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class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Lengthened grades</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lengthened_grades-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zero_grade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zero_grade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Zero grade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zero_grade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-a-grade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#a-grade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>a-grade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-a-grade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subsequent_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subsequent_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Subsequent development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subsequent_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammatical_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammatical_function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Grammatical function</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammatical_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Indo-European ablaut</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 20 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-20" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">20 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ablaut" title="Ablaut – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Ablaut" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ablaut_indoeurop%C3%A9u" title="Ablaut indoeuropéu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ablaut indoeuropéu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ablaut" title="Ablaut – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ablaut" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%9E%D1%82" title="Аблаўт – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аблаўт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%9E%D1%82" title="Абляўт – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Абляўт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aflyd" title="Aflyd – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Aflyd" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indogermanischer_Ablaut" title="Indogermanischer Ablaut – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Indogermanischer Ablaut" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%AC%CF%80%CF%84%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7_(%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%89%CF%83%CF%83%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1)" title="Μετάπτωση (γλωσσολογία) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μετάπτωση (γλωσσολογία)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ablaut_indoeuropeo" title="Ablaut indoeuropeo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ablaut indoeuropeo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternance_vocalique" title="Alternance vocalique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Alternance vocalique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ablawt" title="Ablawt – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Ablawt" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ablaut" title="Ablaut – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ablaut" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avlyd" title="Avlyd – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Avlyd" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avlyd" title="Avlyd – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Avlyd" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%82_%D0%B2_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Аблаут в праиндоевропейском языке – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Аблаут в праиндоевропейском языке" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ablaut" title="Ablaut – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ablaut" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ablaut" title="Ablaut – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ablaut" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avljud" title="Avljud – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Avljud" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%82" title="Аблаут – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Аблаут" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E6%AD%90%E8%AA%9E%E5%85%83%E9%9F%B3%E8%AE%8A%E6%8F%9B" title="印歐語元音變換 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="印歐語元音變換" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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searchaux" style="display:none">Grammatical change of vowels in Indo-European languages</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Ablaut" redirects here. 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile" style="width:15em;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;padding: 0.3em; font-size: 120%;"><a href="/wiki/Sound_change" title="Sound change">Sound change</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alternation_(linguistics)" title="Alternation (linguistics)">alternation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Metathesis_(linguistics)" title="Metathesis (linguistics)">Metathesis</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_metathesis" title="Quantitative metathesis">Quantitative metathesis</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">Lenition</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_gradation" title="Consonant gradation">Consonant gradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_voicing_and_devoicing" title="Consonant voicing and devoicing">Consonant voicing and devoicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assibilation" title="Assibilation">Assibilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirantization" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirantization">Spirantization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization">L-vocalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debuccalization" title="Debuccalization">Debuccalization</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <a href="/wiki/Fortition" title="Fortition">Fortition</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">Epenthesis</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prothesis_(linguistics)" title="Prothesis (linguistics)">Prothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paragoge" title="Paragoge">Paragoge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unpacking_(linguistics)" title="Unpacking (linguistics)">Unpacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vowel_breaking" title="Vowel breaking">Vowel breaking</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Elision" title="Elision">Elision</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apheresis_(linguistics)" title="Apheresis (linguistics)">Apheresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncope_(phonology)" title="Syncope (phonology)">Syncope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocope" title="Apocope">Apocope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haplology" title="Haplology">Haplology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_reduction" title="Cluster reduction">Cluster reduction</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Transphonologization" title="Transphonologization">Transphonologization</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">Compensatory lengthening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">Nasalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)#Origin" title="Tone (linguistics)">Tonogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_tone" title="Floating tone">Floating tone</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(phonology)" title="Assimilation (phonology)">Assimilation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_(phonetics)" title="Fusion (phonetics)">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coarticulation" title="Coarticulation">Coarticulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">Palatalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">Velarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">Labialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Final-obstruent_devoicing" title="Final-obstruent devoicing">Final devoicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphony" title="Metaphony">Metaphony</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vowel_harmony" title="Vowel harmony">vowel harmony</a>, <a href="/wiki/I-mutation" title="I-mutation">umlaut</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_harmony" title="Consonant harmony">Consonant harmony</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dissimilation" title="Dissimilation">Dissimilation</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sandhi" title="Sandhi">Sandhi</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liaison_(French)" title="Liaison (French)">Liaison</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linking_and_intrusive_R" title="Linking and intrusive R">linking R</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_mutation" title="Consonant mutation">Consonant mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">Tone sandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vowel_hiatus" title="Vowel hiatus">Vowel hiatus</a></li></ul> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center; padding-right: 1em;"><a href="/wiki/Synalepha" title="Synalepha">Synalepha</a></div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elision" title="Elision">Elision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crasis" title="Crasis">Crasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synaeresis" title="Synaeresis">Synaeresis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diaeresis_(prosody)" title="Diaeresis (prosody)">diaeresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synizesis" title="Synizesis">Synizesis</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Other types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apophony" title="Apophony">Apophony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affrication" class="mw-redirect" title="Affrication">Affrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">Gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clipping_(phonetics)" title="Clipping (phonetics)">Clipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fronting_(sound_change)" title="Fronting (sound change)">Fronting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raising_(sound_change)" title="Raising (sound change)">Raising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betacism" title="Betacism">Betacism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iotacism" title="Iotacism">Iotacism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_(phonetics)" title="Fusion (phonetics)">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_change#Merger" title="Phonological change">Merger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">Compensatory lengthening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monophthongization" title="Monophthongization">Monophthongization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhotacism" title="Rhotacism">Rhotacism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhinoglottophilia" title="Rhinoglottophilia">Rhinoglottophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulcalization" title="Sulcalization">Sulcalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shm-reduplication" title="Shm-reduplication">Shm-reduplication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_mutation" title="Consonant mutation">Consonant mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vowel_shift" title="Vowel shift">Vowel shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chain_shift" title="Chain shift">Chain shift</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; padding-top: 1px;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sound_change" title="Template:Sound change"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sound_change" title="Template talk:Sound change"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sound_change" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sound change"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, the <b>Indo-European ablaut</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/aʊ/: 'ou' in 'mouth'">aʊ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">AB</span>-lowt</i></a>, from <a href="/wiki/Standard_High_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard High German">German</a> <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Ablaut#German" class="extiw" title="wikt:Ablaut">Ablaut</a></i></span> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">pronounced</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈaplaʊt]</a></span>) is a system of <a href="/wiki/Apophony" title="Apophony">apophony</a> (regular <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowel</a> variations) in the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a> (PIE). </p><p>An example of ablaut in English is the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">strong verb</a> <i>s<b>i</b>ng, s<b>a</b>ng, s<b>u</b>ng</i> and its related noun <i>s<b>o</b>ng</i>, a paradigm inherited directly from the Proto-Indo-European stage of the language. Traces of ablaut are found in all modern <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>, though its prevalence varies greatly.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_the_concept">History of the concept</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_ablaut&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History of the concept"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The phenomenon of Indo-European ablaut was first recorded by <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_grammar" title="Sanskrit grammar">Sanskrit grammarians</a> in the later <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> (roughly 8th century BCE), and was codified by <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%AD%C4%81dhy%C4%81y%C4%AB" title="Aṣṭādhyāyī">Aṣṭādhyāyī</a></i> (4th century BCE), where the terms <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">guṇa</i></span></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/V%E1%B9%9Bddhi" title="Vṛddhi"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">vṛddhi</i></span></a></i> were used to describe the phenomena now known respectively as the <i>full grade</i> and <i>lengthened grade</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Burrow21_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burrow21-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the context of European languages, the phenomenon was first described in the early 18th century by the Dutch linguist <a href="/wiki/Lambert_ten_Kate" title="Lambert ten Kate">Lambert ten Kate</a>, in his book <i>Gemeenschap tussen de Gottische spraeke en de Nederduytsche</i> ("Common aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> languages", 1710).<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ablaut" class="extiw" title="wikt:ablaut">ablaut</a></i> is borrowed from German, and derives from the noun <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Laut" class="extiw" title="wikt:Laut">Laut</a></i> "sound", and the prefix <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ab-" class="extiw" title="wikt:ab-">ab-</a></i>, which indicates movement downwards or away, or deviation from a norm; thus the literal meaning is "sound reduction".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKluge1963_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKluge1963-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2001_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2001-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was coined in this sense in 1819 by the German linguist <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Grimm" title="Jacob Grimm">Jacob Grimm</a> in his <i>Deutsche Grammatik</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrübner1939_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrübner1939-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though the word had been used before him.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, the 17th-century grammarian <a href="/wiki/Justus_Georg_Schottelius" title="Justus Georg Schottelius">Schottelius</a> had used the word negatively to suggest that German verbs lacked the sophistication of the classics,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but there is no hint of this disdain in Grimm or in modern scholarly usage. In English, the term became established through the 1845 translation of <a href="/wiki/Franz_Bopp" title="Franz Bopp">Bopp's</a> <i>Comparative Grammar</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ablaut_and_vowel_gradation">Ablaut and vowel gradation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_ablaut&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ablaut and vowel gradation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Apophony" title="Apophony">Apophony</a></div> <p>Vowel gradation is any vowel difference between two related words (such as <i>ph<b>o</b>tograph</i> [ˈf<b>əʊ</b>təgrɑːf] and <i>ph<b>o</b>tography</i> [f<b>ə</b>ˈtɒgrəfi]) or two forms of the same word (such as <i>m<b>a</b>n</i> and <i>m<b>e</b>n</i>). The difference does not need to be indicated in the spelling. There are many kinds of vowel gradation in English and other languages, which are discussed generally in the article <a href="/wiki/Apophony" title="Apophony">apophony</a>. Some involve a variation in vowel length (quantitative gradation: <i>ph<b>o</b>tograph</i> / <i>ph<b>o</b>tography</i> shows reduction of the first vowel to a <a href="/wiki/Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">schwa</a>), others in vowel coloring (qualitative gradation: <i>m<b>a</b>n</i> / <i>m<b>e</b>n</i>) and others the complete disappearance of a vowel (reduction to zero: <i>could n<b>o</b>t</i> → <i>couldn't</i>). </p><p>For the study of European languages, one of the most important instances of vowel gradation is the Indo-European ablaut, remnants of which can be seen in the English verbs <i>r<b>i</b>de</i>, <i>r<b>o</b>de</i>, <i>r<b>i</b>dden</i>, or <i>fl<b>y</b></i>, <i>fl<b>ew</b></i>, <i>fl<b>ow</b>n</i>. For simply learning English grammar, it is enough to note that these verbs are <a href="/wiki/Irregular_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Irregular verb">irregular</a>, but understanding why they have unusual forms that seem irregular (and indeed why they are actually perfectly regular within their own terms) requires an understanding of the grammar of the <a href="/wiki/Reconstructed_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstructed language">reconstructed proto-language</a>. </p><p>Ablaut is the oldest and most extensive single source of vowel gradation in the Indo-European languages and must be distinguished clearly from other forms of gradation, which developed later, such as <a href="/wiki/Germanic_Umlaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a> (<i>m<b>a</b>n</i> / <i>m<b>e</b>n</i>, <i>g<b>oo</b>se</i> / <i>g<b>ee</b>se</i>, <i>l<b>o</b>ng</i> / <i>l<b>e</b>ngth</i>) or the results of modern English word-stress patterns (<i>m<b>a</b>n</i> / <i>wom<b>a</b>n</i>, <i>ph<b>o</b>tograph</i> / <i>ph<b>o</b>tography</i>). Confusingly, in some contexts, the terms 'ablaut', 'vowel gradation', 'apophony' and 'vowel alternation' are used synonymously, especially in <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/synchronic" class="extiw" title="wikt:synchronic">synchronic</a> comparisons, but <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguists</a> prefer to keep 'ablaut' for the specific Indo-European phenomenon, which is the meaning intended by the linguists who first coined the word. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ablaut_grades">Ablaut grades</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_ablaut&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ablaut grades"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Proto-Indo-European, the basic, inherent vowel of most syllables was a short <i>e</i>. <i>Ablaut</i> is the name of the process whereby this short <i>e</i> changed, becoming short <i>o</i>, long <i>ē</i>, long <i>ō</i> or sometimes disappearing entirely to leave no vowel at all. </p><p>Thus, ablaut results in the alternation of the following sounds: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>zero </th> <th>short </th> <th>long </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">∅ </td> <td>e </td> <td>ē </td></tr> <tr> <td>o </td> <td>ō </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>If a syllable had a short <i>e</i>, it is said to be in the "e-grade" or "full grade". When it had no vowel, it is said to be in the "zero grade". Syllables with long vowels are said to be in "lengthened grade". (When the <i>e</i>-grade or the <i>o</i>-grade is referred to, the short vowel forms are meant.) </p><p>A classic example of the five grades of ablaut in a single root is provided by the different case forms of two closely related Greek words. In the following table, an acute accent (´) marks the syllable carrying the word stress; a macron (¯) marks long vowels and the syllable in <b>bold</b> is the one illustrating the different vowel gradations. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><b>Ablaut grade</b> </th> <th><b>PIE</b><br />(reconstruction) </th> <th><b>Greek</b> </th> <th><b>Greek</b><br />(transliterated) </th> <th><b>English<br />translation</b> </th></tr> <tr> <td>e-grade or<br />full grade </td> <td>*ph<sub>2</sub>-<b>tér</b>-m̥ </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πα-<b>τέρ</b>-α</span></span></span> </td> <td>pa-<b>tér</b>-a </td> <td>"father"<br />(noun, accusative) </td></tr> <tr> <td>lengthened<br />e-grade </td> <td>*ph<sub>2</sub>-<b>tḗr</b> </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πα-<b>τήρ</b></span></span></span> </td> <td>pa-<b>tḗr</b> </td> <td>"father"<br />(noun, nominative) </td></tr> <tr> <td>zero-grade </td> <td>*ph<sub>2</sub>-<b>tr</b>-és </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πα-<b>τρ</b>-ός</span></span></span> </td> <td>pa-<b>tr</b>-ós </td> <td>"father's"<br />(noun, genitive) </td></tr> <tr> <td>o-grade </td> <td>*n̥-péh<sub>2</sub>-<b>tor</b>-m̥ </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἀ-πά-<b>τορ</b>-α</span></span></span> </td> <td>a-pá-<b>tor</b>-a </td> <td>"fatherless"<br />(adjective, accusative) </td></tr> <tr> <td>lengthened<br />o-grade </td> <td>*n̥-péh<sub>2</sub>-<b>tōr</b> </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἀ-πά-<b>τωρ</b></span></span></span> </td> <td>a-pá-<b>tōr</b> </td> <td>"fatherless"<br />(adjective, nominative) </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>In this unusually neat example, the following can be seen: </p> <ul><li>A switch to the zero-grade when the word stress moves to the following syllable.</li> <li>A switch to the o-grade when the word stress moves to the preceding syllable.</li> <li>A lengthening of the vowel when the syllable is in word-final position before a sonorant.</li></ul> <p>As with most reconstructions, however, scholars differ about the details of this example. </p><p>One way to think of this system is to suppose that Proto-Indo-European originally had only one vowel, short <i>e</i>, and over time, it changed according to phonetic context, so the language started to develop a more complex vowel system. Thus, it has often been speculated that an original e-grade underwent two changes in some phonetic environments: under certain circumstances, it changed to <i>o</i> (the o-grade) and in others, it disappeared entirely (the zero-grade). </p><p>However, that is not certain: the phonetic conditions that controlled ablaut have never been determined, and the position of the word stress may not have been a key factor at all.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> There are many counterexamples to the proposed rules: <i>*deywós</i> and its nominative plural <i>*deywóes</i> show pretonic and posttonic e-grade, respectively, and <i>*wĺ̥kʷos</i> has an accented zero grade. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lengthened_grades">Lengthened grades</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_ablaut&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Lengthened grades"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many examples of lengthened grades, including those listed above, are not directly conditioned by ablaut. Instead, they are a result of sound changes like <a href="/wiki/Szemer%C3%A9nyi%27s_law" title="Szemerényi's law">Szemerényi's law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stang%27s_law" title="Stang's law">Stang's law</a>, which caused <a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">compensatory lengthening</a> of originally short vowels. In the examples above, Szemerényi's law affected the older sequences *ph<sub>2</sub>-tér-s and *n̥-péh<sub>2</sub>-tor-s, changing them to *ph<sub>2</sub>-tḗr and *n̥-péh<sub>2</sub>-tōr. Thus, these forms were originally in the regular, unlengthened e-grade and o-grade. Such lengthened vowels were, however, later <a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">grammaticalised</a> and spread to other words in which the change did not occur. </p><p>Nevertheless, there are examples of true lengthened grades, in which short <i>e</i> alternates with long <i>ē</i>. Examples are the verbs with <a href="/wiki/Narten_present" title="Narten present">"Narten" inflection</a>, and nouns like <i>*mḗh₁-n̥s</i> "moon", genitive <i>*méh₁-n̥s-os</i>. Alternations of this type were rare, however, and the <i>e</i> ~ <i>o</i> ~ <i>∅</i> alternation was the most common by far. The long <i>ō</i> grade was rarer still and may not have actually been a part of the ablaut system at all. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zero_grade">Zero grade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_ablaut&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Zero grade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The zero grade of <i>ablaut</i> may appear difficult for speakers of English. In the case of *ph<sub>2</sub>trés, which may already have been pronounced something like <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɐtrés]</span>, it is not difficult to imagine it as a contraction of an older *ph<sub>2</sub>terés, pronounced perhaps <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pɐterés]</span>, as this combination of consonants and vowels would be possible in English as well. In other cases, however, the absence of a vowel strikes the speaker of a modern western European language as unpronounceable. </p><p>To understand, one must be aware that there were a number of sounds that were consonants in principle but could operate in ways analogous to vowels: the four syllabic sonorants, the three <a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_theory" title="Laryngeal theory">laryngeals</a> and the two semi-vowels: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant">syllabic sonorants</a> are <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>r</i> and <i>l</i>, which could be consonants much as they are in English, but they could also be held on as continuants and carry a full syllable stress and then are transcribed with a small circle beneath them. There are many modern languages who show these sounds in syllable nuclei, including Indo-European ones (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>).</li> <li>The laryngeals could be pronounced as consonants, in which case they were probably variations on the <i>h</i> sound and so normally transcribed as h<sub>1</sub>, h<sub>2</sub> and h<sub>3</sub>. However, they could also carry a syllable stress, in which case they were more like vowels. Thus, some linguists prefer to transcribe them ə<sub>1</sub>, ə<sub>2</sub> and ə<sub>3</sub>. The vocalic pronunciation may have originally involved the consonantal sounds with a very slight schwa before and/or after the consonant.</li> <li>In pre-vocalic positions, the phonemes <i>u</i> and <i>i</i> were semi-vowels, probably pronounced like English <i>w</i> and <i>y</i>, but they could also become pure vowels when the following ablaut vowel reduced to zero.</li></ul> <p>When <i>u</i> and <i>i</i> came in postvocalic positions, the result was a diphthong. Ablaut is nevertheless regular and looks like this: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>e-grade </th> <th>o-grade </th> <th>zero-grade </th></tr> <tr> <td>ey </td> <td>oy </td> <td>i </td></tr> <tr> <td>ew </td> <td>ow </td> <td>u </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Thus, any of these could replace the ablaut vowel when it was reduced to the zero-grade: the pattern CVrC (for example, <i>*bʰergʰ-</i>) could become CrC (<i>*bʰr̥gʰ-</i>). </p><p>However, not every PIE syllable was capable of forming a zero grade; some consonant structures inhibited it in particular cases, or completely. Thus, for example, although the <a href="/wiki/Preterite" title="Preterite">preterite</a> plural of a Germanic strong verb (see below) is derived from the zero grade, classes 4 and 5 have instead vowels representing the lengthened e-grade, as the stems of these verbs could not have sustained a zero grade in this position.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Zero grade is said to be from <a href="/wiki/Pre-Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Proto-Indo-European">pre-Proto-Indo-European</a> <a href="/wiki/Syncope_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syncope (phonetics)">syncope</a> in unaccented syllables,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> but in some cases the lack of accent does not cause zero grade: <i>*deywó-</i>, nominative plural <i>*-es</i> "god". There does not seem to be a rule governing the unaccented syllables that take zero grade and the ones that take stronger grades.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="a-grade">a-grade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_ablaut&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: a-grade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is still a matter of debate whether PIE had an original a-vowel at all. In later PIE, the disappearance of the laryngeal h<sub>2</sub> could leave an a-colouring and this may explain all occurrences of <i>a</i> in later PIE. However, some argue controversially that the e-grade could sometimes be replaced by an a-grade without the influence of a laryngeal, which might help to explain the vowels in class 6 <a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic verbs</a>, for example. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subsequent_development">Subsequent development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_ablaut&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Subsequent development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although PIE had only this one, basically regular, ablaut sequence, the development in the daughter languages is frequently far more complicated, and few reflect the original system as neatly as Greek. Various factors, such as <a href="/wiki/Vowel_harmony" title="Vowel harmony">vowel harmony</a>, assimilation with nasals, or the effect of the presence of laryngeals in the Indo-European (IE) roots as well as their subsequent loss in most daughter languages, mean that a language may have several different vowels representing a single vowel in the parent language. </p><p>In particular, the zero grade was often subject to modification from changes in the pronunciation of syllabic sonorants. For example, in Germanic, syllabic sonorants acquired an <a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">epenthetic</a> <i>-u-</i>, thus converting the original zero grade to a new "u-grade" in many words. Thus, while ablaut survives in some form in all Indo-European languages, it became progressively less systematic over time. </p><p>Ablaut explains vowel differences between related words of the same language. For example: </p> <ul><li>English <i>strike</i> and <i>stroke</i> both come from the same IE root <i>*streyg-</i>. The former comes from the e-grade, the latter from the o-grade.</li> <li>German <i>Berg</i> (mountain, hill) and <i>Burg</i> (castle) both come from the root <i>*bʰergʰ-</i>, which presumably meant "high". The former comes from the e-grade, the latter from the zero-grade. (Zero-grade followed by <i>r</i> becomes <i>ur</i> in Germanic.)</li></ul> <p>Ablaut also explains vowel differences between cognates in different languages. </p> <ul><li>English <i>tooth</i> comes from Germanic <i>*tanþ-s</i> (e.g. Old English <i>tōþ</i>, Old High German <i>zand</i>), genitive <i>*tund-iz</i> (Gothic <i>tunþus</i>, but also <span title="Gothic-language romanization"><i lang="got-Latn">aiƕa-tundi</i></span> "thornbush", literally "horse-tooth"). This form is related to Latin <i>dens, dentis</i> and Greek <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ὀδούς</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ὀδόντος</span></span></i>, with the same meaning, and is reflected in the English words <i>dentist</i> and <i>orthodontic</i>. One reconstructed IE form is <i>*dónts</i>, genitive <i>*dn̥tés</i>. The consonant differences can be explained by regular sound shifts in primitive Germanic but not the vowel differences: by the regular laws of sound changes, Germanic <i>a</i> can originate from PIE <i>o</i>, but <i>un</i> usually goes back to a syllabic <i>n̥</i>.</li></ul> <dl><dd>The explanation is that the Germanic and Greek nominative forms developed from the o-grade, the Latin word and the Germanic genitive from the zero-grade (in which syllabic <i>n̥</i> developed into <i>en</i> much in the same way as it became <i>un</i> in Germanic). Going a step further back, some scholars reconstruct <i>*h<sub>1</sub>dónts</i>, from the zero grade of the root <i>*h<sub>1</sub>ed-</i> 'to eat' and the participle <i>-ont-</i> and explain it as 'the eating one'.</dd></dl> <ul><li>English <i>foot</i> comes from the lengthened o-grade of <i>*ped-</i>. Greek <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πούς</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ποδός</span></span></i> and Latin <i>pes, pedis</i> (compare English <i>octopus</i> and <i>pedestrian</i>), come from the (short) o-grade and the e-grade respectively.</li></ul> <p>For the English-speaking non-specialist, a good reference work for quick information on IE roots, including the difference of <i>ablaut</i> grade behind related lexemes, is <a href="/wiki/Calvert_Watkins" title="Calvert Watkins">Watkins</a> (2000).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Note that in discussions of lexis, Indo-European roots are normally cited in the e-grade, without any inflections.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammatical_function">Grammatical function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_ablaut&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Grammatical function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In PIE, there were already ablaut differences within the paradigms of verbs and nouns. These were not the main markers of grammatical form, since the inflection system served this purpose, but they must have been significant secondary markers. </p><p>An example of ablaut in the paradigm of the noun in PIE can be found in <i>*pértus</i>, from which the English words <i>ford</i> and (via Latin) <i>port</i> are derived (both via the zero-grade stem <i>*pr̥t-</i>). </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th> </th> <th>root (p-r) </th> <th>suffix (t-u) </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*pér-tu-s </td> <td>e-grade </td> <td>zero-grade </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*pér-tu-m </td> <td>e-grade </td> <td>zero-grade </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*pr̥-téw-s </td> <td>zero-grade </td> <td>e-grade </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>*pr̥-téw-ey </td> <td>zero-grade </td> <td>e-grade </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>An example in a verb is *bʰeydʰ- "to wait" (cf. "bide"). </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>e-grade </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Perfect (third-person singular) </td> <td>*bʰe-bʰóydʰ-e </td> <td>o-grade </td> <td>(note <a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">reduplicating</a> prefix) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Perfect (third plural) </td> <td>*bʰe-bʰidʰ-ḗr </td> <td>zero-grade </td> <td>(note reduplicating prefix) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the daughter languages, these came to be important markers of grammatical distinctions. The vowel change in the Germanic strong verb, for example, is the direct descendant of that seen in the Indo-European verb paradigm. Examples in modern English are the following: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">Infinitive</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Preterite" title="Preterite">Preterite</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Past_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Past participle">Past participle</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>sing</i> </td> <td><i>sang</i> </td> <td><i>sung</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>give</i> </td> <td><i>gave</i> </td> <td><i>given</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>drive</i> </td> <td><i>drove</i> </td> <td><i>driven</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>break</i> </td> <td><i>broke</i> </td> <td><i>broken</i> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>It was in this context of Germanic verbs that <i>ablaut</i> was first described, and this is still what most people primarily associate with the phenomenon. A fuller description of <i>ablaut</i> operating in English, German and Dutch verbs and of the historical factors governing these can be found at the article <a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong verb</a>. </p><p>The same phenomenon is displayed in the verb tables of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>. Examples of <i>ablaut</i> as a grammatical marker in Latin are the vowel changes in the perfect stem of verbs. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">Present tense</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" title="Perfect (grammar)">Perfect</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>agō</i> </td> <td><i>ēgī</i> </td> <td>"to do" </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>videō</i> </td> <td><i>vīdī</i> </td> <td>"to see" </td> <td>(vowel lengthening) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>sedeō</i> </td> <td><i>sēdī</i> </td> <td>"to sit" </td> <td>(vowel lengthening) </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>Ablaut can often explain apparently random irregularities. For example, the verb "to be" in Latin has the forms <i>est</i> (he is) and <i>sunt</i> (they are). The equivalent forms in German are very similar: <i>ist</i> and <i>sind</i>. The same forms were present in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Slavic">Proto-Slavic</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>*estь</i> and <i>*sǫtь</i>, and developed into e.g. Polish <i>jest</i> and <i>są</i>. </p><p>The difference between singular and plural in these languages is easily explained: the PIE root is <i>*h<sub>1</sub>es-</i>. In the singular, the stem is stressed, so it remains in the e-grade, and it takes the inflection <i>-ti</i>. In the plural, however, the inflection <i>-énti</i> was stressed, causing the stem to reduce to the zero grade: <i>*h<sub>1</sub>es-énti</i> → <i>*h<sub>1</sub>s-énti</i>. See main article: <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_copula" title="Indo-European copula">Indo-European copula</a>. </p><p>Some of the morphological functions of the various grades are as follows: </p><p>e-grade: </p> <ul><li>Present tense of thematic verbs; root stress.</li> <li>Present singular of athematic verbs; root stress.</li> <li>Accusative and vocative singular, nominative, accusative and vocative dual, nominative plural of nouns.</li></ul> <p>o-grade: </p> <ul><li>Verbal nouns</li></ul> <ol><li>stem-stressed masculine action nouns (Greek <i>gónos</i> "offspring", Sanskrit <i>jánas</i> "creature, person"; Greek <i>trókhos</i> "circular course" < "*act of running");</li> <li>ending-stressed feminine, originally collective, action nouns (Greek <i>gonḗ</i> "offspring", Sanskrit <i>janā́</i> "birth");</li> <li>ending-stressed masculine agent nouns (Greek <i>trokhós</i> "wheel" < "*runner").</li></ol> <ul><li>Nominative, vocative and accusative singular of certain nouns (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_nominals#Athematic_and_thematic_nominals" title="Proto-Indo-European nominals">acrostatic</a> root nouns such as <i>dṓm</i>, plural <i>dómes</i> "house"; <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_nominals#Athematic_and_thematic_nominals" title="Proto-Indo-European nominals">proterokinetic</a> neuter nouns such as <i>*wódr̥</i> "water" or <i>dóru</i> "tree").</li> <li>Present tense of causative verbs; stem (not root) stress.</li> <li>Perfect singular tense.</li></ul> <p>zero-grade: </p> <ul><li>Present dual and plural tense of athematic verbs; ending stress.</li> <li>Perfect dual and plural tense; ending stress.</li> <li>Past participles; ending stress.</li> <li>Some verbs in the aorist (the Greek thematic "second aorist").</li> <li>Oblique singular/dual/plural, accusative plural of nouns.</li></ul> <p>lengthened grade: </p> <ul><li>Nominative singular of many nouns.</li> <li>Present singular of certain athematic verbs (so-called <i>Narten-stem verbs</i>).</li> <li>Some verbs in the aorist.</li> <li>Some derived verbal nouns (so-called <i>proto-vrddhi</i>).</li></ul> <p>Many examples of lengthened-grade roots in the daughter languages are actually caused by the effect of <a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_theory" title="Laryngeal theory">laryngeals</a> and of <a href="/wiki/Szemer%C3%A9nyi%27s_law" title="Szemerényi's law">Szemerényi's law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stang%27s_law" title="Stang's law">Stang's law</a>, which operated within Indo-European times. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_ablaut&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augment_(Indo-European)" title="Augment (Indo-European)">Augment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophony" title="Apophony">Apophony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu%E1%B9%87a#Sanskrit_grammar" title="Guṇa">Guna (in grammar)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I-mutation" title="I-mutation">I-mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflected_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflected language">Inflected language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">Reduplication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Semitic root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vrddhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Vrddhi">Vrddhi</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_ablaut&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The earliest attestation known to the main etymological dictionaries is a sole reference in a 16th-century discussion of rhetoric in a handbook of legal language by Johann Peter Zwengel (<i>Neu Groß Formular und vollkommlich Cantzlei Buch</i>, Frankfurt am Main 1568, page 3b), where it apparently refers to a lowering of voice pitch: <i>In bewegung des leibs sind warzunemen die theil der stim (dauon ablaut) sich darnach zubewegen</i> (When moving the body it is important to adjust the voice (lowering it) accordingly).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zwengel's name was misprinted as Zweigel by Schoppe, and the error has been copied in etymological dictionaries to the present day.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoppe1923_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoppe1923-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKluge1963_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKluge1963-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2001_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2001-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In 1673, Schottelius used both <i>ablaut</i> and the adjective <i>ablautend</i> in his <i>Horrendum bellum grammaticale Teutonum antiquissimorum</i> (Horrendous grammatical war of the ancient Teutons, e.g. page 43 or page 90).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His usage comes closer to that of Grimm than Zwengel's, referring to a variety of phonemic irregularities, including in what he called "ungleichfließende Verben" (i.e. strong verbs). However the connotation is negative, implying degenerate sounds: <i>Wil man nun diesen so alten Isländischen Uhrkunden Glauben beilegen, dan ergibt sichs, woher in Wandagischen Zeiten den Teutschen, und sonderlich dem Teutschen Pöbelvolke, sei das Maul so krum und voll geworden, und die Zunge und Lippen so scheef und knobbicht gewachsen, daß man so unartig, ablautend und übel sprechen und ausreden müssen</i> ("If these old Icelandic documents are to be believed, it seems that in the time of the folk migrations the mouths of the Germans, and especially of the rabble, had grown so twisted and full and their tongues and lips so squint and knobbly that they had to speak and enunciate in such an unschooled, degenerate (<i>ablautend</i>) and distasteful manner", page 90). Schoppe compares this to words like "Abschaum, Abraum, Abwurf", where the <i>ab-</i> prefix is derogatory in the sense of "low-grade". Schoppe questions whether Grimm would have been aware of Schottelius's usage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoppe1923_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoppe1923-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A translator's footnote reads: "In our language, it seems to us that the uncouthness of such compounds as Upsound, Offsound, and Insound, could hardly be compensated by any advantage to be derived from their use; and we therefore purpose, in the course of this work, where any of these terms occur in the original, to retain them in their German shape. Of these terms, Ablaut and Umlaut are those which chiefly, if not alone, are used by our author."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2001_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2001-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_ablaut&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fortson, §4.12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beekes, §12.2.1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burrow21-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burrow21_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow, §2.1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coulson, p. xv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitney, p. xii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cornelis Dekker, <i>The Origins of Old Germanic Studies in the Low Countries</i>, p.342ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reproduced in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5NY5AAAAMAAJ&dq=Lambert+ten+Kate++Gem%C3%A9%C3%A9nschap+tussen+de+Gottische+spraeke+en+de+Nederduytsche&pg=PA18">Google Books</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKluge1963-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKluge1963_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKluge1963_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKluge1963">Kluge 1963</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2001-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2001_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2001_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2001_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarper2001">Harper 2001</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrübner1939-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrübner1939_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTrübner1939">Trübner 1939</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reproduced in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xkFLAAAAcAAJ&q=ablaut">Google Books</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoppe1923-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoppe1923_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoppe1923_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchoppe1923">Schoppe 1923</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reproduced in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K_9lAAAAcAAJ&q=ungleichfliessend">Google Books</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWatkins2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Calvert_Watkins" title="Calvert Watkins">Watkins, Calvert</a>, ed. (2000) [1985]. <i>The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots</i> (2nd ed.). Boston, MA / New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-039598610-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-039598610-3"><bdi>978-039598610-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary+of+Indo-European+Roots&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA+%2F+New+York%2C+NY&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-039598610-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+ablaut" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Rick_Derksen" title="Rick Derksen">Derksen, Rick</a>, <i>Etymological Dictionary of the Slavic Inherited Lexicon</i>, 2008, p. 146.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_ablaut&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeekes1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_S._P._Beekes" title="Robert S. P. Beekes">Beekes, Robert S. P.</a> (1995). <i>Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction</i>. <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>: John Benjamins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-272-2150-2" title="Special:BookSources/90-272-2150-2"><bdi>90-272-2150-2</bdi></a>. (Europe), (U.S.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Indo-European+Linguistics%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=90-272-2150-2&rft.aulast=Beekes&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+ablaut" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFortson2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_W._Fortson_IV" title="Benjamin W. Fortson IV">Fortson, Benjamin W</a> (2010). <i>Indo-European Language and Culture</i> (2010 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8895-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8895-1"><bdi>978-1-4051-8895-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+Language+and+Culture&rft.edition=2010&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-8895-1&rft.aulast=Fortson&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+ablaut" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurrow2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Burrow" title="Thomas Burrow">Burrow, Thomas</a> (2001). <i>The Sanskrit Language</i> (2001 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-1767-2" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-1767-2"><bdi>81-208-1767-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sanskrit+Language&rft.edition=2001&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=81-208-1767-2&rft.aulast=Burrow&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+ablaut" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitney2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Dwight_Whitney" title="William Dwight Whitney">Whitney, William Dwight</a> (January 2008). <i>Sanskrit Grammar</i> (2000 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0620-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0620-7"><bdi>978-81-208-0620-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sanskrit+Grammar&rft.edition=2000&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2008-01&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0620-7&rft.aulast=Whitney&rft.aufirst=William+Dwight&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+ablaut" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulson2003" class="citation book cs1">Coulson, Michael (2003). <i>Sanskrit</i> (2003 ed.). McGraw Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-85990-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-340-85990-3"><bdi>0-340-85990-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sanskrit&rft.edition=2003&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-340-85990-3&rft.aulast=Coulson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+ablaut" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoetsem1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frans_Van_Coetsem" title="Frans Van Coetsem">Coetsem, Frans van</a> (1993). <i>Ablaut and Reduplication in the Germanic Verb (=Indogermanische Bibliothek. vol 3)</i>. Heidelberg: Winter Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8253-4267-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-8253-4267-0"><bdi>3-8253-4267-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ablaut+and+Reduplication+in+the+Germanic+Verb+%28%3DIndogermanische+Bibliothek.+vol+3%29&rft.place=Heidelberg&rft.pub=Winter+Verlag&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=3-8253-4267-0&rft.aulast=Coetsem&rft.aufirst=Frans+van&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+ablaut" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper2001" class="citation web cs1">Harper, Douglas (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/ablaut#etymonline_v_46">"ablaut (n.)"</a>. <i>Online Etymological Dictionary (Etymonline)</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymological+Dictionary+%28Etymonline%29&rft.atitle=ablaut+%28n.%29&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Fword%2Fablaut%23etymonline_v_46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+ablaut" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKluge1963" class="citation book cs1">Kluge, Friedrich (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XmaEDwAAQBAJ&dq=J.P.+Zweigel+Ablaut&pg=PA3"><i>Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache</i></a> (19 ed.). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783111698847" title="Special:BookSources/9783111698847"><bdi>9783111698847</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etymologisches+W%C3%B6rterbuch+der+deutschen+Sprache&rft.pages=3&rft.edition=19&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+GmbH+%26+Co+KG&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=9783111698847&rft.aulast=Kluge&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXmaEDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DJ.P.%2BZweigel%2BAblaut%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+ablaut" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuryłowiczManfred_Mayrhofer1968–1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Kury%C5%82owicz" title="Jerzy Kuryłowicz">Kuryłowicz, Jerzy</a>; <a href="/wiki/Manfred_Mayrhofer" title="Manfred Mayrhofer">Manfred Mayrhofer</a> (1968–1969). <i>Indogermanische Grammatik</i>. Heidelberg: Winter Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-533-03487-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-533-03487-9"><bdi>3-533-03487-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indogermanische+Grammatik&rft.place=Heidelberg&rft.pub=Winter+Verlag&rft.date=1968%2F1969&rft.isbn=3-533-03487-9&rft.aulast=Kury%C5%82owicz&rft.aufirst=Jerzy&rft.au=Manfred+Mayrhofer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+ablaut" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeier-Brügger2002" class="citation book cs1">Meier-Brügger, Michael (2002). <i>Indogermanische Sprachwissenschaft</i>. de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-017243-7" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-017243-7"><bdi>3-11-017243-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indogermanische+Sprachwissenschaft&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=3-11-017243-7&rft.aulast=Meier-Br%C3%BCgger&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+ablaut" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchoppe1923" class="citation journal cs1">Schoppe, Georg (1923). "Nomina ante res". <i>Germanisch-Romanische Monatsschrift</i>. <b>XI</b>: 182-185.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Germanisch-Romanische+Monatsschrift&rft.atitle=Nomina+ante+res&rft.volume=XI&rft.pages=182-185&rft.date=1923&rft.aulast=Schoppe&rft.aufirst=Georg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+ablaut" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzemerényi1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Szemer%C3%A9nyi" title="Oswald Szemerényi">Szemerényi, Oswald J. L.</a> (1996). <i>Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-824015-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-824015-5"><bdi>0-19-824015-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Indo-European+Linguistics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-19-824015-5&rft.aulast=Szemer%C3%A9nyi&rft.aufirst=Oswald+J.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+ablaut" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrübner1939" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Trübner, Karl (1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AE7gZKgoLNsC&dq=J.P.+Zweigel+Formularbuch&pg=PA18"><i>Deutsches Wörterbuch</i></a> (in German). Walter de Gruyter. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110849349" title="Special:BookSources/9783110849349"><bdi>9783110849349</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deutsches+W%C3%B6rterbuch&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1939&rft.isbn=9783110849349&rft.aulast=Tr%C3%BCbner&rft.aufirst=Karl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAE7gZKgoLNsC%26dq%3DJ.P.%2BZweigel%2BFormularbuch%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+ablaut" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatkins2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Calvert_Watkins" title="Calvert Watkins">Watkins, Calvert</a> (2000). <i>The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots</i> (2nd ed.). Boston & New York: Houghton Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-618-08250-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-618-08250-6"><bdi>0-618-08250-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary+of+Indo-European+Roots&rft.place=Boston+%26+New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-618-08250-6&rft.aulast=Watkins&rft.aufirst=Calvert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-European+ablaut" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 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.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Proto-Indo-European_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #c9ffd9"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Template:Proto-Indo-European language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Template talk:Proto-Indo-European language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Proto-Indo-European language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Proto-Indo-European_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Phonology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_accent" title="Proto-Indo-European accent">Accent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centum_and_satem_languages" title="Centum and satem languages">Centum and satem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glottalic_theory" title="Glottalic theory">Glottalic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_theory" title="Laryngeal theory">Laryngeal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_s-mobile" title="Indo-European s-mobile">s-mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_sound_laws" title="Indo-European sound laws">Sound laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bouk%C3%B3los_rule" title="Boukólos rule"><i>boukólos</i> rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/*k%CA%B7etw%C3%B3res_rule" title="*kʷetwóres rule"><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">kʷetwóres</i></span> rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages" title="Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages">Glossary of sound laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brugmann%27s_law" title="Brugmann's law">Brugmann's </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartholomae%27s_law" title="Bartholomae's law">Bartholomae's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortunatov%27s_law" title="Fortunatov's law">Fortunatov's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grassmann%27s_law" title="Grassmann's law">Grassmann's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osthoff%27s_law" title="Osthoff's law">Osthoff's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinault%27s_law" title="Pinault's law">Pinault's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebs%27s_law" title="Siebs's law">Siebs's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law" title="Sievers's law">Sievers's</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law#Edgerton" title="Sievers's law">Edgerton's converse</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stang%27s_law" title="Stang's law">Stang's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Szemer%C3%A9nyi%27s_law" title="Szemerényi's law">Szemerényi's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weise%27s_law" title="Weise's law">Weise's</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Morphology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ablaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caland_system" title="Caland system">Caland system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E2%82%82e-conjugation_theory" title="H₂e-conjugation theory"><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text"><i lang="ine">h₂e</i></span>-conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narten_present" title="Narten present">Narten present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_infix" title="Nasal infix">Nasal infix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_root" title="Proto-Indo-European root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thematic_vowel" title="Thematic vowel">Thematic vowel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%E1%B9%9Bddhi" title="Vṛddhi">Vṛddhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Parts of speech</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_nominals" title="Proto-Indo-European nominals">Nominals</a> (nouns and adjectives)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_numerals" title="Proto-Indo-European numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_particles" title="Proto-Indo-European particles">Particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_pronouns" title="Proto-Indo-European pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verbs" title="Proto-Indo-European verbs">Verbs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_copula" title="Indo-European copula">copula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_vocabulary" title="Indo-European vocabulary">Vocabulary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Main sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Indogermanisches_etymologisches_W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch">Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch</a> (IEW)</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lexikon_der_indogermanischen_Verben" title="Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben">Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben</a> (LIV)</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lexikon_der_indogermanischen_Partikeln_und_Pronominalst%C3%A4mme" title="Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme">Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme</a> (LIPP)</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nomina_im_Indogermanischen_Lexikon" title="Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon">Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon</a> (NIL)</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_Etymological_Dictionary" title="Indo-European Etymological Dictionary">Indo-European Etymological Dictionary</a> (IEED)</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Artificial compositions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schleicher%27s_fable" title="Schleicher's fable">Schleicher's fable</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_king_and_the_god" title="The king and the god">The king and the god</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schleicher_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Schleicher theories">Schleicher theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_hypothesis" title="Armenian hypothesis">Armenian hypothesis</a></li> <li>Outdated theories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beech_argument" title="Beech argument">Beech argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_European_hypothesis" title="North European hypothesis">North European hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Proto-Indo-European mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_society" title="Proto-Indo-European society">Proto-Indo-European society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Proto-Indo-European homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_problem" title="Salmon problem">Salmon problem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European studies</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</a> (EIE)</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_ablaut&oldid=1241263974">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_ablaut&oldid=1241263974</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a 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