Congress Can and Should Address the Threat from Unauthorized Paramilitary Activity

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McCord","image":{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"en-US","@id":"https://www.justsecurity.org/#/schema/person/image/85a57ca6cd66b5d9a2b463479474407e","url":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/ffa6bc19d72973311a03d28904a959a4?s=96&d=mm&r=g","contentUrl":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/ffa6bc19d72973311a03d28904a959a4?s=96&d=mm&r=g","caption":"Mary B. McCord"},"description":"Mary B. McCord is Executive Director of the Institute for Constitutional Advocacy and Protection (ICAP) and a Visiting Professor of Law at Georgetown University Law Center. At ICAP, McCord leads a team that brings constitutional impact litigation at all levels of the federal and state courts across a wide variety of areas including First Amendment rights, immigration, criminal justice reform, and combating the rise of private paramilitaries. 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McCord also served on the Columbus Police After Action Review Team tasked with evaluating how the Columbus, Ohio, Police Department responded to the 2020 summer protests. 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style="background-image:url(https://i0.wp.com/www.justsecurity.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/GettyImages-912375890-e1546520758692.jpg?fit=2401%2C1324&ssl=1); background-position:center center;"> <div class="overlay"></div> <div class="pagewidth pw1400"> <div class="title-wrap"> <h1>Congress Can and Should Address the Threat from Unauthorized Paramilitary Activity </h1> </div> </div> </div><div class="columns-wrap pagewidth pw1400 clearfix"><div id="secondary-left" class="secondary"><p class="authors">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/mccordmary/" title="Profile and articles by Mary B. McCord" class="author url fn" rel="author">Mary B. McCord</a></p><p class="date">January 24, 2022</p><div class="sharedaddy sd-sharing-enabled"><div class="robots-nocontent sd-block sd-social sd-social-icon sd-sharing"><h3 class="sd-title">Share this:</h3><div class="sd-content"><ul><li class="share-twitter"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="sharing-twitter-79951" class="share-twitter sd-button share-icon no-text" href="https://www.justsecurity.org/79951/congress-can-and-should-address-the-threat-from-unauthorized-paramilitary-activity/?share=twitter" target="_blank" title="Click to share on Twitter" ><span></span><span class="sharing-screen-reader-text">Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)</span></a></li><li class="share-facebook"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="sharing-facebook-79951" class="share-facebook sd-button share-icon no-text" href="https://www.justsecurity.org/79951/congress-can-and-should-address-the-threat-from-unauthorized-paramilitary-activity/?share=facebook" target="_blank" title="Click to share on Facebook" ><span></span><span class="sharing-screen-reader-text">Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)</span></a></li><li class="share-linkedin"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="sharing-linkedin-79951" class="share-linkedin sd-button share-icon no-text" href="https://www.justsecurity.org/79951/congress-can-and-should-address-the-threat-from-unauthorized-paramilitary-activity/?share=linkedin" target="_blank" title="Click to share on LinkedIn" ><span></span><span class="sharing-screen-reader-text">Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window)</span></a></li><li class="share-reddit"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="" class="share-reddit sd-button share-icon no-text" href="https://www.justsecurity.org/79951/congress-can-and-should-address-the-threat-from-unauthorized-paramilitary-activity/?share=reddit" target="_blank" title="Click to share on Reddit" ><span></span><span class="sharing-screen-reader-text">Click to share on Reddit (Opens in new window)</span></a></li><li class="share-print"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="" class="share-print sd-button share-icon no-text" href="https://www.justsecurity.org/79951/congress-can-and-should-address-the-threat-from-unauthorized-paramilitary-activity/#print" target="_blank" title="Click to print" ><span></span><span class="sharing-screen-reader-text">Click to print (Opens in new window)</span></a></li><li class="share-end"></li></ul></div></div></div><div class="post-tags"><h3>Filed under:</h3><p><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/domestic-terrorism/" rel="tag">Domestic Terrorism</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/militias/" rel="tag">militias</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/political-violence/" rel="tag">political violence</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/series-on-solutions-to-democratic-backsliding/" rel="tag">Series on Solutions to Democratic Backsliding</a></p></div></div><main id="primary" tabindex="-1" class="content-body clearfix" role="main"><article class="client-ui clearfix"><div class="print-authors"><p class="authors">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/mccordmary/" title="Profile and articles by Mary B. McCord" class="author url fn" rel="author">Mary B. McCord</a></p><p class="date">January 24, 2022</p></div><p><em><span style="font-weight: 400;">Editor’s note: This article is the first in a <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/series-on-solutions-to-democratic-backsliding/">series</a> from leading experts with practical solutions to democratic backsliding, polarization, and political violence.</span></em></p> <p>A year after the January 6 attack on the U.S. Capitol, the United States remains politically and culturally polarized. <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/01/01/1-3-americans-say-violence-against-government-can-be-justified-citing-fears-political-schism-pandemic/">Recent polling</a> suggests alarming numbers of Americans believe that violence against the government may be justified. Many factors have led to this, requiring many different solutions, but one of the most dangerous developments has been the proliferation of unauthorized paramilitary organizations. Such organizations have been a significant contributor to the growing perception that political violence is acceptable, if not inevitable. The growth of these groups is also a result of these public sentiments, creating a vicious cycle. The threat posed by unauthorized paramilitary organizations—frequently referred to as “militias”—is an identifiable problem that can be addressed at least in part through federal legislation. Now is the time for Congress to enact a federal prohibition on unauthorized paramilitary activity.</p> <h4><strong>The Growing Threats to Public Safety</strong></h4> <p>A federal law would serve important public safety and national security purposes. Increasingly since the 2017 Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, heavily armed, unauthorized private militias have used shows of force and paramilitary tactics to intimidate and coerce. They have risen up against governmental authorities by <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2021-01-07/armed-statehouse-protests-set-tone-for-us-capitol-insurgents">storming statehouses</a> in opposition to pandemic-related public health measures, terrorizing lawmakers and constituents seeking to participate in the democratic process. They have <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/jul/27/utah-militia-armed-group-police-black-lives-matter-protests">usurped</a> legitimate law enforcement functions by providing unauthorized and unrequested armed security at public demonstrations, intimidating others from exercising their freedoms of expression and peaceful assembly. And as the <a href="https://www.justice.gov/usao-dc/pr/leader-oath-keepers-and-10-other-individuals-indicted-federal-court-seditious-conspiracy">allegations</a> in the seditious conspiracy indictment of 11 members of the Oath Keepers make plain, they have recruited, trained, planned, and used violence in an attempt to prevent the peaceful transfer of power from one president to the next.</p> <p>The ideology of unauthorized militias does not stack up on only one side of the political spectrum. In Charlottesville, the efforts of heavily armed private militias to protect the white nationalists protesting the removal of confederate monuments were met with heavily armed <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/14/us/who-were-the-counterprotesters-in-charlottesville.html">private militia members</a> seeking to protect those of opposing views. In Louisville, Kentucky, unauthorized heavily armed rival militias <a href="https://www.reuters.com/news/picture/opposing-armed-protesters-face-off-in-lo-idUSRTX7TTFL">faced off</a> against each other during demonstrations for racial justice after the police shooting of Breonna Taylor, with police donning riot gear to keep them separate. Although the protesters and counterprotesters demonstrating in Charlottesville, Louisville, and at the U.S. Capitol have a right to make their views known, they do not have a right to deploy in public as private armies, arrogating to themselves when and under what circumstances to use lethal force.</p> <h4><strong>Within Reach of the Law</strong></h4> <p>Notwithstanding the mythology promoted by unauthorized militia organizations, <a href="https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/dispelling-myth-second-amendment">there is no federal or state authority for groups of individuals to form their own private armies</a>. The “well regulated Militia” referenced in the Second Amendment has since before the founding meant regulated by the <em>government</em>, not private actors, as early militia laws in the colonies made very clear. The <a href="https://www.law.georgetown.edu/icap/wp-content/uploads/sites/32/2018/04/Prohibiting-Private-Armies-at-Public-Rallies.pdf">constitutions of 48 states</a> memorialized this understanding, providing that in all cases the military must be strictly subordinate to civilian governmental authority. And the U.S. Constitution further solidified these institutional relationships, giving Congress the authority <a href="https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/essay/artI_S8_C15_1/">“[t]o provide for calling forth the Militia</a>” and <a href="https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/essay/artI-S8-C16-1/ALDE_00001078/">“[t]o provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia,</a>” while reserving the appointment of officers and training to the states. Congress then exercised its authority to create the state National Guard system while also authorizing the states to form additional state militias as necessary. Over the years, states have exercised their authority by enacting legislation establishing the state militias and making them answerable to the governor as commander in chief. But there is simply no authority—under federal or state law—for private groups to form their own militias.</p> <p>Nor does the Second Amendment protect private militias. The Supreme Court has been clear since the 1886 case of <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/116/252/"><em>Presser v. Illinois</em></a> that the government must be able to prohibit private paramilitary organizations as “necessary to the public peace, safety, and good order.” Upholding an Illinois statute barring groups of men from associating together as military organizations or drilling or parading with arms in public, the Court said it was clear that the statute did “not infringe the right of the people to keep and bear arms,” and, indeed, that “[m]ilitary organization and military drill and parade under arms … are subject to the regulation and control of the state and federal governments, acting in due regard to their respective prerogatives and powers.” The 1886 decision has maintained its validity to this day with its central premise reiterated in the Court’s 2008 decision in <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/554/570/"><em>District of Columbia v. Heller</em></a>, which held for the first time that the Second Amendment protects an individual right to bear arms for self-defense. The Court pointedly contrasted that result with private militia groups, restating that the Second Amendment “does not prevent the prohibition of private paramilitary organizations.”</p> <h4><strong>State Law Prohibitions</strong></h4> <p>Indeed, <a href="https://www.law.georgetown.edu/icap/wp-content/uploads/sites/32/2018/04/Prohibiting-Private-Armies-at-Public-Rallies.pdf">all 50 states have prohibitions on private paramilitary activity</a>. They do this through the strict subordination clauses in their constitutions; anti-militia statutes like the one upheld in <em>Presser</em>, which remain on the books in 29 states; and anti-paramilitary-activity laws in 25 states that generally bar teaching, demonstrating, instructing, training, and practicing in the use of firearms, explosives, or techniques capable of causing injury or death for use during or in furtherance of civil disorder. Some states also prohibit falsely assuming the functions of law enforcement or wearing military uniforms or uniforms confusingly similar to military uniforms.</p> <h4><strong>The Need for Federal Legislation</strong></h4> <p>With this robust body of state law, one might ask why a federal law is necessary. Simply put, with rare exceptions, these state laws are not used. There are likely many reasons for this.</p> <p>First, state officials responsible for public safety may be unaware of provisions of their state constitutions that subordinate all military organizations to the civilian governmental authority. These provisions often date to the founding of the states and have received very little attention. Moreover, even if state officials are aware that their state constitution does not permit rogue militias, they may question whether implementing legislation is needed for enforcement. Although recent precedent in <a href="https://www.law.georgetown.edu/icap/wp-content/uploads/sites/32/2018/07/2018.07.07-Letter-Opinion-Ruling-on-Defendants-Demurrer-to-Complaint.pdf">Virginia</a> and <a href="https://www.law.georgetown.edu/icap/wp-content/uploads/sites/32/2021/09/2021.09.13-NMCG-Ord-Grnt-Deny-Mot-Jdgmnt-Pldgs-Deny-MTStay.pdf">New Mexico</a> confirms that the strict subordination clauses in those states’ constitutions are self-executing, there is little, if any, case law making that clear elsewhere.</p> <p>Similarly, state public safety officials may not be aware of their own state’s anti-militia or anti-paramilitary-activity laws. The anti-militia laws date to the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and have been used only infrequently in the last 50 years. The anti-paramilitary-activity laws had their genesis in the proliferation of Ku Klux Klan (KKK) training camps in the 1970s and 1980s and, although <a href="https://casetext.com/case/person-v-miller">used successfully</a> after their passage, gathered dust on the shelf as KKK activity waned.</p> <p>Moreover, these laws are <em>criminal </em>statutes, which require local law enforcement resources to investigate and prosecute. They are not the bread-and-butter of most local law enforcement, whose work includes a steady diet of drug, assault, and property crimes. Resource-strapped police departments, sheriffs’ offices, and prosecutors’ offices may prioritize building the kinds of cases with which they are most familiar and know how to prove at trial. Although it would be logical for state attorneys general to launch investigations into paramilitary organizations operating in their states, many state attorneys general do not have general criminal law enforcement authority. And although some of the most recent successful uses of these laws have been in <a href="https://www.law.georgetown.edu/icap/our-work/addressing-the-rise-of-unlawful-private-militias/city-of-charlottesville-v-pennsylvania-light-foot-militia/"><em>civil</em></a> cases seeking injunctive relief (i.e., court orders to prohibit the unauthorized activity in the future), the use of criminal statutes as a basis for civil enforcement remains relatively novel.</p> <p>Finally, politics undoubtedly plays a role. The enforcement of state laws is the responsibility of elected prosecutors, elected sheriffs, and police chiefs either elected or appointed by local elected officials. Where their constituents support unauthorized militias—as is often the case in jurisdictions where anti-government ideology predominates and the population is heavily in favor of expansive gun rights—it is no surprise that local officials would choose not to enforce the anti-militia laws they have available. Worse, in some areas of the country, elected sheriffs who call themselves <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2021/12/17/constitutional-sheriffs-extremist-dangerous-unconstitutional/">“constitutional sheriffs,”</a> in reference to their view that they answer to no one except the constitution as they interpret it, openly support unauthorized militia activity as necessary to counter the purported tyranny of government as they see it.</p> <p>Even if none of these barriers to state and local enforcement existed, there would still be a compelling need for federal action. As the mobilizations from well before Charlottesville have shown, unauthorized paramilitary organizations regularly travel across state lines, join with other paramilitary organizations in their armed activity, and create a public safety and national security threat that transcends the boundaries of any local or state jurisdiction. When Cliven Bundy called for help after the federal government attempted to seize his cattle for non-payment of decades of grazing fees on federal lands in Nevada in 2014,<a href="https://www.splcenter.org/20140709/war-west-bundy-ranch-standoff-and-american-radical-right"> hundreds of unauthorized militia members</a> came from multiple states. The armed standoff, during which militia members trained their rifles on federal agents, ended with the federal government relinquishing the cattle and retreating. Unauthorized militia members acted similarly a few years later, traveling from across the country to <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2016/10/27/antigovernment-leaders-behind-malheur-national-wildlife-refuge-occupation-acquitted">take over</a> the Malheur Wildlife Refuge in Oregon in protest against the imprisonment of a father and son convicted of arson for setting fires on federal land more than a decade earlier. The ensuing standoff ended only after a militia member fleeing law enforcement was shot and killed.</p> <p>The list goes on and on. Militia members <a href="https://www.law.georgetown.edu/icap/wp-content/uploads/sites/32/2018/02/charlottesville-complaint.pdf">from states as far away as Washington traveled to Charlottesville</a> to join with others who used their paramilitary tactics and assault-style rifles to interpose themselves between protesters and counterprotesters. Members of an <a href="https://www.justice.gov/usao-md/pr/member-violent-extremist-group-base-pleads-guilty-maryland-federal-charges-transporting">accelerationist militia</a> trained in Georgia, built a machine gun in Delaware, and planned to start a civil war in Virginia to hasten their effort to create a white ethno-state in the Pacific Northwest. <a href="https://ctc.usma.edu/the-conspiracy-to-kidnap-governor-gretchen-whitmer/">Militia members from multiple states</a> conducted planning in Ohio and trained in Michigan to kidnap Michigan Governor Gretchen Whitmer because of public health measures she ordered in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. <a href="https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/leader-oath-keepers-and-10-other-individuals-indicted-federal-court-seditious-conspiracy-and">Militia members from Texas, Florida, Ohio, Alabama, Georgia, Virginia, and Arizona</a> trained for, traveled to, and assaulted the U.S. Capitol, while also manning an arsenal of weapons for a Quick Reaction Force just outside Washington, D.C. The threat involves interstate activity, and the response requires the superior resources and capacity of the federal government.</p> <h4><strong>Designing a New Federal Statute</strong></h4> <p>A federal statute prohibiting unauthorized paramilitary activity should provide not only criminal penalties, but perhaps more importantly, civil enforcement mechanisms. Criminal prosecutions, while necessary for accountability, apply solely to the individuals or entities who are prosecuted. They do not provide the kind of forward-looking relief that civil enforcement can provide. A federal statute should authorize the U.S. Attorney General and U.S. Attorneys nationwide to institute a civil action for preventive relief, including by injunction or restraining order, against those engaged in prohibited paramilitary activity. Moreover, people who have been injured as a result of unlawful paramilitary activity should have a cause of action for preventive relief, monetary damages, or both.</p> <p>Congress has the power under the Commerce Clause as well as the Militia Clauses and Necessary and Proper Clause to enact such legislation. It should bar people—while armed and in conjunction with an unauthorized paramilitary organization—from publicly patrolling, drilling, or engaging in paramilitary techniques; interfering with government proceedings; asserting authority over others without legal right; intimidating others in the exercise of their constitutional rights; or training to do any of these acts. These prohibitions would not infringe the Second Amendment’s individual right to bear arms for self-defense. Nor would prohibitions on <em>conduct </em>infringe First Amendment rights; even if the conduct contains elements of speech or expression, it may be regulated as long as the restriction is tailored to further an important government interest.</p> <p>The government interests here are obvious and paramount. Unauthorized paramilitary organizations, regardless of ideology, threaten the constitutional rights and physical safety of members of the public, elected officials, law enforcement officers, and even the military. Congress should act now to defuse the powder keg of violence these militias present.</p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <div class="icon-end-post"></div><div class="mobile-post-tags"><div class="post-tags"><h3>Filed under:</h3><p><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/domestic-terrorism/" rel="tag">Domestic Terrorism</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/militias/" rel="tag">militias</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/political-violence/" rel="tag">political violence</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/series-on-solutions-to-democratic-backsliding/" rel="tag">Series on Solutions to Democratic Backsliding</a></p></div></div></article></main><div id="secondary-right" class="secondary" role="complementary"><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/early-edition-signup/" class="button has-icon icon-pm">Signups for A.M. & P.M. 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Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/angelsamara/" title="Profile and articles by Samara Angel" class="author url fn" rel="author">Samara Angel</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/booneclare/" title="Profile and articles by Clare Boone" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clare Boone</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 23rd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104130/rule-of-law-index-2024/">Rule of Law Index Shows Some Rays of Hope Amidst Continuing Global Recession</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/andersenelizabeth/" title="Profile and articles by Elizabeth Andersen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Elizabeth Andersen</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/evangelidesalicia/" title="Profile and articles by Alicia Evangelides" class="author url fn" rel="author">Alicia Evangelides</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 23rd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104036/heat-map-january-6th-defendants-2/">Heat Map of January 6th Defendants Across the United States</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/goodmanryan/" title="Profile and articles by Ryan Goodman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ryan Goodman</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 17th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103956/proud-boys-threat-assessment/">Proud Boys Threat Assessment: From the Planning of January 6th to Future Scenarios</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/joscelyntom/" title="Profile and articles by Tom Joscelyn" class="author url fn" rel="author">Tom Joscelyn</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 17th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103773/top-10-election-litigation/">Top 10 Election Litigation Cases in 2024 Implicating the Rule of Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. 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Scott Adams</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 3rd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103406/iran-israel-escalation/">Threats and Response Options in the Escalating Israel-Iran Conflict</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rosenbrianna/" title="Profile and articles by Brianna Rosen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brianna Rosen</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 2nd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103380/un-future-pact-reform/">The UN’s New Pact for the Future: A Milestone That Can Set a Path for Change</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ponziorichard/" title="Profile and articles by Richard Ponzio" class="author url fn" rel="author">Richard Ponzio</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 2nd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103339/artificial-intelligence-at-2024-united-nations/">AI at UNGA79: Recapping Key Themes</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/aptclara/" title="Profile and articles by Clara Apt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clara Apt</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 1st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/88039/trumps-legal-and-political-calendar-all-the-dates-you-need-to-know/">Master Calendar of Trump Court Dates: Criminal and Civil Cases</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. 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Michael Kirby" class="author url fn" rel="author">The Hon. Michael Kirby</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 29th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98855/good-moral-character-trump-immigrants/">‘Good Moral Character?’ Holding Trump to the Same Standards as the Immigrants He Vilifies</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/chenedgar/" title="Profile and articles by Edgar Chen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Edgar Chen</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rossdan/" title="Profile and articles by Dan Ross" class="author url fn" rel="author">Dan Ross</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 28th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/99069/artificial-intelligence-democracy-effects/">Don’t Downplay Risks of AI for Democracy</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/nosselsuzanne/" title="Profile and articles by Suzanne Nossel" class="author url fn" rel="author">Suzanne Nossel</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 28th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98844/dont-sanction-icc/">Don’t Sanction the ICC for Doing its Job</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/mayamichael/" title="Profile and articles by Michael Maya" class="author url fn" rel="author">Michael Maya</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 27th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/81789/russias-eliminationist-rhetoric-against-ukraine-a-collection/">Russia’s Eliminationist Rhetoric Against Ukraine: A Collection</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/aptclara/" title="Profile and articles by Clara Apt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clara Apt</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 26th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98895/presidential-immunity-congressional-contempt/">Presidential Immunity Decision May Have Implications for Congressional-Executive Divide on Criminal Contempt</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/wrightandy/" title="Profile and articles by Andy Wright" class="author url fn" rel="author">Andy Wright</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 26th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98847/kursk-incursion-international-law/">Ukraine’s Incursion into Kursk Oblast: A Lawful Case of Defensive Invasion?</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/omearachris/" title="Profile and articles by Chris O'Meara" class="author url fn" rel="author">Chris O'Meara</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 23rd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98812/icc-amicus-brief-israel-palestine/">Expert Explainer: The US for the first time submits a formal brief to the International Criminal Court on the ‘Situation in Palestine’</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/buchwaldtodd/" title="Profile and articles by Todd Buchwald" class="author url fn" rel="author">Todd Buchwald</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 22nd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98787/icc-disability-slave-trade/">Time for the International Criminal Court to Recognize Persons with Disabilities and the Slave Trade</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/lordjanet/" title="Profile and articles by Janet Lord" class="author url fn" rel="author">Janet Lord</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/schwarzpace/" title="Profile and articles by Pace Schwarz" class="author url fn" rel="author">Pace Schwarz</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/smithmatthew/" title="Profile and articles by Matthew "Hezzy" Smith" class="author url fn" rel="author">Matthew "Hezzy" Smith</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/steinmichael/" title="Profile and articles by Michael Ashley Stein" class="author url fn" rel="author">Michael Ashley Stein</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/greenalex/" title="Profile and articles by Alex Green" class="author url fn" rel="author">Alex Green</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kayessrosemary/" title="Profile and articles by Rosemary Kayess" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rosemary Kayess</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 21st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98801/podcast-international-law-israel-palestine/">The Just Security Podcast: Assessing the Recent Response of International Law and Institutions in Palestine and Israel</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/imseisardi/" title="Profile and articles by Ardi Imseis" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ardi Imseis</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hammourishahd/" title="Profile and articles by Shahd Hammouri" class="author url fn" rel="author">Shahd Hammouri</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kattanvictor/" title="Profile and articles by Victor Kattan" class="author url fn" rel="author">Victor Kattan</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/sirleafmatiangai/" title="Profile and articles by Matiangai Sirleaf" class="author url fn" rel="author">Matiangai Sirleaf</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/shahparas/" title="Profile and articles by Paras Shah" class="author url fn" rel="author">Paras Shah</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/aptclara/" title="Profile and articles by Clara Apt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clara Apt</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 21st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98754/biden-end-iraq-war/">A Presidential Proclamation to End the Iraq War: Unilateral Executive Action to Defang a Zombie AUMF</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/finucanebrian/" title="Profile and articles by Brian Finucane" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brian Finucane</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 20th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98733/ukraine-icc-ratification/">Unforced Error: Article 124 and the Regrettable Caveat to Ukraine’s Proposed Ratification of the ICC Statute</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/dannenbaumtom/" title="Profile and articles by Tom Dannenbaum" class="author url fn" rel="author">Tom Dannenbaum</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 20th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98674/911-plea-deals-revoked/">Revoking the 9/11 Plea Deals: Human Rights Consequences</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/niaolainfionnuala/" title="Profile and articles by Fionnuala Ní Aoláin" class="author url fn" rel="author">Fionnuala Ní Aoláin</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 16th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98652/afghanistan-taliban-third-anniversary/">Collecting Just Security’s Afghanistan Coverage on Third Anniversary of Taliban Takeover</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/nirmaya/" title="Profile and articles by Maya Nir" class="author url fn" rel="author">Maya Nir</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 15th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98592/sudan-talks-deadlock/">Breaking the Deadlock: New Talks Needed to Help End Sudan’s Violence and Offer a Glimmer of Hope</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/abdulshafiquscondy/" title="Profile and articles by Quscondy Abdulshafi" class="author url fn" rel="author">Quscondy Abdulshafi</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 13th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98543/fara-sue-mi-terry/">The Perils of Expertise: How the DOJ Indictment of Sue Mi Terry Can Chill the Think Tank World</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/craiggregory/" title="Profile and articles by Gregory B. Craig" class="author url fn" rel="author">Gregory B. Craig</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 12th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98501/israel-trans-border-torture/">Justice for Trans-border Torture Requires Rethinking the International Criminal Court’s Jurisdiction in the Israel-Palestine Conflict</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ben-natansmadar/" title="Profile and articles by Smadar Ben-Natan" class="author url fn" rel="author">Smadar Ben-Natan</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/mannitamar/" title="Profile and articles by Itamar Mann" class="author url fn" rel="author">Itamar Mann</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 7th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98445/our-lives-depend-on-cloud/">Our Lives Depend on the Cloud. Now What?</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/pendletonjohn/" title="Profile and articles by John Pendleton" class="author url fn" rel="author">John Pendleton</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/leviteariel/" title="Profile and articles by Ariel Levite" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ariel Levite</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 6th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98429/security-council-report-isis-qaeda/">Wake Up Call: UN Security Council’s Report on ISIS and al-Qaeda</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/joscelyntom/" title="Profile and articles by Tom Joscelyn" class="author url fn" rel="author">Tom Joscelyn</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 5th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98378/podcast-assessing-laws-of-war/">The Just Security Podcast: Assessing the Laws of War</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/droegecordula/" title="Profile and articles by Cordula Droege" class="author url fn" rel="author">Cordula Droege</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bridgemantess/" title="Profile and articles by Tess Bridgeman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Tess Bridgeman</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/shahparas/" title="Profile and articles by Paras Shah" class="author url fn" rel="author">Paras Shah</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/blankharrison/" title="Profile and articles by Harrison Blank" class="author url fn" rel="author">Harrison Blank</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 2nd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98313/podcast-hostage-policy/">The Just Security Podcast: The Evolution of U.S. Hostage Policy</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/foleydiane/" title="Profile and articles by Diane Foley" class="author url fn" rel="author">Diane Foley</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hartigluke/" title="Profile and articles by Luke Hartig" class="author url fn" rel="author">Luke Hartig</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/violagienger/" title="Profile and articles by Viola Gienger" class="author url fn" rel="author">Viola Gienger</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/shahparas/" title="Profile and articles by Paras Shah" class="author url fn" rel="author">Paras Shah</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/blankharrison/" title="Profile and articles by Harrison Blank" class="author url fn" rel="author">Harrison Blank</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 1st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98273/the-aftermath-of-the-haniyeh-killing-how-to-avoid-a-new-middle-east-war/">The Aftermath of the Haniyeh Killing: How to Avoid a New Middle East War</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rosenbrianna/" title="Profile and articles by Brianna Rosen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brianna Rosen</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 31st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98261/disability-think-differently-trump/">Donald Trump’s Dangerous Views on Disability and the Power to Think Differently</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/shahparas/" title="Profile and articles by Paras Shah" class="author url fn" rel="author">Paras Shah</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 31st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/97738/just-security-analysis-supreme-court/">Collecting Just Security’s Analysis of the Supreme Court’s Term</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/blankharrison/" title="Profile and articles by Harrison Blank" class="author url fn" rel="author">Harrison Blank</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bridgemantess/" title="Profile and articles by Tess Bridgeman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Tess Bridgeman</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 29th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98205/prudential-trump-v-united-states/">A Prudential Way Forward in <i>Trump v. United States</i></a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bobbittphilip/" title="Profile and articles by Philip Bobbitt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Philip Bobbitt</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 29th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98091/negotiations-with-iran-now/">Space May be Opening for Negotiations with Iran</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/brewgregory/" title="Profile and articles by Gregory Brew" class="author url fn" rel="author">Gregory Brew</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 29th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98128/united-nations-pact-for-future/">What the Draft UN “Pact for the Future” Tells Us About International Insecurity</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/gowanrichard/" title="Profile and articles by Richard Gowan" class="author url fn" rel="author">Richard Gowan</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 26th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98082/international-court-of-justices-call-on-all-states-to-end-israels-occupation-and-find-a-path-to-peace/">International Court of Justice’s Call on All States to End Israel’s Occupation and Find a Path to Peace</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/nowrojeebinaifer/" title="Profile and articles by Binaifer Nowrojee" class="author url fn" rel="author">Binaifer Nowrojee</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 25th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98037/doj-special-counsel/"><i> United States v. Nixon </i> at Fifty: Why Judge Cannon Is Wrong About the Attorney General’s Authority to Select a Special Counsel</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ledermanmarty/" title="Profile and articles by Marty Lederman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Marty Lederman</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 24th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/97937/azerbaijan-arbitrary-detentions-host-cop29/">Azerbaijan’s Aliyev Extends Arbitrary Detentions Even as He Prepares to Host Global Climate Conference COP29</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bayramovazhala/" title="Profile and articles by Zhala Bayramova" class="author url fn" rel="author">Zhala Bayramova</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bayramovibad/" title="Profile and articles by Ibad Bayramov" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ibad Bayramov</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bayramliemin/" title="Profile and articles by Emin Bayramli" class="author url fn" rel="author">Emin Bayramli</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 23rd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/92714/american-autocracy-threat-tracker/">American Autocracy Threat Tracker</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ben-ghiatruth/" title="Profile and articles by Ruth Ben-Ghiat" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ruth Ben-Ghiat</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/wattsiven/" title="Profile and articles by Siven Watt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Siven Watt</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kolbjoshua/" title="Profile and articles by Joshua Kolb" class="author url fn" rel="author">Joshua Kolb</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/warrenandrew/" title="Profile and articles by Andrew Warren" class="author url fn" rel="author">Andrew Warren</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kovacs-goodmanjacob/" title="Profile and articles by Jacob Kovacs-Goodman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Jacob Kovacs-Goodman</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/barrilleauxfrancois/" title="Profile and articles by Francois Barrilleaux" class="author url fn" rel="author">Francois Barrilleaux</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 22nd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/97922/non-state-civilian-political-institutions/">Assessing the Civilian and Political Institutions of Armed Non-State Actors under International Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/fortinkatharine/" title="Profile and articles by Katharine Fortin" class="author url fn" rel="author">Katharine Fortin</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 22nd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/97826/state-departments-civilian-harm-incident-response/">The State Department’s Civilian Harm Incident Response Guidance: How to Make a Good Thing Better</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/blahacharles/" title="Profile and articles by Charles O. (Cob) Blaha" class="author url fn" rel="author">Charles O. (Cob) Blaha</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 18th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/97781/three-flaws-supreme-court-immunity/">Three Flaws in the Supreme Court’s Decision on Presidential Criminal Immunity</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/weissmannandrew/" title="Profile and articles by Andrew Weissmann" class="author url fn" rel="author">Andrew Weissmann</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 17th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/97760/economic-security-presidential-power/">How ‘Economic Security’ is Re-shaping Presidential Power</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/claussenkathleen/" title="Profile and articles by Kathleen Claussen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Kathleen Claussen</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/meyertimothy/" title="Profile and articles by Timothy Meyer" class="author url fn" rel="author">Timothy Meyer</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 16th, 2024</p> </li></ul></div></aside><div class="capitol-breaker"><h3 class="widget-title">Resources</h3></div><aside id="js-scrolling-content-4" class="widget js-scrolling-content clearfix"><h3 class="flexible-content-title">Trackers</h3><div class="flexible-content posts clearfix" style="height:auto;"><ul class="posts-list-min"><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105064/mapping-state-reactions-icc/">Mapping State Reactions to the ICC Arrest Warrants for Netanyahu and Gallant</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ingberrebecca/" title="Profile and articles by Rebecca Ingber" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rebecca Ingber</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 23rd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/81789/russias-eliminationist-rhetoric-against-ukraine-a-collection/">Russia’s Eliminationist Rhetoric Against Ukraine: A Collection</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/aptclara/" title="Profile and articles by Clara Apt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clara Apt</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 26th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/100235/unga-79-expert-analysis-resources/">UNGA 79: Expert Analysis & Resources</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/aptclara/" title="Profile and articles by Clara Apt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clara Apt</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/nirmaya/" title="Profile and articles by Maya Nir" class="author url fn" rel="author">Maya Nir</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/violagienger/" title="Profile and articles by Viola Gienger" class="author url fn" rel="author">Viola Gienger</a></p> <p class="date">Sep 19th, 2024</p> </li></ul></div></aside><aside id="js-scrolling-content-6" class="widget js-scrolling-content clearfix"><h3 class="flexible-content-title">Series</h3><div class="flexible-content posts custom-scroll clearfix" style="height:350px;"><ul class="posts-list-min"><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/95879/symposium-international-criminal-court-gaza/">A Symposium on the International Criminal Court and the Israel-Hamas War</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/just-security-admin/" title="Profile and articles by Just Security" class="author url fn" rel="author">Just Security</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 22nd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/96975/icc-prosecutor-policy-complementarity-cooperation/">Symposium: ICC Prosecutor Launches Policy on Complementarity and Cooperation</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/uruenarene/" title="Profile and articles by René Urueña" class="author url fn" rel="author">René Urueña</a></p> <p class="date">Jun 20th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/96881/symposium-on-ai-and-human-rights/">Introducing the Symposium on AI and Human Rights</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/peakejessica/" title="Profile and articles by Jessica Peake" class="author url fn" rel="author">Jessica Peake</a></p> <p class="date">Jun 17th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/94368/symposium-view-from-lviv/">Symposium: International Law in Ukraine – The View from Lviv</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/just-security-admin/" title="Profile and articles by Just Security" class="author url fn" rel="author">Just Security</a></p> <p class="date">Apr 5th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/90411/2024-and-beyond-just-securitys-us-election-protection-coverage/">2024 and Beyond: Just Security’s US Election Protection Coverage</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a 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class="date">Feb 19th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/89838/the-future-of-atrocity-prevention-a-joint-symposium/">The Future of Atrocity Prevention: A Joint Symposium</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/whiddengwendolyn/" title="Profile and articles by Gwendolyn Whidden" class="author url fn" rel="author">Gwendolyn Whidden</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 31st, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/89583/introduction-to-symposium-governing-artificial-intelligence-power-justice-and-the-limits-of-the-law/">Introducing the Symposium on AI Governance: Power, Justice, and the Limits of the Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rosenbrianna/" title="Profile and articles by Brianna Rosen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brianna Rosen</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 18th, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a 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McCord is Executive Director of the Institute for Constitutional Advocacy and Protection (ICAP) and Visiting Professor of Law at Georgetown University Law Center. She previously served as Acting Assistant Attorney General for National Security at the U.S. Department of Justice.</p> </div><p class="clearfix"> <a href="mailto:lte@justsecurity.org" class="button has-icon icon-fa"> <i class="fa fa-envelope-o" aria-hidden="true"></i> Send A Letter To The Editor </a> </p></div></div><div class="post-bottom-row related-posts clearfix"><div class="secondary-left"><h3>Read these related stories next:</h3></div><div class="primary archive-wrap"><div class="result-entry type-post"> <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104473/presidents-people-book-podcast/" class="thumb" style="background-image:url(https://i0.wp.com/www.justsecurity.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Screenshot-2024-10-31-at-8.15.19%E2%80%AFAM.png?fit=682%2C310&ssl=1);"></a> <h3><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104473/presidents-people-book-podcast/">The Just Security Podcast: ‘The Presidents and the People’ Book Talk</a></h3> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/brettschneidercorey/" title="Profile and articles by Corey Brettschneider" class="author url fn" rel="author">Corey Brettschneider</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/joscelyntom/" title="Profile and articles by Tom Joscelyn" class="author url fn" rel="author">Tom Joscelyn</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/shahparas/" title="Profile and articles by Paras Shah" class="author url fn" rel="author">Paras Shah</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/aptclara/" title="Profile and articles by Clara Apt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clara Apt</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 31st, 2024</p> </div><div class="result-entry type-post"> <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104249/local-officials-election-certification-disinformation/" class="thumb" style="background-image:url(https://i0.wp.com/www.justsecurity.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/cropped-ballot-counter-scaled.jpg?fit=768%2C335&ssl=1);"></a> <h3><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104249/local-officials-election-certification-disinformation/">Local Officials Cannot Block Election Certification. 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Congress Can and Should Address the Threat from Unauthorized Paramilitary Activity