CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Proto-Indo-European language - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"7aeb4e10-b9b5-4831-8fa3-25cb3ba532f5","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Proto-Indo-European_language","wgTitle":"Proto-Indo-European language","wgCurRevisionId":1257720351,"wgRevisionId":1257720351,"wgArticleId":559297,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Articles containing Italian-language text","Articles containing French-language text","Articles containing Danish-language text","Articles containing German-language text","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from March 2023","Pages with plain IPA","Articles with unsourced statements from January 2017", "Articles to be expanded from May 2019","All articles to be expanded","Articles with empty sections from May 2019","All articles with empty sections","Use dmy dates from July 2017","Proto-Indo-European language","Bronze Age","Indo-European languages","Proto-Indo-Europeans","Proto-languages"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Proto-Indo-European_language","wgRelevantArticleId":559297,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgRedirectedFrom":"Proto-Indo-European","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false, "nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":60000,"wgInternalRedirectTargetUrl":"/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language","wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q37178","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready", "skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["mediawiki.action.view.redirect","ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init", "ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.5"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Proto-Indo-European language - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Proto-Indo-European_language rootpage-Proto-Indo-European_language skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Proto-Indo-European+language" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Proto-Indo-European+language" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Proto-Indo-European+language" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Proto-Indo-European+language" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Development_of_the_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_the_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Development of the hypothesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_of_the_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_and_geographical_setting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_and_geographical_setting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Historical and geographical setting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_and_geographical_setting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Descendants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descendants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Descendants</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Descendants-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Descendants subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Descendants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marginally_attested_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marginally_attested_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Marginally attested languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marginally_attested_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Notation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Accent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Root" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Root"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Root</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Root-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ablaut" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ablaut"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Ablaut</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ablaut-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noun" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noun"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Noun</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noun-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronoun" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronoun"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Pronoun</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronoun-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verb" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Verb</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numbers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numbers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Numbers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numbers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Particle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Particle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Particle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Particle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Derivational_morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Derivational_morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Derivational morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Derivational_morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Internal_derivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_derivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8.1</span> <span>Internal derivation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_derivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Possessive_adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possessive_adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8.1.1</span> <span>Possessive adjectives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possessive_adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vrddhi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vrddhi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8.1.2</span> <span>Vrddhi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vrddhi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nominalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nominalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8.1.3</span> <span>Nominalization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nominalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Affixal_derivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affixal_derivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8.2</span> <span>Affixal derivation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Affixal_derivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Proto-Indo-European language</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 80 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-80" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">80 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europese_taal" title="Proto-Indo-Europese taal – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Proto-Indo-Europese taal" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indogermanische_Ursprache" title="Indogermanische Ursprache – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Indogermanische Ursprache" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B2-%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9" title="मूल-भारोपीय भाषासमूह – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="मूल-भारोपीय भाषासमूह" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لغة هندية أوروبية بدائية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغة هندية أوروبية بدائية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_protoindoeuropeu" title="Idioma protoindoeuropeu – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Idioma protoindoeuropeu" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_protoindoeurop%C3%A9u" title="Idioma protoindoeuropéu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Idioma protoindoeuropéu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Hind-Avropa_dili" title="Proto-Hind-Avropa dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Proto-Hind-Avropa dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8B-%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="প্রত্ন-ইন্দো-ইউরোপীয় ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রত্ন-ইন্দো-ইউরোপীয় ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go%C3%A2n-ch%C3%B3%CD%98_%C3%8Cn-Au_gi%C3%A2n-g%C3%AD" title="Goân-chó͘ Ìn-Au giân-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Goân-chó͘ Ìn-Au giân-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B5%D1%9E%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Праіндаеўрапейская мова – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Праіндаеўрапейская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Протоиндоевропейски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Протоиндоевропейски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praindoevropski_jezik" title="Praindoevropski jezik – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Praindoevropski jezik" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indezeuropeg" title="Indezeuropeg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Indezeuropeg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoindoeuropeu" title="Protoindoeuropeu – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Protoindoeuropeu" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praindoevropsk%C3%BD_jazyk" title="Praindoevropský jazyk – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Praindoevropský jazyk" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-Ewropeg" title="Proto-Indo-Ewropeg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Proto-Indo-Ewropeg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indogermanische_Ursprache" title="Indogermanische Ursprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Indogermanische Ursprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoeuroopa_algkeel" title="Indoeuroopa algkeel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Indoeuroopa algkeel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%89%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%8A%CE%BD%CE%B4%CE%BF%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%81%CF%89%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Πρωτοϊνδοευρωπαϊκή γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πρωτοϊνδοευρωπαϊκή γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_protoindoeuropeo" title="Idioma protoindoeuropeo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma protoindoeuropeo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinde%C5%ADropa_pralingvo" title="Hindeŭropa pralingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Hindeŭropa pralingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aitzinindoeuropera" title="Aitzinindoeuropera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Aitzinindoeuropera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%BE%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="زبان نیاهندواروپایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان نیاهندواروپایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-europ%C3%A9en_commun" title="Indo-européen commun – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Indo-européen commun" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Yndo-Jeropeesk" title="Proto-Yndo-Jeropeesk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Proto-Yndo-Jeropeesk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%B3ta-Ind-Eorpais" title="Próta-Ind-Eorpais – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Próta-Ind-Eorpais" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innd-E%C3%B2rpais" title="Innd-Eòrpais – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Innd-Eòrpais" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_protoindoeuropea" title="Lingua protoindoeuropea – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua protoindoeuropea" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EB%8F%84%EC%9C%A0%EB%9F%BD%EC%A1%B0%EC%96%B4" title="인도유럽조어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="인도유럽조어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%A5%D5%BE%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%B8%D6%82" title="Հնդեվրոպական նախալեզու – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հնդեվրոպական նախալեզու" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE-%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6-%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="आदिम-हिन्द-यूरोपीय भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="आदिम-हिन्द-यूरोपीय भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoeuropski_prajezik" title="Indoeuropski prajezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Indoeuropski prajezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Proto-Indo-Eropa" title="Bahasa Proto-Indo-Eropa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Proto-Indo-Eropa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_proto-indoeuropee" title="Lingua proto-indoeuropee – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Lingua proto-indoeuropee" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frumind%C3%B3evr%C3%B3pska" title="Frumindóevrópska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Frumindóevrópska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_protoindoeuropea" title="Lingua protoindoeuropea – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua protoindoeuropea" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%98%D7%95-%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%95-%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פרוטו-הודו-אירופית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרוטו-הודו-אירופית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziman%C3%AA_proto-hind_%C3%BB_ewrop%C3%AE" title="Zimanê proto-hind û ewropî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zimanê proto-hind û ewropî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Protoindoeuropaea" title="Lingua Protoindoeuropaea – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Protoindoeuropaea" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoeiropie%C5%A1u_pirmvaloda" title="Indoeiropiešu pirmvaloda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Indoeiropiešu pirmvaloda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoeuropie%C4%8Di%C5%B3_prokalb%C4%97" title="Indoeuropiečių prokalbė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Indoeuropiečių prokalbė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indogermaans" title="Proto-Indogermaans – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Proto-Indogermaans" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoindoeuropean" title="Protoindoeuropean – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Protoindoeuropean" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_protoindoeuropea" title="Lengua protoindoeuropea – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Lengua protoindoeuropea" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoeur%C3%B3pai_alapnyelv" title="Indoeurópai alapnyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Indoeurópai alapnyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="मूल भारोपेली भाषा – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="मूल भारोपेली भाषा" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Праиндоевропски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Праиндоевропски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Indo-Eropah_Purba" title="Bahasa Indo-Eropah Purba – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Indo-Eropah Purba" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europees" title="Proto-Indo-Europees – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Proto-Indo-Europees" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="आदिम भारोपेली भाषा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="आदिम भारोपेली भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E3%83%BB%E3%83%A8%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AD%E3%83%83%E3%83%91%E7%A5%96%E8%AA%9E" title="インド・ヨーロッパ祖語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="インド・ヨーロッパ祖語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uur-Indogermaans" title="Uur-Indogermaans – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Uur-Indogermaans" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urindoeuropeisk" title="Urindoeuropeisk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Urindoeuropeisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urindoeuropeisk" title="Urindoeuropeisk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Urindoeuropeisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoindoeurop%C3%A8u" title="Protoindoeuropèu – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Protoindoeuropèu" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B4_%DB%81%D9%86%D8%AF_%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%BE%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C" title="پیش ہند یورپی بولی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پیش ہند یورپی بولی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_praindoeuropejski" title="Język praindoeuropejski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język praindoeuropejski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_protoindo-europeia" title="Língua protoindo-europeia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua protoindo-europeia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_protoindo-european%C4%83" title="Limba protoindo-europeană – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba protoindo-europeană" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Праиндоевропейский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Праиндоевропейский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE-%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%8B_%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Индо-Европа былыргы тыла – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Индо-Европа былыргы тыла" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuha_proto-indo-evropiane" title="Gjuha proto-indo-evropiane – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuha proto-indo-evropiane" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Proto-Indo-European language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praindoeur%C3%B3p%C4%8Dina" title="Praindoeurópčina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Praindoeurópčina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoevropski_prajezik" title="Indoevropski prajezik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Indoevropski prajezik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%95%DA%95%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C-%DA%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%88%D9%BE%DB%8C" title="زمانی بنەڕەتی-ھیندوئەورووپی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زمانی بنەڕەتی-ھیندوئەورووپی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Праиндоевропски језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Праиндоевропски језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoevropski_prajezik" title="Indoevropski prajezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Indoevropski prajezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoeurooppalainen_kantakieli" title="Indoeurooppalainen kantakieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Indoeurooppalainen kantakieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urindoeuropeiska" title="Urindoeuropeiska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Urindoeuropeiska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%94-%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A1" title="ภาษาอินโด-ยูโรเปียนดั้งเดิม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาอินโด-ยูโรเปียนดั้งเดิม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto_Hint-Avrupa_dili" title="Proto Hint-Avrupa dili – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Proto Hint-Avrupa dili" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%94%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Праіндоєвропейська мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Праіндоєвропейська мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C_%DB%81%D9%86%D8%AF_%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%BE%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="اولی ہند یورپی زبان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اولی ہند یورپی زبان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_%E1%BA%A4n-%C3%82u_nguy%C3%AAn_th%E1%BB%A7y" title="Tiếng Ấn-Âu nguyên thủy – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Ấn-Âu nguyên thủy" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-uropeyin" title="Indo-uropeyin – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Indo-uropeyin" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%A7%8B%E5%8D%B0%E6%AC%A7%E8%AF%AD" title="原始印欧语 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="原始印欧语" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%A7%8B%E5%8D%B0%E6%AD%90%E8%AA%9E" title="原始印歐語 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="原始印歐語" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C4%B1wan%C3%AA_Proto-Hind-Ewropaki" title="Zıwanê Proto-Hind-Ewropaki – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Zıwanê Proto-Hind-Ewropaki" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%A7%8B%E5%8D%B0%E6%AD%90%E8%AA%9E" title="原始印歐語 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="原始印歐語" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q37178#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Proto-Indo-European_language" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Proto-Indo-European_language" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&oldid=1257720351" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Proto-Indo-European_language&id=1257720351&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FProto-Indo-European_language"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FProto-Indo-European_language"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Proto-Indo-European_language" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q37178" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ancestor of the Indo-European languages</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"PIE" and "Proto-Indo-European" redirect here. For the people, see <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/PIE_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="PIE (disambiguation)">PIE (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Pre-Indo-European_languages" title="Pre-Indo-European languages">Pre-Indo-European languages</a> or <a href="/wiki/Paleo-European_languages" title="Paleo-European languages">Paleo-European languages</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #c9ffd9;">Proto-Indo-European</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="background-color: #c9ffd9;">PIE</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reconstruction of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe" title="Pontic–Caspian steppe">Pontic–Caspian steppe</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Proto-Indo-European homeland</a>)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 4500</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2500</span> BC</td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Lower-order reconstructions</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Albanian_language" title="Proto-Albanian language">Proto-Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Anatolian_language" title="Proto-Anatolian language">Proto-Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic language">Proto-Balto-Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Italic_language" title="Proto-Italic language">Proto-Italic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Tocharian_language" title="Proto-Tocharian language">Proto-Tocharian</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Indo-European" title="Category:Indo-European">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;background:rgb(220,245,220);"><a href="/wiki/Category:Indo-European" title="Category:Indo-European">Indo-European topics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-European_migrations.gif" title="File:Indo-European migrations.gif"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/140px-Indo-European_migrations.gif" decoding="async" width="140" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/210px-Indo-European_migrations.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/280px-Indo-European_migrations.gif 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="598" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indo-European_languages" title="List of Indo-European languages">List of Indo-European languages</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Extant</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanoid" title="Albanoid">Albanoid</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languages" title="Balto-Slavic languages">Balto-Slavic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nuristani_languages" title="Nuristani languages">Nuristani</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Extinct</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Dacian_language" title="Dacian language">Dacian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_language" title="Illyrian language">Illyrian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Liburnian_language" title="Liburnian language">Liburnian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Messapic_language" title="Messapic language">Messapic</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Mysian_language" title="Mysian language">Mysian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Paeonian_language" title="Paeonian language">Paeonian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Thracian_language" title="Thracian language">Thracian</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Reconstructed</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-Indo-European language</a><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Phonology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_sound_laws" title="Indo-European sound laws">Sound laws</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_accent" title="Proto-Indo-European accent">Accent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Ablaut</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Hypothetical</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Balkanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daco-Thracian" class="mw-redirect" title="Daco-Thracian">Daco-Thracian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Albanian" title="Graeco-Albanian">Graeco-Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Armenian" title="Graeco-Armenian">Graeco-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Aryan" title="Graeco-Aryan">Graeco-Aryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Phrygian" title="Graeco-Phrygian">Graeco-Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Hittite" title="Indo-Hittite">Indo-Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Celtic" title="Italo-Celtic">Italo-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thraco-Illyrian" title="Thraco-Illyrian">Thraco-Illyrian</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Grammar</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_vocabulary" title="Indo-European vocabulary">Vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_root" title="Proto-Indo-European root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verbs" title="Proto-Indo-European verbs">Verbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_nominals" title="Proto-Indo-European nominals">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_pronouns" title="Proto-Indo-European pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_numerals" title="Proto-Indo-European numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_particles" title="Proto-Indo-European particles">Particles</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Other</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Albanian_language" title="Proto-Albanian language">Proto-Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Anatolian_language" title="Proto-Anatolian language">Proto-Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Italo-Celtic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Italo-Celtic language">Proto-Italo-Celtic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a> · <a href="/wiki/Proto-Italic_language" title="Proto-Italic language">Proto-Italic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic language">Proto-Balto-Slavic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Slavic language">Proto-Slavic</a> · <a href="/wiki/Proto-Baltic_language" title="Proto-Baltic language">Proto-Baltic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Iranian language">Proto-Iranian</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Philology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_inscriptions" title="Hittite inscriptions">Hittite inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphic_Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphic Luwian">Hieroglyphic Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_inscriptions" title="Greek inscriptions">Greek epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language#Inscriptions" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messapic_language#Inscriptions" title="Messapic language">Messapic epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin#Corpus" title="Old Latin">Latin epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaulish#Corpus" title="Gaulish">Gaulish epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runic_inscriptions" title="Runic inscriptions">Runic epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Bible" title="Gothic Bible">Gothic Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Armenian" title="Bible translations into Armenian">Bible translations into Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_script" title="Tocharian script">Tocharian script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish#Sources" title="Old Irish">Old Irish glosses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanun_(Albania)" title="Kanun (Albania)">Albanian Kanun</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Origins</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_society" title="Proto-Indo-European society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Religion</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Mainstream<br /></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_nomads" title="Eurasian nomads">Eurasian nomads</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Alternative and fringe<br /></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_hypothesis" title="Armenian hypothesis">Armenian hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beech_argument" title="Beech argument">Beech argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenous Aryanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland#Baltic_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Baltic homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_continuity_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleolithic continuity theory">Paleolithic continuity theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Archaeology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic (Copper Age)</a><br /></dt></dl> <p><i>Pontic Steppe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_horse" title="Domestication of the horse">Domestication of the horse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan" title="Kurgan">Kurgan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_stelae" title="Kurgan stelae">Kurgan stelae</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurgan culture">Kurgan culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Horse,_the_Wheel,_and_Language" title="The Horse, the Wheel, and Language">Steppe cultures</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Bug%E2%80%93Dniester_culture" title="Bug–Dniester culture">Bug–Dniester</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Sredny_Stog_culture" title="Sredny Stog culture">Sredny Stog</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Dnieper%E2%80%93Donets_culture" title="Dnieper–Donets culture">Dnieper–Donets</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Samara_culture" title="Samara culture">Samara</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Khvalynsk_culture" title="Khvalynsk culture">Khvalynsk</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a></span> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Mikhaylovka_culture" title="Mikhaylovka culture">Mikhaylovka culture</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Novotitarovskaya_culture" title="Novotitarovskaya culture">Novotitarovskaya culture</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <p><i>Caucasus</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maykop_culture" title="Maykop culture">Maykop</a></li></ul> <p><i>East Asia</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo</a></li></ul> <p><i>Eastern Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Usatovo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Usatovo culture">Usatovo</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cernavod%C4%83_culture" title="Cernavodă culture">Cernavodă</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cucuteni%E2%80%93Trypillia_culture" title="Cucuteni–Trypillia culture">Cucuteni</a></li></ul> <p><i>Northern Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded ware</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Baden_culture" title="Baden culture">Baden</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dnieper_culture" title="Middle Dnieper culture">Middle Dnieper</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a><br /></dt></dl> <p><i>Pontic Steppe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">Chariot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacomb_culture" title="Catacomb culture">Catacomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-cordoned_ware_culture" title="Multi-cordoned ware culture">Multi-cordoned ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poltavka_culture" title="Poltavka culture">Poltavka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srubnaya_culture" title="Srubnaya culture">Srubnaya</a></li></ul> <p><i>Northern/Eastern Steppe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abashevo_culture" title="Abashevo culture">Abashevo culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta</a></li></ul> <p><i>Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Globular_Amphora_culture" title="Globular Amphora culture">Globular Amphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture" title="Bell Beaker culture">Bell Beaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9An%C4%9Btice_culture" title="Únětice culture">Únětice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trzciniec_culture" title="Trzciniec culture">Trzciniec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terramare_culture" title="Terramare culture">Terramare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus_culture" title="Tumulus culture">Tumulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_culture" title="Lusatian culture">Lusatian</a></li></ul> <p><i>South Asia</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaz_culture" title="Yaz culture">Yaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Gandhara grave</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></dt></dl> <p><i>Steppe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernoles_culture" title="Chernoles culture">Chernoles</a></li></ul> <p><i>Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thraco-Cimmerian" title="Thraco-Cimmerian">Thraco-Cimmerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jastorf_culture" title="Jastorf culture">Jastorf</a></li></ul> <p><i>Caucasus</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colchian_culture" title="Colchian culture">Colchian</a></li></ul> <p><i>India</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Peoples and societies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_peoples" title="Anatolian peoples">Anatolian peoples</a> (<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></span>) <br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></dt></dl> <p><i>Indo-Aryans</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryans</a></li></ul> <p><i>Iranians</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranians</a></li></ul> <p><i>East Asia</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></li></ul> <p><i>Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Insular_Celts" title="Insular Celts">Insular Celts</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmerians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Hellenic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Paleo-Balkan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age Anatolia">Anatolia</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Dacians" title="Dacians">Dacians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Paeonians" title="Paeonians">Paeonians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Phrygians" title="Phrygians">Phrygians</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></dt></dl> <p><i>East Asia</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a></li></ul> <p><i>Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_Albanians" title="Origin of the Albanians">Albanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balts" title="Balts">Balts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a>/<a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_peoples" title="North Germanic peoples">Medieval Scandinavians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li></ul> <p><i>Indo-Aryan</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval India</a></li></ul> <p><i>Iranian</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Religion and mythology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><i>Reconstructed</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Proto-Indo-European mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_paganism" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism">Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Ancient Iranian religion</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Historical</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li></ul> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indo-Aryan</a></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a></span></li></ul> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Persian</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_mythology" title="Kurdish mythology">Kurdish</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidism</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ossetian_mythology" title="Ossetian mythology">Ossetian</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> <p><i>Others</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li></ul> <p><i><a href="/wiki/European_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="European paganism">European</a></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Albanian_paganism" title="Albanian paganism">Albanian</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Dacian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian religion">Dacian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_mythology" title="Scottish mythology">Scottish</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Breton_mythology" title="Breton mythology">Breton</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_mythology" title="Welsh mythology">Welsh</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Cornish_mythology" title="Cornish mythology">Cornish</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Practices</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship#Indo-European_religions" title="Fire worship">Fire rituals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horse_sacrifice" title="Horse sacrifice">Horse sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(practice)" title="Sati (practice)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_solstice" title="Winter solstice">Winter solstice</a>/<a href="/wiki/Yule" title="Yule">Yule</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European studies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><i>Scholars</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marija_Gimbutas" title="Marija Gimbutas">Marija Gimbutas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. Mallory">J. P. Mallory</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Institutes</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_Studies_in_Indo-European" title="Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European">Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Publications</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Horse,_the_Wheel,_and_Language" title="The Horse, the Wheel, and Language">The Horse, the Wheel, and Language</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Indo-European_Studies" title="Journal of Indo-European Studies">Journal of Indo-European Studies</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indogermanisches_etymologisches_W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch">Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_Etymological_Dictionary" title="Indo-European Etymological Dictionary">Indo-European Etymological Dictionary</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indo-European_topics" title="Template:Indo-European topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indo-European_topics" title="Template talk:Indo-European topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indo-European_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indo-European topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/PIE_%C7%B5h.svg/40px-PIE_%C7%B5h.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/PIE_%C7%B5h.svg/60px-PIE_%C7%B5h.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/PIE_%C7%B5h.svg/80px-PIE_%C7%B5h.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="256" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><b>This article contains characters used to write reconstructed <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-Indo-European</a> words (for an explanation of the notation, see <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Proto-Indo-European phonology</a>).</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Special_characters" title="Help:Special characters">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> combining characters and <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> characters.</div></div> </div> <p><b>Proto-Indo-European</b> (<b>PIE</b>) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_language_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European language family">Indo-European language family</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No direct record of Proto-Indo-European exists; its proposed features have been derived by <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_reconstruction" title="Linguistic reconstruction">linguistic reconstruction</a> from documented Indo-European languages.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Far more work has gone into reconstructing PIE than any other <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">proto-language</a>, and it is the best understood of all proto-languages of its age. The majority of linguistic work during the 19th century was devoted to the reconstruction of PIE and its <a href="/wiki/Daughter_language" title="Daughter language">daughter languages</a>, and many of the modern techniques of linguistic reconstruction (such as the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a>) were developed as a result.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>PIE is hypothesized to have been spoken as a single language from approximately 4500 BCE to 2500 BCE<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> during the Late <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> to Early <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, though estimates vary by more than a thousand years. According to the prevailing <a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">original homeland</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a> may have been in the <a href="/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe" title="Pontic–Caspian steppe">Pontic–Caspian steppe</a> of eastern Europe. The linguistic reconstruction of PIE has provided insight into the pastoral <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European culture">culture</a> and patriarchal <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European religion">religion</a> of its speakers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson201016_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson201016-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As speakers of Proto-Indo-European became isolated from each other through the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a>, the regional <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialects</a> of Proto-Indo-European spoken by the various groups diverged, as each dialect underwent shifts in pronunciation (the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_sound_laws" title="Indo-European sound laws">Indo-European sound laws</a>), morphology, and vocabulary. Over many centuries, these dialects transformed into the known ancient Indo-European languages. From there, further linguistic divergence led to the evolution of their current descendants, the modern Indo-European languages. </p><p>PIE is believed to have had an elaborate system of <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> that included <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional suffixes</a> (analogous to English <i>child, child's, children, children's</i>) as well as <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">ablaut</a> (vowel alterations, as preserved in English <i>sing, sang, sung, song</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_accent" title="Proto-Indo-European accent">accent</a>. PIE <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_nominals" title="Proto-Indo-European nominals">nominals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_pronouns" title="Proto-Indo-European pronouns">pronouns</a> had a complex system of <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">declension</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verbs" title="Proto-Indo-European verbs">verbs</a> similarly had a complex system of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">conjugation</a>. The PIE <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">phonology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_particles" title="Proto-Indo-European particles">particles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_numerals" title="Proto-Indo-European numerals">numerals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_copula" title="Indo-European copula">copula</a> are also well-reconstructed. </p><p>Asterisks are used by linguists as a conventional mark of reconstructed words, such as *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><i>wódr̥</i></span></span>, *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><i>ḱwn̥tós</i></span></span>, or *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><i>tréyes</i></span></span>; these forms are the reconstructed ancestors of the modern English words <i>water</i>, <i>hound</i>, and <i>three</i>, respectively. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_of_the_hypothesis">Development of the hypothesis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Development of the hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>No direct evidence of PIE exists; scholars have reconstructed PIE from its present-day descendants using the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparative method (linguistics)">comparative method</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, compare the pairs of words in Italian and English: <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">piede</i></span> and <i>foot</i>, <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">padre</i></span> and <i>father</i>, <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">pesce</i></span> and <i>fish</i>. Since there is a consistent correspondence of the initial consonants (<i>p</i> and <i>f</i>) that emerges far too frequently to be coincidental, one can infer that these languages stem from a common <a href="/wiki/Parent_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Parent language">parent language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-comp-ling_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-comp-ling-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Detailed analysis suggests a system of <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_sound_laws" title="Indo-European sound laws">sound laws</a> to describe the <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonological</a> changes from the hypothetical ancestral words to the modern ones. These laws have become so detailed and reliable as to support the <a href="/wiki/Neogrammarian_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Neogrammarian hypothesis">Neogrammarian hypothesis</a>: the Indo-European sound laws apply without exception. </p><p><a href="/wiki/William_Jones_(philologist)" title="William Jones (philologist)">William Jones</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Welsh" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Welsh">Anglo-Welsh</a> <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philologist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puisne_judge" title="Puisne judge">puisne judge</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a>, caused an academic sensation when in 1786 he postulated the common ancestry of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but he was not the first to state such a hypothesis. In the 16th century, European visitors to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> became aware of similarities between <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Iranian language">Indo-Iranian languages</a> and European languages,<sup id="cite_ref-auroux_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auroux-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as early as 1653, <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Zuerius_van_Boxhorn" title="Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn">Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn</a> had published a proposal for a <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">proto-language</a> ("Scythian") for the following language families: <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Blench_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blench-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a memoir sent to the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Inscriptions_et_Belles-Lettres" title="Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres">Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres</a></span></span> in 1767, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gaston-Laurent_Coeurdoux" title="Gaston-Laurent Coeurdoux">Gaston-Laurent Coeurdoux</a></span></span>, a French <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> who spent most of his life in India, had specifically demonstrated the analogy between Sanskrit and European languages.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to current academic consensus, Jones's famous work of 1786 was less accurate than his predecessors', as he erroneously included <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> in the Indo-European languages, while omitting <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a>. </p><p>In 1818, Danish linguist <a href="/wiki/Rasmus_Christian_Rask" class="mw-redirect" title="Rasmus Christian Rask">Rasmus Christian Rask</a> elaborated the set of correspondences in his prize essay <span title="Danish-language text"><i lang="da">Undersøgelse om det gamle Nordiske eller Islandske Sprogs Oprindelse</i></span> ('Investigation of the Origin of the Old Norse or Icelandic Language'), where he argued that <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> was related to the Germanic languages, and had even suggested a relation to the Baltic, Slavic, Greek, Latin and Romance languages.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1816, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Bopp" title="Franz Bopp">Franz Bopp</a> published <i>On the System of Conjugation in Sanskrit</i>, in which he investigated the common origin of Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, and German. In 1833, he began publishing the <i>Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Zend</a>, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Slavic, Gothic, and German</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1822, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Grimm" title="Jacob Grimm">Jacob Grimm</a> formulated what became known as <a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's law</a> as a general rule in his <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Deutsche Grammatik</i></span>. Grimm showed correlations between the Germanic and other Indo-European languages and demonstrated that sound change systematically transforms all words of a language.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the 1870s, the Neogrammarians proposed that sound laws have no exceptions, as illustrated by <a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a>, published in 1876, which resolved apparent exceptions to Grimm's law by exploring the role of accent (stress) in language change.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/August_Schleicher" title="August Schleicher">August Schleicher</a>'s <i>A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European, Sanskrit, Greek and Latin Languages</i> (1874–77) represented an early attempt to reconstruct the proto-Indo-European language.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the early 1900s, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Europeanist" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Europeanist">Indo-Europeanists</a> had developed well-defined descriptions of PIE which scholars still accept today. Later, the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian languages</a> added to the corpus of descendant languages. A subtle new principle won wide acceptance: the <a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_theory" title="Laryngeal theory">laryngeal theory</a>, which explained irregularities in the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European phonology as the effects of hypothetical sounds which no longer exist in all languages documented prior to the excavation of <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> tablets in Anatolian. This theory was first proposed by <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a> in 1879 on the basis of internal reconstruction only,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and progressively won general acceptance after <a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Kury%C5%82owicz" title="Jerzy Kuryłowicz">Jerzy Kuryłowicz</a>'s discovery of consonantal reflexes of these reconstructed sounds in Hittite.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Julius_Pokorny" title="Julius Pokorny">Julius Pokorny</a>'s <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Indogermanisches_etymologisches_W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch">Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch</a></i></span> ('Indo-European Etymological Dictionary', 1959) gave a detailed, though conservative, overview of the lexical knowledge accumulated by 1959. Jerzy Kuryłowicz's 1956 <i>Apophonie</i> gave a better understanding of <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Indo-European ablaut</a>. From the 1960s, knowledge of Anatolian became robust enough to establish its relationship to PIE. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_and_geographical_setting">Historical and geographical setting</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Historical and geographical setting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Proto-Indo-European homeland</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-European_migrations.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Indo-European_migrations.jpg/300px-Indo-European_migrations.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Indo-European_migrations.jpg/450px-Indo-European_migrations.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Indo-European_migrations.jpg/600px-Indo-European_migrations.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3326" data-file-height="1372" /></a><figcaption>Early <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Pontic_steppes" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontic steppes">Pontic steppes</a> and across Central Asia according to the widely held Kurgan hypothesis</figcaption></figure> <p><span class="anchor" id="Era"></span><span class="anchor" id="Region"></span>Scholars have proposed multiple hypotheses about when, where, and by whom PIE was spoken. The <a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a>, first put forward in 1956 by <a href="/wiki/Marija_Gimbutas" title="Marija Gimbutas">Marija Gimbutas</a>, has become the most popular.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It proposes that the original speakers of PIE were the <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya culture</a> associated with the <a href="/wiki/Kurgan" title="Kurgan">kurgans</a> (burial mounds) on the <a href="/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe" title="Pontic–Caspian steppe">Pontic–Caspian steppe</a> north of the Black Sea.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 305–7">: 305–7 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Science_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Science-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the theory, they were <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_nomads" title="Eurasian nomads">nomadic pastoralists</a> who <a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_horse" title="Domestication of the horse">domesticated the horse</a>, which allowed them to migrate across Europe and Asia in wagons and chariots.<sup id="cite_ref-Science_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Science-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early 3rd millennium BCE, they had expanded throughout the Pontic–Caspian steppe and into eastern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other theories include the <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-bouckaert_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bouckaert-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which posits that PIE spread out from Anatolia with agriculture beginning <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 7500–6000 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_hypothesis" title="Armenian hypothesis">Armenian hypothesis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_continuity_paradigm" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleolithic continuity paradigm">Paleolithic continuity paradigm</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous Aryans">indigenous Aryans</a> theory. The last two of these theories are not regarded as credible within academia.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Out of all the theories for a PIE homeland, the Kurgan and Anatolian hypotheses are the ones most widely accepted, and also the ones most debated against each other.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the publication of several studies on ancient DNA in 2015, Colin Renfrew, the original author and proponent of the Anatolian hypothesis, has accepted the reality of migrations of populations speaking one or several Indo-European languages from the Pontic steppe towards Northwestern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IndoEuropeanTree.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/IndoEuropeanTree.svg/550px-IndoEuropeanTree.svg.png" decoding="async" width="550" height="507" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/IndoEuropeanTree.svg/825px-IndoEuropeanTree.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/IndoEuropeanTree.svg/1100px-IndoEuropeanTree.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1665" data-file-height="1535" /></a><figcaption>Classification of Indo-European languages. Red: Extinct languages. White: categories or unattested proto-languages. Left half: <a href="/wiki/Centum" class="mw-redirect" title="Centum">centum</a> languages; right half: <a href="/wiki/Satem" class="mw-redirect" title="Satem">satem</a> languages</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Descendants">Descendants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Descendants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a></div> <p>The table lists the main Indo-European language families, comprising the languages descended from Proto-Indo-European. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Clade </th> <th>Proto-language </th> <th>Description </th> <th>Historical languages </th> <th>Modern descendants </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proto-Anatolian_language" title="Proto-Anatolian language">Proto-Anatolian</a> </td> <td>All now extinct, the best attested being the <a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite language</a>. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaic">Palaic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lycian_language" title="Lycian language">Lycian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lydian_language" title="Lydian language">Lydian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carian_language" title="Carian language">Carian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pisidian_language" title="Pisidian language">Pisidian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sidetic_language" title="Sidetic language">Sidetic</a> </td> <td>There are no living descendants of Proto-Anatolian. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proto-Tocharian_language" title="Proto-Tocharian language">Proto-Tocharian</a> </td> <td>An extinct branch known from manuscripts dating from the 6th to the 8th century AD and found in northwest China. </td> <td>Tocharian A, Tocharian B </td> <td>There are no living descendants of Proto-Tocharian. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proto-Italic_language" title="Proto-Italic language">Proto-Italic</a> </td> <td>This included many languages, but only descendants of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>) survive. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Faliscan_language" title="Faliscan language">Faliscan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umbrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Umbrian">Umbrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Oscan">Oscan</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_Romance" title="African Romance">African Romance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_language" title="Dalmatian language">Dalmatian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volscian_language" title="Volscian language">Volscian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marsi" title="Marsi">Marsi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pre-Samnite_language" title="Pre-Samnite language">Pre-Samnite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paeligni" title="Paeligni">Paeligni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sabines" title="Sabines">Sabine</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galician_language" title="Galician language">Galician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Occitan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Occitan languages">Occitan</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friulian_language" title="Friulian language">Friulian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romansh_language" title="Romansh language">Romansh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aromanian_language" title="Aromanian language">Aromanian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sardinian_language" title="Sardinian language">Sardinian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corsican_language" title="Corsican language">Corsican</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venetian_language" title="Venetian language">Venetian</a>, Latin (as a <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">liturgical language</a> of the Catholic Church and the official language of the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a>), <a href="/wiki/Picard_language" title="Picard language">Picard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mirandese_language" title="Mirandese language">Mirandese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aragonese_language" title="Aragonese language">Aragonese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walloon_language" title="Walloon language">Walloon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piedmontese_language" title="Piedmontese language">Piedmontese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lombard_language" title="Lombard language">Lombard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_language" title="Neapolitan language">Neapolitan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_language" title="Sicilian language">Sicilian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emilian-Romagnol_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Emilian-Romagnol language">Emilian-Romagnol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ligurian_language" title="Ligurian language">Ligurian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ladin_language" title="Ladin language">Ladin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a> </td> <td>Once spoken across Europe, but now mostly confined to its northwestern edge. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_language" title="Celtiberian language">Lepontic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noric_language" title="Noric language">Noric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pictish" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictish">Pictish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cumbric" title="Cumbric">Cumbric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Irish language">Old Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Welsh_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Welsh language">Middle Welsh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallaecian_language" title="Gallaecian language">Gallaecian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galatian_language" title="Galatian language">Galatian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> </td> <td>Branched into three subfamilies: <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East Germanic</a> (now extinct), and <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic</a>. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_language_(Germanic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Burgundian language (Germanic)">Burgundian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Gothic" title="Crimean Gothic">Crimean Gothic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Norse" title="Greenlandic Norse">Greenlandic Norse</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxembourgish language">Luxembourgish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Limburgish" title="Limburgish">Limburgish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wymysorys_language" title="Wymysorys language">Wymysorys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elfdalian" title="Elfdalian">Elfdalian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languages" title="Balto-Slavic languages">Balto-Slavic</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic language">Proto-Balto-Slavic</a> </td> <td>Branched into the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic languages</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a>. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Old_Prussian" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Prussian">Old Prussian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sudovian_language" title="Sudovian language">Sudovian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semigallian_language" title="Semigallian language">Semigallian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Selonian_language" title="Selonian language">Selonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Skalvian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Skalvian language">Skalvian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galindian_language" title="Galindian language">Galindian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polabian_language" title="Polabian language">Polabian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a> </td> <td>Baltic: <a href="/wiki/Latvian_language" title="Latvian language">Latvian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latgalian_language" title="Latgalian language">Latgalian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>; <p>Slavic: <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sorbian_languages" title="Sorbian languages">Sorbian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian" title="Serbo-Croatian">Serbo-Croatian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovenian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Slovenian language">Slovenian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_language" title="Macedonian language">Macedonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kashubian_language" title="Kashubian language">Kashubian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rusyn_language" title="Rusyn language">Rusyn</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> </td> <td>Branched into the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuristani_languages" title="Nuristani languages">Nuristani</a> languages. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pali_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pali language">Pali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit"> Prakrit languages</a>; <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Azeri" title="Old Azeri">Old Azeri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elu" title="Elu">Elu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sogdian_language" title="Sogdian language">Sogdian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saka_language" title="Saka language">Saka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avestan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Avestan language">Avestan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bactrian_language" title="Bactrian language">Bactrian</a> </td> <td>Indo-Aryan: <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a>), <a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sylheti_language" title="Sylheti language">Sylheti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assamese_language" title="Assamese language">Assamese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odia_language" title="Odia language">Odia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Konkani_language" title="Konkani language">Konkani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nepali_language" title="Nepali language">Nepali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dogri_language" title="Dogri language">Dogri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romani_language" title="Romani language">Romani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sindhi_language" title="Sindhi language">Sindhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maithili_language" title="Maithili language">Maithili</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sinhala_language" title="Sinhala language">Sinhala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dhivehi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhivehi language">Dhivehi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_language" title="Kashmiri language">Kashmiri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> (<a href="/wiki/Revived_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Revived language">revived</a>); <p>Iranic: <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pashto" title="Pashto">Pashto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balochi_language" title="Balochi language">Balochi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Kurdish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zaza_language" title="Zaza language">Zaza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ossetian_language" title="Ossetian language">Ossetian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luri_language" title="Luri language">Luri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Talysh_language" title="Talysh language">Talyshi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tati_language_(Iran)" title="Tati language (Iran)">Tati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gilaki_language" title="Gilaki language">Gilaki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mazanderani_language" title="Mazanderani language">Mazandarani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semnani_language" title="Semnani language">Semnani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yaghnobi_language" title="Yaghnobi language">Yaghnobi</a>; <a href="/wiki/Nuristani_languages" title="Nuristani languages">Nuristani</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a> </td> <td>Branched into <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Armenian" title="Eastern Armenian">Eastern Armenian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Armenian" title="Western Armenian">Western Armenian</a>. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Classical_Armenian" title="Classical Armenian">Classical Armenian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a> </td> <td>Modern Greek and Tsakonian are the only surviving varieties of Greek. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_language" title="Ancient Macedonian language">Ancient Macedonian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tsakonian_language" title="Tsakonian language">Tsakonian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proto-Albanian_language" title="Proto-Albanian language">Proto-Albanian</a> </td> <td>Albanian is the only surviving representative of the <a href="/wiki/Albanoid" title="Albanoid">Albanoid</a> branch of the Indo-European language family.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_language" title="Illyrian language">Illyrian</a> (disputed); <a href="/wiki/Daco-Thracian" class="mw-redirect" title="Daco-Thracian">Daco-Thracian</a> (disputed) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gheg_Albanian" title="Gheg Albanian">Gheg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tosk_Albanian" title="Tosk Albanian">Tosk</a>) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Commonly proposed subgroups of Indo-European languages include <a href="/wiki/Italo-Celtic" title="Italo-Celtic">Italo-Celtic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graeco-Aryan" title="Graeco-Aryan">Graeco-Aryan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graeco-Armenian" title="Graeco-Armenian">Graeco-Armenian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graeco-Phrygian" title="Graeco-Phrygian">Graeco-Phrygian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daco-Thracian" class="mw-redirect" title="Daco-Thracian">Daco-Thracian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thraco-Illyrian" title="Thraco-Illyrian">Thraco-Illyrian</a>. </p><p>There are numerous lexical similarities between the Proto-Indo-European and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Kartvelian_language" title="Proto-Kartvelian language">Proto-Kartvelian</a> languages due to early <a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">language contact</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> as well as some morphological similarities—notably the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Indo-European ablaut</a>, which is remarkably similar to the root ablaut system reconstructible for Proto-Kartvelian.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marginally_attested_languages">Marginally attested languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Marginally attested languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Lusitanian_language" title="Lusitanian language">Lusitanian language</a> was a marginally attested language spoken in areas near the border between present-day <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Venetic_language" title="Venetic language">Venetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liburnian_language" title="Liburnian language">Liburnian</a> languages known from the North Adriatic region are sometimes classified as Italic. </p><p>Albanian and Greek are the only surviving Indo-European descendants of a <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Paleo-Balkan</a> language area, named for their occurrence in or in the vicinity of the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkan peninsula">Balkan peninsula</a>. Most of the other languages of this area—including <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Illyrian languages">Illyrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thracian_language" title="Thracian language">Thracian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dacian_language" title="Dacian language">Dacian</a>—do not appear to be members of any other subfamilies of PIE, but are so poorly attested that proper classification of them is not possible. Forming an exception, <a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian</a> is sufficiently well-attested to allow proposals of a particularly close affiliation with Greek, and a <a href="/wiki/Graeco-Phrygian" title="Graeco-Phrygian">Graeco-Phrygian</a> branch of Indo-European is becoming increasingly accepted.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Proto-Indo-European phonology</a></div> <p>Proto-Indo-European <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> has been reconstructed in some detail. Notable features of the most widely accepted (but not uncontroversial) reconstruction include: </p> <ul><li>three series of <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stop consonants</a> reconstructed as <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy voiced</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorant</a> consonants that could be used <a href="/wiki/Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant">syllabically</a>;</li> <li>three so-called <a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_theory" title="Laryngeal theory">laryngeal</a> consonants, whose exact pronunciation is not well-established but which are believed to have existed in part based on their detectable effects on adjacent sounds;</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricative</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span></li> <li>a <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowel</a> system in which <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> were the most frequently occurring vowels. The existence of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> as a separate phoneme is debated.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notation">Notation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Notation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vowels">Vowels</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The vowels in commonly used notation are:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapović201713_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapović201713-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Type </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">length</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <th>short </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>long </th> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">ē</a> </td> <td>*<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">ō</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Consonants">Consonants</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The corresponding consonants in commonly used notation are:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson2010§3.2_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson2010§3.2-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeekes1995§11_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes1995§11-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2">Type </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Coronal</a> </th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_consonant" title="Dorsal consonant">Dorsal</a> </th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_theory" title="Laryngeal theory">Laryngeal</a> </th> <th rowspan="6"> </th></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatal</a></small> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">plain</a></small> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Labialized_velar_consonant" title="Labialized velar consonant">labial</a></small> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">glottal</a></small> </th> <th colspan="2"><small><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar</a> or <a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">uvular</a></small> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasals</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">m</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/</span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">n</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/</span> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stops</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a></small> </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">p</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/</span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">t</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/</span> </td> <td>*ḱ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">kʲ</a>/</span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">k</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/</span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">kʷ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">kʷ</a>/</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></small> </th> <td>(*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">b</span></span>) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>/</span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">d</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>/</span> </td> <td>*ǵ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">gʲ</a>/</span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">g</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">g</a>/</span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">gʷ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">gʷ</a>/</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">aspirated</a></small> </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">bʰ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">bʱ</a>/</span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">dʰ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">dʱ</a>/</span> </td> <td>*ǵʰ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">gʲʱ</a>/</span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">gʰ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">gʱ</a>/</span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">gʷʰ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">gʷʱ</a>/</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricatives</a> </th> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <td rowspan="2">*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">s</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"></td> <td rowspan="2"></td> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">h₁</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/</span>~<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>/</span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">h₂</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/</span>~<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">qː</a>/</span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">h₃</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">ɣʷ</a>/</span>~<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">qʷː</a>/</span> </td> <th><small>Laryngeal Pronunciation<br />(<a href="/wiki/Jens_Elmeg%C3%A5rd_Rasmussen" title="Jens Elmegård Rasmussen">J. E. Rasmussen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alwin_Kloekhorst" title="Alwin Kloekhorst">Kloekhorst</a>)</small> </th></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>]</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ɐ</a>]</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central rounded vowel">ɵ</a>]</span> </td> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant">Syllabic</a> <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophone</a></small> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">Liquids</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">r</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <th rowspan="3"> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th> <td> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">l</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Semivowels" class="mw-redirect" title="Semivowels">Semivowels</a> </th> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">y</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">w</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <td rowspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>*i [<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>] </td> <td>*u [<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>] </td> <th><small>Syllabic allophone<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapović201714_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapović201714-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small> </th></tr></tbody></table> <p>All <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorants</a> (i.e. nasals, liquids and semivowels) can appear in <a href="/wiki/Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant">syllabic</a> position. The syllabic allophones of *y and *w are realized as the surface vowels *i and *u respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapović201714_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapović201714-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accent">Accent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Accent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_accent" title="Proto-Indo-European accent">Proto-Indo-European accent</a> is reconstructed today as having had variable lexical stress, which could appear on any syllable and whose position often varied among different members of a paradigm (e.g. between singular and plural of a verbal paradigm). Stressed syllables received a higher pitch; therefore it is often said that PIE had a <a href="/wiki/Pitch-accent_language" title="Pitch-accent language">pitch accent</a>. The location of the stress is associated with ablaut variations, especially between full-grade vowels (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span>) and zero-grade (i.e. lack of a vowel), but not entirely predictable from it. </p><p>The accent is best preserved in <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a> and (in the case of nouns) <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a>, and indirectly attested in a number of phenomena in other IE languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Verner's Law">Verner's Law</a> in the Germanic branch. Sources for Indo-European accentuation are also the <a href="/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languages" title="Balto-Slavic languages">Balto-Slavic</a> accentual system and <i>plene</i> spelling in <a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a> cuneiform. To account for mismatches between the accent of Vedic Sanskrit and Ancient Greek, as well as a few other phenomena, a few historical linguists prefer to reconstruct PIE as a <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone language</a> where each <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> had an inherent tone;<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the sequence of tones in a word then evolved, according to that hypothesis, into the placement of lexical stress in different ways in different IE branches.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Root">Root</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Root"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_root" title="Proto-Indo-European root">Proto-Indo-European roots</a> were <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affix</a>-lacking <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a> that carried the core <a href="/wiki/Lexical_(semiotics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexical (semiotics)">lexical</a> meaning of a word and were used to derive related words (cf. the English root "-<i>friend</i>-", from which are derived related words such as <i>friendship,</i> <i>friendly</i>, <i>befriend</i>, and newly coined words such as <i>unfriend</i>). Proto-Indo-European was probably a <a href="/wiki/Fusional_language" title="Fusional language">fusional language</a>, in which <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional</a> morphemes signaled the grammatical relationships between words. This dependence on inflectional morphemes means that roots in PIE, unlike those in English, were rarely used without affixes. A root plus a <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffix</a> formed a <a href="/wiki/Word_stem" title="Word stem">word stem</a>, and a word stem plus a desinence (usually an ending, see <a href="/wiki/Suffix#Inflectional_suffixes" title="Suffix">inflectional suffixes</a>) formed a word.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson2010§4.2,_§4.20_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson2010§4.2,_§4.20-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ablaut">Ablaut</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ablaut"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many morphemes in Proto-Indo-European had short <i>e</i> as their inherent vowel; the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Indo-European ablaut</a> is the change of this short <i>e</i> to short <i>o</i>, long <i>e</i> (ē), long <i>o</i> (<i>ō</i>), or no vowel. The forms are referred to as the "ablaut grades" of the morpheme—the <i>e</i>-grade, <i>o</i>-grade, zero-grade (no vowel), etc. This variation in vowels occurred both within <a href="/wiki/Inflectional_morphology" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflectional morphology">inflectional morphology</a> (e.g., different grammatical forms of a noun or verb may have different vowels) and <a href="/wiki/Derivational_morphology" class="mw-redirect" title="Derivational morphology">derivational morphology</a> (e.g., a verb and an associated abstract <a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">verbal noun</a> may have different vowels).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson201073–74_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson201073–74-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Categories that PIE distinguished through ablaut were often also identifiable by contrasting endings, but the loss of these endings in some later Indo-European languages has led them to use ablaut alone to identify grammatical categories, as in the Modern English words <i>sing</i>, <i>sang</i>, <i>sung</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Noun">Noun</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Noun"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_nominals" title="Proto-Indo-European nominals">Proto-Indo-European nouns</a> were probably declined for eight or nine cases:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson2010102_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson2010102-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a>: marks the <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> of a verb. Words that follow a linking verb (<a href="/wiki/Copulative_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Copulative verb">copulative verb</a>) and restate the subject of that verb also use the nominative case. The nominative is the dictionary form of the noun.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a>: used for the <a href="/wiki/Direct_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct object">direct object</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">transitive verb</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a>: marks a <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a> as modifying another noun.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a>: used to indicate the indirect object of a transitive verb, such as <i>Jacob</i> in <i>Maria gave Jacob a drink</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a>: marks the <i>instrument</i> or means by, or with, which the subject achieves or accomplishes an action. It may be either a physical object or an abstract concept.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">ablative</a>: used to express motion away from something.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">locative</a>: expresses location, corresponding vaguely to the English prepositions <i>in</i>, <i>on</i>, <i>at</i>, and <i>by</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">vocative</a>: used for a word that identifies an addressee. A <a href="/wiki/Vocative_expression" title="Vocative expression">vocative expression</a> is one of direct address where the identity of the party spoken to is set forth expressly within a sentence. For example, in the sentence, "I don't know, John", <i>John</i> is a vocative expression that indicates the party being addressed.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allative_case" title="Allative case">allative</a>: used as a type of <a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">locative case</a> that expresses movement towards something. It was preserved in Anatolian (particularly Old Hittite), and fossilized traces of it have been found in Greek. It is also present in Tocharian.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its PIE shape is uncertain, with candidates including <i>*-h<sub>2</sub>(e)</i>, <i>*-(e)h<sub>2</sub></i>, or <i>*-a</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson2010102,_105_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson2010102,_105-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Late Proto-Indo-European had three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical genders</a>: </p> <ul><li>masculine</li> <li>feminine</li> <li>neuter</li></ul> <p>This system is probably derived from an older two-gender system, attested in Anatolian languages: <a href="/wiki/Common_gender" class="mw-redirect" title="Common gender">common</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Animate_gender" class="mw-redirect" title="Animate gender">animate</a>) and neuter (or inanimate) gender. The feminine gender only arose in the later period of the language.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neuter nouns collapsed the nominative, vocative and accusative into a single form, the plural of which used a special <a href="/wiki/Collective_noun" title="Collective noun">collective</a> suffix <i lang="ine-x-proto"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/-h%E2%82%82#Proto-Indo-European" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/-h₂">*-h<sub>2</sub></a></i> (manifested in most descendants as <i>-a</i>). This same collective suffix in extended forms <i lang="ine-x-proto"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/-%C3%A9h%E2%82%82#Proto-Indo-European" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/-éh₂">*-eh<sub>2</sub></a></i> and <i lang="ine-x-proto"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/-ih%E2%82%82#Proto-Indo-European" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/-ih₂">*-ih<sub>2</sub></a></i> (respectively on thematic and athematic nouns, becoming <i>-ā</i> and <i>-ī</i> in the early daughter languages) became used to form feminine nouns from masculines. </p><p>All nominals distinguished three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">numbers</a>: </p> <ul><li>singular</li> <li>dual</li> <li>plural</li></ul> <p>These numbers were also distinguished in verbs (see <a href="#Verb">below</a>), requiring <a href="/wiki/Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">agreement</a> with their subject nominal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronoun">Pronoun</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Pronoun"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_pronouns" title="Proto-Indo-European pronouns">Proto-Indo-European pronouns</a> are difficult to reconstruct, owing to their variety in later languages. PIE had personal <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a> in the first and second <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">grammatical person</a>, but not the third person, where <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstrative pronoun">demonstrative pronouns</a> were used instead. The personal pronouns had their own unique forms and endings, and some had <a href="/wiki/Suppletion" title="Suppletion">two distinct stems</a>; this is most obvious in the first person singular where the two stems are still preserved in English <i>I</i> and <i>me</i>. There were also two varieties for the accusative, genitive and dative cases, a stressed and an <a href="/wiki/Enclitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Enclitic">enclitic</a> form.<sup id="cite_ref-beekes_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beekes-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Personal pronouns<sup id="cite_ref-beekes_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beekes-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case </th> <th colspan="2">First person </th> <th colspan="2">Second person </th></tr> <tr> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">Nominative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">h₁eǵ(oH/Hom)</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">wei</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">tuH</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">yuH</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">Accusative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">h₁mé</span></span>, *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">h₁me</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">n̥smé</span></span>, *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">nōs</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">twé</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">usmé</span></span>, *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">wōs</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">Genitive</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">h₁méne</span></span>, *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">h₁moi</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">n̥s(er)o-</span></span>, *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">nos</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">tewe</span></span>, *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">toi</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">yus(er)o-</span></span>, *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">wos</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">Dative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">h₁méǵʰio</span></span>, *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">h₁moi</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">n̥smei</span></span>, *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">n̥s</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">tébʰio</span></span>, *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">toi</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">usmei</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">Instrumental</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">h₁moí</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">n̥smoí</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">toí</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">usmoí</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">Ablative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">h₁med</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">n̥smed</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">tued</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">usmed</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">Locative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">h₁moí</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">n̥smi</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">toí</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">usmi</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verb">Verb</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Verb"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verbs" title="Proto-Indo-European verbs">Proto-Indo-European verbs</a>, like the nouns, exhibited an ablaut system. </p><p>The most basic categorisation for the reconstructed Indo-European verb is <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">grammatical aspect</a>. Verbs are classed as: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stative_verb" title="Stative verb">stative</a>: verbs that depict a state of being</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperfective_aspect" title="Imperfective aspect">imperfective</a>: verbs depicting ongoing, habitual or repeated action</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective</a>: verbs depicting a completed action or actions viewed as an entire process.</li></ul> <p>Verbs have at least four <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">grammatical moods</a>: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indicative_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicative mood">indicative</a>: indicates that something is a statement of fact; in other words, to express what the speaker considers to be a known state of affairs, as in <a href="/wiki/Declarative_sentence" class="mw-redirect" title="Declarative sentence">declarative sentences</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative</a>: forms commands or requests, including the giving of prohibition or permission, or any other kind of advice or exhortation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">subjunctive</a>: used to express various states of unreality such as wish, emotion, possibility, judgment, opinion, obligation, or action that has not yet occurred</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optative_mood" title="Optative mood">optative</a>: indicates a wish or hope. It is similar to the <a href="/wiki/Cohortative_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Cohortative mood">cohortative mood</a> and is closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">subjunctive mood</a>.</li></ul> <p>Verbs had two <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical voice">grammatical voices</a>: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_voice" title="Active voice">active</a>: used in a clause whose subject expresses the main verb's <a href="/wiki/Agent_(grammar)" title="Agent (grammar)">agent</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediopassive_voice" title="Mediopassive voice">mediopassive</a>: for the <a href="/wiki/Middle_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle voice">middle voice</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive voice</a>.</li></ul> <p>Verbs had three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">grammatical persons</a>: first, second and third. </p><p>Verbs had three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">grammatical numbers</a>: </p> <ul><li>singular</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_grammatical_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Dual grammatical number">dual</a>: referring to precisely two of the entities (objects or persons) identified by the noun or pronoun.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plural</a>: a number other than singular or dual.</li></ul> <p>Verbs were probably marked by a highly developed system of <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">participles</a>, one for each combination of tense and voice, and an assorted array of <a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">verbal nouns</a> and adjectival formations. </p><p>The following table shows a possible reconstruction of the PIE verb endings from Sihler, which largely represents the current consensus among Indo-Europeanists. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2">Person </th> <th colspan="2"><b>Sihler (1995)</b><sup id="cite_ref-sihler_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sihler-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Athematic_stem" class="mw-redirect" title="Athematic stem">Athematic</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Thematic_stem" class="mw-redirect" title="Thematic stem">Thematic</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">Singular</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">1st</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-mi</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-oh₂</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-si</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-esi</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-ti</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-eti</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">Dual </th> <th>1st </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-wos</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-owos</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-th₁es</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-eth₁es</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-tes</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-etes</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">Plural </th> <th>1st </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-mos</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-omos</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-te</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-ete</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd </th> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-nti</span></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">-onti</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Numbers">Numbers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Numbers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_numerals" title="Proto-Indo-European numerals">Proto-Indo-European numerals</a> are generally reconstructed as follows: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Number </th> <th><b>Sihler</b><sup id="cite_ref-sihler_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sihler-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td>one </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">(H)óynos</span></span>/*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">(H)óywos</span></span>/*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">(H)óyk(ʷ)os</span></span>; *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">sḗm</span></span> (full grade), *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">sm̥-</span></span> <i>(zero grade)</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>two </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">d(u)wóh₁</span></span> (full grade), *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">dwi-</span></span> <i>(zero grade)</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>three </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">tréyes</span></span> (full grade), *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">tri-</span></span> <i>(zero grade)</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>four </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">kʷetwóres</span></span> (<i>o</i>-grade), *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">kʷ(e)twr̥-</span></span> <i>(zero grade)</i><br />(<i>see also the <a href="/wiki/K%CA%B7etw%C3%B3res_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Kʷetwóres rule">kʷetwóres rule</a></i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>five </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">pénkʷe</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>six </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">s(w)éḱs</span></span>; <i>originally perhaps</i> *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">wéḱs</span></span>, with <i>*s-</i> under the influence of *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">septḿ̥</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>seven </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">septḿ̥</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>eight </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">oḱtṓ(w)</span></span> <i>or</i> *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">h₃eḱtṓ(w)</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>nine </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">h₁néwn̥</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ten </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">déḱm̥(t)</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Rather than specifically 100, *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><i>ḱm̥tóm</i></span></span> may originally have meant "a large number".<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Particle">Particle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Particle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_particles" title="Proto-Indo-European particles">Proto-Indo-European particles</a> were probably used both as <a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">adverbs</a> and as <a href="/wiki/Preposition_and_postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition and postposition">postpositions</a>. These postpositions became prepositions in most daughter languages. </p><p>Reconstructed particles include for example, *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><i>upo</i></span></span> "under, below"; the <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_and_negative" class="mw-redirect" title="Affirmative and negative">negators</a> *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><i>ne</i></span></span>, *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><i>mē</i></span></span>; the <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar)" title="Conjunction (grammar)">conjunctions</a> *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><i>kʷe</i></span></span> "and", *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><i>wē</i></span></span> "or" and others; and an <a href="/wiki/Interjection" title="Interjection">interjection</a>, *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><i>wai!</i></span></span>, expressing woe or agony. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Derivational_morphology">Derivational morphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Derivational morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Proto-Indo-European employed various means of deriving words from other words, or directly from verb roots. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Internal_derivation">Internal derivation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Internal derivation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Internal derivation was a process that derived new words through changes in accent and ablaut alone. It was not as productive as external (affixing) derivation, but is firmly established by the evidence of various later languages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Possessive_adjectives">Possessive adjectives</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Possessive adjectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Possessive or associated adjectives were probably created from nouns through internal derivation. Such words could be used directly as adjectives, or they could be turned back into a noun without any change in morphology, indicating someone or something characterised by the adjective. They were probably also used as the second elements in compounds. If the first element was a noun, this created an adjective that resembled a present participle in meaning, e.g. "having much rice" or "cutting trees". When turned back into nouns, such compounds were <a href="/wiki/Bahuvrihi" title="Bahuvrihi">Bahuvrihis</a> or semantically resembled <a href="/wiki/Agent_noun" title="Agent noun">agent nouns</a>. </p><p>In thematic stems, creating a possessive adjective seems to have involved shifting the accent one syllable to the right, for example:<sup id="cite_ref-Jay_Jasanoff_21_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jay_Jasanoff_21-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i>*tómh₁-o-s</i> "slice" (Greek <i>tómos</i>) > <i>*tomh₁-ó-s</i> "cutting" (i.e. "making slices"; Greek <i>tomós</i>) > <i>*dr-u-tomh₁-ó-s</i> "cutting trees" (Greek <i>drutómos</i> "woodcutter" with irregular accent).</li> <li><i>*wólh₁-o-s</i> "wish" (Sanskrit <i>vára-</i>) > <i>*wolh₁-ó-s</i> "having wishes" (Sanskrit <i>vará-</i> "suitor").</li></ul> <p>In athematic stems, there was a change in the accent/ablaut class. The reconstructed four classes followed an ordering in which a derivation would shift the class one to the right:<sup id="cite_ref-Jay_Jasanoff_21_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jay_Jasanoff_21-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>acrostatic → proterokinetic → hysterokinetic → amphikinetic</dd></dl> <p>The reason for this particular ordering of the classes in derivation is not known. Some examples: </p> <ul><li>Acrostatic <i>*krót-u-s</i> ~ <i>*krét-u-s</i> "strength" (Sanskrit <i>krátu-</i>) > proterokinetic <i>*krét-u-s</i> ~ <i>*kr̥t-éw-s</i> "having strength, strong" (Greek <i>kratús</i>).</li> <li>Hysterokinetic <i>*ph₂-tḗr</i> ~ <i>*ph₂-tr-és</i> "father" (Greek <i>patḗr</i>) > amphikinetic <i>*h₁su-péh₂-tōr</i> ~ <i>*h₁su-ph₂-tr-és</i> "having a good father" (Greek <i>εὑπάτωρ</i>, eupátōr).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Vrddhi">Vrddhi</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Vrddhi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Vrddhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Vrddhi">vrddhi</a> derivation, named after the Sanskrit grammatical term, signifying "of, belonging to, descended from". It was characterised by "upgrading" the root grade, from zero to full (<i>e</i>) or from full to lengthened (<i>ē</i>). When upgrading from zero to full grade, the vowel could sometimes be inserted in the "wrong" place, creating a different stem from the original full grade. </p><p>Examples:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson2010116f_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson2010116f-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>full grade <i>*sw<b>é</b>ḱuro-s</i> "father-in-law" (<a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a> <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><i>śv<b>á</b>śura-</i></i></span>) > lengthened grade *<i>sw<b>ē</b>ḱuró-s</i> "relating to one's father-in-law" (Vedic <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><i>śv<b>ā</b>śura-</i></i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> <i>swāgur</i> "brother-in-law").</li> <li>full grade <i>*dyḗw-s</i> > zero grade <i>*diw-és</i> "sky" > new full grade <i>*d<b>e</b>yw-o-s</i> "god, <a href="/wiki/Dyeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyeus">sky god</a>" (Vedic <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><i>d<b>e</b>vás</i></i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>d<b>e</b>us</i>, etc.). Note the difference in vowel placement, <i>*dyew-</i> in the full-grade stem of the original noun, but <i>*deyw-</i> in the vrddhi derivative.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Nominalization">Nominalization</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Nominalization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Adjectives with accent on the thematic vowel could be turned into nouns by moving the accent back onto the root. A zero grade root could remain so, or be "upgraded" to full grade like in a vrddhi derivative. Some examples:<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>PIE <i>*ǵn̥h₁-tó-s</i> "born" (Vedic <i>jātá-</i>) > <i>*ǵénh₁-to-</i> "thing that is born" (German <i>Kind</i>).</li> <li>Greek <i>leukós</i> "white" > <i>leũkos</i> "a kind of fish", literally "white one".</li> <li>Vedic <i>kṛṣṇá-</i> "dark" > <i>kṛ́ṣṇa-</i> "dark one", also "antelope".</li></ul> <p>This kind of derivation is likely related to the possessive adjectives, and can be seen as essentially the reverse of it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Affixal_derivation">Affixal derivation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Affixal derivation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Empty_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><b>This section is empty.</b> You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2019</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> of the older Indo-European languages has been studied in earnest since at least the late nineteenth century, by such scholars as <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Hirt" title="Hermann Hirt">Hermann Hirt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berthold_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Berthold Delbrück">Berthold Delbrück</a>. In the second half of the twentieth century, interest in the topic increased and led to reconstructions of Proto-Indo-European syntax.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since all the early attested IE languages were inflectional, PIE is thought to have relied primarily on morphological markers, rather than <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a>, to signal <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic</a> relationships within sentences.<sup id="cite_ref-eiec_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eiec-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, a default (<a href="/wiki/Markedness" title="Markedness">unmarked</a>) word order is thought to have existed in PIE. In 1892, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Wackernagel" title="Jacob Wackernagel">Jacob Wackernagel</a> reconstructed PIE's word order as <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">subject–verb–object</a> (SVO), based on evidence in Vedic Sanskrit.<sup id="cite_ref-hock_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hock-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Winfred_P._Lehmann" title="Winfred P. Lehmann">Winfred P. Lehmann</a> (1974), on the other hand, reconstructs PIE as a <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">subject–object–verb</a> (SOV) language. He posits that the presence of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person marking</a> in PIE verbs motivated a shift from OV to VO order in later dialects. Many of the descendant languages have VO order: modern Greek, <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a> prefer SVO, <a href="/wiki/Insular_Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Insular Celtic">Insular Celtic</a> has VSO as the default order, and even the <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian languages</a> show some signs of this word order shift. <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a>, meanwhile, retained the conservative OV order. Lehmann attributes the context-dependent order preferences in Baltic, Slavic and Germanic to outside influences.<sup id="cite_ref-lehmann_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lehmann-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Donald_Ringe" title="Donald Ringe">Donald Ringe</a> (2006), however, attributes these to internal developments instead.<sup id="cite_ref-ringe_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ringe-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Paul_Friedrich_(linguist)" title="Paul Friedrich (linguist)">Paul Friedrich</a> (1975) disagrees with Lehmann's analysis. He reconstructs PIE with the following syntax: </p> <ul><li>basic SVO word order</li> <li>adjectives before nouns</li> <li>head nouns before <a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepositions">prepositions</a> rather than postpositions</li> <li>no dominant order in <a href="/wiki/Comparison_(grammar)" title="Comparison (grammar)">comparative constructions</a></li> <li>main clauses before <a href="/wiki/Relative_clauses" class="mw-redirect" title="Relative clauses">relative clauses</a></li></ul> <p>Friedrich notes that even among those Indo-European languages with basic OV word order, none of them are <i>rigidly</i> OV. He also notes that these non-rigid OV languages mainly occur in parts of the IE area that overlap with OV languages from other families (such as <a href="/wiki/Uralic" class="mw-redirect" title="Uralic">Uralic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a>), whereas VO is predominant in the central parts of the IE area. For these reasons, among others, he argues for a VO common ancestor.<sup id="cite_ref-friedrich_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-friedrich-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hans_Henrich_Hock" title="Hans Henrich Hock">Hans Henrich Hock</a> (2015) reports that the SVO hypothesis still has some adherents, but the "broad consensus" among PIE scholars is that PIE would have been an SOV language.<sup id="cite_ref-hock_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hock-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The SOV default word order with other orders used to express emphasis (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb–subject–object">verb–subject–object</a> to emphasise the verb) is attested in <a href="/wiki/Old_Indo-Aryan" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Indo-Aryan">Old Indo-Aryan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Iranian" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Iranian">Old Iranian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a>, while traces of it can be found in the <a href="/wiki/Enclitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Enclitic">enclitic</a> personal pronouns of the <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-eiec_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eiec-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_vocabulary" title="Indo-European vocabulary">Indo-European vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verbs" title="Proto-Indo-European verbs">Proto-Indo-European verbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_pronouns" title="Proto-Indo-European pronouns">Proto-Indo-European pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indo-European_languages" title="List of Indo-European languages">List of Indo-European languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_sound_laws" title="Indo-European sound laws">Indo-European sound laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_proto-languages" title="List of proto-languages">List of proto-languages</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See: <ul><li>Bomhard: "This scenario is supported not only by linguistic evidence, but also by a growing body of archeological and genetic evidence. The Indo-Europeans have been identified with several cultural complexes existing in that area between 4,500—3,500 BCE. The literature supporting such a homeland is both extensive and persuasive [...]. Consequently, other scenarios regarding the possible Indo-European homeland, such as Anatolia, have now been mostly abandoned."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBomhard20192_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBomhard20192-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Anthony & Ringe: "Archaeological evidence and linguistic evidence converge in support of an origin of Indo-European languages on the Pontic-Caspian steppes around 4,000 years BCE. The evidence is so strong that arguments in support of other hypotheses should be reexamined."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthonyRinge2015199–219_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthonyRinge2015199–219-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Mallory: "The Kurgan solution is attractive and has been accepted by many archaeologists and linguists, in part or total. It is the solution one encounters in the <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i> and the <i>Grand Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Larousse</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory1989185_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1989185-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Strazny: "The single most popular proposal is the Pontic steppes (see the Kurgan hypothesis)..."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrazny2000163_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrazny2000163-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </span></li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indo-European-languages">"Indo-European languages – The parent language: Proto-Indo-European"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Indo-European+languages+%E2%80%93+The+parent+language%3A+Proto-Indo-European&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FIndo-European-languages&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/files/atoms/files/archaeology_et_al_-_an_indo-european_study.pdf">"Archaeology et al: an Indo-European study"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>School of History, Classics and Archaeology</i>. The University of Edinburgh. 11 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=School+of+History%2C+Classics+and+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Archaeology+et+al%3A+an+Indo-European+study&rft.date=2018-04-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ed.ac.uk%2Ffiles%2Fatoms%2Ffiles%2Farchaeology_et_al_-_an_indo-european_study.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIvićHampLyons2024" class="citation web cs1">Ivić, Pavle; Hamp, Eric P.; Lyons, John (5 March 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/linguistics/The-comparative-method">"Linguistics"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Linguistics&rft.date=2024-03-05&rft.aulast=Ivi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Pavle&rft.au=Hamp%2C+Eric+P.&rft.au=Lyons%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Flinguistics%2FThe-comparative-method&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell" class="citation web cs1">Powell, Eric A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archaeology.org/exclusives/articles/1302-proto-indo-european-schleichers-fable">"Telling Tales in Proto-Indo-European"</a>. <i>Archaeology</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Archaeology&rft.atitle=Telling+Tales+in+Proto-Indo-European&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Eric+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.archaeology.org%2Fexclusives%2Farticles%2F1302-proto-indo-european-schleichers-fable&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson201016-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson201016_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortson2010">Fortson (2010)</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/linguistics/The-comparative-method#toc35116">"Linguistics – The comparative method"</a>. Science. Encyclopedia Britannica<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 July</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Linguistics+%E2%80%93+The+comparative+method&rft.series=Science&rft.pub=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Flinguistics%2FThe-comparative-method%23toc35116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-comp-ling-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-comp-ling_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/comparative-linguistics">"Comparative linguistics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Comparative+linguistics&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Fcomparative-linguistics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Jones-British-orientalist-and-jurist">"Sir William Jones, British orientalist and jurist"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sir+William+Jones%2C+British+orientalist+and+jurist&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FWilliam-Jones-British-orientalist-and-jurist&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auroux-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-auroux_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAuroux2000" class="citation book cs1">Auroux, Sylvain (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yasNy365EywC&q=3110167352&pg=PA1156"><i>History of the Language Sciences</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a>. p. 1156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-016735-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-016735-2"><bdi>3-11-016735-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Language+Sciences&rft.pages=1156&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=3-11-016735-2&rft.aulast=Auroux&rft.aufirst=Sylvain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyasNy365EywC%26q%3D3110167352%26pg%3DPA1156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blench-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blench_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlench2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Blench" title="Roger Blench">Blench, Roger</a> (2004). "Archaeology and language: Methods and issues". In Bintliff, J. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rogerblench.info/Archaeology/World/CH4-BLENCH.pdf"><i>A Companion to Archaeology</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell. pp. 52–74.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archaeology+and+language%3A+Methods+and+issues&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Archaeology&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=52-74&rft.pub=Basil+Blackwell&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Blench&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rogerblench.info%2FArchaeology%2FWorld%2FCH4-BLENCH.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheeler" class="citation web cs1">Wheeler, Kip. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/IE_Main4_Sanskrit.html">"The Sanskrit Connection: Keeping Up With the Joneses"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Carson%E2%80%93Newman_University" title="Carson–Newman University">Carson–Newman University</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Sanskrit+Connection%3A+Keeping+Up+With+the+Joneses&rft.pub=Carson%E2%80%93Newman+University&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=Kip&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.cn.edu%2Fkwheeler%2FIE_Main4_Sanskrit.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMomma2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Haruko_Momma" title="Haruko Momma">Momma, Haruko</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WGYzp7olz6QC"><i>From Philology to English Studies: Language and Culture in the Nineteenth Century</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 65–66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51886-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51886-4"><bdi>978-0-521-51886-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Philology+to+English+Studies%3A+Language+and+Culture+in+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pages=65-66&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-521-51886-4&rft.aulast=Momma&rft.aufirst=Haruko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWGYzp7olz6QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Franz-Bopp">"Franz Bopp, German philologist"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Franz+Bopp%2C+German+philologist&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FFranz-Bopp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Grimms-law">"Grimm's law, linguistics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Grimm%27s+law%2C+linguistics&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FGrimms-law&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Neogrammarian">"Neogrammarian, German scholar"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Neogrammarian%2C+German+scholar&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2FNeogrammarian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/August-Schleicher">"August Schleicher, German linguist"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=August+Schleicher%2C+German+linguist&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FAugust-Schleicher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaussure1879" class="citation book cs1">Saussure, Ferdinand de (1879). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/memoiresurlesyst00saus"><i>Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes</i></a>. University of California Libraries. Leipsick : B. G. Teubner.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=M%C3%A9moire+sur+le+syst%C3%A8me+primitif+des+voyelles+dans+les+langues+indo-europ%C3%A9ennes&rft.pub=Leipsick+%3A+B.+G.+Teubner&rft.date=1879&rft.aulast=Saussure&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand+de&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmemoiresurlesyst00saus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kuryłowicz, Jerzy (1927). "<i>ə</i> indo-européen et <i>ḫ</i> hittite". In: Witold Taszycki and Witold Doroszewki (eds.), <i>Symbolae Grammaticae in honorem Ioannis Rozwadowski</i>, v. 1, 95–104. Krakow: Uniwersytet Jagielloński.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBomhard20192-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBomhard20192_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomhard2019">Bomhard 2019</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthonyRinge2015199–219-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthonyRinge2015199–219_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnthonyRinge2015">Anthony & Ringe 2015</a>, pp. 199–219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1989185-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallory1989185_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMallory1989">Mallory 1989</a>, p. 185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrazny2000163-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrazny2000163_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStrazny2000">Strazny 2000</a>, p. 163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_W._Anthony" title="David W. Anthony">Anthony, David W.</a> (2007). <a href="/wiki/The_Horse,_the_Wheel,_and_Language" title="The Horse, the Wheel, and Language"><i>The horse, the wheel, and language: how bronze-age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world</i></a> (8th reprint ed.). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05887-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05887-0"><bdi>978-0-691-05887-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+horse%2C+the+wheel%2C+and+language%3A+how+bronze-age+riders+from+the+Eurasian+steppes+shaped+the+modern+world&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J.&rft.edition=8th+reprint&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-691-05887-0&rft.aulast=Anthony&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Science-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Science_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Science_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalter2015" class="citation journal cs1">Balter, Michael (13 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/mysterious-indo-european-homeland-may-have-been-steppes-ukraine-and-russia">"Mysterious Indo-European homeland may have been in the steppes of Ukraine and Russia"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aaa7858">10.1126/science.aaa7858</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Mysterious+Indo-European+homeland+may+have+been+in+the+steppes+of+Ukraine+and+Russia&rft.date=2015-02-13&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aaa7858&rft.aulast=Balter&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Fmysterious-indo-european-homeland-may-have-been-steppes-ukraine-and-russia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGimbutas1985" class="citation journal cs1">Gimbutas, Marija (1985). "Primary and Secondary Homeland of the Indo-Europeans: comments on Gamkrelidze-Ivanov articles". <i>Journal of Indo-European Studies</i>. <b>13</b> (1–2): 185–202.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Indo-European+Studies&rft.atitle=Primary+and+Secondary+Homeland+of+the+Indo-Europeans%3A+comments+on+Gamkrelidze-Ivanov+articles&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=185-202&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Gimbutas&rft.aufirst=Marija&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bouckaert-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bouckaert_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBouckaertLemeyDunnGreenhill2012" class="citation cs2">Bouckaert, Remco; Lemey, P.; Dunn, M.; Greenhill, S. J.; Alekseyenko, A. V.; Drummond, A. J.; Gray, R. D.; Suchard, M. A.; et al. (24 August 2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubman.mpdl.mpg.de/pubman/item/escidoc:1539154/component/escidoc:1539165/Bouckaert_2012.pdf">"Mapping the Origins and Expansion of the Indo-European Language Family"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Science</i>, <b>337</b> (6097): 957–960, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Sci...337..957B">2012Sci...337..957B</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1219669">10.1126/science.1219669</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-000F-EADF-A">11858/00-001M-0000-000F-EADF-A</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4112997">4112997</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22923579">22923579</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Mapping+the+Origins+and+Expansion+of+the+Indo-European+Language+Family&rft.volume=337&rft.issue=6097&rft.pages=957-960&rft.date=2012-08-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4112997%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012Sci...337..957B&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22923579&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1219669&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11858%2F00-001M-0000-000F-EADF-A&rft.aulast=Bouckaert&rft.aufirst=Remco&rft.au=Lemey%2C+P.&rft.au=Dunn%2C+M.&rft.au=Greenhill%2C+S.+J.&rft.au=Alekseyenko%2C+A.+V.&rft.au=Drummond%2C+A.+J.&rft.au=Gray%2C+R.+D.&rft.au=Suchard%2C+M.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubman.mpdl.mpg.de%2Fpubman%2Fitem%2Fescidoc%3A1539154%2Fcomponent%2Fescidoc%3A1539165%2FBouckaert_2012.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChangCathcartHallGarrett2015" class="citation journal cs1">Chang, Will; Cathcart, Chundra; Hall, David; Garrett, Andrew (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/language/v091/91.1.chang.html">"Ancestry-constrained phylogenetic analysis supports the Indo-European steppe hypothesis"</a>. <i>Language</i>. <b>91</b> (1): 194–244. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Flan.2015.0005">10.1353/lan.2015.0005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1535-0665">1535-0665</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143978664">143978664</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=Ancestry-constrained+phylogenetic+analysis+supports+the+Indo-European+steppe+hypothesis&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=194-244&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143978664%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1535-0665&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Flan.2015.0005&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Will&rft.au=Cathcart%2C+Chundra&rft.au=Hall%2C+David&rft.au=Garrett%2C+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fcontent%2Fcrossref%2Fjournals%2Flanguage%2Fv091%2F91.1.chang.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Romila_Thapar" title="Romila Thapar">Thapar, Romila</a> (2006). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sDBuAAAAMAAJ&q=%22there+is+no+scholar+at+this+time+seriously%22">India: Historical Beginnings and the Concept of the Aryan</a></i>. National Book Trust. p. 127. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788123747798" title="Special:BookSources/9788123747798">9788123747798</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The opposing argument, that speakers of Indo-European languages were indigenous to the Indian subcontinent, is not supported by any reliable scholarship". <a href="/wiki/Wendy_Doniger" title="Wendy Doniger">Doniger, Wendy</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inference-review.com/article/another-great-story">"Another Great Story"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230514094423/https://inference-review.com/article/another-great-story">Archived</a> 14 May 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", review of Asko Parpola's <i>The Roots of Hinduism</i>. In: <i>Inference, International Review of Science</i>, Volume 3, Issue 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMallory2006" class="citation book cs1">Mallory, J. P. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/139999117"><i>The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World</i></a>. Douglas Q. Adams. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4294-7104-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4294-7104-6"><bdi>978-1-4294-7104-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/139999117">139999117</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Introduction+to+Proto-Indo-European+and+the+Proto-Indo-European+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F139999117&rft.isbn=978-1-4294-7104-6&rft.aulast=Mallory&rft.aufirst=J.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F139999117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Renfrew, Colin (2017) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pmv3J55bdZc">Marija Redivia : DNA and Indo-European origins</a>" (<i>The Oriental Institute lecture series : Marija Gimbutas memorial lecture</i>, Chicago. November 8, 2017).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:4_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPellardSagartJacques2018" class="citation journal cs1">Pellard, Thomas; <a href="/wiki/Laurent_Sagart" title="Laurent Sagart">Sagart, Laurent</a>; Jacques, Guillaume (2018). "L'indo-européen n'est pas un mythe". <i>Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris</i>. <b>113</b> (1): 79–102. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2143%2FBSL.113.1.3285465">10.2143/BSL.113.1.3285465</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:171874630">171874630</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+de+Linguistique+de+Paris&rft.atitle=L%27indo-europ%C3%A9en+n%27est+pas+un+mythe&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=79-102&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2143%2FBSL.113.1.3285465&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A171874630%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Pellard&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Sagart%2C+Laurent&rft.au=Jacques%2C+Guillaume&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrumper2018" class="citation book cs1">Trumper, John (2018). "Some Celto-Albanian isoglosses and their implications". In Grimaldi, Mirko; Lai, Rosangela; Franco, Ludovico; Baldi, Benedetta (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kAR-DwAAQBAJ"><i>Structuring Variation in Romance Linguistics and Beyond: In Honour of Leonardo M. Savoia</i></a>. John Benjamins Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789027263179" title="Special:BookSources/9789027263179"><bdi>9789027263179</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Some+Celto-Albanian+isoglosses+and+their+implications&rft.btitle=Structuring+Variation+in+Romance+Linguistics+and+Beyond%3A+In+Honour+of+Leonardo+M.+Savoia&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9789027263179&rft.aulast=Trumper&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkAR-DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span> pp. 383–386.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.rice.edu/~nakhleh/Papers/81.2nakhleh.pdf">"Perfect Phylogenetic Networks: A New Methodology for Reconstructing the Evolutionary History of Natural Languages, pg. 396"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101105223804/http://www.cs.rice.edu/~nakhleh/Papers/81.2nakhleh.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 5 November 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 September</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Perfect+Phylogenetic+Networks%3A+A+New+Methodology+for+Reconstructing+the+Evolutionary+History+of+Natural+Languages%2C+pg.+396&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.rice.edu%2F~nakhleh%2FPapers%2F81.2nakhleh.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gamkrelidze, Th. & Ivanov, V. (1995). Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and a Proto-Culture. 2 Vols. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gamkrelidze, T. V. (2008). Kartvelian and Indo-European: a typological comparison of reconstructed linguistic systems. Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences 2 (2): 154–160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrixhe2008" class="citation book cs1">Brixhe, Claude (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J-f_jwCgmeUC&pg=PA72">"Phrygian"</a>. In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). <i>The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139469333" title="Special:BookSources/9781139469333"><bdi>9781139469333</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Phrygian&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Languages+of+Asia+Minor&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781139469333&rft.aulast=Brixhe&rft.aufirst=Claude&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ-f_jwCgmeUC%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLigorioLubotsky2018" class="citation book cs1">Ligorio, Orsat; Lubotsky, Alexander (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/36922557">"101. Phrygian"</a>. In Jared Klein; Brian Joseph; Matthias Fritz (eds.). <i>Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics</i>. HSK 41.3. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 1816–1831. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110542431-022">10.1515/9783110542431-022</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1887%2F63481">1887/63481</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110542431" title="Special:BookSources/9783110542431"><bdi>9783110542431</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242082908">242082908</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=101.+Phrygian&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Comparative+and+Historical+Indo-European+Linguistics&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Boston&rft.series=HSK+41.3&rft.pages=1816-1831&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1887%2F63481&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A242082908%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110542431-022&rft.isbn=9783110542431&rft.aulast=Ligorio&rft.aufirst=Orsat&rft.au=Lubotsky%2C+Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F36922557&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFObrador-Cursach2019" class="citation journal cs1">Obrador-Cursach, Bartomeu (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31826%2Fjlr-2019-173-407">"On the place of Phrygian among the Indo-European languages"</a>. <i>Journal of Language Relationship</i>. <b>17</b> (3–4): 239. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31826%2Fjlr-2019-173-407">10.31826/jlr-2019-173-407</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:215769896">215769896</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Language+Relationship&rft.atitle=On+the+place+of+Phrygian+among+the+Indo-European+languages&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=239&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31826%2Fjlr-2019-173-407&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A215769896%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Obrador-Cursach&rft.aufirst=Bartomeu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.31826%252Fjlr-2019-173-407&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapović201713-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapović201713_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapović2017">Kapović (2017)</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson2010§3.2-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson2010§3.2_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortson2010">Fortson (2010)</a>, §3.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes1995§11-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeekes1995§11_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeekes1995">Beekes (1995)</a>, §11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapović201714-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapović201714_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapović201714_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapović2017">Kapović (2017)</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson2010§4.2,_§4.20-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson2010§4.2,_§4.20_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortson2010">Fortson (2010)</a>, §4.2, §4.20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson201073–74-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson201073–74_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortson2010">Fortson (2010)</a>, pp. 73–74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson2010102-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson2010102_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortson2010">Fortson (2010)</a>, p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinault2017" class="citation cs2">Pinault, Georges-Jean (23 October 2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110523874-031/html">"76. The morphology of Tocharian"</a>, <i>Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics</i>, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 1335–1352, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110523874-031">10.1515/9783110523874-031</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-052387-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-052387-4"><bdi>978-3-11-052387-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=76.+The+morphology+of+Tocharian&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Comparative+and+Historical+Indo-European+Linguistics&rft.pages=1335-1352&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=2017-10-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110523874-031&rft.isbn=978-3-11-052387-4&rft.aulast=Pinault&rft.aufirst=Georges-Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110523874-031%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson2010102,_105-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson2010102,_105_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortson2010">Fortson (2010)</a>, pp. 102, 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurrow1955" class="citation book cs1">Burrow, T (1955). <i>The Sanskrit Language</i>. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-1767-2" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-1767-2"><bdi>81-208-1767-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sanskrit+Language&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ.&rft.date=1955&rft.isbn=81-208-1767-2&rft.aulast=Burrow&rft.aufirst=T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-beekes-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-beekes_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-beekes_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeekes1995" class="citation book cs1">Beekes, Robert (1995). <i>Comparative Indo-European linguistics: an introduction</i>. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 147, 212–217, 233, 243. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1556195044" title="Special:BookSources/978-1556195044"><bdi>978-1556195044</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Indo-European+linguistics%3A+an+introduction&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=147%2C+212-217%2C+233%2C+243&rft.pub=J.+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1556195044&rft.aulast=Beekes&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sihler-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sihler_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sihler_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSihler1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Sihler" title="Andrew Sihler">Sihler, Andrew L.</a> (1995). <i>New comparative grammar of Greek and Latin</i>. New York u. a.: Oxford Univ. Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-508345-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-508345-8"><bdi>0-19-508345-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+comparative+grammar+of+Greek+and+Latin&rft.place=New+York+u.+a.&rft.pub=Oxford+Univ.+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-19-508345-8&rft.aulast=Sihler&rft.aufirst=Andrew+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehmann1993" class="citation cs2">Lehmann, Winfried P (1993), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theoreticalbases0000lehm/page/252"><i>Theoretical Bases of Indo-European Linguistics</i></a>, London: Routledge, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theoreticalbases0000lehm/page/252">252–55</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-08201-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-08201-3"><bdi>0-415-08201-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theoretical+Bases+of+Indo-European+Linguistics&rft.place=London&rft.pages=252-55&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-415-08201-3&rft.aulast=Lehmann&rft.aufirst=Winfried+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftheoreticalbases0000lehm%2Fpage%2F252&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jay_Jasanoff_21-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jay_Jasanoff_21_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jay_Jasanoff_21_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJay_Jasanoff" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jay_Jasanoff" title="Jay Jasanoff">Jay Jasanoff</a>. <i>The Prehistory of the Balto-Slavic Accent</i>. p. 21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prehistory+of+the+Balto-Slavic+Accent&rft.pages=21&rft.au=Jay+Jasanoff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortson2010116f-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortson2010116f_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortson2010">Fortson (2010)</a>, pp. 116f.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJay_Jasanoff" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jay_Jasanoff" title="Jay Jasanoff">Jay Jasanoff</a>. <i>The Prehistory of the Balto-Slavic Accent</i>. p. 22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prehistory+of+the+Balto-Slavic+Accent&rft.pages=22&rft.au=Jay+Jasanoff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKulikovLavidas2015" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kulikov, Leonid; Lavidas, Nikolaos, eds. (2015). "Preface". <i>Proto-Indo-European Syntax and its Development</i>. John Benjamins.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface&rft.btitle=Proto-Indo-European+Syntax+and+its+Development&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2015&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-eiec-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eiec_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eiec_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalloryAdams1997" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q., eds. (1997). "Proto-Indo-European". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</a></i>. Taylor & Francis. p. 463.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Proto-Indo-European&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Indo-European+Culture&rft.pages=463&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1997&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hock-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hock_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hock_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHock2015" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Henrich_Hock" title="Hans Henrich Hock">Hock, Hans Henrich</a> (2015). "Proto-Indo-European verb-finality: Reconstruction, typology, validation". In Kulikov, Leonid; Lavidas, Nikolaos (eds.). <i>Proto-Indo-European Syntax and its Development</i>. John Benjamins.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Proto-Indo-European+verb-finality%3A+Reconstruction%2C+typology%2C+validation&rft.btitle=Proto-Indo-European+Syntax+and+its+Development&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Hock&rft.aufirst=Hans+Henrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lehmann-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lehmann_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehmann1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Winfred_P._Lehmann" title="Winfred P. Lehmann">Lehmann, Winfred P.</a> (1974). "Syntactic Developments from PIE to the Dialects". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc/resources/books/pies/7-developments.php"><i>Proto-Indo-European Syntax</i></a>. University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780292733411" title="Special:BookSources/9780292733411"><bdi>9780292733411</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Syntactic+Developments+from+PIE+to+the+Dialects&rft.btitle=Proto-Indo-European+Syntax&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=9780292733411&rft.aulast=Lehmann&rft.aufirst=Winfred+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fliberalarts.utexas.edu%2Flrc%2Fresources%2Fbooks%2Fpies%2F7-developments.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ringe-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ringe_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRinge2006" class="citation book cs1">Ringe, Donald (2006). <i>Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proto-Indo-European+to+Proto-Germanic&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Ringe&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-friedrich-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-friedrich_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedrich1975" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Friedrich_(linguist)" title="Paul Friedrich (linguist)">Friedrich, Paul</a> (1975). "Proto-Indo-European Syntax". <i>Journal of Indo-European Studies</i>. <b>1</b> (1). University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-941694-25-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-941694-25-9"><bdi>0-941694-25-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Indo-European+Studies&rft.atitle=Proto-Indo-European+Syntax&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-941694-25-9&rft.aulast=Friedrich&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthonyRinge2015" class="citation journal cs1">Anthony, David W.; Ringe, Don (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-linguist-030514-124812">"The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives"</a>. <i>Annual Review of Linguistics</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 199–219. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-linguist-030514-124812">10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Linguistics&rft.atitle=The+Indo-European+Homeland+from+Linguistic+and+Archaeological+Perspectives&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=199-219&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-linguist-030514-124812&rft.aulast=Anthony&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rft.au=Ringe%2C+Don&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1146%252Fannurev-linguist-030514-124812&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBomhard2019" class="citation journal cs1">Bomhard, Allan (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/40002289">"The Origins of Proto-Indo-European: The Caucasian Substrate Hypothesis"</a>. <i>Journal of Indo-European Studies</i>. <b>47</b> (1–2).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Indo-European+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Origins+of+Proto-Indo-European%3A+The+Caucasian+Substrate+Hypothesis&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Bomhard&rft.aufirst=Allan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F40002289&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClackson2007" class="citation book cs1">Clackson, James (18 October 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9780511808616/type/book"><i>Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511808616">10.1017/cbo9780511808616</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65367-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65367-1"><bdi>978-0-521-65367-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+Linguistics%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007-10-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511808616&rft.isbn=978-0-521-65367-1&rft.aulast=Clackson&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2F9780511808616%2Ftype%2Fbook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFortson2010" class="citation book cs1">Fortson, Benjamin W. (2010). <i>Indo-European language and culture: an introduction</i> (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-405-18896-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-405-18896-8"><bdi>978-1-405-18896-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+language+and+culture%3A+an+introduction&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-405-18896-8&rft.aulast=Fortson&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKapović2017" class="citation book cs1">Kapović, Mate (2017). "Proto-Indo-European phonology". In Kapović, Mate (ed.). <i>The Indo-European Languages</i> (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 13–60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-73062-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-73062-4"><bdi>978-0-415-73062-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Proto-Indo-European+phonology&rft.btitle=The+Indo-European+Languages&rft.place=London&rft.pages=13-60&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-415-73062-4&rft.aulast=Kapovi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Mate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMallory1989" class="citation book cs1">Mallory, J. P. (1989). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/insearchofindoeu00jpma"><i>In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth</i></a></span>. Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05052-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05052-1"><bdi>978-0-500-05052-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+the+Indo-Europeans%3A+Language%2C+Archaeology%2C+and+Myth&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05052-1&rft.aulast=Mallory&rft.aufirst=J.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finsearchofindoeu00jpma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalloryAdams2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. Mallory">Mallory, J. P.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Q._Adams" title="Douglas Q. Adams">Adams, D. Q.</a> (2006), <i>The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World</i>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-199-29668-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-199-29668-2"><bdi>978-0-199-29668-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Introduction+to+Proto-Indo-European+and+the+Proto-Indo-European+World&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-199-29668-2&rft.aulast=Mallory&rft.aufirst=J.+P.&rft.au=Adams%2C+D.+Q.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeier-Brügger2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Meier-Br%C3%BCgger" class="mw-redirect" title="Meier-Brügger">Meier-Brügger, Michael</a> (2003), <i>Indo-European Linguistics</i>, New York: De Gruyter, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-110-17433-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-110-17433-2"><bdi>3-110-17433-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+Linguistics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=3-110-17433-2&rft.aulast=Meier-Br%C3%BCgger&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzemerenyi1997" class="citation book cs1">Szemerenyi, Oswald J. L. (13 February 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/book/48334"><i>Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198240150.001.0001">10.1093/oso/9780198240150.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-383-01320-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-383-01320-7"><bdi>978-1-383-01320-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Indo-European+Linguistics&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997-02-13&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198240150.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-1-383-01320-7&rft.aulast=Szemerenyi&rft.aufirst=Oswald+J.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fbook%2F48334&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKümmel2022" class="citation journal cs1">Kümmel, Martin Joachim (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.italian-journal-linguistics.com/app/uploads/2021/05/9_Kuemmel.pdf">"Voiceless high vowels and syncope in older Indo-European"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Italian Journal of Linguistics</i>. <b>32</b> (1): 175–190. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.26346%2F1120-2726-153">10.26346/1120-2726-153</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Italian+Journal+of+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Voiceless+high+vowels+and+syncope+in+older+Indo-European&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=175-190&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.26346%2F1120-2726-153&rft.aulast=K%C3%BCmmel&rft.aufirst=Martin+Joachim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.italian-journal-linguistics.com%2Fapp%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F05%2F9_Kuemmel.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKümmel" class="citation web cs1">Kümmel, Martin Joachim. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/download/kummelljubljana2019.pdf_202011/k%C3%BCmmelljubljana2019.pdf.pdf">"Uvular Stops or a Glottal Fricative? Theory and Data in Recent Reconstructions of PIE "Laryngeals"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Seminar für Indogermanistik</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Seminar+f%C3%BCr+Indogermanistik&rft.atitle=Uvular+Stops+or+a+Glottal+Fricative%3F+Theory+and+Data+in+Recent+Reconstructions+of+PIE+%22Laryngeals%22&rft.aulast=K%C3%BCmmel&rft.aufirst=Martin+Joachim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdownload%2Fkummelljubljana2019.pdf_202011%2Fk%25C3%25BCmmelljubljana2019.pdf.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleinJosephFritz2017" class="citation cs2">Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias, eds. (25 September 2017), <i>Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics</i>, vol. 1, De Gruyter Mouton, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110261288">10.1515/9783110261288</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-110-26128-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-110-26128-8"><bdi>978-3-110-26128-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Comparative+and+Historical+Indo-European+Linguistics&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=2017-09-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110261288&rft.isbn=978-3-110-26128-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleinJosephFritz2017" class="citation cs2">Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias, eds. (23 October 2017), "Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics: An International Handbook", <i>Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics</i>, vol. 2, De Gruyter Mouton, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110523874">10.1515/9783110523874</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-110-52387-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-110-52387-4"><bdi>978-3-110-52387-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Handbook+of+Comparative+and+Historical+Indo-European+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Handbook+of+Comparative+and+Historical+Indo-European+Linguistics%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.volume=2&rft.date=2017-10-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110523874&rft.isbn=978-3-110-52387-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleinJosephFritz2018" class="citation cs2">Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias, eds. (11 June 2018), <i>Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics</i>, vol. 3, De Gruyter Mouton, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110542431">10.1515/9783110542431</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-110-54243-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-110-54243-1"><bdi>978-3-110-54243-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Comparative+and+Historical+Indo-European+Linguistics&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=2018-06-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110542431&rft.isbn=978-3-110-54243-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrazny2000" class="citation cs2">Strazny, Philipp, ed. (2000), <i>Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics</i>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-579-58218-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-579-58218-0"><bdi>978-1-579-58218-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Historical+and+Comparative+Linguistics&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-579-58218-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Proto-Indo-European_Swadesh_list" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Appendix:Proto-Indo-European Swadesh list">Appendix:Proto-Indo-European Swadesh list</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>At the University of Texas Linguistic Research Center: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc/resources/books/index.php">List of online books</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170728215921/http://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc/resources/books/index.php">Archived</a> 28 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/lex">Indo-European Lexicon</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pielexicon.hum.helsinki.fi/">Proto-Indo-European Lexicon</a> at the University of Helsinki, Department of Modern Languages, Department of World Cultures, Indo-European Studies</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kummeleaa2019.pdf">"Wheel and chariot in early IE: What exactly can we conclude from the linguistic data?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Martin Joachim Kümmel, department of Indo-European linguistics, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Jena" title="University of Jena">University of Jena</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Martin+Joachim+K%C3%BCmmel%2C+department+of+Indo-European+linguistics%2C+University+of+Jena&rft.atitle=Wheel+and+chariot+in+early+IE%3A+What+exactly+can+we+conclude+from+the+linguistic+data%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkummeleaa2019.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Indo-European+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ielex.mpi.nl/">Indo-European Lexical Cognacy Database</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151107054612/http://ielex.mpi.nl/">Archived</a> 7 November 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spw.uni-goettingen.de/projects/aig/index.html">glottothèque – Ancient Indo-European Grammars online</a>, an online collection of video lectures on Ancient Indo-European languages</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Proto-Indo-European_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #c9ffd9"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Template:Proto-Indo-European language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Template talk:Proto-Indo-European language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Proto-Indo-European language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Proto-Indo-European_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-Indo-European language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Phonology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_accent" title="Proto-Indo-European accent">Accent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centum_and_satem_languages" title="Centum and satem languages">Centum and satem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glottalic_theory" title="Glottalic theory">Glottalic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_theory" title="Laryngeal theory">Laryngeal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_s-mobile" title="Indo-European s-mobile">s-mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_sound_laws" title="Indo-European sound laws">Sound laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bouk%C3%B3los_rule" title="Boukólos rule"><i>boukólos</i> rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*k%CA%B7etw%C3%B3res_rule" title="*kʷetwóres rule"><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">kʷetwóres</i></span> rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages" title="Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages">Glossary of sound laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brugmann%27s_law" title="Brugmann's law">Brugmann's </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartholomae%27s_law" title="Bartholomae's law">Bartholomae's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortunatov%27s_law" title="Fortunatov's law">Fortunatov's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grassmann%27s_law" title="Grassmann's law">Grassmann's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osthoff%27s_law" title="Osthoff's law">Osthoff's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinault%27s_law" title="Pinault's law">Pinault's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebs%27s_law" title="Siebs's law">Siebs's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law" title="Sievers's law">Sievers's</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law#Edgerton" title="Sievers's law">Edgerton's converse</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stang%27s_law" title="Stang's law">Stang's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Szemer%C3%A9nyi%27s_law" title="Szemerényi's law">Szemerényi's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weise%27s_law" title="Weise's law">Weise's</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Morphology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Ablaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caland_system" title="Caland system">Caland system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E2%82%82e-conjugation_theory" title="H₂e-conjugation theory"><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text"><i lang="ine">h₂e</i></span>-conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narten_present" title="Narten present">Narten present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_infix" title="Nasal infix">Nasal infix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_root" title="Proto-Indo-European root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thematic_vowel" title="Thematic vowel">Thematic vowel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%E1%B9%9Bddhi" title="Vṛddhi">Vṛddhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Parts of speech</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_nominals" title="Proto-Indo-European nominals">Nominals</a> (nouns and adjectives)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_numerals" title="Proto-Indo-European numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_particles" title="Proto-Indo-European particles">Particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_pronouns" title="Proto-Indo-European pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verbs" title="Proto-Indo-European verbs">Verbs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_copula" title="Indo-European copula">copula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_vocabulary" title="Indo-European vocabulary">Vocabulary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Main sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Indogermanisches_etymologisches_W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch">Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch</a> (IEW)</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lexikon_der_indogermanischen_Verben" title="Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben">Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben</a> (LIV)</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lexikon_der_indogermanischen_Partikeln_und_Pronominalst%C3%A4mme" title="Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme">Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme</a> (LIPP)</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nomina_im_Indogermanischen_Lexikon" title="Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon">Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon</a> (NIL)</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_Etymological_Dictionary" title="Indo-European Etymological Dictionary">Indo-European Etymological Dictionary</a> (IEED)</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Artificial compositions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schleicher%27s_fable" title="Schleicher's fable">Schleicher's fable</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_king_and_the_god" title="The king and the god">The king and the god</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schleicher_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Schleicher theories">Schleicher theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_hypothesis" title="Armenian hypothesis">Armenian hypothesis</a></li> <li>Outdated theories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beech_argument" title="Beech argument">Beech argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_European_hypothesis" title="North European hypothesis">North European hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Proto-Indo-European mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_society" title="Proto-Indo-European society">Proto-Indo-European society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Proto-Indo-European homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_problem" title="Salmon problem">Salmon problem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European studies</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</a> (EIE)</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37178#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37178#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37178#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4120204-1">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11995173d">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11995173d">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="indoevropština"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph385060&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX545099">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007541249405171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/028035224">IdRef</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&oldid=1257720351">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&oldid=1257720351</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Category:Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bronze_Age" title="Category:Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indo-European_languages" title="Category:Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Category:Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Proto-languages" title="Category:Proto-languages">Proto-languages</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Italian-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Italian-language text">Articles containing Italian-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_French-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing French-language text">Articles containing French-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Danish-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Danish-language text">Articles containing Danish-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_German-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing German-language text">Articles containing German-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_March_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from March 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_plain_IPA" title="Category:Pages with plain IPA">Pages with plain IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_January_2017" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2017">Articles with unsourced statements from January 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_to_be_expanded_from_May_2019" title="Category:Articles to be expanded from May 2019">Articles to be expanded from May 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_to_be_expanded" title="Category:All articles to be expanded">All articles to be expanded</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_empty_sections_from_May_2019" title="Category:Articles with empty sections from May 2019">Articles with empty sections from May 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_empty_sections" title="Category:All articles with empty sections">All articles with empty sections</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_July_2017" title="Category:Use dmy dates from July 2017">Use dmy dates from July 2017</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 16 November 2024, at 09:25<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_language&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-74cc59cb9d-9s4g2","wgBackendResponseTime":186,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.506","walltime":"1.763","ppvisitednodes":{"value":14113,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":215765,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":11989,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":15,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":226674,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1494.812 1 -total"," 23.49% 351.163 2 Template:Reflist"," 9.65% 144.323 108 Template:PIE"," 8.84% 132.197 108 Template:Template_for_discussion/dated"," 8.74% 130.676 10 Template:Lang"," 7.70% 115.111 9 Template:Cite_web"," 7.50% 112.107 1 Template:Indo-European_topics"," 7.00% 104.609 21 Template:Cite_book"," 6.21% 92.846 11 Template:Sfnp"," 4.41% 65.919 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.898","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21090972,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAnthony2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnthonyRinge2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAuroux2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBalter2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeekes1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlench2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBomhard2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBouckaertLemeyDunnGreenhill2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrixhe2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurrow1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChangCathcartHallGarrett2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClackson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFortson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedrich1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGimbutas1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHock2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIvićHampLyons2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJay_Jasanoff\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKapović2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKleinJosephFritz2017\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKleinJosephFritz2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKulikovLavidas2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKümmel\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKümmel2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLehmann1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLehmann1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLigorioLubotsky2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallory1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallory2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalloryAdams1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalloryAdams2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeier-Brügger2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMomma2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFObrador-Cursach2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPellardSagartJacques2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPinault2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowell\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRinge2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaussure1879\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSihler1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrazny2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzemerenyi1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrumper2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheeler\"] = 1,\n [\"Era\"] = 1,\n [\"Region\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Anchor\"] = 2,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation\"] = 9,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 21,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 9,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 9,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 9,\n [\"Contains special characters\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Proto-Indo-European Language\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"Empty section\"] = 1,\n [\"IAST2\"] = 3,\n [\"IPA\"] = 8,\n [\"IPAblink\"] = 3,\n [\"IPAslink\"] = 28,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"Indo-European topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox proto-language\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 8,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"Not a typo\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"PIE\"] = 108,\n [\"Proto-Indo-European language\"] = 1,\n [\"R\"] = 2,\n [\"Redirect2\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 11,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 3,\n [\"Wiktionary\"] = 1,\n [\"Wt\"] = 3,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nReconstructed language without asterisk:\tine-pro\tProto-Indo-European\t-h₂\nReconstructed language without asterisk:\tine-pro\tProto-Indo-European\t-éh₂\nReconstructed language without asterisk:\tine-pro\tProto-Indo-European\t-ih₂\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b8d669998-8hxkr","timestamp":"20241128083513","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Proto-Indo-European language","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proto-Indo-European_language","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q37178","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q37178","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-03-28T05:35:05Z","dateModified":"2024-11-16T09:25:45Z","headline":"ancestor of the Indo-European languages"}</script> </body> </html>