis Schlafly">Schlafly (Phyllis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Stone" title="Roger Stone">Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Thiel" title="Peter Thiel">Thiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Viguerie" title="Richard Viguerie">Viguerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginni_Thomas" title="Ginni Thomas">Thomas (Ginni)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Weyrich" title="Paul Weyrich">Weyrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Wood" title="Robert E. Wood">Wood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susie_Wiles" title="Susie Wiles">Wiles</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1788)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Notes_on_Democracy" title="Notes on Democracy">Notes on Democracy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1926)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Southern_Agrarians#I'll_Take_My_Stand" title="Southern Agrarians">I'll Take My Stand</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Our_Enemy,_the_State" title="Our Enemy, the State">Our Enemy, the State</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Managerial_Revolution" title="The Managerial Revolution">The Managerial Revolution</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1941)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ideas_Have_Consequences" title="Ideas Have Consequences">Ideas Have Consequences</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1948)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/God_and_Man_at_Yale" title="God and Man at Yale">God and Man at Yale</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Conservative_Mind" title="The Conservative Mind">The Conservative Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1953)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Conscience_of_a_Conservative" title="The Conscience of a Conservative">The Conscience of a Conservative</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1960)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Choice_Not_an_Echo" title="A Choice Not an Echo">A Choice Not an Echo</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1964)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Losing_Ground_(book)" title="Losing Ground (book)">Losing Ground</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1984)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Bell_Curve:_Intelligence_and_Class_Structure_in_American_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life">The Bell Curve</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1994)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Elites" title="The Revolt of the Elites">The Revolt of the Elites</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1995)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_the_West" title="The Death of the West">The Death of the West</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2001)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Blank_Slate" title="The Blank Slate">The Blank Slate</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2002)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black_Rednecks_and_White_Liberals" title="Black Rednecks and White Liberals">Black Rednecks and White Liberals</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2005)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hillbilly_Elegy" title="Hillbilly Elegy">Hillbilly Elegy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2017)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Benedict_Option" title="The Benedict Option">The Benedict Option</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2017)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Why_Liberalism_Failed" title="Why Liberalism Failed">Why Liberalism Failed</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2018)</span></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Concerns</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_decline" title="American decline">American decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture#American_public_opinion" title="Cancel culture">Cancel Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_war#United_States" title="Culture war">Culture war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_multiculturalism#United_States" title="Criticism of multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disparate_impact#Controversy" title="Disparate impact">"Disparate impact" controversy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020s_controversies_around_critical_race_theory" title="2020s controversies around critical race theory">CRT controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion#Criticism_and_controversy" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">DEI controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griggs_v._Duke_Power_Co." title="Griggs v. Duke Power Co.">Griggs v. Duke Power Co.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_education_bubble_in_the_United_States" title="Higher education bubble in the United States">Higher ed. bubble</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Go_woke,_go_broke" title="Go woke, go broke">Go woke, go broke</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental,_social,_and_governance#Criticism" title="Environmental, social, and governance">ESG</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Corporate_sociopolitical_activism#Counter-movement" title="Corporate sociopolitical activism">Woke capitalism</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeschooling#United_States" title="Homeschooling">Homeschooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_reduction_in_the_United_States" title="Immigration reduction in the United States">Immigration reduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">Illegal immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States_and_crime" title="Illegal immigration to the United States and crime">Immigration and crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_border_crisis" title="Mexico–United States border crisis">Border crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_and_public_policy" title="Intelligence and public policy">Intelligence and public policy</a></li> <li>Constitutional interpretations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Originalism" title="Originalism">Originalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textualism" title="Textualism">Textualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_state" title="Managerial state">Managerial state</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mudsill_theory" title="Mudsill theory">Mudsill theory</a></i></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Second Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-replacement_fertility#United_States" title="Sub-replacement fertility">Sub-replacement fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">Unitary executive</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><b>Active</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Party_(1969)" title="American Party (1969)">American Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Independent_Party" title="American Independent Party">American Independent Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_New_York_State" title="Conservative Party of New York State">Conservative Party of New York State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Party_(United_States)" title="Constitution Party (United States)">Constitution Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a></li></ul> <p><b>Defunct</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonic_Party" title="Anti-Masonic Party">Anti-Masonic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Union_Party_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Union Party (United States)">Constitutional Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> (<i>historically, factions</i>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boll_weevil_(politics)" title="Boll weevil (politics)">Boll weevils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Democrat" title="Bourbon Democrat">Bourbon Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Democrat" title="Conservative Democrat">Conservative Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dixiecrat" title="Dixiecrat">Dixiecrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Democrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan Democrats">Reagan Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Democrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Democrat">Southern Democrats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorr_Rebellion" title="Dorr Rebellion">Rhode Island Suffrage Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Party" title="National Republican Party">National Republican Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American Party">Native American Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whig Party</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Think tanks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acton_Institute" title="Acton Institute">Acton Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville_Institution" title="Alexis de Tocqueville Institution">AdTI</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Advancing_American_Freedom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Advancing American Freedom (page does not exist)">Advancing American Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Enterprise_Institute" title="American Enterprise Institute">AEI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Security_Policy" title="Center for Security Policy">CSP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_the_National_Interest" title="Center for the National Interest">Center for the National Interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claremont_Institute" title="Claremont Institute">Claremont Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_Enterprise_Institute" title="Competitive Enterprise Institute">CEI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Horowitz_Freedom_Center" title="David Horowitz Freedom Center">CSPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_and_Public_Policy_Center" title="Ethics and Public Policy Center">EPPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_Research_Institute" title="Family Research Institute">FRI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatestone_Institute" title="Gatestone Institute">Gatestone Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heartland_Institute" title="Heartland Institute">Heartland Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Heritage_Foundation" title="The Heritage Foundation">The Heritage Foundation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heritage_Action" title="Heritage Action">Heritage Action</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Leadership" title="Mandate for Leadership">Mandate for Leadership</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_2025" title="Project 2025">Project 2025</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoover_Institution" title="Hoover Institution">Hoover Institution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson_Institute" title="Hudson Institute">Hudson Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercollegiate_Studies_Institute" title="Intercollegiate Studies Institute">ISI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Program_in_American_Ideals_and_Institutions" title="James Madison Program in American Ideals and Institutions">James Madison Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Institute" title="Leadership Institute">Leadership Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Institute_for_Policy_Research" title="Manhattan Institute for Policy Research">Manhattan Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mises_Institute" title="Mises Institute">Mises Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Research_Institute" title="Pacific Research Institute">PRI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_for_the_New_American_Century" title="Project for the New American Century">Project for the New American Century</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Defunct)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ripon_Society" title="Ripon Society">Ripon Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R_Street_Institute" title="R Street Institute">R Street Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rockford_Institute" title="Rockford Institute">Rockford Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Policy_Network" title="State Policy Network">SPN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutherland_Institute" title="Sutherland Institute">Sutherland Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Foundation" title="Tax Foundation">Tax Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witherspoon_Institute" title="Witherspoon Institute">Witherspoon Institute</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <p><b>Newspapers</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Tribune" title="Chicago Tribune">Chicago Tribune</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Epoch_Times" title="The Epoch Times">The Epoch Times</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire_Union_Leader" title="New Hampshire Union Leader">New Hampshire Union Leader</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Voice" title="The Jewish Voice">The Jewish Voice</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Observer" title="The New York Observer">The New York Observer</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Post" title="New York Post">New York Post</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Remnant_(newspaper)" title="The Remnant (newspaper)">The Remnant</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Editorial_board_at_The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="Editorial board at The Wall Street Journal">(editorial board)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Times" title="The Washington Times">The Washington Times</a></i></li></ul> <p><b>Journals</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Affairs" title="American Affairs">American Affairs</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Conservative" title="The American Conservative">The American Conservative</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Spectator" title="The American Spectator">The American Spectator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Thinker" title="American Thinker">American Thinker</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_Journal" title="City Journal">City Journal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Claremont_Review_of_Books" title="Claremont Review of Books">Claremont Review of Books</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Commentary_(magazine)" title="Commentary (magazine)">Commentary</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Compact_(American_magazine)" title="Compact (American magazine)">Compact</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chronicles_(magazine)" title="Chronicles (magazine)">Chronicles</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Dispatch" title="The Dispatch">The Dispatch</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/First_Things" title="First Things">First Things</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Imaginative_Conservative" title="The Imaginative Conservative">The Imaginative Conservative</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_World_Review" title="Jewish World Review">Jewish World Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Modern_Age_(periodical)" title="Modern Age (periodical)">Modern Age</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Affairs" title="National Affairs">National Affairs</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_National_Interest" title="The National Interest">The National Interest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Review" title="National Review">National Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_American" title="The New American">The New American</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Atlantis_(journal)" title="The New Atlantis (journal)">The New Atlantis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Criterion" title="The New Criterion">The New Criterion</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Policy_Review" title="Policy Review">Policy Review</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(defunct)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Public_Discourse" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Discourse">Public Discourse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Southern_Partisan" title="Southern Partisan">Southern Partisan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Spectator_USA" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectator USA">Spectator USA</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tablet_(magazine)" title="Tablet (magazine)">Tablet</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taki%27s_Magazine" title="Taki's Magazine">Taki's Magazine</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Telos_(journal)" title="Telos (journal)">Telos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Washington_Examiner" title="Washington Examiner">Washington Examiner</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Weekly_Standard" title="The Weekly Standard">The Weekly Standard</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(defunct)</span></li></ul> <p><b>TV channels</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Broadcasting_Network" title="Christian Broadcasting Network">CBN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_Business" title="Fox Business">Fox Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_News" title="Fox News">Fox News</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newsmax_TV" title="Newsmax TV">Newsmax TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_America_News_Network" title="One America News Network">One America News Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VOZ_(media_company)" title="VOZ (media company)">VOZ</a></li></ul> <p><b>Websites</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Babylon_Bee" title="The Babylon Bee">Babylon Bee</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Breitbart_News" title="Breitbart News">Breitbart News</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Bulwark_(website)" title="The Bulwark (website)">The Bulwark</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Campus_Reform" title="Campus Reform">Campus Reform</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Center_Square" title="The Center Square">The Center Square</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Review" title="Conservative Review">Conservative Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Caller" title="The Daily Caller">Daily Caller</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Signal" title="The Daily Signal">Daily Signal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Wire" title="The Daily Wire">Daily Wire</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discover_the_Networks" title="Discover the Networks">Discover the Networks</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_(website)" title="The Federalist (website)">The Federalist</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/FrontPage_Magazine" title="FrontPage Magazine">FrontPage Magazine</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Front_Porch_Republic" title="Front Porch Republic">Front Porch Republic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Gateway_Pundit" title="The Gateway Pundit">Gateway Pundit</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hot_Air" title="Hot Air">Hot Air</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Human_Events" title="Human Events">Human Events</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Independent_Journal_Review" title="Independent Journal Review">Independent Journal Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/InfoWars" class="mw-redirect" title="InfoWars">InfoWars</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jihad_Watch" title="Jihad Watch">Jihad Watch</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/LifeZette" title="LifeZette">LifeZette</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/NewsBusters" class="mw-redirect" title="NewsBusters">NewsBusters</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/PJ_Media" title="PJ Media">PJ Media</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rare_(website)" title="Rare (website)">Rare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/RedState" title="RedState">RedState</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Dispatch" title="The Dispatch">The Dispatch</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Townhall" title="Townhall">Townhall</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Twitchy" title="Twitchy">Twitchy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Washington_Examiner" title="Washington Examiner">Washington Examiner</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Free_Beacon" title="The Washington Free Beacon">The Washington Free Beacon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Western_Journal" title="The Western Journal">The Western Journal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/WorldNetDaily" title="WorldNetDaily">WorldNetDaily</a></i></li></ul> <p><b>Other</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blaze_Media" title="Blaze Media">Blaze Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encounter_Books" title="Encounter Books">Encounter Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evie_Magazine" title="Evie Magazine">Evie Magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_First_TV" title="The First TV">The First</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Imprimis" title="Imprimis">Imprimis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Political_Cesspool" title="The Political Cesspool">The Political Cesspool</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passage_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Passage Publishing">Passage Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PragerU" title="PragerU">PragerU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RealClearPolitics" title="RealClearPolitics">RealClearPolitics</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare_(podcast)" title="Red Scare (podcast)">Red Scare</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regnery_Publishing" title="Regnery Publishing">Regnery Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_Side_Broadcasting_Network" title="Right Side Broadcasting Network">RSBN</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rubin_Report" title="The Rubin Report">The Rubin Report</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Broadcast_Group" title="Sinclair Broadcast Group">Sinclair Broadcast Group</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Other organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <p><b>Congressional caucuses</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_Caucus" title="Second Amendment Caucus">Second Amendment Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Study_Committee" title="Republican Study Committee">RSC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Caucus" title="Liberty Caucus">Liberty Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Caucus" title="Freedom Caucus">Freedom Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Main_Street_Partnership" title="Republican Main Street Partnership">Republican Main Street Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Governance_Group" title="Republican Governance Group">Republican Governance Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Dog_Coalition" title="Blue Dog Coalition">Blue Dog Coalition</a></li></ul> <p><b>Economics</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americans_for_Tax_Reform" title="Americans for Tax Reform">ATR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Club_for_Growth" title="Club for Growth">Club for Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FreedomWorks" title="FreedomWorks">FreedomWorks</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(defunct)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Federation_of_Independent_Business" title="National Federation of Independent Business">NFIB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Taxpayers_Union" title="National Taxpayers Union">NTU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_Party_Patriots" title="Tea Party Patriots">Tea Party Patriots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="United States Chamber of Commerce">USCC</a></li></ul> <p><b>Gun rights</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gun_Owners_of_America" title="Gun Owners of America">GOA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_Gun_Rights" title="National Association for Gun Rights">NAGR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Rifle_Association" title="National Rifle Association">NRA</a></li></ul> <p><b>Identity politics</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ACT_for_America" title="ACT for America"><i>ACT!</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concerned_Women_for_America" title="Concerned Women for America">CWA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Conservative_Citizens" title="Council of Conservative Citizens">Council of Conservative Citizens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gays_Against_Groomers" title="Gays Against Groomers">GAG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Women%27s_Forum" title="Independent Women's Forum">IWF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_Cabin_Republicans" title="Log Cabin Republicans">LCR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moms_for_Liberty" title="Moms for Liberty">Moms for Liberty</a></li></ul> <p><b>Nativist</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Immigration_Studies" title="Center for Immigration Studies">CIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_for_American_Immigration_Reform" title="Federation for American Immigration Reform">FAIR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_Restriction_League" title="Immigration Restriction League">Immigration Restriction League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NumbersUSA" title="NumbersUSA">NumbersUSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath_Keepers" title="Oath Keepers">Oath Keepers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Percenters" title="Three Percenters">Three Percenters</a></li></ul> <p><b>Religion</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_Defending_Freedom" title="Alliance Defending Freedom">ADF</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_involving_Alliance_Defending_Freedom" title="List of court cases involving Alliance Defending Freedom">Court cases</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Center_for_Law_%26_Justice" title="American Center for Law & Justice">ACLJ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Family_Association" title="American Family Association">AFA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_for_the_Defense_of_Tradition,_Family_and_Property" title="American Society for the Defense of Tradition, Family and Property">The American TFP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcedon_Foundation" title="Chalcedon Foundation">Chalcedon Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Coalition_of_America" title="Christian Coalition of America">CCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Voice_(United_States)" title="Christian Voice (United States)">Christian Voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_Forum" title="Eagle Forum">Eagle Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_Research_Council" title="Family Research Council">FCR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Fellowship_(Christian_organization)" title="The Fellowship (Christian organization)">The Fellowship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_Freedom_Coalition" title="Faith and Freedom Coalition">FFC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focus_on_the_Family" title="Focus on the Family">Focus on the Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_for_Moral_Law" title="Foundation for Moral Law">Foundation for Moral Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Counsel" title="Liberty Counsel">Liberty Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(defunct)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Organization_for_Marriage" title="National Organization for Marriage">NOM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Right_to_Life_Committee" title="National Right to Life Committee">NRLC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parents_Television_and_Media_Council" title="Parents Television and Media Council">PTMC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony_Pro-Life_America" title="Susan B. Anthony Pro-Life America">Susan B. Anthony Pro-Life America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More_Law_Center" title="Thomas More Law Center">Thomas More Law Center</a></li></ul> <p><b>Watchdog groups</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accuracy_in_Media" title="Accuracy in Media">AIM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econ_Journal_Watch" title="Econ Journal Watch">Econ Journal Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_News_Foundation" title="Franklin News Foundation">Franklin News Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_Watch" title="Judicial Watch">JW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_Research_Center" title="Media Research Center">MRC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27Keefe_Media_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="O'Keefe Media Group">O'Keefe Media Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Veritas" title="Project Veritas">Project Veritas</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(defunct)</span></li></ul> <p><b>Youth/student groups</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Journalism_Center" title="National Journalism Center">NJC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_Point_USA" title="Turning Point USA">TPUSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Americans_for_Freedom" title="Young Americans for Freedom">Young Americans for Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_America%27s_Foundation" title="Young America's Foundation">Young America's Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Americans_for_Liberty" title="Young Americans for Liberty">YAL</a></li></ul> <p><b>Miscellaneous</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_85_Fund" title="The 85 Fund">The 85 Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_Institute_for_the_Study_of_Western_Civilization" title="Alexander Hamilton Institute for the Study of Western Civilization">AHI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Conservative_Union" title="American Conservative Union">ACU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bradley_Foundation" title="Bradley Foundation">Bradley Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Conservative_Caucus" title="The Conservative Caucus">TCC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_for_National_Policy" title="Council for National Policy">CNP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Political_Action_Conference" title="Conservative Political Action Conference">CPAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillsdale_College" title="Hillsdale College">Hillsdale College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_Freedom_Foundation" title="Idaho Freedom Foundation">IFF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Birch_Society" title="John Birch Society">JBS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_M._Olin_Foundation" title="John M. Olin Foundation">John M. Olin Foundation</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(defunct)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Fund" title="Liberty Fund">Liberty Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_University" title="Liberty University">LU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Scholars" title="National Association of Scholars">NAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Society" title="Philadelphia Society">Philadelphia Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regent_University" title="Regent University">Regent University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk_Center_for_Cultural_Renewal" title="Russell Kirk Center for Cultural Renewal">Russell Kirk Center for Cultural Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Public_Policy_Foundation" title="Texas Public Policy Foundation">TPPF</a></li></ul> <p><b>Other</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/America_First_Legal" title="America First Legal">AFL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlas_Network" title="Atlas Network">Atlas Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiate_Network" title="Collegiate Network">CN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ConservAmerica" title="ConservAmerica">ConservAmerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donors_Trust" class="mw-redirect" title="Donors Trust">Donors Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Society" title="Federalist Society">FedSoc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gab_(social_network)" title="Gab (social network)">Gab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettr" title="Gettr">Gettr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conservative_Political_Action_Committee" title="National Conservative Political Action Committee">NCPAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Justice_Institute" title="Pacific Justice Institute">PJI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parler" title="Parler">Parler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(app)" title="The Right Stuff (app)">The Right Stuff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_Point_Action" title="Turning Point Action">Turning Point Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Civic_Renewal" title="Society for American Civic Renewal">SACR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Republicans" title="Young Republicans">YRNF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziklag_(organization)" title="Ziklag (organization)">Ziklag</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asian_American_and_Pacific_Islands_American_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Asian American and Pacific Islands American conservatism in the United States">Asian and Pacific Islander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Black conservatism in the United States">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_reconstructionism#Influence_on_the_Christian_right_in_general" title="Christian reconstructionism">Reconstructionism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_education_movement" title="Classical education movement">Classical education movement</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">Paideia</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Enlightenment" title="Dark Enlightenment">Dark Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Women in conservatism in the United States">Female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_conservatism#United_States" title="Green conservatism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Hispanic and Latino conservatism in the United States">Hispanic and Latino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_conservatism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT conservatism in the United States">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_Republican" title="Libertarian Republican">Libertarian republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_militia_movement" title="American militia movement">Militia movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_the_United_States" title="Monarchism in the United States">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints_and_politics_in_the_United_States" title="The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and politics in the United States">Mormon</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/White_Horse_Prophecy" title="White Horse Prophecy">White Horse Prophecy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theodemocracy" title="Theodemocracy">Theodemocracy</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_rights_movement" title="Parental rights movement">Parental rights movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fathers%27_rights_movement" title="Fathers' rights movement">Fathers' rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_movement" title="Patriot movement">Patriot movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Patriot_movement" title="Christian Patriot movement">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(United_States)" title="Radical right (United States)">Radical right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionary_feminism" title="Reactionary feminism">Reactionary feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism#United_States" title="Right-libertarianism">Right-libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolibertarianism" title="Paleolibertarianism">Paleolibertarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States" title="Secession in the United States">Secessionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confederates" title="Neo-Confederates">Neo-Confederates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_secession_movements" title="Texas secession movements">in Texas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumpism" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Never_Trump_movement" title="Never Trump movement">Never Trump</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agenda_47" title="Agenda 47">Agenda 47</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/America_First_(policy)" title="America First (policy)">America First</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of conservatism in the United States">Bibliography of US conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_talk_radio" title="Conservative talk radio">Conservative talk radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunning_School" title="Dunning School">Dunning School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factions_in_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Factions in the Republican Party (United States)">GOP factions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="History of conservatism in the United States">History of US conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_modern_American_conservatism" title="Timeline of modern American conservatism">Modern timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_conservatives" title="List of American conservatives">List of American conservatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conservatism_Conference" title="National Conservatism Conference">NatCon</a></li> <li>Colloquialisms <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Barstool_conservatism" title="Barstool conservatism">Barstool conservatism</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Cuckservative" title="Cuckservative">Cuckservative</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Don%27t_immanentize_the_eschaton!" class="mw-redirect" title="Don't immanentize the eschaton!">Don't immanentize the eschaton!</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicans_pounce" title="Republicans pounce">Republicans pounce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_in_Name_Only" class="mw-redirect" title="Republican in Name Only">RINO</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/South_Park_Republican" title="South Park Republican"><i>South Park</i> Republican</a>"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #B0161E; border-bottom:1px solid #B0161E"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/15px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/22px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/30px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Conservatism" title="Portal:Conservatism">Conservatism portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conservatism_US" title="Template:Conservatism US"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conservatism_US" title="Template talk:Conservatism US"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism_US" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism US"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">right to keep and bear arms</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental right">fundamental right</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> protected by the <a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Second Amendment</a> to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>, part of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>, and by the <a href="/wiki/State_constitution_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="State constitution (United States)">constitutions</a> of most <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">U.S. states</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Second Amendment declares: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Stemming from English <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> tradition, the concept of a right to keep and bear arms was recognized prior to the creation of a written national constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="English_precedent">English precedent</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: English precedent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Assize_of_Arms_of_1181" title="Assize of Arms of 1181">Assize of Arms of 1181</a></div> <p>The American understanding of the right to keep and bear arms was influenced by the English <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Bill of Rights 1689</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Parliament">Act of Parliament</a>, which also dealt with personal defence by <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> English subjects. </p><p>The Bill of Rights rescinded and deplored acts of the deposed King <a href="/wiki/James_II_of_England" title="James II of England">James II</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Church in England">Catholic</a>, who had forced the disarming of Protestants, while arming and deploying armed Catholics contrary to law, among other alleged violations of individual rights. The Bill of Rights provided that Protestants could bear arms for their defence as permitted by law. It also established that the power to regulate the right to bear arms belonged to Parliament, not the monarch.<sup id="cite_ref-c21WillMarSess2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c21WillMarSess2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Sir William Blackstone</a> wrote in the 18th century about the right to have arms being auxiliary to the "natural right of resistance and self-preservation", but conceded that the right was subject to their suitability and allowance by law. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The fifth and last auxiliary right of the subject, that I shall at present mention, is that of having arms for their defence, suitable to their condition and degree, and such as are allowed by law. Which is also declared by the same statute and is indeed a public allowance, under due restrictions, of the natural right of resistance and self-preservation, when the sanctions of society and laws are found insufficient to restrain the violence of oppression.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception_statutes">Reception statutes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Reception statutes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Houston_Gun_Show_at_the_George_R._Brown_Convention_Center.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Houston_Gun_Show_at_the_George_R._Brown_Convention_Center.jpg/220px-Houston_Gun_Show_at_the_George_R._Brown_Convention_Center.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Houston_Gun_Show_at_the_George_R._Brown_Convention_Center.jpg/330px-Houston_Gun_Show_at_the_George_R._Brown_Convention_Center.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Houston_Gun_Show_at_the_George_R._Brown_Convention_Center.jpg/440px-Houston_Gun_Show_at_the_George_R._Brown_Convention_Center.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3356" data-file-height="2247" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gun_show" class="mw-redirect" title="Gun show">Gun show</a>, in the U.S.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the 1776 <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, one of the first legislative acts undertaken by most of the newly independent states was to adopt a "<a href="/wiki/Reception_statute" title="Reception statute">reception statute</a>" that gave legal effect to the existing body of <a href="/wiki/Common_law#1._Common_law_as_opposed_to_statutory_law_and_regulatory_law" title="Common law">English common law</a> to the extent that the legislation or the <a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">constitution</a> had not explicitly rejected English law.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, The Reception Statute of Virginia (1776): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>And be it further ordained, That the common law of England, all statutes or acts of Parliament made in aid of the common law prior to the fourth year of the reign of King James the first, and which are of a general nature, not local to that kingdom, together with the several acts of the General Assembly of this colony now in force, so far as the same may consist with several ordinances, declarations, and resolutions of the General Convention, shall be the rule of decision, and shall be considered as in full force, until the same shall be altered by the legislative power of this colony.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Reception statute of Pennsylvania (1777): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>( 1.) Each and every one of the laws or acts of general assembly, that were in force and binding on the inhabitants of the said province on the 14th day of May last, shall be in force and binding on the inhabitants of this state, from and after the 10th day of February next, as fully and effectually, to all intents and purposes, as if the said laws, and each of them, had been made or enacted by this general assembly . . . and the common law and such of the statute laws of England, as have heretofore been in force in the said province, except as hereafter excepted. (2.) Provided always, that so much of every law or act of general assembly of the province aforesaid, . . . as declares, orders, directs or commands any matter or thing repugnant to, against, or inconsistent with the constitution of this commonwealth, is hereby declared not to be revived, but shall be null and void, and of no force or effect; and so much of the statute laws of England aforesaid relating to felonies, as takes notice of or relates to treason or misprision of treason, or directs the style of the process in any case whatsoever, shall be, and is hereby declared, of no force or effect, anything herein contained to the contrary notwithstanding.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The New York Constitution of 1777 provides that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[S]uch parts of the common law of England, and of the statute law of England and Great Britain, and of the acts of the legislature of the colony of New York, as together did form the law of the said colony on the 19th day of April, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and seventy-five, shall be and continue the law of this State, subject to such alterations and provisions as the legislature of this State shall, from time to time, make concerning the same.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Over time, as new states were formed from federal territories, the territorial reception statutes became obsolete and were re-enacted as state law. For example, a reception statute enacted by legislation in the state of Washington states: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The common law, so far as it is not inconsistent with the Constitution and laws of the United States, or of the state of Washington nor incompatible with the institutions and condition of society in this state, shall be the rule of decision in all the courts of this state."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Missouri's reception of the common law is codified under Missouri Revised Statutes Section 1.010 (2000). The statute reads: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The common law of England and all statutes and acts of parliament made prior to the fourth year of the reign of James the First, of a general nature, which are local to that kingdom and not repugnant to or inconsistent with the Constitution of the United States, the constitution of this state, or the statute laws in force for the time being, are the rule of action and decision in this state, any custom or usage to the contrary notwithstanding, but no act of the general assembly or law of this state shall be held to be invalid, or limited in its scope or effect by the courts of this state, for the reason that it is in derogation of, or in conflict with, the common law, or with such statutes or acts of parliament; but all acts of the general assembly, or laws, shall be liberally construed, so as to effectuate the true intent and meaning thereof.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civilian_usage_meaning">Civilian usage meaning</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Civilian usage meaning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1970-_Gun_production_-_US.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/1970-_Gun_production_-_US.svg/280px-1970-_Gun_production_-_US.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/1970-_Gun_production_-_US.svg/420px-1970-_Gun_production_-_US.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/1970-_Gun_production_-_US.svg/560px-1970-_Gun_production_-_US.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Annual gun production in the U.S. has increased substantially in the 21st century, after having remained fairly level over preceding decades.<sup id="cite_ref-TheTrace_20240409_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheTrace_20240409-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2023, a majority of U.S. states allowed adults to carry concealed guns in public.<sup id="cite_ref-TheTrace_20240409_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheTrace_20240409-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2000-_Gun_sales_and_NICS_firearm_background_checks_-_U.S.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/2000-_Gun_sales_and_NICS_firearm_background_checks_-_U.S.svg/280px-2000-_Gun_sales_and_NICS_firearm_background_checks_-_U.S.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/2000-_Gun_sales_and_NICS_firearm_background_checks_-_U.S.svg/420px-2000-_Gun_sales_and_NICS_firearm_background_checks_-_U.S.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/2000-_Gun_sales_and_NICS_firearm_background_checks_-_U.S.svg/560px-2000-_Gun_sales_and_NICS_firearm_background_checks_-_U.S.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>U.S. gun sales have risen in the 21st century, peaking in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic.<sup id="cite_ref-Trace_20231231_FBI_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trace_20231231_FBI-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "NICS" is the FBI's National Instant Background Check System.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Cruikshank" title="United States v. Cruikshank">United States v. Cruikshank</a></i> (1876), the U.S. Supreme Court recognized that the right to arms preexisted the Constitution and in that case and in <i><a href="/wiki/Presser_v._Illinois" title="Presser v. Illinois">Presser v. Illinois</a></i> (1886) recognized that the Second Amendment protected the right from being infringed by Congress. In <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Miller" title="United States v. Miller">United States v. Miller</a></i> (1939), the Court again recognized that the right to arms is individually held and, citing the Tennessee case of <i>Aymette v State</i>, indicated that it protected the right to keep and bear arms that are "part of the ordinary military equipment" or the use of which could "contribute to the common defense." In its first opportunity to rule specifically on whose right the Second Amendment protects, <i><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" title="District of Columbia v. Heller">District of Columbia v. Heller</a></i> (2008), the Court ruled that the amendment protects an individual right "to keep and carry arms in case of confrontation," not contingent on service in a militia, while indicating, in dicta, that restrictions on the possession of firearms by felons and the mentally ill, on the carrying of arms in sensitive locations, and with respect to the conditions on the sale of firearms could pass constitutional muster. In the 2010 case of McDonald v. Chicago, the Court applied incorporation doctrine to extend the Second Amendment's protections nationwide </p><p>The people's right to have their own arms for their defense is described in the philosophical and political writings of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Machiavelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Whig_(British_political_faction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Whig (British political faction)">English Whigs</a> and others.<sup id="cite_ref-Halbrook,_Stephen_P._1994_8_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Halbrook,_Stephen_P._1994_8-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Quotation needed from source to verify. (June 2016)">need quotation to verify</span></a></i>]</sup> Though possessing arms appears to be distinct from "bearing" them, the possession of arms is recognized as necessary for and a logical precursor to the bearing of arms.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Don_Kates" title="Don Kates">Don Kates</a>, a civil liberties lawyer, cites historic English usage describing the "right to keep and bear <i>their private arms</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, Sayoko Blodgett-Ford notes a non-military usage of the phrase in a pamphlet widely circulated by the dissenting minority dating from the time of the Pennsylvania ratifying convention for the U.S. Constitution: </p> <blockquote><p>[T]he people have a right to bear arms for the defense of themselves and their own state, or the United States, or the purpose of killing game; and no law shall be passed for disarming the people or any of them, unless for crimes committed ...<sup id="cite_ref-Sayoko001_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sayoko001-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In commentary written by Judge Garwood in <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Emerson" title="United States v. Emerson">United States v. Emerson</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Fifth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit</a> concluded in 2001 that:<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-8223-3017-2_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-8223-3017-2-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>... there are numerous instances of the phrase 'bear arms' being used to describe a civilian's carrying of arms. Early constitutional provisions or declarations of rights in at least some ten different states speak of the right of the 'people' [or 'citizen' or 'citizens'] 'to bear arms in defense of themselves [or 'himself'] and the state,' or equivalent words, thus indisputably reflecting that under common usage 'bear arms' was in no sense restricted to bearing arms in military service. See <i>Bliss v. Commonwealth</i>, 13 Am. Dec. 251, 12 Ky. 90 (Ky. 1822).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Similarly, in a released Senate report on the Right to Keep and Bear Arms, Senator <a href="/wiki/Orrin_Hatch" title="Orrin Hatch">Orrin Hatch</a>, chairman, U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee, Subcommittee on the Constitution, states: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>They argue that the Second Amendment's words "right of the people" mean "a right of the state" – apparently overlooking the impact of those same words when used in the First and Fourth Amendments. The "right of the people" to assemble or to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures is not contested as an individual guarantee. Still they ignore consistency and claim that the right to "bear arms" relates only to military uses. This not only violates a consistent constitutional reading of "right of the people" but also ignores that the second amendment protects a right to "keep" arms. "When our ancestors forged a land "conceived in liberty", they did so with musket and rifle. When they reacted to attempts to dissolve their free institutions, and established their identity as a free nation, they did so as a nation of armed freemen. When they sought to record forever a guarantee of their rights, they devoted one full amendment out of ten to nothing but the protection of their right to keep and bear arms against governmental interference. Under my chairmanship the Subcommittee on the Constitution will concern itself with a proper recognition of, and respect for, this right most valued by free men.<sup id="cite_ref-rkba1982_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rkba1982-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Likewise, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> ruled in <i><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" title="District of Columbia v. Heller">District of Columbia v. Heller</a></i> (2008), No. 07-290, that "[t]he Second Amendment protects an individual right to possess a firearm unconnected with service in a militia, and to use that arm for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self-defense within the home."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_service_and_civilian_usage_meanings">Military service and civilian usage meanings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Military service and civilian usage meanings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some historians have argued that prior to and through the 18th century, the expression "bear arms" appeared exclusively in military contexts, as opposed to the use of firearms by civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-UM194_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UM194-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-300-09562-7_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-300-09562-7-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>In late-eighteenth-century parlance, <i>bearing arms</i> was a term of art with an obvious military and legal connotation. ... As a review of the Library of Congress's data base of congressional proceedings in the revolutionary and early national periods reveals, the thirty uses of 'bear arms' and 'bearing arms' in bills, statutes, and debates of the Continental, Confederation, and United States' Congresses between 1774 and 1821 invariably occur in a context exclusively focused on the army or the militia.<sup id="cite_ref-UM194b_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UM194b-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>However, this conclusion is disputed and may be due to <a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">selection bias</a>, which arises from the use of a limited selection of government documents that overwhelmingly refer to matters of military service.<sup id="cite_ref-Cramer-Olson001_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cramer-Olson001-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commenting on this previous research, other historians note: </p> <blockquote><p>Searching more comprehensive collections of English language works published before 1820 shows that there are a number of uses that ... have nothing to do with military service ... [and] The common law was in agreement. Edward Christian's edition of Blackstone's Commentaries that appeared in 1790s described the rights of Englishmen (which every American colonist had been promised) in these terms 'everyone is at liberty to keep or carry a gun, if he does not use it for the [unlawful] destruction of game.' This right was separate from militia duties.<sup id="cite_ref-Cramer-Olson001_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cramer-Olson001-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> defines the term <i>to bear arms</i> as: <i>"to serve as a soldier, do military service, fight,"</i> dating to about 1330. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Garry_Wills" title="Garry Wills">Garry Wills</a>, author and history professor at <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_University" title="Northwestern University">Northwestern University</a>, has written of the origin of the term <i>bear arms</i>: </p> <blockquote><p>By legal and other channels, the Latin "<i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/arma#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:arma">arma</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ferre#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:ferre">ferre</a></i>" entered deeply into the European language of war. Bearing arms is such a synonym for waging war that Shakespeare can call a just war "<i> 'justborne arms</i>" and a civil war "<i>self-borne arms</i>." Even outside the special phrase "<i>bear arms</i>," much of the noun's use echoes Latin phrases: to be under arms (<i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sub#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:sub">sub</a> armis</i>), the call to arms (<i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ad#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:ad">ad</a> arma</i>), to follow arms (<i>arma <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sequi" class="extiw" title="wikt:sequi">sequi</a></i>), to take arms (<i>arma <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/capere" class="extiw" title="wikt:capere">capere</a></i>), to lay down arms (<i>arma pœnere</i>). "Arms" is a profession that one brother chooses the way another choose law or the church. An issue undergoes the arbitrament of arms."..."One does not bear arms against a rabbit ...".<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-684-87026-6_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-684-87026-6-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Garry Wills also cites Greek and Latin <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a>: </p> <blockquote><p> ..."Bear Arms" refers to military service, which is why the plural is used (based on Greek 'hopla pherein' and Latin 'arma ferre') – one does not bear arm, or bear an arm. The word means, etymologically, 'equipment' (from the root ar-* in verbs like 'ararisko', to fit out). It refers to the 'equipage' of war. Thus 'bear arms' can be used of naval as well as artillery warfare, since the "profession of arms" refers to all military callings.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Historically, the right to keep and bear arms, whether considered an individual or a collective or a militia right, did not originate fully formed in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> in 1791; rather, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Second Amendment</a> was the codification of the six-centuries-old responsibility to keep and bear arms for king and country that was inherited from the English Colonists that settled North America, tracing its origin back to the <a href="/wiki/Assize_of_Arms_of_1181" title="Assize of Arms of 1181">Assize of Arms</a> of 1181 that occurred during the reign of Henry II. Through being codified in the United States Constitution, the common law right was continued and guaranteed for the People, and statutory law enacted subsequently by Congress cannot extinguish the pre-existing common law right to keep and bear arms.<sup id="cite_ref-Espohl_97_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Espohl_97-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Second Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> refers to a pre-existing right to keep and bear arms: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.<sup id="cite_ref-BoR_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BoR-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The right is often presented in the United States as being an unenumerated, pre-existing right, such as provided for by the <a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Espohl_97_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Espohl_97-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> interpreted by some as providing for unenumerated rights, and therefore implicitly a right to keep and bear arms: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.</p></blockquote> <p>Some have seen the Second Amendment as derivative of a common law right to keep and bear arms; Thomas B. McAffee & Michael J. Quinlan, writing in the North Carolina Law Review said <i>"... Madison did not invent the right to keep and bear arms when he drafted the Second Amendment – the right was pre-existing at both common law and in the early state constitutions."</i><sup id="cite_ref-nclr_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nclr-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Akhil Reed Amar similarly notes the basis of Common Law for the first ten amendments of the U.S. Constitution, "following John Randolph Tucker's famous oral argument in the 1887 Chicago anarchist case, Spies v. Illinois": </p> <blockquote><p>Though originally the first ten Amendments were adopted as limitations on Federal power, yet insofar as they secure and recognize fundamental rights – common law rights – of the man, they make them privileges and immunities of the man as citizen of the United States ...<sup id="cite_ref-ylj1_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ylj1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>Uviller and Merkel hold that the right to bear arms was not reserved for the state, but rather was an individual and personal right for arms only to the extent needed to maintain a well regulated militia to support the state. They also hold that a militia recognizable to the framers of the Constitution has ceased to exist in the United States resulting from deliberate Congressional legislation and also societal neglect; nonetheless, "Technically, all males aged seventeen to forty-five are members of the unorganized militia, but that status has no practical legal significance."<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-8223-3017-2b_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-8223-3017-2b-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-300-09562-7b_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-300-09562-7b-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A few academic writers published their opinions in several works: </p> <blockquote><p>From the text as well as a fair understanding of the contemporary ethic regarding arms and liberty, it seems to us overwhelmingly evident that the principal purpose of the Amendment was to secure a personal, individual entitlement to the possession and use of arms. We cannot, however, (as the individual rights contingent generally does) disregard entirely the first part of the text proclaiming a well regulated militia necessary to the security of a free state.<sup id="cite_ref-UM23_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UM23-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <blockquote><p> ... we understand the Second Amendment as though it read: "Inasmuch as and so long as a well regulated Militia shall be necessary to the security of a free state and so long as privately held arms shall be essential to the maintenance thereof, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed." "..to us, the language of the Amendment cannot support a right to personal weaponry independent of the social value of a regulated organization of armed citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-UM24_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UM24-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spitzer000_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spitzer000-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_commentary_in_federal_courts">Early commentary in federal courts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Early commentary in federal courts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Firearm_case_law_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Firearm case law in the United States">Firearm case law in the United States</a></div> <p>In the century following the ratification of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>, the intended meaning and application of the Second Amendment drew less interest than it does in modern times.<sup id="cite_ref-Saul_Cornell_neither_model_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saul_Cornell_neither_model-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vast majority of regulation was done by states, and the first case law on weapons regulation dealt with state interpretations of the Second Amendment. A notable exception to this general rule was <i>Houston v. Moore</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_18" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 18">18</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/18/1/">1</a> (1820), where the Supreme Court mentioned the Second Amendment in an aside.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dred_Scott_v._Sandford"><i>Dred Scott v. Sandford</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dred Scott v. Sandford"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Nineteenth century considerable attention in public discourse and the courts was directed to the issue of arming of slaves (prior to the Civil War), and later to the right of slaves to belong to militia and the arming of these individuals. Most famously this is seen in the court arguments of the 1857 court case <i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i>, whether the slave <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott" title="Dred Scott">Dred Scott</a> could be a citizen with rights, including the right to bear arms. This debate about the rights of slaves and former slaves often included the usage of the term 'bear arms' with the meaning of individuals having or not having the right to possess firearms. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford"><i>Dred Scott</i> decision</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Majority_opinion" title="Majority opinion">opinion of the court</a> stated that if <a href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African Americans</a> were considered <a href="/wiki/Citizenship_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizenship in the United States">U.S. citizens</a>, "It would give to persons of the negro race, who were recognized as citizens in any one State of the Union, the right ... to keep and carry arms wherever they went."<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_commentary_in_state_courts">Early commentary in state courts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Early commentary in state courts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Second Amendment of the United States Constitution is a <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal</a> provision. In 2010, this "fundamental" and "individual" right was "fully incorporated" with the 14th Amendment per the SCOTUS ruling made in <i>McDonald v. City of Chicago</i>, which upheld the prior opinion made in <i>District of Columbia v. Heller</i>. Each of the fifty states also has its own state constitution. Forty-four states have chosen to explicitly embody a right to bear arms into their state constitutions.<sup id="cite_ref-staterkba_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-staterkba-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each of the state constitutions, state laws, and state courts addresses the state-based right to bear arms distinctly within its respective jurisdictions.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The degree and the nature of the protection, prohibition, and regulation at the state level varies from state to state. The District of Columbia, not being a state, falls within the federal jurisdiction. </p><p>Approximately thirty-one states have explicitly chosen to include the right to arms for "individual right", "defense of self", "defense of home" or similarly worded reasons. Approximately thirteen states, as with the U.S. Constitution, did not choose to explicitly include "individual", "self" or "home" wording associated with a right to bear arms for their specific states. </p><p>Approximately twenty-eight states have explicitly chosen to include the right to bear arms for "security of a free state", "defense of state", "common defense" or similarly worded reasons, as with the U.S. Constitution. Approximately sixteen states did not choose to include explicitly "free state", "defense of state" or "common defense" wording for their specific state. Whether the inclusion of these kinds of wording in state constitutions has relevance to the issue of whether implicit "individual" rights exist, or whether such rights (if any) are implicitly protected by the states' constitutions or by the U.S. Constitution's Second Amendment, remains a matter of dispute. However, since the SCOTUS has "fully incorporated" the 2nd and 14th Amendments in their 2010 opinion and order in <i>McDonald v. City of Chicago</i>, the right to keep and bear arms is "fully applicable" to the states and limits the states on any and all regulations and restrictions they choose to take, and federal Constitutional rights take precedence over state, local and other laws that regulate to "Right of Lawful Citizens to keep and bear Arms for self-defense, a 'central component' of the 2nd Amendment" (see <i>McDonald v. City of Chicago</i> (SC 2010)). </p><p>Regarding the state interpretations of these state and the federal constitutional rights to bear arms, state courts have addressed the meaning of these specific rights in considerable detail. Two different models have emerged from state <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>: an individual right (defense of self or home) and a collective (defense of the state) right. The states cannot lessen or restrict any Bill of Rights guarantee that has been "fully incorporated" (American jurisprudence) and that the right that is "fully incorporated" also applies to the respective State Constitutions; again, the states can only "add to" these rights but can never "diminish" these rights by state and local laws. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bliss"><i>Bliss</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Bliss"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Bliss v. Commonwealth</i> (1822, KY)<sup id="cite_ref-bliss_v_commonwealth_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bliss_v_commonwealth-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> addressed the right to bear arms pursuant to Art. 10, Sec. 23 of the Second Constitution of <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a> (1799):<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "That the rights of the citizens to bear arms in defense of themselves and the State shall not be questioned." This was interpreted to include the right to carry a concealed sword in a cane. This case has been described as about "a statute prohibiting the carrying of <a href="/wiki/Concealed_carry_in_the_United_States" title="Concealed carry in the United States">concealed weapons</a> [that] was violative of the Second Amendment."<sup id="cite_ref-1967hearing_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1967hearing-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others, however, have seen no conflict with the Second Amendment by the Commonwealth of Kentucky's statute under consideration in <i>Bliss</i> since "The Kentucky law was aimed at concealed weapons. No one saw any conflict with the Second Amendment. As a matter of fact, most of the few people who considered the question at all believed amendments to the U.S. Constitution did not apply to state laws."<sup id="cite_ref-William_Weir._53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-William_Weir.-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Kentucky High Court stated in <i>Bliss</i>, "But it should not be forgotten, that it is not only a part of the right that is secured by the constitution; it is the right entire and complete, as it existed at the adoption of the constitution; and if any portion of that right be impaired, immaterial how small the part may be, and immaterial the order of time at which it be done, it is equally forbidden by the constitution."<sup id="cite_ref-bliss_v_commonwealth_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bliss_v_commonwealth-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "constitution" mentioned in this quote refers to Kentucky's Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-rkba1982_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rkba1982-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The case prompted outrage in the Kentucky House, all the while recognizing that Section 23 of the Second Constitution of Kentucky (1799) did guarantee individuals the right to bear arms. The <i>Bliss</i> ruling, to the extent that it dealt with concealed weapons, was overturned by constitutional amendment with Section 26 in Kentucky's Third Constitution (1850) banning the future carrying of concealed weapons, while still asserting that the bearing of arms in defense of themselves and the state was an individual and collective right in the Commonwealth of Kentucky. This recognition has remained to the present day in the Commonwealth of Kentucky's Fourth Constitution, enacted in 1891, in Section 1, Article 7, that guarantees "The right to bear arms in defense of themselves and of the State, subject to the power of the General Assembly to enact laws to prevent persons from carrying concealed weapons." As noted in the Northern Kentucky Law Review Second Amendment Symposium: Rights in Conflict in the 1980s, vol. 10, no. 1, 1982, p. 155, "The first state court decision resulting from the "right to bear arms" issue was <i>Bliss v. Commonwealth</i>. The court held that "the right of citizens to bear arms in defense of themselves and the State must be preserved entire, ..." "This holding was unique because it stated that the right to bear arms is absolute and unqualified."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The importance of <i>Bliss</i> is also seen from the defense subsequently given against a murder charge in Kentucky against Mattews Ward, who in 1852 pulled out a concealed pistol and fatally wounded his brother's teacher over an accusation regarding eating chestnuts in class. Ward's defense team consisted of eighteen lawyers, including U.S. Senator <a href="/wiki/John_J._Crittenden" title="John J. Crittenden">John Crittenden</a>, former Governor of Kentucky, and former <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">United States Attorney General</a>. The defense successfully defended Ward in 1854 through an assertion that "a man has a right to carry arms; I am aware of nothing in the laws of God or man, prohibiting it. The Constitution of Kentucky and our Bill of Rights guarantee it. The Legislature once passed an act forbidding it, but it was decided unconstitutional, and overruled by our highest tribunal, the Court of Appeals." As noted by Cornell, "Ward's lawyers took advantage of the doctrine advanced in <i>Bliss</i> and wrapped their client's action under the banner of a constitutional right to bear arms. Ward was acquitted."<sup id="cite_ref-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Ward_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Ward-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aymette"><i>Aymette</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Aymette"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>Aymette v. State</i>, 21 Tenn. 154, 156 (1840), the Tennessee Supreme Court construed the guarantee in Tennessee's 1834 Constitution that 'the free white men of this State have a right to Keep and bear arms for their common defence.'<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Explaining that the provision was adopted with the same goals as the Federal Constitution's Second Amendment, the court wrote: "The words 'bear arms' ... have reference to their military use, and were not employed to mean wearing them about the person as part of the dress. As the object for which the right to keep and bear arms is secured, is of general and public nature, to be exercised by the people in a body, for their common defense, so the arms, the right to keep which is secured, are such as are usually employed in civilized warfare, and that constitute the ordinary military equipment." </p> <ul><li>1. The act of 1837–38, ch. 137, sec. 2, which prohibits any person from wearing any <a href="/wiki/Bowie_knife" title="Bowie knife">Bowie knife</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Arkansas_toothpick" title="Arkansas toothpick">Arkansas toothpick</a>, or other knife or weapon in form, shape or size resembling a Bowie knife or Arkansas toothpick under his clothes, or concealed about his person, does not conflict with the 26th section of the first article of the bill of rights, securing to the free white citizens the right to keep and bear arms for their common defense.</li> <li>2. The arms, the right to keep and bear which is secured by the constitution, are such as are usually employed in civilized warfare, and constitute the ordinary military equipment; the legislature have the power to prohibit the keeping or wearing weapons dangerous to the peace and safety of the citizens, and which are not usual in civilized warfare.</li> <li>3. The right to keep and bear arms for the common defense, is a great political right. It respects the citizens on the one hand, and the rulers on the other; and although this right must be inviolably preserved, it does not follow that the legislature is prohibited from passing laws regulating the manner in which these arms may be employed.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nunn"><i>Nunn</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Nunn"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Supreme Court of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia Supreme Court</a> ruled in <i><a href="/wiki/Nunn_v._Georgia" title="Nunn v. Georgia">Nunn v. Georgia</a></i> (Nunn v. State, 1 Ga. (1 Kel.) 243 (1846)) that a state law banning handguns was an <a href="/wiki/Unconstitutional" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconstitutional">unconstitutional</a> violation of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Second Amendment</a>. This was the first <a href="/wiki/Gun_control" title="Gun control">gun control</a> measure to be overturned on Second Amendment grounds.<sup id="cite_ref-Ph.D.Carter2012_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ph.D.Carter2012-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> in its ruling in <i><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" title="District of Columbia v. Heller">District of Columbia v. Heller</a></i> said <i>Nunn</i> "perfectly captured the way in which the operative clause of the Second Amendment furthers the purpose announced in the prefatory clause."<sup id="cite_ref-Ph.D.2012_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ph.D.2012-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>The right of the whole people, old and young, men, women and boys, and not militia only, to keep and bear <i>arms</i> of every description, and not <i>such</i> merely as are used by the <i>militia</i>, shall not be <i>infringed</i>, curtailed, or broken in upon, in the smallest degree; and all this for the important end to be attained: the rearing up and qualifying a well-regulated militia, so vitally necessary to the security of a free State. Our opinion is, that any law, State or Federal, is repugnant to the Constitution, and void, which contravenes this <i>right</i>, originally belonging to our forefathers, trampled under foot by Charles I. and his two wicked sons and successors, re-established by the revolution of 1688, conveyed to this land of liberty by the colonists, and finally incorporated conspicuously in our own Magna Charta!<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buzzard"><i>Buzzard</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Buzzard"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>State v. Buzzard</i> (1842, Ark), the Arkansas high court adopted a militia-based, political interpretation, reading of the right to bear arms under state law, and upheld the 21st section of the second article of the Arkansas Constitution that declared, "that the free white men of this State shall have a right to keep and bear arms for their common defense",<sup id="cite_ref-state_v_buzzard_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-state_v_buzzard-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while rejecting a challenge to a statute prohibiting the carrying of concealed weapons. Buzzard had carried a concealed weapon and stood "indicted by virtue of the authority of the 13th section of an act of the Legislature prohibiting any person wearing a <a href="/wiki/Pistol" title="Pistol">pistol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dirk" title="Dirk">dirk</a>, large knife or sword-cane <i>concealed as a weapon</i>, unless upon a journey, under the penalties of fine and imprisonment." Justice Lacy, in a dissenting opinion in <i>Buzzard</i>, summarizing the majority viewpoint to which he disagreed, declared: </p> <blockquote><p>That the words "a well regulated militia being necessary for the security of a free State", and the words "common defense" clearly show the true intent and meaning of these Constitutions [i.e., Ark. and U.S.] and prove that it is a political and not an individual right, and, of course, that the State, in her legislative capacity, has the right to regulate and control it: This being the case, then the people, neither individually nor collectively, have the right to keep and bear arms."<sup id="cite_ref-state_v_buzzard_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-state_v_buzzard-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Joel_Prentiss_Bishop" title="Joel Prentiss Bishop">Joel Prentiss Bishop</a>'s influential <i>Commentaries on the Law of Statutory Crimes</i> (1873) took Buzzard's militia-based interpretation, a view that Bishop characterized as the "Arkansas doctrine", as the orthodox view of the right to bear arms in American law.<sup id="cite_ref-state_v_buzzard_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-state_v_buzzard-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Bishop_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Bishop-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political scientist</a> Earl Kruschke has categorized both <i>Bliss</i> and <i>Buzzard</i> as being "cases illustrating the individual view."<sup id="cite_ref-Kruschke_individual_rights_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kruschke_individual_rights-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Professor <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Volokh" title="Eugene Volokh">Eugene Volokh</a> revealed, in the California Political Review, that a statement in a concurring opinion in <i>Buzzard</i> was the only support for a collective right view of the right to keep and bear arms in the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Volokh_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volokh-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Salina_v._Blaksley"><i>Salina v. Blaksley</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Salina v. Blaksley"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1905, the <a href="/wiki/Kansas_Supreme_Court" title="Kansas Supreme Court">Kansas Supreme Court</a> in <i>Salina v. Blaksley</i><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> made the first collective right judicial interpretation.<sup id="cite_ref-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Salina_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Salina-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kansas high court declared: "That the provision in question applies only to the right to bear arms as a member of the state militia, or some other military organization provided for by law, is also apparent from the second amendment to the federal Constitution, which says: 'A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.'" </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_commentary">Modern commentary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Modern commentary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interpretive_models">Interpretive models</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Interpretive models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Second Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <p>Three models of interpreting the right to bear arms in the United States commonly exist. These three models are founded on differing interpretations of the Second Amendment, <i>"A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed."</i> </p><p>The first model, the individual-rights model, holds that a right of individuals is to own and possess firearms, much as the First Amendment protects a right of individuals to engage in free speech.<sup id="cite_ref-dorf_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dorf-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view was confirmed by the Supreme Court in <i>District of Columbia v. Heller</i> (2008) had previous interpretations by the Court. Prior to the Supreme Court's ruling in <i>Heller</i> there was a split among the federal courts, with nine of the federal circuit courts of appeal supporting a modified collective rights view, two of the federal circuits supporting an individual rights view, and one federal circuit court having not addressed the question.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second two models focus on the preamble, or "purpose" clause, of the Amendment – the words <i>"A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State."</i> The second model, the collective model, holds that the right to bear arms belongs to the people collectively rather than to individuals, under the belief that the right's only purpose is to enable states to maintain a militia. </p><p>The third model, the modified collective model, holds that the right to keep and bear arms exists only for individuals actively serving in the militia, and then only pursuant to such regulations as may be prescribed.<sup id="cite_ref-dorf_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dorf-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federal_case_commentary">Federal case commentary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Federal case commentary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Supreme Court justice <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</a> in 2008 wrote that the right to bear arms is not unlimited and is subject to reasonable prohibitions and regulations and subsequently federal court rulings have upheld existing gun prohibitions and regulations.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Volokh_Conspiracy_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Volokh_Conspiracy-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nadine_Strossen" title="Nadine Strossen">Nadine Strossen</a>, former president of the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">American Civil Liberties Union</a>, has stated that the individual rights model must yield to reasonable regulation.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Strossen said "it is no more absolute than freedom of speech or any other right in the Constitution. No right is absolute; the government is always allowed to restrict the right if it can satisfy Constitutional <a href="/wiki/Strict_scrutiny" title="Strict scrutiny">strict scrutiny</a> and show the restriction is narrowly tailored to promote a goal of compelling importance."<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In October 2001, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Court of Appeals">United States Court of Appeals</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Circuit">Fifth Circuit</a> stated: </p> <blockquote><p>there are numerous instances of the phrase 'bear arms' being used to describe a civilian's carrying of arms. Early constitutional provisions or declarations of rights in at least some ten different states speak of the right of the 'people' [or 'citizen' or 'citizens'] "to bear arms in defense of themselves [or 'himself'] and the state,' or equivalent words, thus indisputably reflecting that under common usage 'bear arms' was in no sense restricted to bearing arms in military service."<sup id="cite_ref-Emerson000_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emerson000-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States_v._Miller"><i>United States v. Miller</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: United States v. Miller"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Miller" title="United States v. Miller">United States v. Miller</a></div> <p>In <i>United States v. Miller</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_307" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 307">307</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/307/174/">174</a> (1939), the Supreme Court rejected a Second Amendment challenge to the <a href="/wiki/National_Firearms_Act" title="National Firearms Act">National Firearms Act</a> prohibiting the interstate transportation of unregistered <a href="/wiki/Any_Other_Weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Any Other Weapon">Title II weapons</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Jack Miller and Frank Layton "did unlawfully ... transport in interstate commerce from ... Claremore ... Oklahoma to ... Siloam Springs ... Arkansas a certain firearm ... a double barrel ... shotgun having a barrel less than 18 inches in length ... at the time of so transporting said firearm in interstate commerce ... not having registered said firearm as required by Section 1132d of Title 26, United States Code, ... and not having in their possession a stamp-affixed written order ... as provided by Section 1132C ...<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In a unanimous opinion authored by <a href="/wiki/James_Clark_McReynolds" title="James Clark McReynolds">Justice McReynolds</a>, the Supreme Court stated "the objection that the Act usurps police power reserved to the States is plainly untenable."<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the Court explained: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In the absence of any evidence tending to show that possession or use of a 'shotgun having a barrel of less than eighteen inches in length' at this time has some reasonable relationship to any preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia, we cannot say that the Second Amendment guarantees the right to keep and bear such an instrument. Certainly it is not within judicial notice that this weapon is any part of the ordinary military equipment or that its use could contribute to the common defense.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Gun rights advocates claim that the Court in <i>Miller</i> ruled that the Second Amendment protected the right to keep arms that are part of "ordinary military equipment."<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also claim that the Court did not consider the question of whether the sawed-off shotgun in the case would be an applicable weapon for personal defense, instead looking solely at the weapon's suitability for the "common defense."<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Law professor <a href="/wiki/Andrew_McClurg" title="Andrew McClurg">Andrew McClurg</a> states, "The only certainty about <i>Miller</i> is that it failed to give either side a clear-cut victory. Most modern scholars recognize this fact."<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="District_of_Columbia_v._Heller"><i>District of Columbia v. Heller</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: District of Columbia v. Heller"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" title="District of Columbia v. Heller">District of Columbia v. Heller</a></div> <p>According to the syllabus prepared by the U.S. Supreme Court Reporter of Decisions,<sup id="cite_ref-RecorderOfDecisionsHellerSummary_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RecorderOfDecisionsHellerSummary-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <i>District of Columbia v. Heller</i>, 554 U.S. 570 (2008), the Supreme Court held<sup id="cite_ref-RecorderOfDecisionsHellerSummary_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RecorderOfDecisionsHellerSummary-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CornellHellerSummary_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CornellHellerSummary-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that the Second Amendment protects an individual right to possess a firearm unconnected with service in a militia, and to use that arm for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self-defense within the home. pp. 2–53.<sup id="cite_ref-RecorderOfDecisionsHellerSummary_80-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RecorderOfDecisionsHellerSummary-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CornellHellerSummary_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CornellHellerSummary-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other legal summaries of the court's findings in this case are similar.<sup id="cite_ref-WitkinSummary_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WitkinSummary-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MooreSummary_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MooreSummary-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GlinSummary_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GlinSummary-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OLRResearchSummary_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OLRResearchSummary-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OyezHellerSummary_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OyezHellerSummary-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LCAVHellerSummary_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LCAVHellerSummary-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="McDonald_v._Chicago"><i>McDonald v. Chicago</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: McDonald v. Chicago"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/McDonald_v._Chicago" class="mw-redirect" title="McDonald v. Chicago">McDonald v. Chicago</a></div> <p>On June 28, 2010, the Supreme Court in <i>McDonald v. Chicago</i>, 561 U.S. 3025 (2010) held that the Second Amendment was fully incorporated within the 14th Amendment. This means that the court ruled that the Second Amendment limits state and local governments to the same extent that it limits the federal government.<sup id="cite_ref-nytimes.com_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nytimes.com-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also remanded a case regarding a Chicago handgun prohibition. Four of the five Justices in the majority voted to do so by way of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Due_Process_Clause" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment</a>, while the fifth Justice, <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a>, voted to do so through the amendment's <a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities Clause</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_politics_of_the_right_to_keep_and_bear_arms">The politics of the right to keep and bear arms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The politics of the right to keep and bear arms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Gun politics in the United States">Gun politics in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20210420_Gun_control_survey_by_political_party_-_Pew_Research.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/20210420_Gun_control_survey_by_political_party_-_Pew_Research.svg/330px-20210420_Gun_control_survey_by_political_party_-_Pew_Research.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/20210420_Gun_control_survey_by_political_party_-_Pew_Research.svg/495px-20210420_Gun_control_survey_by_political_party_-_Pew_Research.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/20210420_Gun_control_survey_by_political_party_-_Pew_Research.svg/660px-20210420_Gun_control_survey_by_political_party_-_Pew_Research.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption> U.S. opinion on gun control issues is deeply divided along political lines, as shown in this 2021 survey.<sup id="cite_ref-Pew_20210420_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pew_20210420-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The political party that advocates most for gun rights is the <a href="/wiki/Libertarian_Party_(United_States)" title="Libertarian Party (United States)">Libertarian Party</a>, who believe gun rights is a natural right for everyone. They are followed by the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a>, which advocates for gun rights, but support gun control measures, like red flag laws, and prohibition of certain individuals from owning guns. The <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> advocates for the most gun control measures historically. Interest groups, primarily in the United States, exert political pressure for and against legislation limiting the right to keep and bear arms. This political debate in America is organized between those who seek stricter regulations and those who believe gun regulations violate the Second Amendment protection of a right to keep and bear arms.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-8476-8614-0_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-8476-8614-0-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest advocacy group in this regard is the <a href="/wiki/National_Rifle_Association_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="National Rifle Association of America">National Rifle Association of America</a> (NRA), and its political wing the NRA Institute for Legislative Action, aside from the Libertarian Party which advocates gun rights for everyone in their political platform. Several other groups including the <a href="/wiki/Gun_Owners_of_America" title="Gun Owners of America">Gun Owners of America</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Citizens_Committee_for_the_Right_to_Keep_and_Bear_Arms" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizens Committee for the Right to Keep and Bear Arms">Citizens Committee for the Right to Keep and Bear Arms</a>, while smaller in size, are also politically active.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-7425-5347-7_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-7425-5347-7-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gun control advocacy groups include the <a href="/wiki/Brady_Campaign" title="Brady Campaign">Brady Campaign</a> and <a href="/wiki/Everytown_for_Gun_Safety" title="Everytown for Gun Safety">Everytown for Gun Safety</a>, which are increasingly gaining political clout and spending power.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are also socialist gun rights groups, including the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Rifle_Association" title="Socialist Rifle Association">Socialist Rifle Association</a><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Redneck_Revolt" title="Redneck Revolt">Redneck Revolt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-watt_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-watt-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Public_opinion">Public opinion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Public opinion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2023">2023</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: 2023"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to a 2023 <a href="/wiki/Fox_News" title="Fox News">Fox News</a> poll found registered voters overwhelmingly supported a wide variety of gun restrictions: </p> <ul><li>87% said they support requiring criminal background checks for all gun buyers;</li> <li>81% support raising the age requirement to buy guns to 21;</li> <li>80% support requiring mental health checks for all gun purchasers;</li> <li>80% said police should be allowed take guns away from people considered a danger to themselves or others;</li> <li>61% supported banning <a href="/wiki/Assault_rifle" title="Assault rifle">assault rifles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semi-automatic_firearm" title="Semi-automatic firearm">semi-automatic weapons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2nd_Amendment_Day" title="2nd Amendment Day">2nd Amendment Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_gun_ownership" class="mw-redirect" title="American gun ownership">American gun ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_laws_in_the_United_States_by_state" title="Gun laws in the United States by state">Gun laws in the United States by state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_sanctuary" title="Second Amendment sanctuary">Second Amendment sanctuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Gun politics">Gun politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_gun_politics_articles" title="Index of gun politics articles">Index of gun politics articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overview_of_gun_laws_by_nation" title="Overview of gun laws by nation">Overview of gun laws by nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_self-defense" title="Right of self-defense">Right of self-defense</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/06/28/AR2010062802134.html">"Supreme Court affirms fundamental right to bear arms"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191011034831/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/06/28/AR2010062802134.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-10-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-09-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+affirms+fundamental+right+to+bear+arms&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2010%2F06%2F28%2FAR2010062802134.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/29/us/29scotus.html">"Justices Extend Firearm Rights in 5-to-4 Ruling"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 29 June 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191212004906/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/29/us/29scotus.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Justices+Extend+Firearm+Rights+in+5-to-4+Ruling&rft.date=2010-06-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2010%2F06%2F29%2Fus%2F29scotus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/second_amendment">"Second Amendment"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170911162147/https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/second_amendment">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-09-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-03-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=Second+Amendment&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Fsecond_amendment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVolokh,_Eugene" class="citation web cs1">Volokh, Eugene. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.law.ucla.edu/volokh/beararms/statecon.htm">"State Constitutional Rights to Keep and Bear Arms"</a>. UCLA Law School. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200305164659/https://www2.law.ucla.edu/volokh/beararms/statecon.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-03-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-11-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=State+Constitutional+Rights+to+Keep+and+Bear+Arms&rft.pub=UCLA+Law+School&rft.au=Volokh%2C+Eugene&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.law.ucla.edu%2Fvolokh%2Fbeararms%2Fstatecon.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/second_amendment">"Second Amendment"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170703150532/https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/second_amendment">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-06-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=Second+Amendment&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fconstitution%2Fsecond_amendment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Young, David E., The Founders' View of the Right to Bear Arms, p. 222.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcAffeeQuinlan1997" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">McAffee, Thomas B.; Quinlan, Michael J. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/facpub/512/">"Bringing Forward The Right To Keep And Bear Arms: Do Text, History, or Precedent Stand In The Way?"</a>. <i>Scholarly Works</i>. Paper 512. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190319122046/https://scholars.law.unlv.edu/facpub/512/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-03-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scholarly+Works&rft.atitle=Bringing+Forward+The+Right+To+Keep+And+Bear+Arms%3A+Do+Text%2C+History%2C+or+Precedent+Stand+In+The+Way%3F&rft.volume=Paper+512&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=McAffee&rft.aufirst=Thomas+B.&rft.au=Quinlan%2C+Michael+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholars.law.unlv.edu%2Ffacpub%2F512%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-c21WillMarSess2-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-c21WillMarSess2_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.statutelaw.gov.uk/content.aspx?activeTextDocId=1518621">"1688 c.2 1 Will. and Mar. Sess. 2"</a>. Statutelaw.gov.uk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100824084135/http://www.statutelaw.gov.uk/content.aspx?activeTextDocId=1518621">Archived</a> from the original on August 24, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 30,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1688+c.2+1+Will.+and+Mar.+Sess.+2&rft.pub=Statutelaw.gov.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.statutelaw.gov.uk%2Fcontent.aspx%3FactiveTextDocId%3D1518621&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/blackstone_bk1ch1.asp">"Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England"</a>. Avalon.law.yale.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110705141310/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/blackstone_bk1ch1.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-07-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-05-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Blackstone%27s+Commentaries+on+the+Laws+of+England&rft.pub=Avalon.law.yale.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Fblackstone_bk1ch1.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLammiChang2004" class="citation journal cs1">Lammi, Glenn G.; Chang, James (December 17, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wlf.org/upload/121704LBChang.pdf">"Michigan High Court Ruling Offers Positive Guidance on Challenges to Tort Reform Laws"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Legal Backgrounder</i>. <b>19</b> (46). <a href="/wiki/Washington_Legal_Foundation" title="Washington Legal Foundation">Washington Legal Foundation</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1056-3059">1056-3059</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003749/http://www.wlf.org/upload/121704LBChang.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on March 4, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 30,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Legal+Backgrounder&rft.atitle=Michigan+High+Court+Ruling+Offers+Positive+Guidance+on+Challenges+to+Tort+Reform+Laws&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=46&rft.date=2004-12-17&rft.issn=1056-3059&rft.aulast=Lammi&rft.aufirst=Glenn+G.&rft.au=Chang%2C+James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wlf.org%2Fupload%2F121704LBChang.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.lis.virginia.gov/vacode/title1/chapter2.1/section1-200/">"§ 1-200. The common law"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210730131032/https://law.lis.virginia.gov/vacode/title1/chapter2.1/section1-200/">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-07-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-07-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%C2%A7+1-200.+The+common+law&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flaw.lis.virginia.gov%2Fvacode%2Ftitle1%2Fchapter2.1%2Fsection1-200%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lawrepository.ualr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1214&context=appellatepracticeprocess">"Judging in the Days of the Early Republic: A Critique of Judge Richard Arnold's Use of History in Anastasoff v. United States"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211215070054/https://lawrepository.ualr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1214&context=appellatepracticeprocess">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-12-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-07-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Judging+in+the+Days+of+the+Early+Republic%3A+A+Critique+of+Judge+Richard+Arnold%27s+Use+of+History+in+Anastasoff+v.+United+States&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flawrepository.ualr.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1214%26context%3Dappellatepracticeprocess&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/states/ny01.htm">New York Constitution of 1777</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071229072536/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/states/ny01.htm">Archived</a> 2007-12-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> via Avalon Project at <a href="/wiki/Yale" class="mw-redirect" title="Yale">Yale</a> Law School.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Washington Legal Foundation v. Legal Foundation of Washington</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://laws.lp.findlaw.com/getcase/9th/case/9835154&exact=1">271 F.3d 835</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151229005128/http://laws.lp.findlaw.com/getcase/9th/case/9835154%26exact%3D1">Archived</a> 2015-12-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (9th Cir. 2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.missouri.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3528&context=mlr">"Archived copy"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200709140732/https://scholarship.law.missouri.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3528&context=mlr">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-07-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-07-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.missouri.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D3528%26context%3Dmlr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TheTrace_20240409-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TheTrace_20240409_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TheTrace_20240409_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasciaBrownlee2024" class="citation web cs1">Mascia, Jennifer; Brownlee, Chip (April 9, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thetrace.org/2024/04/columbine-shooting-guns-whats-changed/">"The Armed Era"</a>. The Trace. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240414235456/https://www.thetrace.org/2024/04/columbine-shooting-guns-whats-changed/">Archived</a> from the original on April 14, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Armed+Era&rft.pub=The+Trace&rft.date=2024-04-09&rft.aulast=Mascia&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft.au=Brownlee%2C+Chip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetrace.org%2F2024%2F04%2Fcolumbine-shooting-guns-whats-changed%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Trace_20231231_FBI-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Trace_20231231_FBI_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">● Gun sale data from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownlee2023" class="citation news cs1">Brownlee, Chip (December 31, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thetrace.org/2023/12/data-gun-violence-deaths-america/">"Gun Violence by the Numbers in 2023"</a>. <i>The Trace</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240128065745/https://www.thetrace.org/2023/12/data-gun-violence-deaths-america/">Archived</a> from the original on January 28, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Trace&rft.atitle=Gun+Violence+by+the+Numbers+in+2023&rft.date=2023-12-31&rft.aulast=Brownlee&rft.aufirst=Chip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetrace.org%2F2023%2F12%2Fdata-gun-violence-deaths-america%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span><br />● NICS firearm check data downloaded via link at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fbi.gov/file-repository/nics_firearm_checks_-_month_year.pdf">"NICS Firearm Background Checks: Month/Year"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>FBI.gov</i>. Federal Bureau of Investigation. January 2024. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240129020051/https://www.fbi.gov/file-repository/nics_firearm_checks_-_month_year.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on January 29, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FBI.gov&rft.atitle=NICS+Firearm+Background+Checks%3A+Month%2FYear&rft.date=2024-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fbi.gov%2Ffile-repository%2Fnics_firearm_checks_-_month_year.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Halbrook,_Stephen_P._1994_8-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Halbrook,_Stephen_P._1994_8_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalbrook,_Stephen_P.1994" class="citation book cs1">Halbrook, Stephen P. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thateverymanbear0000halb/page/8"><i>That Every Man Be Armed: The Evolution of a Constitutional Right (Independent Studies in Political Economy)</i></a>. Oakland, CA: The Independent Institute. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thateverymanbear0000halb/page/8">8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-945999-38-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-945999-38-0"><bdi>0-945999-38-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=That+Every+Man+Be+Armed%3A+The+Evolution+of+a+Constitutional+Right+%28Independent+Studies+in+Political+Economy%29&rft.place=Oakland%2C+CA&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=The+Independent+Institute&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-945999-38-0&rft.au=Halbrook%2C+Stephen+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthateverymanbear0000halb%2Fpage%2F8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt,_Christopher2007" class="citation journal cs1">Schmidt, Christopher (February 2007). "An International Human Right to Keep and Bear Arms". <i>William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal</i>. <b>15</b> (3). Williamsburg, VA: The College of William & Mary School of Law: 983.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=William+%26+Mary+Bill+of+Rights+Journal&rft.atitle=An+International+Human+Right+to+Keep+and+Bear+Arms&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=983&rft.date=2007-02&rft.au=Schmidt%2C+Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKates,_Jr.1983" class="citation journal cs1">Kates, Jr., Don B. (November 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3437&context=mlr">"Handgun Prohibition and the Original Meaning of the Second Amendment"</a>. <i>Michigan Law Review</i>. <b>82</b> (2). The Michigan Law Review Association: <span class="nowrap">204–</span>73. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1288537">10.2307/1288537</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1288537">1288537</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200106030115/https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3437&context=mlr">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-01-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-12-10</span></span>. <q>In unmistakable individual right terms: As civil rulers, not having their duty to the people duly before them, may attempt to tyrannize, and as the military forces which must be occasionally raised to defend our country, might pervert their power to the injury of their fellow citizens, the people are confirmed by the next article in their right to keep and bear <i>their private arms</i>. (Emphasis in original)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Michigan+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Handgun+Prohibition+and+the+Original+Meaning+of+the+Second+Amendment&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E204-%3C%2Fspan%3E73&rft.date=1983-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1288537&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1288537%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kates%2C+Jr.&rft.aufirst=Don+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.law.umich.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D3437%26context%3Dmlr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sayoko001-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sayoko001_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlodgett-Ford,_Sayoko1995" class="citation journal cs1">Blodgett-Ford, Sayoko (Fall 1995). "The Changing Meaning of the Right to Bear Arms". <i>Seton Hall Constitutional Law Journal</i>: 101.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Seton+Hall+Constitutional+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Changing+Meaning+of+the+Right+to+Bear+Arms&rft.ssn=fall&rft.pages=101&rft.date=1995&rft.au=Blodgett-Ford%2C+Sayoko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isbn0-8223-3017-2-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isbn0-8223-3017-2_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerkel,_William_G.Uviller,_H._Richard2002" class="citation book cs1">Merkel, William G.; Uviller, H. Richard (2002). "Ch. 9". <i>The militia and the right to arms, or, How the second amendment fell silent</i>. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">212–</span>25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-3017-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8223-3017-2"><bdi>0-8223-3017-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+9&rft.btitle=The+militia+and+the+right+to+arms%2C+or%2C+How+the+second+amendment+fell+silent&rft.place=Durham%2C+NC&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E212-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-8223-3017-2&rft.au=Merkel%2C+William+G.&rft.au=Uviller%2C+H.+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-5th-circuit/1332436.html">"United States v. Emerson, No. 99-10331., October 16, 2001 – US 5th Circuit | FindLaw"</a>. <i>FindLaw</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120817113421/https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-5th-circuit/1332436.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FindLaw&rft.atitle=United+States+v.+Emerson%2C+No.+99-10331.%2C+October+16%2C+2001+%E2%80%93+US+5th+Circuit+%26%23124%3B+FindLaw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcaselaw.findlaw.com%2Fus-5th-circuit%2F1332436.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rkba1982-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rkba1982_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rkba1982_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Right to Keep and Bear Arms, U.S. Senate. 2001 Paladin Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58160-254-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-58160-254-5">1-58160-254-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Heller</i>, Syllabus, item #1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UM194-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UM194_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Uviller, H. Richard. & Merkel, William G.: <i>The Militia and the Right to Arms, Or, How the second Amendment Fell Silent </i>, pp. 23, 194. Duke University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-3017-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8223-3017-2">0-8223-3017-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pepper, John; Petrie, Carol; Wellford, Charles F.: <i>Firearms and violence</i>, p. 290. National Academies Press, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-309-09124-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-309-09124-1">0-309-09124-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Garry_Wills" title="Garry Wills">Wills, Garry</a>. <i>To Keep and Bear Arms</i>. New York Review Of Books, September 21, 1995.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isbn0-300-09562-7-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isbn0-300-09562-7_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams,_David_H.2003" class="citation book cs1">Williams, David H. (2003). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mythicmeaningsse00will"><i>The mythic meanings of the Second Amendment: taming political violence in a constitutional republic</i></a></span>. New Haven, CN: Yale University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mythicmeaningsse00will/page/n15">5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-09562-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-09562-7"><bdi>0-300-09562-7</bdi></a>. <q>The amendment thus guarantees a right to arms only within the context of a militia, not an individual right to arms for self-defense or hunting.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+mythic+meanings+of+the+Second+Amendment%3A+taming+political+violence+in+a+constitutional+republic&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CN&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-300-09562-7&rft.au=Williams%2C+David+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmythicmeaningsse00will&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UM194b-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UM194b_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Uviller, H. Richard. & Merkel, William G.: <i>The Militia and the Right to Arms, Or, How the Second Amendment Fell Silent </i>, p. 194. Duke University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-3017-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8223-3017-2">0-8223-3017-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cramer-Olson001-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cramer-Olson001_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cramer-Olson001_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCramer,_Clayton_E.Olson,_Joseph2008" class="citation journal cs1">Cramer, Clayton E.; Olson, Joseph (2008). "What Did "Bear Arms" Mean in the Second Amendment?". <i>Georgetown Journal of Law & Public Policy</i>. <b>6</b> (2).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Georgetown+Journal+of+Law+%26+Public+Policy&rft.atitle=What+Did+%22Bear+Arms%22+Mean+in+the+Second+Amendment%3F&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Cramer%2C+Clayton+E.&rft.au=Olson%2C+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isbn0-684-87026-6-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isbn0-684-87026-6_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWills,_Garry2002" class="citation book cs1">Wills, Garry (2002). <i>A Necessary Evil: A History of American Distrust of Government</i>. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 257. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-87026-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-87026-6"><bdi>0-684-87026-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Necessary+Evil%3A+A+History+of+American+Distrust+of+Government&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=257&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-684-87026-6&rft.au=Wills%2C+Garry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wills, Garry (1999). <i>A Necessary Evil</i> pp. 256–57. New York: Simon & Schuster.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Espohl_97-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Espohl_97_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Espohl_97_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEspohl,_Frank1997" class="citation journal cs1">Espohl, Frank (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130523070409/http://www.saf.org/LawReviews/Espohl1.htm">"The Right to Carry Concealed Weapons for Self Defense"</a>. <i>Southern Illinois University Law Journal</i>. <b>22</b>: 151. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saf.org/LawReviews/Espohl1.htm">the original</a> on 2013-05-23. <q>The right of self-preservation, including the right of self-defense, has been suggested to be within the protection of the Ninth Amendment. Thus, although some courts have refused to hold that the Ninth Amendment protects a right to possess firearms, laws which restrict the ability of law-abiding citizens to possess firearms for the purpose of self-defense could be said to violate the Ninth Amendment. Another common interpretation of the Ninth Amendment is that it protects rights which were recognized at common law as being among the "fundamental rights of Englishmen." The common law, as described in Blackstone's Commentaries, has been carried into American jurisprudence. One such right protected at common law was the right to self-defense and the right to possess and carry weapons for defensive purposes. Hobbes described the right to self-defense as a fundamental natural right of which persons can not justly be deprived by any law or covenant. Blackstone listed self-defense and the right to carry weapons for self-defense as one of the fundamental rights of Englishmen. Blackstone further described the right to self-defense as "the primary law of nature, so it is not, nor can it be in fact, taken away by the law of society</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southern+Illinois+University+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Right+to+Carry+Concealed+Weapons+for+Self+Defense&rft.volume=22&rft.pages=151&rft.date=1997&rft.au=Espohl%2C+Frank&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.saf.org%2FLawReviews%2FEspohl1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BoR-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BoR_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/bill_of_rights_transcript.html">"Bill of Rights Transcript Text"</a>. <i>archives.gov</i>. 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161009200121/http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/bill_of_rights_transcript.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archives.gov&rft.atitle=Bill+of+Rights+Transcript+Text&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fexhibits%2Fcharters%2Fbill_of_rights_transcript.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nclr-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nclr_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcAffeeMichael_J._Quinlan1997" class="citation journal cs1">McAffee, Thomas B.; Michael J. Quinlan (March 1997). "Bringing Forward The Right To Keep And Bear Arms: Do Text, History, Or Precedent Stand In The Way?". <i>North Carolina Law Review</i>: 781.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=North+Carolina+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Bringing+Forward+The+Right+To+Keep+And+Bear+Arms%3A+Do+Text%2C+History%2C+Or+Precedent+Stand+In+The+Way%3F&rft.pages=781&rft.date=1997-03&rft.aulast=McAffee&rft.aufirst=Thomas+B.&rft.au=Michael+J.+Quinlan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ylj1-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ylj1_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmar1992" class="citation journal cs1">Amar, Akhil (April 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/fss_papers/1040">"The Bill Of Rights And The Fourteenth Amendment"</a>. <i>Yale Law Journal</i>. <b>101</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1193–</span>1284. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F796923">10.2307/796923</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/796923">796923</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200807090330/https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/fss_papers/1040/">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-08-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yale+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Bill+Of+Rights+And+The+Fourteenth+Amendment&rft.volume=101&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1193-%3C%2Fspan%3E1284&rft.date=1992-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F796923&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F796923%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Amar&rft.aufirst=Akhil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.law.yale.edu%2Ffss_papers%2F1040&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isbn0-8223-3017-2b-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isbn0-8223-3017-2b_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerkel,_William_G.Uviller,_H._Richard2002" class="citation book cs1">Merkel, William G.; Uviller, H. Richard (2002). "Ch. 7". <i>The militia and the right to arms, or, How the second amendment fell silent</i>. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. <span class="nowrap">151–</span>52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-3017-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8223-3017-2"><bdi>0-8223-3017-2</bdi></a>. <q>Given the continued vitality of the social role of armed troops, has the institution of the militia evolved into a viable military force in America today? Medieval monks might enjoy the question: is a military force that developed out of an ancient construct known as "the militia" still a militia though it boasts none of the defining characteristics of that form of military organization, and is, actually, in character the contradiction of many of them? It's a little like the parable of Aristotle's knife: if I break the blade of my knife and replace it, and then put a new handle on it, is it still the same knife?</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+7&rft.btitle=The+militia+and+the+right+to+arms%2C+or%2C+How+the+second+amendment+fell+silent&rft.place=Durham%2C+NC&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E151-%3C%2Fspan%3E52&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-8223-3017-2&rft.au=Merkel%2C+William+G.&rft.au=Uviller%2C+H.+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isbn0-300-09562-7b-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isbn0-300-09562-7b_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams,_David_H.2003" class="citation book cs1">Williams, David H. (2003). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mythicmeaningsse00will"><i>The mythic meanings of the Second Amendment: taming political violence in a constitutional republic</i></a></span>. New Haven, CN: Yale University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mythicmeaningsse00will/page/n88">78</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-09562-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-09562-7"><bdi>0-300-09562-7</bdi></a>. <q>Technically, all males aged seventeen to forty-five are members of the unorganized militia, but that status has no practical legal significance. Such "militia members" are not required to own guns, to drill together, or to learn virtue. The statutory provision creating this "universal militia" is nothing more than a dim memory of a distant hope.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+mythic+meanings+of+the+Second+Amendment%3A+taming+political+violence+in+a+constitutional+republic&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CN&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-300-09562-7&rft.au=Williams%2C+David+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmythicmeaningsse00will&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UM23-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UM23_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Uviller, H. Richard. & Merkel, William G.: <i>The Militia and the Right to Arms, Or, How the Second Amendment Fell Silent </i>, p. 23. Duke University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-3017-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8223-3017-2">0-8223-3017-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UM24-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UM24_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Uviller, H. Richard. & Merkel, William G.: <i>The Militia and the Right to Arms, Or, How the Second Amendment Fell Silent </i>, p. 24. Duke University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-3017-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8223-3017-2">0-8223-3017-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrady2002" class="citation book cs1">Brady, Sarah (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/goodfight00brad"><i>A Good Fight</i></a>. Public Affairs. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58648-105-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-58648-105-3"><bdi>1-58648-105-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Good+Fight&rft.pub=Public+Affairs&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-58648-105-3&rft.aulast=Brady&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgoodfight00brad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spitzer000-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Spitzer000_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpitzer2003" class="citation book cs1">Spitzer, Robert J. (2003). <i>The Second Amendment "Right to Bear Arms" and United States v. Emerson</i>. 77 St. John's L. Rev.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+Amendment+%22Right+to+Bear+Arms%22+and+United+States+v.+Emerson&rft.pub=77+St.+John%27s+L.+Rev&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Spitzer&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saul_Cornell_neither_model-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Saul_Cornell_neither_model_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cornell, <i>Gun Control</i>, p. 6. Neither of the two modern theories that have defined public debate over the right to bear arms is faithful to the original understanding of this provision of the Bill of Rights.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Justice Story "misidentified" it as the "5th Amendment. Several public officials, including <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> and Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story, retained the confusing practice of referring to each of the ten amendments in the Bill of Rights by the enumeration found in the first draft; the fifth article is the Second Amendment.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=60&invol=393">"FindLaw | Cases and Codes"</a>. <i>Caselaw.lp.findlaw.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130815052036/http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=60&invol=393">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-08-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-07-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Caselaw.lp.findlaw.com&rft.atitle=FindLaw+%26%23124%3B+Cases+and+Codes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcaselaw.lp.findlaw.com%2Fscripts%2Fgetcase.pl%3Fcourt%3DUS%26vol%3D60%26invol%3D393&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">60 U.S. 393, 417 (1857).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-staterkba-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-staterkba_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVolokh2006" class="citation web cs1">Volokh, Eugene (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.ucla.edu/volokh/beararms/statecon.htm">"State Constitutional Right to Keep and Bear Arms Provisions"</a>. UCLA. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191031203403/http://www2.law.ucla.edu/volokh/beararms/statecon.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-10-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-05-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=State+Constitutional+Right+to+Keep+and+Bear+Arms+Provisions&rft.pub=UCLA&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Volokh&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.ucla.edu%2Fvolokh%2Fbeararms%2Fstatecon.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cooley, Thomas M. & Angell, Alexis C.: <i>A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations which Rest Upon the Legislative Power of the States of the American Union</i>, p. 427. Boston: Little, Brown & Company. 1890.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bliss_v_commonwealth-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bliss_v_commonwealth_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bliss_v_commonwealth_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>Bliss v. Commonwealth</i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/usr/wbardwel/public/nfalist/bliss_v_commonwealth.txt">2 Littell 90</a> (KY 1882).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100109081603/http://courts.ky.gov/NR/rdonlyres/E5470543-A249-4265-8EDD-0C0DDD6A7212/0/2ndKYConstitution.pdf">"Kentucky's Second Constitution (1799)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://courts.ky.gov/NR/rdonlyres/E5470543-A249-4265-8EDD-0C0DDD6A7212/0/2ndKYConstitution.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on January 9, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-05-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kentucky%27s+Second+Constitution+%281799%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcourts.ky.gov%2FNR%2Frdonlyres%2FE5470543-A249-4265-8EDD-0C0DDD6A7212%2F0%2F2ndKYConstitution.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-1967hearing-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1967hearing_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">United States. Anti-Crime Program. Hearings Before Ninetieth Congress, First Session. Washington: U.S. Government Print. Off, 1967, p. 246. quote: <i>"...all citizens had the unabridgable right to bear arms for self-protection as well as for militia purposes and that a statute prohibiting the carrying of concealed weapons was violative of the Second Amendment (see Bliss v. Commonwealth, 2 Litt. (Ky) 90, 13 Am. December 251 (1822)) ... </i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-William_Weir.-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-William_Weir._53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeir,_William1997" class="citation book cs1">Weir, William (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wellregulatedmil0000weir/page/35"><i>A Well regulated militia: the battle over gun control</i></a>. North Haven, CN: Archon Books. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wellregulatedmil0000weir/page/35">35–36</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-208-02423-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-208-02423-9"><bdi>0-208-02423-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Well+regulated+militia%3A+the+battle+over+gun+control&rft.place=North+Haven%2C+CN&rft.pages=35-36&rft.pub=Archon+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-208-02423-9&rft.au=Weir%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwellregulatedmil0000weir%2Fpage%2F35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce1982" class="citation journal cs1">Pierce, Darell R. (1982). "Second Amendment Survey". <i>Northern Kentucky Law Review Second Amendment Symposium: Rights in Conflict in 1980s</i>. <b>10</b> (1): 155.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Northern+Kentucky+Law+Review+Second+Amendment+Symposium%3A+Rights+in+Conflict+in+1980s&rft.atitle=Second+Amendment+Survey&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=155&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Darell+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Two states, <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">Vermont</a>, do not require a permit or license for carrying a concealed weapon to this day, following Kentucky's original position.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Ward-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Ward_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornell,_Saul2006" class="citation book cs1">Cornell, Saul (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wellregulatedmil00corn_0/page/147"><i>A Well-Regulated Militia – The Founding Fathers and the Origins of Gun Control in America</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wellregulatedmil00corn_0/page/147">147–49</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514786-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514786-5"><bdi>978-0-19-514786-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Well-Regulated+Militia+%E2%80%93+The+Founding+Fathers+and+the+Origins+of+Gun+Control+in+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=147-49&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514786-5&rft.au=Cornell%2C+Saul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwellregulatedmil00corn_0%2Fpage%2F147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdm15138.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/tfd/id/495/rec/2">"Tennessee Constitution, 1834"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180215204055/http://cdm15138.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/tfd/id/495/rec/2">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-02-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-02-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tennessee+Constitution%2C+1834&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdm15138.contentdm.oclc.org%2Fcdm%2Fcompoundobject%2Fcollection%2Ftfd%2Fid%2F495%2Frec%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ph.D.Carter2012-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ph.D.Carter2012_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPh.D.Carter2012" class="citation book cs1">Ph.D., Gregg Lee Carter; Carter, Gregg Lee (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oD46JBOhMU0C&pg=PA647"><i>Guns in American Society</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 647–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313386701" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313386701"><bdi>978-0313386701</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055800/http://books.google.com/books?id=oD46JBOhMU0C&pg=PA647">Archived</a> from the original on 21 September 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guns+in+American+Society&rft.pages=647-&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0313386701&rft.aulast=Ph.D.&rft.aufirst=Gregg+Lee+Carter&rft.au=Carter%2C+Gregg+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoD46JBOhMU0C%26pg%3DPA647&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ph.D.2012-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ph.D.2012_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPh.D.2012" class="citation book cs1">Ph.D., Gregg Lee Carter (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QeGJH48PT0kC"><i>Guns in American Society</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313386718" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313386718"><bdi>978-0313386718</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130921063249/http://books.google.com/books?id=QeGJH48PT0kC">Archived</a> from the original on 21 September 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guns+in+American+Society&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0313386718&rft.aulast=Ph.D.&rft.aufirst=Gregg+Lee+Carter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQeGJH48PT0kC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scotusblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/07-2901.pdf">"District of Columbia v. Heller"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180514035229/http://www.scotusblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/07-2901.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2018-05-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-02-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=District+of+Columbia+v.+Heller&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotusblog.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2008%2F06%2F07-2901.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-state_v_buzzard-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-state_v_buzzard_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-state_v_buzzard_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-state_v_buzzard_61-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i><a href="/wiki/State_v._Buzzard" title="State v. Buzzard">State v. Buzzard</a></i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guncite.com/court/state/4ar18.html">4 Ark. (2 Pike) 18</a> (1842).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Bishop-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Bishop_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornell,_Saul2006" class="citation book cs1">Cornell, Saul (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wellregulatedmil00corn_0/page/188"><i>A Well-Regulated Militia – The Founding Fathers and the Origins of Gun Control in America</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wellregulatedmil00corn_0/page/188">188</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514786-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514786-5"><bdi>978-0-19-514786-5</bdi></a>. <q>Dillon endorsed Bishop's view that <i>Buzzard</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s "Arkansas doctrine," not the libertarian views exhibited in <i>Bliss</i>, captured the dominant strain of American legal thinking on this question.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Well-Regulated+Militia+%E2%80%93+The+Founding+Fathers+and+the+Origins+of+Gun+Control+in+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=188&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514786-5&rft.au=Cornell%2C+Saul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwellregulatedmil00corn_0%2Fpage%2F188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kruschke_individual_rights-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kruschke_individual_rights_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKruschke,_Earl_R.1995" class="citation book cs1">Kruschke, Earl R. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/guncontrolrefere00krus/page/140"><i>Gun control: a reference handbook</i></a>. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/guncontrolrefere00krus/page/140">140–43</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87436-695-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-87436-695-X"><bdi>0-87436-695-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gun+control%3A+a+reference+handbook&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA&rft.pages=140-43&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-87436-695-X&rft.au=Kruschke%2C+Earl+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fguncontrolrefere00krus%2Fpage%2F140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Volokh-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Volokh_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVolokh1988" class="citation journal cs1">Volokh, Eugene (November–December 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.ucla.edu/volokh/beararms/testimon.htm#14">"Testimony of Eugene Volokh on the Second Amendment, Senate Subcommittee on the Constitution, September 23, 1998"</a>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=California_Political_Review&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="California Political Review (page does not exist)">California Political Review</a></i>: 23. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130914181348/http://www2.law.ucla.edu/volokh/beararms/testimon.htm#14">Archived</a> from the original on September 14, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 21,</span> 2013</span>. <q>A recent exhaustive study reveals that there was exactly one statement in the 1800s cases or commentaries supporting the collective rights view, a concurring opinion in an 1842 Arkansas state court case.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=California+Political+Review&rft.atitle=Testimony+of+Eugene+Volokh+on+the+Second+Amendment%2C+Senate+Subcommittee+on+the+Constitution%2C+September+23%2C+1998&rft.pages=23&rft.date=1988-11%2F1988-12&rft.aulast=Volokh&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.ucla.edu%2Fvolokh%2Fbeararms%2Ftestimon.htm%2314&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>City of Salina v. Blaksley</i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/user/wbardwel/public/nfalist/salina_v_blaksley.txt">72 Kan. 230</a> (1905).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Salina-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Salina_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornell,_Saul2006" class="citation book cs1">Cornell, Saul (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wellregulatedmil00corn_0/page/258"><i>A Well-Regulated Militia – The Founding Fathers and the Origins of Gun Control in America</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wellregulatedmil00corn_0/page/258">258</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514786-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514786-5"><bdi>978-0-19-514786-5</bdi></a>. <q>... the Kansas Supreme Court had used a similar formulation of the right to bear arms a decade earlier, describing this right as one that "refers to the people as a collective body.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Well-Regulated+Militia+%E2%80%93+The+Founding+Fathers+and+the+Origins+of+Gun+Control+in+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=258&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514786-5&rft.au=Cornell%2C+Saul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwellregulatedmil00corn_0%2Fpage%2F258&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dorf-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dorf_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dorf_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorf2001" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_C._Dorf" title="Michael C. Dorf">Dorf, Michael</a> (October 31, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://writ.news.findlaw.com/dorf/20011031.html">"Federal Court of Appeals Says the Second Amendment Places Limits on Gun Control Legislation"</a>. Findlaw-Writ. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110520070317/http://writ.news.findlaw.com/dorf/20011031.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-05-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-03-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Federal+Court+of+Appeals+Says+the+Second+Amendment+Places+Limits+on+Gun+Control+Legislation&rft.pub=Findlaw-Writ&rft.date=2001-10-31&rft.aulast=Dorf&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwrit.news.findlaw.com%2Fdorf%2F20011031.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiptak2007" class="citation news cs1">Liptak, Adam (May 6, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/06/us/06firearms.html?_r=1&ei=5087%0A&em=&en=c529991ff45afe5d&ex=1178596800&pagewanted=print&oref=slogin">"A Liberal Case for Gun Rights Sways Judiciary"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090424175805/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/06/us/06firearms.html?_r=1&ei=5087%0A&em=&en=c529991ff45afe5d&ex=1178596800&pagewanted=print&oref=slogin">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-04-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-03-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Liberal+Case+for+Gun+Rights+Sways+Judiciary&rft.date=2007-05-06&rft.aulast=Liptak&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2007%2F05%2F06%2Fus%2F06firearms.html%3F_r%3D1%26ei%3D5087%250A%26em%3D%26en%3Dc529991ff45afe5d%26ex%3D1178596800%26pagewanted%3Dprint%26oref%3Dslogin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Volokh_Conspiracy-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Volokh_Conspiracy_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://volokh.com/posts/1215491766.shtml">"The Volokh Conspiracy – Yet Another Early Post-<i>Heller</i> Second Amendment Case"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090305222436/http://volokh.com/posts/1215491766.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-03-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-02-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Volokh+Conspiracy+%E2%80%93+Yet+Another+Early+Post-Heller+Second+Amendment+Case&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvolokh.com%2Fposts%2F1215491766.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmarVikram_Amar2001" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Akhil_Amar" class="mw-redirect" title="Akhil Amar">Amar, Akhil</a>; <a href="/wiki/Vikram_Amar" title="Vikram Amar">Vikram Amar</a> (November 2, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://writ.news.findlaw.com/amar/20011102.html">"Guns and the Constitution: Telling The Right Second Amendment Story"</a>. Findlaw-Writ. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080511144341/http://writ.news.findlaw.com/amar/20011102.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-05-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-03-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Guns+and+the+Constitution%3A+Telling+The+Right+Second+Amendment+Story&rft.pub=Findlaw-Writ&rft.date=2001-11-02&rft.aulast=Amar&rft.aufirst=Akhil&rft.au=Vikram+Amar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwrit.news.findlaw.com%2Famar%2F20011102.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/ACLU_President_Strossen_on_religion,_drugs,_guns_and_impeaching_George_Bush#Gun_rights" class="extiw" title="n:ACLU President Strossen on religion, drugs, guns and impeaching George Bush">Interview with Nadine Strossen</a>, David Shankbone, <i><a href="/wiki/Wikinews" title="Wikinews">Wikinews</a></i>, October 30, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Emerson000-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Emerson000_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">United States v. Emerson, 270 F.3d 203 (5th Cir. 2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The cited excerpt from the <i>Emerson</i> decision reflects some of the court's lengthy analysis of Second Amendment jurisprudence (Spitzer 2003)(Reynolds 2002). This analysis garnered considerable attention and scrutiny by legal experts. Shortly after the decision, Attorney General <a href="/wiki/John_Ashcroft" title="John Ashcroft">John Ashcroft</a> directed the adoption of the Emerson court's view as the policy of the Justice Department in a memo to all ninety-three United States Attorneys in November 2001. In contrast, legal critics of the "individualist view" repudiated the <i>Emerson</i> analysis on various grounds. Judge Robert M. Parker, while concurring in the <i>Emerson</i> result, labeled the majority's analysis as <i>obiter dicta</i>, irrelevant to the outcome of the case (see <i>Emerson</i>, Spitzer 2003). Moreover, the thoroughness of the <i>Emerson</i> analysis was criticized because the court's rendered opinion relied substantially on interpretations submitted in a "brief presented by one party" (Spitzer 2003).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Miller</i>, at 175.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Template:Harvard_citation_documentation#Wikilink_to_citation_does_not_work" title="Template:Harvard citation documentation"><span title="Template:Harvard citation documentation#Wikilink to citation does not work (March 28, 2020)">citation not found</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Miller</i>, at 177–78.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Template:Harvard_citation_documentation#Wikilink_to_citation_does_not_work" title="Template:Harvard citation documentation"><span title="Template:Harvard citation documentation#Wikilink to citation does not work (March 28, 2020)">citation not found</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Miller</i>, at 178.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Template:Harvard_citation_documentation#Wikilink_to_citation_does_not_work" title="Template:Harvard citation documentation"><span title="Template:Harvard citation documentation#Wikilink to citation does not work (March 28, 2020)">citation not found</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFezell" class="citation web cs1">Fezell, Howard J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081222165117/http://www.secondamendment.net/2amd4.html">"The misconstruction of United States v. Miller"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.secondamendment.net/2amd4.html">the original</a> on December 22, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 5,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+misconstruction+of+United+States+v.+Miller&rft.aulast=Fezell&rft.aufirst=Howard+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.secondamendment.net%2F2amd4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Helmke2008" class="citation news cs1">Paul Helmke (March 28, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/paul-helmke/one-courts-second-amendme_b_74283.html">"One Court's Second Amendment Fantasy"</a>. <i>Huffington Post</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121113212551/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/paul-helmke/one-courts-second-amendme_b_74283.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 13, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 29,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Huffington+Post&rft.atitle=One+Court%27s+Second+Amendment+Fantasy&rft.date=2008-03-28&rft.au=Paul+Helmke&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2Fpaul-helmke%2Fone-courts-second-amendme_b_74283.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McClurg, p. 139. "But when all is said and done, the only certainty about <i>Miller</i> is that it failed to give either side a clear-cut victory. Most modern scholars recognize this fact. For example, Professor Eugene Volokh describes Miller as 'deliciously and usefully ambiguous' in an article about using the Second Amendment as a teaching tool in constitutional law. That is probably the most accurate statement that can be made about the case."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RecorderOfDecisionsHellerSummary-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RecorderOfDecisionsHellerSummary_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RecorderOfDecisionsHellerSummary_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RecorderOfDecisionsHellerSummary_80-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/search/display.html?terms=heller&url=/supct/html/07-290.ZS.html">"District of Columbia v. Heller (No. 07-290)"</a>. <i>Legal Information Institute</i>. Cornell University Law School. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130120034916/http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/search/display.html?terms=heller&url=%2Fsupct%2Fhtml%2F07-290.ZS.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 20, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 26,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=District+of+Columbia+v.+Heller+%28No.+07-290%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fsupct%2Fsearch%2Fdisplay.html%3Fterms%3Dheller%26url%3D%2Fsupct%2Fhtml%2F07-290.ZS.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CornellHellerSummary-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CornellHellerSummary_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CornellHellerSummary_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/07-290.ZS.html">"Cornell School of Law Summary of the <i>Heller</i> Decision"</a>. Law.cornell.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120911002745/http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/07-290.ZS.html">Archived</a> from the original on September 11, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 1,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cornell+School+of+Law+Summary+of+the+Heller+Decision&rft.pub=Law.cornell.edu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fsupct%2Fhtml%2F07-290.ZS.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WitkinSummary-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WitkinSummary_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.witkin.com/pages/recent_dev_pages/current_pages/conlaw_heller.htm">"Witkin Legal Institute Summary of the <i>Heller</i> Decision"</a>. Witkin.com. June 30, 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130115084557/http://www.witkin.com/pages/recent_dev_pages/current_pages/conlaw_heller.htm">Archived</a> from the original on January 15, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 26,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Witkin+Legal+Institute+Summary+of+the+Heller+Decision&rft.pub=Witkin.com&rft.date=2009-06-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.witkin.com%2Fpages%2Frecent_dev_pages%2Fcurrent_pages%2Fconlaw_heller.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MooreSummary-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MooreSummary_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mooredefenselaw.com/2008/06/a-quick-summary-on-district-of-columbia-v-heller/">"Nathan Moore Summary of the Heller Decision"</a>. Mooredefenselaw.com. June 30, 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130115084557/http://mooredefenselaw.com/2008/06/a-quick-summary-on-district-of-columbia-v-heller/">Archived</a> from the original on January 15, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 26,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nathan+Moore+Summary+of+the+Heller+Decision&rft.pub=Mooredefenselaw.com&rft.date=2008-06-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmooredefenselaw.com%2F2008%2F06%2Fa-quick-summary-on-district-of-columbia-v-heller%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GlinSummary-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GlinSummary_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120229205035/http://www.glin.gov/view.action?glinID=207840">"Global Legal Information Network Summary of the <i>Heller</i> Decision"</a>. Glin.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.glin.gov/view.action?glinID=207840">the original</a> on February 29, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 1,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Global+Legal+Information+Network+Summary+of+the+Heller+Decision&rft.pub=Glin.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.glin.gov%2Fview.action%3FglinID%3D207840&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OLRResearchSummary-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OLRResearchSummary_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVeronica_RosePrincipal_Analyst" class="citation web cs1">Veronica Rose; Principal Analyst. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cga.ct.gov/2008/rpt/2008-R-0578.htm">"OLR Research Institute's Summary of the Heller Decision"</a>. Cga.ct.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121113012320/http://www.cga.ct.gov/2008/rpt/2008-R-0578.htm">Archived</a> from the original on November 13, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 1,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=OLR+Research+Institute%27s+Summary+of+the+Heller+Decision&rft.pub=Cga.ct.gov&rft.au=Veronica+Rose&rft.au=Principal+Analyst&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cga.ct.gov%2F2008%2Frpt%2F2008-R-0578.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OyezHellerSummary-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OyezHellerSummary_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2000-2009/2007/2007_07_290">"Oyez Summary of the <i>Heller</i> Decision"</a>. Oyez.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130116072425/http://www.oyez.org/cases/2000-2009/2007/2007_07_290">Archived</a> from the original on January 16, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 26,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oyez+Summary+of+the+Heller+Decision&rft.pub=Oyez.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oyez.org%2Fcases%2F2000-2009%2F2007%2F2007_07_290&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LCAVHellerSummary-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LCAVHellerSummary_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120913195421/http://www.lcav.org/pdf/dc_v_heller_analysis.pdf">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Legal Community Against Violence" Summary of the <i>Heller</i> Decision"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Lcav.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lcav.org/pdf/dc_v_heller_analysis.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on September 13, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 1,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Legal+Community+Against+Violence%22+Summary+of+the+Heller+Decision&rft.pub=Lcav.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lcav.org%2Fpdf%2Fdc_v_heller_analysis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nytimes.com-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nytimes.com_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiptak2010" class="citation news cs1">Liptak, Adam (June 28, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/29/us/29scotus.html?src=me">"Justices Extend Firearm Rights in 5-to-4 Ruling"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130227193422/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/29/us/29scotus.html?src=me">Archived</a> from the original on February 27, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 17,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Justices+Extend+Firearm+Rights+in+5-to-4+Ruling&rft.date=2010-06-28&rft.aulast=Liptak&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2010%2F06%2F29%2Fus%2F29scotus.html%3Fsrc%3Dme&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScarola2010" class="citation web cs1">Scarola, Matthew (June 28, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scotusblog.com/2010/06/analysis-state-gun-regulations-and-mcdonald/">"Analysis: state gun regulations and McDonald"</a>. <a href="/wiki/SCOTUSblog" title="SCOTUSblog">SCOTUSblog</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100703055256/http://www.scotusblog.com/2010/06/analysis-state-gun-regulations-and-mcdonald/">Archived</a> from the original on July 3, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 3,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Analysis%3A+state+gun+regulations+and+McDonald&rft.pub=SCOTUSblog&rft.date=2010-06-28&rft.aulast=Scarola&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotusblog.com%2F2010%2F06%2Fanalysis-state-gun-regulations-and-mcdonald%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pew_20210420-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pew_20210420_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2021/04/20/amid-a-series-of-mass-shootings-in-the-u-s-gun-policy-remains-deeply-divisive/">"Amid a Series of Mass Shootings in the U.S., Gun Policy Remains Deeply Divisive"</a>. <i>PewResearch.org</i>. April 20, 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220530202009/https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2021/04/20/amid-a-series-of-mass-shootings-in-the-u-s-gun-policy-remains-deeply-divisive/">Archived</a> from the original on May 30, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PewResearch.org&rft.atitle=Amid+a+Series+of+Mass+Shootings+in+the+U.S.%2C+Gun+Policy+Remains+Deeply+Divisive&rft.date=2021-04-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Fpolitics%2F2021%2F04%2F20%2Famid-a-series-of-mass-shootings-in-the-u-s-gun-policy-remains-deeply-divisive%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isbn0-8476-8614-0-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isbn0-8476-8614-0_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilcox,_ClydeBruce,_John_W.1998" class="citation book cs1">Wilcox, Clyde; Bruce, John W. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/changingpolitics0000unse/page/3"><i>The changing politics of gun control</i></a>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/changingpolitics0000unse/page/3">3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8476-8614-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8476-8614-0"><bdi>0-8476-8614-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+changing+politics+of+gun+control&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-8476-8614-0&rft.au=Wilcox%2C+Clyde&rft.au=Bruce%2C+John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchangingpolitics0000unse%2Fpage%2F3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isbn0-7425-5347-7-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isbn0-7425-5347-7_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarry_L._Wilson2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harry_L._Wilson" title="Harry L. Wilson">Harry L. Wilson</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gunsguncontrolel0000wils/page/171"><i>Guns, gun control, and elections: the politics and policy of firearms</i></a>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gunsguncontrolel0000wils/page/171">171</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5347-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5347-7"><bdi>978-0-7425-5347-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guns%2C+gun+control%2C+and+elections%3A+the+politics+and+policy+of+firearms&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-5347-7&rft.au=Harry+L.+Wilson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgunsguncontrolel0000wils%2Fpage%2F171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHakimShorey2018" class="citation news cs1">Hakim, Danny; Shorey, Rachel (2018-11-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/16/us/politics/nra-gun-control-fund-raising.html">"Gun Control Groups Eclipse N.R.A. in Election Spending"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190806180438/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/16/us/politics/nra-gun-control-fund-raising.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-08-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-08-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Gun+Control+Groups+Eclipse+N.R.A.+in+Election+Spending&rft.date=2018-11-16&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Hakim&rft.aufirst=Danny&rft.au=Shorey%2C+Rachel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2018%2F11%2F16%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2Fnra-gun-control-fund-raising.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoastAlaska2018" class="citation web cs1">CoastAlaska, Jacob Resneck (2018-11-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ktoo.org/2018/11/19/meet-the-socialist-rifle-association-the-lefts-answer-to-conservative-gun-culture/">"Meet the Socialist Rifle Association. The left's answer to conservative gun culture"</a>. <i>KTOO</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20181120112704/https://www.ktoo.org/2018/11/19/meet-the-socialist-rifle-association-the-lefts-answer-to-conservative-gun-culture/">Archived</a> from the original on November 20, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-07-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=KTOO&rft.atitle=Meet+the+Socialist+Rifle+Association.+The+left%27s+answer+to+conservative+gun+culture.&rft.date=2018-11-19&rft.aulast=CoastAlaska&rft.aufirst=Jacob+Resneck&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ktoo.org%2F2018%2F11%2F19%2Fmeet-the-socialist-rifle-association-the-lefts-answer-to-conservative-gun-culture%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-watt-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-watt_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatt2017" class="citation web cs1">Watt, Cecilia Saixue (July 11, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/jul/11/redneck-revolt-guns-anti-racism-fascism-far-left">"Redneck Revolt: the armed leftwing group that wants to stamp out fascism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20170711102051/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/jul/11/redneck-revolt-guns-anti-racism-fascism-far-left">Archived</a> from the original on July 11, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 18,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Redneck+Revolt%3A+the+armed+leftwing+group+that+wants+to+stamp+out+fascism&rft.date=2017-07-11&rft.aulast=Watt&rft.aufirst=Cecilia+Saixue&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fus-news%2F2017%2Fjul%2F11%2Fredneck-revolt-guns-anti-racism-fascism-far-left&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaric2023" class="citation news cs1">Saric, Ivana (April 29, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.axios.com/2023/04/28/fox-news-poll-voters-want-gun-control">"Fox News poll finds voters overwhelmingly want restrictions on guns"</a>. <i>Axios</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Axios&rft.atitle=Fox+News+poll+finds+voters+overwhelmingly+want+restrictions+on+guns&rft.date=2023-04-29&rft.aulast=Saric&rft.aufirst=Ivana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.axios.com%2F2023%2F04%2F28%2Ffox-news-poll-voters-want-gun-control&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYousif2023" class="citation news cs1">Yousif, Nadine (March 2, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-64377360">"Why number of US mass shootings has risen sharply"</a>. BBC.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Why+number+of+US+mass+shootings+has+risen+sharply&rft.date=2023-03-02&rft.aulast=Yousif&rft.aufirst=Nadine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-us-canada-64377360&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLund2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lund, Nelson (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n269.xml">"Right to Bear Arms"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC"><i>The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</i></a>. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">Sage</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">438–</span>440. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n269">10.4135/9781412965811.n269</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1412965804" title="Special:BookSources/978-1412965804"><bdi>978-1412965804</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Right+to+Bear+Arms&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E438-%3C%2Fspan%3E440&rft.pub=Sage%3B+Cato+Institute&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412965811.n269&rft.isbn=978-1412965804&rft.aulast=Lund&rft.aufirst=Nelson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsk.sagepub.com%2Freference%2Flibertarianism%2Fn269.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVolokh" class="citation web cs1">Volokh, Eugene (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200305164659/https://www2.law.ucla.edu/volokh/beararms/statecon.htm">"State Constitutional Right to Keep and Bear Arms Provisions"</a>. <a href="/wiki/UCLA_School_of_Law" title="UCLA School of Law">UCLA School of Law</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.law.ucla.edu/volokh/beararms/statecon.htm">the original</a> on March 5, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=State+Constitutional+Right+to+Keep+and+Bear+Arms+Provisions&rft.pub=UCLA+School+of+Law&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.law.ucla.edu%2Fvolokh%2Fbeararms%2Fstatecon.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARight+to+keep+and+bear+arms+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Firearms_(list,_glossary,_and_topics)20146" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Firearms" title="Template:Firearms"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Firearms" title="Template talk:Firearms"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Firearms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Firearms"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Firearms_(list,_glossary,_and_topics)20146" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Firearm" title="Firearm">Firearms</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_firearms" title="List of firearms">list</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_firearms_terms" title="Glossary of firearms terms">glossary</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Category:Firearms" title="Category:Firearms">topics</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firearm" title="Firearm">Firearm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_firearms" title="Category:Lists of firearms">lists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun" title="Gun">Gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_firearm" title="History of the firearm">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_safety" title="Gun safety">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">Weapon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types_of_firearms35" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Firearm#Types" title="Firearm">Types of firearms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breechloader" title="Breechloader">Breechloader</a> versus <a href="/wiki/Muzzleloader" title="Muzzleloader">muzzleloader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combination_weapons" title="Combination weapons">Combination weapons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Combination_guns" class="mw-redirect" title="Combination guns">Combination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_gun" title="Elephant gun">Elephant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flare_gun" title="Flare gun">Flare gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Line_thrower" title="Line thrower">Line thrower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_gun" title="Long gun">Long gun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbine" title="Carbine">Carbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musket" title="Musket">Musket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takedown_gun" title="Takedown gun">Takedown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple-barrel_firearm" title="Multiple-barrel firearm">Multiple-barrel</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_multiple-barrel_firearms" title="List of multiple-barrel firearms">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needlegun" title="Needlegun">Needler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_gun" title="Net gun">Net gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pen_gun" title="Pen gun">Pen gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riot_gun" title="Riot gun">Riot gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotary_cannon" title="Rotary cannon">Rotary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-shot" title="Single-shot">Single-shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleeve_gun" title="Sleeve gun">Sleeve gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoothbore" title="Smoothbore">Smoothbore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring-gun" title="Spring-gun">Spring-gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_firearm" title="Underwater firearm">Underwater firearm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Handgun" title="Handgun">Handguns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cane_gun" title="Cane gun">Cane gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derringer" title="Derringer">Derringer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duelling_pistol" title="Duelling pistol">Duelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pistol" title="Pistol">Pistol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pistols" title="List of pistols">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_pistol" title="Machine pistol">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pepper-box" title="Pepper-box">Pepper-box</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pocket_pistol" title="Pocket pistol">Pocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolver" title="Revolver">Revolver</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_revolvers" title="List of revolvers">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-automatic_pistol" title="Semi-automatic pistol">Semi-automatic pistol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_semi-automatic_pistols" title="List of semi-automatic pistols">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pistol_caliber_carbine" class="mw-redirect" title="Pistol caliber carbine">Pistol caliber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personal_defence_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal defence weapon">Personal defence weapon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submachine_gun" title="Submachine gun">Submachine gun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starting_pistol" title="Starting pistol">Starting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallet_gun" title="Wallet gun">Wallet gun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rifle" title="Rifle">Rifles</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_rifles" title="List of rifles">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-materiel_rifle" title="Anti-materiel rifle">Anti-materiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_rifle" title="Anti-tank rifle">Anti-tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assault_rifle" title="Assault rifle">Assault</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_assault_rifles" title="List of assault rifles">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_rifle" title="Automatic rifle">Automatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_rifle" title="Battle rifle">Battle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battle_rifles" title="List of battle rifles">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbine_rifle" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbine rifle">Carbine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_carbines" title="List of carbines">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_rifle" title="Double rifle">Double</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_rifle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunting rifle">Hunting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_rifle" title="Buffalo rifle">Buffalo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_rifle" class="mw-redirect" title="Elephant rifle">Elephant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Express_rifle" class="mw-redirect" title="Express rifle">Express</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punt_gun" title="Punt gun">Punt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varmint_rifle" title="Varmint rifle">Varmint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Designated_marksman_rifle" title="Designated marksman rifle">Marksman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifling" title="Rifling">Rifling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polygonal_rifling" title="Polygonal rifling">Polygonal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeating_rifle" title="Repeating rifle">Repeating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sniper_rifle" title="Sniper rifle">Sniper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sniper_rifles" title="List of sniper rifles">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Machine_gun" title="Machine gun">Machine guns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_purpose_machine_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="General purpose machine gun">General purpose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_machine_gun" title="Light machine gun">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_machine_gun" title="Medium machine gun">Medium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_machine_gun" title="Heavy machine gun">Heavy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squad_automatic_weapon" title="Squad automatic weapon">SAW</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shotgun" title="Shotgun">Shotguns</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_shotguns" title="List of shotguns">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_shotgun" title="Automatic shotgun">Automatic shotgun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coach_gun" title="Coach gun">Coach gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_shotgun" title="Combat shotgun">Combat shotgun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-barreled_shotgun" title="Double-barreled shotgun">Double-barreled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pump_action" title="Pump action">Pump action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riot_shotgun" title="Riot shotgun">Riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawed-off_shotgun" title="Sawed-off shotgun">Sawed-off</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Ammunition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20-gauge_shotgun" title="20-gauge shotgun">20-gauge shotgun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaching_round" title="Breaching round">Breaching round</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon%27s_breath_(ammunition)" title="Dragon's breath (ammunition)">Dragon's breath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shotgun_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Shotgun shell">Shotgun shell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/.410_bore" title=".410 bore">.410 bore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shot_(pellet)" title="Shot (pellet)">Shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shotgun_slug" title="Shotgun slug">Slug</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_firearm" title="History of the firearm">Historic</a> or famous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AK-47" title="AK-47">AK-47</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AR-15_style_rifle" class="mw-redirect" title="AR-15 style rifle">AR-15</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M16" class="mw-redirect" title="M16">M16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antique_firearms" title="Antique firearms">Antique firearms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatling_gun" title="Gatling gun">Gatling gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winchester_rifle" title="Winchester rifle">Winchester rifle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M1_Garand" title="M1 Garand">M1 Garand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauser_rifles" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauser rifles">Mauser rifles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thompson_submachine_gun" title="Thompson submachine gun">Tommy Gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MP_40" title="MP 40">MP 40</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzi" title="Uzi">Uzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colt_Single_Action_Army" title="Colt Single Action Army">Colt Peacemaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M1911" class="mw-redirect" title="M1911">M1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glock" title="Glock">Glock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mechanics_and_components167" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Mechanics and <a href="/wiki/Category:Firearm_components" title="Category:Firearm components">components</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Firearm_components" title="Category:Firearm components">Components</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gun_barrel" title="Gun barrel">Barrel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feed_ramp" title="Feed ramp">Feed ramp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slug_barrel" title="Slug barrel">Slug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrel_threads" title="Barrel threads">Threads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trunnion" title="Trunnion">Trunnion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayonet" title="Bayonet">Bayonet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belt_(firearms)" title="Belt (firearms)">Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blank-firing_adapter" title="Blank-firing adapter">Blank-firing adapter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breechblock" title="Breechblock">Breechblock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breechface" title="Breechface">Breechface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolt_(firearms)" title="Bolt (firearms)">Bolt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rotating_bolt" title="Rotating bolt">Rotating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telescoping_bolt" title="Telescoping bolt">Telescoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flapper_locking" title="Flapper locking">Flapper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roller_locked" title="Roller locked">Roller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilting_bolt" title="Tilting bolt">Tilting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bump_stock" title="Bump stock">Bump stock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_(firearms)" title="Chamber (firearms)">Chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocking_handle" title="Cocking handle">Cocking handle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cylinder_(firearms)" title="Cylinder (firearms)">Cylinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extractor_(firearms)" title="Extractor (firearms)">Extractor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firing_pin" title="Firing pin">Firing pin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_suppressor" title="Flash suppressor">Flash suppressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluting_(firearms)" title="Fluting (firearms)">Fluting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forward_assist" title="Forward assist">Forward assist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freebore" title="Freebore">Freebore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forearm_(firearm_component)" title="Forearm (firearm component)">Forearm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_forward_grip" title="Vertical forward grip">Foregrip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammer_(firearms)" title="Hammer (firearms)">Hammer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Half-cock" title="Half-cock">Half-cock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammer_(firearms)#Linear_hammer" title="Hammer (firearms)">Linear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammer_(firearms)#Striker" title="Hammer (firearms)">Striker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lock_(firearm)" title="Lock (firearm)">Lock</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flintlock" title="Flintlock">Flintlock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheellock" title="Wheellock">Wheellock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magazine_(firearms)" title="Magazine (firearms)">Magazine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_metal" title="Bottom metal">Bottom metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clip_(firearms)" title="Clip (firearms)">Clip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drum_magazine" title="Drum magazine">Drum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-capacity_magazine" title="High-capacity magazine">High-capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speedloader" title="Speedloader">Speedloader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stripper_clip" title="Stripper clip">Stripper clip</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzzle_brake" title="Muzzle brake">Muzzle brake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzzle_shroud" title="Muzzle shroud">Muzzle shroud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pistol_grip" title="Pistol grip">Pistol grip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pistol_slide" title="Pistol slide">Pistol slide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_system_(firearms)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rail system (firearms)">Rail system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receiver_(firearms)" title="Receiver (firearms)">Receiver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recoil_pad" title="Recoil pad">Recoil pad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rim_(firearms)" title="Rim (firearms)">Rim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_(firearms)" title="Safety (firearms)">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sear_(firearm)" title="Sear (firearm)">Sear</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auto_sear" title="Auto sear">Auto sear</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrel_shroud" title="Barrel shroud">Shroud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silencer_(firearms)" title="Silencer (firearms)">Silencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squeeze_bore" title="Squeeze bore">Squeeze bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choke_(firearms)" title="Choke (firearms)">Choke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_(firearms)" title="Stock (firearms)">Stock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronization_gear" title="Synchronization gear">Synchronization gear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapering_(firearms)" title="Tapering (firearms)">Tapering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigger_(firearms)" title="Trigger (firearms)">Trigger</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trigger_guard" title="Trigger guard">guard</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sight_(device)" title="Sight (device)">Sights</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diopter_sight" title="Diopter sight">Diopter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finderscope" title="Finderscope">Finderscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globe_sight" title="Globe sight">Globe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holographic_weapon_sight" title="Holographic weapon sight">Holographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_sights" title="Iron sights">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_sight_(firearms)" class="mw-redirect" title="Laser sight (firearms)">Laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reticle" title="Reticle">Reticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflex_sight" class="mw-redirect" title="Reflex sight">Reflex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_dot_sight" title="Red dot sight">Red dot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sight_magnifier" title="Sight magnifier">Magnifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scope_mount" title="Scope mount">Scope mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_sight" title="Tang sight">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telescopic_sight" title="Telescopic sight">Telescopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-vision_device" title="Night-vision device">Night vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_weapon_sight" title="Thermal weapon sight">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sighting_in" title="Sighting in">Zeroing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Action_(firearms)" title="Action (firearms)">Actions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blowback_(firearms)" title="Blowback (firearms)">Blowback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blow-forward" class="mw-redirect" title="Blow-forward">Blow-forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolt_action" title="Bolt action">Bolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxlock_action" title="Boxlock action">Boxlock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breechloader" title="Breechloader">Breechloading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Break_action" title="Break action">Break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_bolt" title="Open bolt">Open bolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_bolt" title="Closed bolt">Closed bolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_firing" title="Electronic firing">Electronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas-operated_reloading" title="Gas-operated reloading">Gas-operated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lever_action" title="Lever action">Lever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzzleloader" title="Muzzleloader">Muzzleloading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Out-of-battery" title="Out-of-battery">Out-of-battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pump_action" title="Pump action">Pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Push_feed_and_controlled_feed" title="Push feed and controlled feed">Push/Controlled feed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recoil_operation" title="Recoil operation">Recoil-operated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeating_firearm" title="Repeating firearm">Repeating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolver" title="Revolver">Revolver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-loading_rifle" title="Self-loading rifle">Self-loading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-shot" title="Single-shot">Single-shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slamfire" title="Slamfire">Slamfire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physics_of_firearms" title="Physics of firearms">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballistics" title="Ballistics">Ballistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballistic_coefficient" title="Ballistic coefficient">Ballistic coefficient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_ballistics" title="External ballistics">External</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_ballistics" title="Terminal ballistics">Terminal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_ballistics" title="Transitional ballistics">Transitional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_of_firearms" title="Physics of firearms">Physics of firearms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangefinder" title="Rangefinder">Rangefinding/keeping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_discussion_of_rangekeeping" title="Mathematical discussion of rangekeeping">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stadiametric_rangefinding" title="Stadiametric rangefinding">Stadiametric</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Metrics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accurizing" title="Accurizing">Accurizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bore_axis" title="Bore axis">Bore axis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliber" title="Caliber">Caliber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_error_probable" title="Circular error probable">Circular error probable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_range#Weapons" title="Effective range">Effective range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauge_(firearms)" title="Gauge (firearms)">Gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_chronograph" title="Gun chronograph">Gun chronograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_harmonisation" title="Gun harmonisation">Gun harmonisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headspace_(firearms)" title="Headspace (firearms)">Headspace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Length_of_pull" title="Length of pull">Length of pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lock_time" title="Lock time">Lock time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Match_grade" title="Match grade">Match grade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mean_time_between_failures" title="Mean time between failures">Mean time between failures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minute_and_second_of_arc#Firearms" title="Minute and second of arc">Minute of Angle (MOA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzzle_(firearms)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muzzle (firearms)">Muzzle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muzzle_energy" title="Muzzle energy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzzle_rise" title="Muzzle rise">Rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzzle_velocity" title="Muzzle velocity">Velocity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penetration_(weaponry)" title="Penetration (weaponry)">Penetration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_factor_(shooting_sports)" title="Power factor (shooting sports)">Power factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precision-guided_firearm" title="Precision-guided firearm">Precision-guided</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rate_of_fire" title="Rate of fire">Rate of fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recoil" title="Recoil">Recoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shot_grouping" title="Shot grouping">Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_(firearms)#Stock_measurements" title="Stock (firearms)">Stock measurements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stopping_power" title="Stopping power">Stopping power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handgun_effectiveness" title="Handgun effectiveness">Handgun effectiveness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifling#Twist_rate" title="Rifling">Twist rate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Shooting_and_ammunition56" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Shooting" title="Shooting">Shooting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ammunition" title="Ammunition">ammunition</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gunshot" title="Gunshot">Gunshot</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dry_fire" title="Dry fire">Dry fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting" title="Shooting">Firing (Shooting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunshot" title="Gunshot">Gunshot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shootout" title="Shootout">Firefight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearm_maintenance" title="Firearm maintenance">Maintenance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_strip" title="Field strip">Field strip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fouling" title="Fouling">Fouling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearm_malfunction" title="Firearm malfunction">Malfunction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooking_off" title="Cooking off">Cooking off</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hang_fire" title="Hang fire">Hang fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squib_load" title="Squib load">Squib load</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricochet" title="Ricochet">Ricochet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Ignition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fire_forming" title="Fire forming">Fire forming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obturation" title="Obturation">Obturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primer_(firearms)" title="Primer (firearms)">Primer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">Gunpowder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percussion_cap" title="Percussion cap">Percussion cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rimfire_ammunition" title="Rimfire ammunition">Rimfire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubes_and_primers_for_ammunition" title="Tubes and primers for ammunition">Tubes and Primers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearm_propellant" title="Firearm propellant">Propellant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ball_propellant" title="Ball propellant">Ball propellant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordite" title="Cordite">Cordite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Improved_military_rifle_powder" title="Improved military rifle powder">Improved Military Rifle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramrod" title="Ramrod">Ramrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smokeless_powder" title="Smokeless powder">Smokeless powder</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ammunition" title="Ammunition">Ammunition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannelure" title="Cannelure">Cannelure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummy_round" title="Dummy round">Dummy round</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Snap_cap" title="Snap cap">Snap cap</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flechette" title="Flechette">Flechette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_check" title="Gas check">Gas check</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpressure_ammunition" title="Overpressure ammunition">Overpressure ammunition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer-cased_ammunition" title="Polymer-cased ammunition">PCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabot_(firearms)" title="Sabot (firearms)">Sabot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadding" title="Wadding">Wadding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bullet" title="Bullet">Bullets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armor-piercing_bullet" title="Armor-piercing bullet">Armour piercing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast_bullet" title="Cast bullet">Cast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expanding_bullet" title="Expanding bullet">Expanding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_metal_jacket_(ammunition)" title="Full metal jacket (ammunition)">Full metal jacket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frangible_bullet" title="Frangible bullet">Frangible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_bullet" title="Green bullet">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incendiary_ammunition" title="Incendiary ammunition">Incendiary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-explosive_incendiary" title="High-explosive incendiary">High explosive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-explosive_incendiary/armor-piercing_ammunition" title="High-explosive incendiary/armor-piercing ammunition">HEIAP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Projectile" title="Projectile">Projectile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raufoss_Mk_211" title="Raufoss Mk 211">Raufoss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round_shot" title="Round shot">Round shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saboted_light_armor_penetrator" title="Saboted light armor penetrator">SLAP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft-point_bullet" title="Soft-point bullet">Soft point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercavitating_ammunition" class="mw-redirect" title="Supercavitating ammunition">Supercavitating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_metal_jacket" title="Total metal jacket">Total metal jacket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tracer_ammunition" title="Tracer ammunition">Tracer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollow-base_bullet" title="Hollow-base bullet">Hollow base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollow-point_bullet" title="Hollow-point bullet">Hollow point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mini%C3%A9_ball" title="Minié ball">Minié</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meplat" title="Meplat">Meplat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic-tipped_bullet" title="Plastic-tipped bullet">Plastic tipped</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armour-piercing,_capped,_ballistic_capped_shell" title="Armour-piercing, capped, ballistic capped shell">ABCBC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_shot" title="Snake shot">Snake shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spitzer_(bullet)" title="Spitzer (bullet)">Spitzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very-low-drag_bullet" title="Very-low-drag bullet">VLD</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Cartridge_(firearms)" title="Cartridge (firearms)">Cartridges</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blank_(cartridge)" title="Blank (cartridge)">Blank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caseless_ammunition" title="Caseless ammunition">Caseless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centerfire_cartridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Centerfire cartridge">Centrefire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handloading" title="Handloading">Handloading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifle_cartridge" title="Rifle cartridge">Rifle cartridge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fully_powered_cartridge" title="Fully powered cartridge">Fully powered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_cartridge" title="Intermediate cartridge">Intermediate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rifle_cartridges" title="List of rifle cartridges">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_cartridge" title="Paper cartridge">Paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinfire_cartridge" title="Pinfire cartridge">Pinfire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildcat_cartridge" title="Wildcat cartridge">Wildcat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society,_safety,_industry,_and_laws133" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Gun_cultures" title="Gun cultures">Society</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gun_safety" title="Gun safety">safety</a>, <a href="/wiki/Firearm_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Firearm industry">industry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Overview_of_gun_laws_by_nation" title="Overview of gun laws by nation">laws</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gun_cultures" title="Gun cultures">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celebratory_gunfire" title="Celebratory gunfire">Celebratory gunfire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_ownership" title="Gun ownership">Civilian gun ownership</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Percent_of_households_with_guns_by_country" title="Percent of households with guns by country">Household ownership rates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhibition_shooting" title="Exhibition shooting">Exhibition shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_cultures" title="Gun cultures">Gun cultures</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gun_culture_in_the_United_States" title="Gun culture in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_shows_in_the_United_States" title="Gun shows in the United States">Gun shows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_firearms" title="List of U.S. state firearms">State firearms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jungle_style_(firearm_magazines)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jungle style (firearm magazines)"><i>Jungle style</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pistol_duelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Pistol duelling">Pistol duelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_gun_politics_articles" title="Index of gun politics articles">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting_sports" title="Shooting sports">Shooting sports</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civilian_Marksmanship_Program" title="Civilian Marksmanship Program">Civilian Marksmanship Program</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gun_violence" title="Gun violence">Gun violence</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Gun_safety" title="Gun safety">safety</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gun_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Gun violence in the United States">in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_assassinations_by_firearm" title="List of assassinations by firearm">Assassinations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_firearm-related_death_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by firearm-related death rate">Deaths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_firearm_examination" title="Forensic firearm examination">Forensics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunfighter" title="Gunfighter">Gunfighter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_safety" title="Gun safety">Gun safety</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Firearm_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Firearm industry">Firearm industry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_printed_firearm" class="mw-redirect" title="3D printed firearm">3D printed firearm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_3D_printed_weapons_and_parts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of 3D printed weapons and parts">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_firearm_brands" title="List of firearm brands">Firearm brands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Firearms_by_country" title="Category:Firearms by country">Firearms by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_shop" title="Gun shop">Gun shops</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Firearm_commerce" title="Category:Firearm commerce">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunsmith" title="Gunsmith">Gunsmith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Improvised_firearm" title="Improvised firearm">Improvised firearm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-produced_firearms" title="List of most-produced firearms">Most-produced</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privately_made_firearm" class="mw-redirect" title="Privately made firearm">Privately made</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_arms_trade" title="Small arms trade">Small arms trade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arms_control" title="Arms control">Arms control</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_control" title="Arms control">Arms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gun_control" title="Gun control">Gun control</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disarmament" title="Disarmament">Disarmament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_Against_Arms_Trade" title="Campaign Against Arms Trade">Campaign Against Arms Trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Featureless_rifles" title="Featureless rifles">Featureless rifles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Overview_of_gun_laws_by_nation" title="Overview of gun laws by nation">Gun laws</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel_with_firearms_and_ammunition" title="Air travel with firearms and ammunition">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assault_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Assault weapons">Assault weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_carry" title="Concealed carry">Concealed carry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_carry_in_the_United_States" title="Concealed carry in the United States">in the U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearms_license" title="Firearms license">License</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-capacity_magazine_ban" title="High-capacity magazine ban">High-capacity magazine ban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">Right to bear arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Arms_and_Light_Weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Small Arms and Light Weapons">Small Arms & Light Weapons (SALW)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">United States Gun</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gun_law_in_the_United_States" title="Gun law in the United States">Laws</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gun_laws_in_the_United_States_by_state" title="Gun laws in the United States by state">by U.S. state</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assault_weapons_legislation_in_the_United_States" title="Assault weapons legislation in the United States">Legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Gun politics in the United States">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Assault_Weapons_Ban" title="Federal Assault Weapons Ban">Federal Assault Weapons Ban</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&oldid=1238794302">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&oldid=1238794302</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Civil_liberties_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Civil liberties in the United States">Civil liberties in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Gun politics in the United States">Gun politics in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Human rights in the United States">Human rights in the United States</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">CS1 maint: archived copy as title</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_broken_links_to_citations" title="Category:All articles with broken links to citations">All articles with broken links to citations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_factual_verification_from_June_2016" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from June 2016">Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from June 2016</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 5 August 2024, at 18:21<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Right to keep and bear arms in the United States</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>4 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-5f467697bf-rkbqj","wgBackendResponseTime":141,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.987","walltime":"1.165","ppvisitednodes":{"value":8741,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":390503,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":14735,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":15,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":337900,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 847.544 1 -total"," 55.98% 474.441 1 Template:Reflist"," 14.51% 122.938 35 Template:Cite_web"," 11.30% 95.756 8 Template:Cite_news"," 10.09% 85.486 2 Template:Sidebar"," 10.08% 85.460 1 Template:USgunlegalbox"," 8.52% 72.226 1 Template:Short_description"," 8.10% 68.661 17 Template:Cite_book"," 7.75% 65.661 10 Template:Military_navigation"," 7.01% 59.433 1 Template:Firearms"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.524","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":7577908,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"nowrap\"] = \"yes\",\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"nowrap\"] = \"yes\",\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-6699496d4f-5j6vw","timestamp":"20250212063757","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Right to keep and bear arms in the United States","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q16932144","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q16932144","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2013-09-21T01:51:17Z","dateModified":"2024-08-05T18:21:48Z","headline":"fundemental right in the United States constitution"}</script> </body> </html>