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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Fish </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amphibians_and_non-avian_reptiles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amphibians_and_non-avian_reptiles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Amphibians and non-avian reptiles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amphibians_and_non-avian_reptiles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Birds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Birds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-avian_dinosaurs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-avian_dinosaurs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Non-avian dinosaurs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-avian_dinosaurs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mammals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mammals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Mammals </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mammals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Mammals subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Mammals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pinnipeds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pinnipeds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Pinnipeds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pinnipeds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Primates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.1 Humans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immune_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immune_function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Immune function </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immune_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cells" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cells"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Cells </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cells-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reproductively_advantageous" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproductively_advantageous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Reproductively advantageous </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reproductively_advantageous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Evolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Sexual dimorphism</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 74 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-74" aria-hidden="true" > 74 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geslagsdimorfie" title="Geslagsdimorfie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geslagsdimorfie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexualdimorphismus" title="Sexualdimorphismus – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Sexualdimorphismus" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AB%D9%86%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D9%83%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="مثنوية الشكل الجنسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مثنوية الشكل الجنسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimorfismo_sexual" title="Dimorfismo sexual – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Dimorfismo sexual" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimorfismu_sexual" title="Dimorfismu sexual – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Dimorfismu sexual" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinsi_dimorfizm" title="Cinsi dimorfizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Cinsi dimorfizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="যৌন দ্বিরূপতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="যৌন দ্বিরূপতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Енси диморфизм – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Енси диморфизм" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Палавы дымарфізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Палавы дымарфізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Плоцевы дымарфізм – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Плоцевы дымарфізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="लैंगिक बिसमरूपता – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="लैंगिक बिसमरूपता" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekswal_na_dimorpismo" title="Sekswal na dimorpismo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Sekswal na dimorpismo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Полов диморфизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Полов диморфизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spolni_dimorfizam" title="Spolni dimorfizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Spolni dimorfizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimorfisme_sexual" title="Dimorfisme sexual – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dimorfisme sexual" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BB%D3%91%D1%85_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D3%97" title="Арлӑх диморфизмӗ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Арлӑх диморфизмӗ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pohlavn%C3%AD_dimorfismus" title="Pohlavní dimorfismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pohlavní dimorfismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B8nsdimorfi" title="Kønsdimorfi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kønsdimorfi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexualdimorphismus" title="Sexualdimorphismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sexualdimorphismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sooline_dimorfism" title="Sooline dimorfism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sooline dimorfism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%85%CE%BB%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%81%CF%86%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Φυλετικός διμορφισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φυλετικός διμορφισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimorfismo_sexual" title="Dimorfismo sexual – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dimorfismo sexual" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksa_duformismo" title="Seksa duformismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Seksa duformismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexu_dimorfismo" title="Sexu dimorfismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Sexu dimorfismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="دوریختی جنسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دوریختی جنسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimorphisme_sexuel" title="Dimorphisme sexuel – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dimorphisme sexuel" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksuele_dimorfy" title="Seksuele dimorfy – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Seksuele dimorfy" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimorfismo_sexual" title="Dimorfismo sexual – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dimorfismo sexual" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B1%EC%A0%81_%EC%9D%B4%ED%98%95%EC%84%B1" title="성적 이형성 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="성적 이형성" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A5%D5%BC%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AF%D5%B1%D6%87%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Սեռական երկձևություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սեռական երկձևություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="लैंगिक द्विरूपता – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="लैंगिक द्विरूपता" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spolno_dvoli%C4%8Dje" title="Spolno dvoličje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Spolno dvoličje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimorfisme_seksual" title="Dimorfisme seksual – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dimorfisme seksual" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynfer%C3%B0istv%C3%ADbreytni" title="Kynferðistvíbreytni – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kynferðistvíbreytni" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimorfismo_sessuale" title="Dimorfismo sessuale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dimorfismo sessuale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%95-%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%96%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%92%D7%99%D7%AA" title="דו-צורתיות זוויגית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דו-צורתיות זוויגית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A5%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%98_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="სქესობრივი დიმორფიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სქესობრივი დიმორფიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%81_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Жыныс диморфизми – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Жыныс диморфизми" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzimumdimorfisms" title="Dzimumdimorfisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Dzimumdimorfisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lytinis_dimorfizmas" title="Lytinis dimorfizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Lytinis dimorfizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemi_k%C3%A9talak%C3%BAs%C3%A1g" title="Nemi kétalakúság – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nemi kétalakúság" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Полов диморфизам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Полов диморфизам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B5%BA-%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BA_%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82" title="ആൺ-പെൺ രൂപവ്യത്യാസം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആൺ-പെൺ രൂപവ്യത്യാസം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="लैंगिक द्विरूपता – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="लैंगिक द्विरूपता" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimorfisme_seks" title="Dimorfisme seks – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Dimorfisme seks" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksuele_dimorfie" title="Seksuele dimorfie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Seksuele dimorfie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%80%A7%E7%9A%84%E4%BA%8C%E5%BD%A2" title="性的二形 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="性的二形" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kj%C3%B8nnsdimorfisme" title="Kjønnsdimorfisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kjønnsdimorfisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kj%C3%B8nnsdimorfisme" title="Kjønnsdimorfisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kjønnsdimorfisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimorfisme_sexual" title="Dimorfisme sexual – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Dimorfisme sexual" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinsiy_dimorfizm" title="Jinsiy dimorfizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Jinsiy dimorfizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A8%DA%BC%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87" title="جنسي دوه‌بڼواله – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جنسي دوه‌بڼواله" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dymorfizm_p%C5%82ciowy" title="Dymorfizm płciowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dymorfizm płciowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimorfismo_sexual" title="Dimorfismo sexual – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Dimorfismo sexual" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimorfism_sexual" title="Dimorfism sexual – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dimorfism sexual" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Половой диморфизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Половой диморфизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimorfizmi_gjinor" title="Dimorfizmi gjinor – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Dimorfizmi gjinor" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Sexual dimorphism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexu%C3%A1lny_dimorfizmus" title="Sexuálny dimorfizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sexuálny dimorfizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spolna_dvoli%C4%8Dnost" title="Spolna dvoličnost – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Spolna dvoličnost" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Полни диморфизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Полни диморфизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksualni_dimorfizam" title="Seksualni dimorfizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Seksualni dimorfizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimorfismeu_baga-purusa" title="Dimorfismeu baga-purusa – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Dimorfismeu baga-purusa" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukupuolidimorfismi" title="Sukupuolidimorfismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sukupuolidimorfismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nsdimorfism" title="Könsdimorfism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Könsdimorfism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%88%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88" title="பால் ஈருருமை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பால் ஈருருமை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C5%9Feysel_dimorfizm" title="Eşeysel dimorfizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Eşeysel dimorfizm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Статевий диморфізм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Статевий диморфізм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D9%88_%D8%B4%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="جنسی دو شکلیت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جنسی دو شکلیت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%E1%BB%8B_h%C3%ACnh_gi%E1%BB%9Bi_t%C3%ADnh" title="Dị hình giới tính – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Dị hình giới tính" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%A4%E6%80%A7%E5%BC%82%E5%BD%A2" title="两性异形 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="两性异形" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%A9%E6%80%A7%E7%95%B0%E5%BD%A2" title="兩性異形 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="兩性異形" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimorfizmo_seksuel" title="Dimorfizmo seksuel – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Dimorfizmo seksuel" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%A4%E6%80%A7%E5%BC%82%E5%BD%A2" title="两性异形 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="两性异形" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q181497#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> 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class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/File:Sexual_dimorphism.ogg" title="Listen to this article"><img alt="Listen to this article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/20px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/30px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/40px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Evolved difference in sex-specific characteristics</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Sex differences" redirects here. For sexual dimorphism in humans, see <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_humans" title="Sex differences in humans">Sex differences in humans</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Gonochorism" title="Gonochorism">Gonochorism</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pair_of_mandarin_ducks.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Pair_of_mandarin_ducks.jpg/260px-Pair_of_mandarin_ducks.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Pair_of_mandarin_ducks.jpg/390px-Pair_of_mandarin_ducks.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Pair_of_mandarin_ducks.jpg/520px-Pair_of_mandarin_ducks.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2207" data-file-height="1656" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_duck" title="Mandarin duck">Mandarin ducks</a>, male (left) and female (right), illustrating the dramatic difference in plumage between sexes, a manifestation of sexual dimorphism</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:22.0em;white-space:wrap;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Sex" title="Category:Sex">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff; font-size:135%;font-weight:normal;color:black;"><a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">Sex</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg/200px-Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg/300px-Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg/400px-Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="519" data-file-height="285" /></a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Biological terms</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sexual dimorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation" title="Sexual differentiation">Sexual differentiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminization_(biology)" title="Feminization (biology)">Feminization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virilization" title="Virilization">Virilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/XY_sex-determination_system" title="XY sex-determination system">XY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XO_sex-determination_system" title="XO sex-determination system">XO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZW_sex-determination_system" title="ZW sex-determination system">ZW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZO_sex-determination_system" title="ZO sex-determination system">ZO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature-dependent_sex_determination" title="Temperature-dependent sex determination">Temperature-dependent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haplodiploidy" title="Haplodiploidy">Haplodiploidy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterogametic_sex" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterogametic sex">Heterogametic sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterogametic_sex" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterogametic sex">Homogametic sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">Sex chromosome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome_anomalies" title="Sex chromosome anomalies">Sex chromosome anomalies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testis-determining_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Testis-determining factor">Testis-determining factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">Hermaphrodite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sequential_hermaphroditism" title="Sequential hermaphroditism">Sequential hermaphroditism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_hermaphroditism" title="Simultaneous hermaphroditism">Simultaneous hermaphroditism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_(biology)" title="Intersex (biology)">Intersex (biology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating type</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Evolution of sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy" title="Anisogamy">Anisogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isogamy" title="Isogamy">Isogamy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_cell" title="Germ cell">Germ cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametogenesis" title="Gametogenesis">Gametogenesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatogenesis" title="Spermatogenesis">Spermatogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oogenesis" title="Oogenesis">Oogenesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">Gamete</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatozoon" title="Spermatozoon">spermatozoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">ovum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">Fertilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/External_fertilization" title="External fertilization">External fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_fertilization" title="Internal fertilization">Internal fertilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Plant reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_in_fungi" title="Mating in fungi">Fungal reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction_in_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual reproduction in animals">Sexual reproduction in animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">Sexual intercourse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penile%E2%80%93vaginal_intercourse" title="Penile–vaginal intercourse">Penile–vaginal intercourse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copulation_(zoology)" title="Copulation (zoology)">Copulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_reproduction" title="Human reproduction">Human reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordosis_behavior" title="Lordosis behavior">Lordosis behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_thrust" title="Pelvic thrust">Pelvic thrust</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Plant sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_sexual_behaviour" title="Animal sexual behaviour">Animal sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Human sexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics_of_human_sexuality" title="Mechanics of human sexuality">Mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation_in_humans" title="Sexual differentiation in humans">Differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Sexual_system" title="Sexual system">Sexual system</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dioecy" title="Dioecy">Dioecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonochorism" title="Gonochorism">Gonochorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">Hermaphrodite</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sex_sidebar" title="Template:Sex sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sex_sidebar" title="Template talk:Sex sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sex_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sex sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Sexual dimorphism is the condition where <a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">sexes</a> of the same <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> exhibit different <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphological</a> characteristics, including characteristics not directly involved in <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">reproduction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> The condition occurs in most <a href="/wiki/Dioecy" title="Dioecy">dioecious</a> species, which consist of most animals and some plants. Differences may include <a href="/wiki/Secondary_sex_characteristic" title="Secondary sex characteristic">secondary sex characteristics</a>, size, weight, color, markings, or behavioral or cognitive traits. Male-male reproductive competition has evolved a diverse array of sexually dimorphic traits. Aggressive utility traits such as "battle" teeth and blunt heads reinforced as battering rams are used as weapons in aggressive interactions between rivals. Passive displays such as ornamental feathering or song-calling have also evolved mainly through sexual selection.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> These differences may be subtle or exaggerated and may be subjected to <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. The opposite of dimorphism is monomorphism, when both biological sexes are <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypically</a> indistinguishable from each other.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peacock_courting_peahen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Peacock_courting_peahen.jpg/260px-Peacock_courting_peahen.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Peacock_courting_peahen.jpg/390px-Peacock_courting_peahen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Peacock_courting_peahen.jpg/520px-Peacock_courting_peahen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="733" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Peacock" class="mw-redirect" title="Peacock">peacock</a>, on the right, is courting the <a href="/wiki/Peahen" class="mw-redirect" title="Peahen">peahen</a>, on the left.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anas_platyrhynchos_male_female_quadrat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Anas_platyrhynchos_male_female_quadrat.jpg/260px-Anas_platyrhynchos_male_female_quadrat.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Anas_platyrhynchos_male_female_quadrat.jpg/390px-Anas_platyrhynchos_male_female_quadrat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Anas_platyrhynchos_male_female_quadrat.jpg/520px-Anas_platyrhynchos_male_female_quadrat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2384" data-file-height="2384" /></a><figcaption>Male (bottom) and female <a href="/wiki/Mallard" title="Mallard">mallards</a>. The male mallard has an unmistakable bottle-green head when his <a href="/wiki/Nuptial_plumage" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuptial plumage">breeding plumage</a> is present.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ornamentation_and_coloration">Ornamentation and coloration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ornamentation and coloration">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Orgyia_antiqua_MHNT.CUT.2012.0.356.Gi%C3%A8res.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Orgyia_antiqua_MHNT.CUT.2012.0.356.Gi%C3%A8res.jpg/260px-Orgyia_antiqua_MHNT.CUT.2012.0.356.Gi%C3%A8res.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Orgyia_antiqua_MHNT.CUT.2012.0.356.Gi%C3%A8res.jpg/390px-Orgyia_antiqua_MHNT.CUT.2012.0.356.Gi%C3%A8res.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Orgyia_antiqua_MHNT.CUT.2012.0.356.Gi%C3%A8res.jpg/520px-Orgyia_antiqua_MHNT.CUT.2012.0.356.Gi%C3%A8res.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3562" data-file-height="2068" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Orgyia_antiqua" title="Orgyia antiqua">Orgyia antiqua</a> male (left) and female (right)</figcaption></figure>Common and easily identified types of dimorphism consist of <a href="/wiki/Biological_ornament" title="Biological ornament">ornamentation</a> and coloration, though not always apparent. A difference in the coloration of sexes within a given species is called sexual dichromatism, commonly seen in many species of birds and reptiles.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> leads to exaggerated dimorphic traits that are used predominantly in competition over mates.<a href="#cite_note-Andersson-1994-5">[5]</a> The increased fitness resulting from ornamentation offsets its cost to produce or maintain, suggesting complex evolutionary implications, but the costs and evolutionary implications vary from species to species.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Peafowl" title="Peafowl">peafowl</a> constitute conspicuous illustrations of the principle. The ornate <a href="/wiki/Plumage" title="Plumage">plumage</a> of peacocks, as used in the courting display, attracts <a href="/wiki/Peahen" class="mw-redirect" title="Peahen">peahens</a>. At first sight, one might mistake peacocks and peahens for completely different species because of the vibrant colours and the sheer size of the male's plumage; the peahen is of a subdued brown coloration.<a href="#cite_note-Zi-2003-7">[7]</a> The plumage of the peacock increases its vulnerability to predators because it is a hindrance in flight, and it renders the bird conspicuous in general.<a href="#cite_note-Zi-2003-7">[7]</a> Similar examples are manifold, such as in <a href="/wiki/Bird-of-paradise" title="Bird-of-paradise">birds of paradise</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Argus_(bird)" title="Argus (bird)">argus pheasants</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Another example of sexual dichromatism is that of nestling <a href="/wiki/Blue_tit" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue tit">blue tits</a>. Males are chromatically more yellow than females. It is believed that this is obtained by the ingestion of green <a href="/wiki/Lepidoptera" title="Lepidoptera">Lepidopteran</a> larvae, which contain large amounts of the <a href="/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoids</a> <a href="/wiki/Lutein" title="Lutein">lutein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zeaxanthin" title="Zeaxanthin">zeaxanthin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> This diet also affects the sexually dimorphic colours in the human-invisible <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> spectrum.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Hence, the male birds, although appearing yellow to humans, actually have a violet-tinted plumage that is seen by females. This plumage is thought to be an indicator of male parental abilities.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Perhaps this is a good indicator for females because it shows that they are good at obtaining a food supply from which the carotenoid is obtained. There is a positive correlation between the chromas of the tail and breast feathers and body condition.<a href="#cite_note-Johnsen-2003-12">[12]</a> Carotenoids play an important role in <a href="/wiki/Immune_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Immune function">immune function</a> for many animals, so carotenoid dependent signals might indicate health.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Frogs constitute another conspicuous illustration of the principle. There are two types of dichromatism for frog species: ontogenetic and dynamic. Ontogenetic frogs are more common and have permanent color changes in males or females. <a href="/wiki/Litoria_lesueuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Litoria lesueuri">Ranoidea lesueuri</a> is an example of a dynamic frog with temporary color changes in males during the breeding season.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hyperolius_ocellatus" title="Hyperolius ocellatus">Hyperolius ocellatus</a> is an ontogenetic frog with dramatic differences in both color and pattern between the sexes. At sexual maturity, the males display a bright green with white dorsolateral lines.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> In contrast, the females are rusty red to silver with small spots. The bright coloration in the male population attracts females and is an <a href="/wiki/Aposematism" title="Aposematism">aposematic</a> sign to potential predators. Females often show a preference for exaggerated male <a href="/wiki/Secondary_sexual_characteristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary sexual characteristics">secondary sexual characteristics</a> in mate selection.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">sexy son hypothesis</a> explains that females prefer more elaborate males and select against males that are dull in color, independent of the species' vision.<a href="#cite_note-Rubolini-2004-17">[17]</a> Similar sexual dimorphism and mating choice are also observed in many fish species. For example, male <a href="/wiki/Guppy" title="Guppy">guppies</a> have colorful spots and ornamentations, while females are generally grey. Female guppies prefer brightly colored males to duller males.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] In <a href="/wiki/Ophioblennius_atlanticus" title="Ophioblennius atlanticus">redlip blennies</a>, only the male fish develops an organ at the anal-urogenital region that produces antimicrobial substances. During parental care, males rub their anal-urogenital regions over their nests' internal surfaces, thereby protecting their eggs from microbial infections, one of the most common causes for mortality in young fish.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plants">Plants</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Plants">edit</a>]</div> Most <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a> are <a href="/wiki/Hermaphroditic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermaphroditic">hermaphroditic</a> but approximately 6% of species have separate males and females (<a href="/wiki/Dioecy" title="Dioecy">dioecy</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Renner-1995-20">[20]</a> Sexual dimorphism is common in dioecious plants<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a>: 403  and <a href="/wiki/Dioicy" title="Dioicy">dioicous</a> species.<a href="#cite_note-Ramawat-2016-22">[22]</a>: 71  Males and females in <a href="/wiki/Insect-pollinated" class="mw-redirect" title="Insect-pollinated">insect-pollinated</a> species generally look similar to one another because plants provide rewards (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">nectar</a>) that encourage <a href="/wiki/Pollinators" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollinators">pollinators</a> to visit another similar <a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">flower</a>, completing <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollination</a>. <a href="/wiki/Catasetum" title="Catasetum">Catasetum</a> orchids are one interesting exception to this rule. Male <a href="/wiki/Catasetum" title="Catasetum">Catasetum</a> <a href="/wiki/Orchids" class="mw-redirect" title="Orchids">orchids</a> violently attach <a href="/wiki/Pollinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollinia">pollinia</a> to <a href="/wiki/Euglossine" class="mw-redirect" title="Euglossine">euglossine</a> bee pollinators. The bees will then avoid other male flowers but may visit the female, which looks different from the males.<a href="#cite_note-Romero-1986-23">[23]</a> Various other dioecious exceptions, such as <a href="/wiki/Loxostylis_alata" class="mw-redirect" title="Loxostylis alata">Loxostylis alata</a> have visibly different sexes, with the effect of eliciting the most efficient behavior from pollinators, who then use the most efficient strategy in visiting each gender of flower instead of searching, say, for pollen in a nectar-bearing female flower.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Some plants, such as some species of <a href="/wiki/Geranium" title="Geranium">Geranium</a> have what amounts to serial sexual dimorphism. The flowers of such species might, for example, present their <a href="/wiki/Anthers" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthers">anthers</a> on opening, then shed the exhausted anthers after a day or two and perhaps change their colours as well while the <a href="/wiki/Pistil" class="mw-redirect" title="Pistil">pistil</a> matures; specialist pollinators are very much inclined to concentrate on the exact appearance of the flowers they serve, which saves their time and effort and serves the interests of the plant accordingly. Some such plants go even further and change their appearance once fertilized, thereby discouraging further visits from pollinators. This is advantageous to both parties because it avoids damaging the developing fruit and wasting the pollinator's effort on unrewarding visits. In effect, the strategy ensures that pollinators can expect a reward every time they visit an appropriately advertising flower.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Females of the aquatic plant <a href="/wiki/Vallisneria_americana" title="Vallisneria americana">Vallisneria americana</a> have floating flowers attached by a long <a href="/wiki/Scape_(botany)" title="Scape (botany)">flower stalk</a> that are fertilized if they contact one of the thousands of free-floating flowers released by a male.<a href="#cite_note-eelgrass-24">[24]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Sexual dimorphism is most often associated with <a href="/wiki/Pollination_syndrome" title="Pollination syndrome">wind-pollination</a> in plants due to selection for efficient <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> dispersal in males vs pollen capture in females, e.g. Leucadendron rubrum.<a href="#cite_note-Friedman-2009-25">[25]</a> Sexual dimorphism in plants can also be dependent on reproductive development. This can be seen in <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_sativa" title="Cannabis sativa">Cannabis sativa</a>, a type of hemp, which have higher photosynthesis rates in males while growing but higher rates in females once the plants become sexually mature.<a href="#cite_note-Geber-1999-26">[26]</a> Every sexually reproducing extant species of the vascular plant has an alternation of generations; the plants we see about us generally are <a href="/wiki/Ploidy" title="Ploidy">diploid</a> <a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">sporophytes</a>, but their offspring are not the seeds that people commonly recognize as the new generation. The seed actually is the offspring of the <a href="/wiki/Ploidy" title="Ploidy">haploid</a> generation of <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">microgametophytes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">megagametophytes</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Embryo_sac" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryo sac">embryo sacs</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ovules" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovules">ovules</a>). Each pollen grain accordingly may be seen as a male plant in its own right; it produces a sperm cell and is dramatically different from the female plant, the megagametophyte that produces the female gamete.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Insects">Insects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Insects">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colias_dimera_copulating.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Colias_dimera_copulating.jpg/260px-Colias_dimera_copulating.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Colias_dimera_copulating.jpg/390px-Colias_dimera_copulating.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Colias_dimera_copulating.jpg/520px-Colias_dimera_copulating.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3927" data-file-height="2599" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Colias_dimera" title="Colias dimera">Colias dimera</a> mating. The male is a brighter yellow than the female.</figcaption></figure> Insects display a wide variety of sexual dimorphism between taxa including size, ornamentation and coloration.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The female-biased sexual size dimorphism observed in many taxa evolved despite intense male-male competition for mates.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Osmia_rufa" class="mw-redirect" title="Osmia rufa">Osmia rufa</a>, for example, the female is larger/broader than males, with males being 8–10 mm in size and females being 10–12 mm in size.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Asterocampa_celtis" title="Asterocampa celtis">hackberry emperor</a> females are similarly larger than males.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The reason for the sexual dimorphism is due to provision size mass, in which females consume more pollen than males.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> In some species, there is evidence of male dimorphism, but it appears to be for distinctions of roles. This is seen in the bee species <a href="/wiki/Macrotera_portalis" title="Macrotera portalis">Macrotera portalis</a> in which there is a small-headed morph, capable of flight, and large-headed morph, incapable of flight, for males.<a href="#cite_note-Danforth-1991-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Anthidium_manicatum" title="Anthidium manicatum">Anthidium manicatum</a> also displays male-biased sexual dimorphism. The selection for larger size in males rather than females in this species may have resulted due to their aggressive territorial behavior and subsequent differential mating success.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Another example is <a href="/wiki/Lasioglossum_hemichalceum" title="Lasioglossum hemichalceum">Lasioglossum hemichalceum</a>, which is a species of sweat bee that shows drastic physical dimorphisms between male offspring.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Not all dimorphism has to have a drastic difference between the sexes. <a href="/wiki/Andrena_agilissima" title="Andrena agilissima">Andrena agilissima</a> is a mining bee where the females only have a slightly larger head than the males.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Weaponry leads to increased fitness by increasing success in male–male competition in many insect species.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> The beetle horns in <a href="/wiki/Onthophagus_taurus" title="Onthophagus taurus">Onthophagus taurus</a> are enlarged growths of the head or thorax expressed only in the males. Copris ochus also has distinct sexual and male dimorphism in head horns.<a href="#cite_note-Sugiura-2007-37">[37]</a> Another beetle with a distinct horn-related sexual dimorphism is Allomyrina dichotoma, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_rhinoceros_beetle" title="Japanese rhinoceros beetle">Japanese rhinoceros beetle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> These structures are impressive because of the exaggerated sizes.<a href="#cite_note-Emlen-2005-39">[39]</a> There is a direct correlation between male horn lengths and body size and higher access to mates and fitness.<a href="#cite_note-Emlen-2005-39">[39]</a> In other beetle species, both males and females may have ornamentation such as horns.<a href="#cite_note-Sugiura-2007-37">[37]</a> Generally, insect sexual size dimorphism (SSD) within species increases with body size.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Sexual dimorphism within insects is also displayed by dichromatism. In butterfly genera <a href="/wiki/Bicyclus" title="Bicyclus">Bicyclus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Junonia" title="Junonia">Junonia</a>, dimorphic wing patterns evolved due to sex-limited expression, which mediates the <a href="/wiki/Intralocus_sexual_conflict" title="Intralocus sexual conflict">intralocus sexual conflict</a> and leads to increased fitness in males.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> The sexual dichromatic nature of <a href="/wiki/Bicyclus_anynana" title="Bicyclus anynana">Bicyclus anynana</a> is reflected by female selection on the basis of dorsal UV-reflective eyespot pupils.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gonepteryx_rhamni" title="Gonepteryx rhamni">common brimstone</a> also displays sexual dichromatism; males have yellow and iridescent wings, while female wings are white and non-iridescent.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Naturally selected deviation in protective female coloration is displayed in mimetic butterflies.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spiders_and_sexual_cannibalism">Spiders and sexual cannibalism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Spiders and sexual cannibalism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Male_and_female_A._appensa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Male_and_female_A._appensa.jpg/220px-Male_and_female_A._appensa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Male_and_female_A._appensa.jpg/330px-Male_and_female_A._appensa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Male_and_female_A._appensa.jpg/440px-Male_and_female_A._appensa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="723" data-file-height="832" /></a><figcaption>Female (left) and male (right) <a href="/wiki/Argiope_appensa" title="Argiope appensa">Argiope appensa</a>, displaying typical sexual differences in spiders, with dramatically smaller males</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hammock_Spiders_(Pityohyphantes).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Hammock Spiders (Pityohyphantes spp.) courting. Female left and male right." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Hammock_Spiders_%28Pityohyphantes%29.jpg/220px-Hammock_Spiders_%28Pityohyphantes%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Hammock_Spiders_%28Pityohyphantes%29.jpg/330px-Hammock_Spiders_%28Pityohyphantes%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Hammock_Spiders_%28Pityohyphantes%29.jpg/440px-Hammock_Spiders_%28Pityohyphantes%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6900" data-file-height="4300" /></a><figcaption>Hammock spiders (<a href="/wiki/Pityohyphantes" title="Pityohyphantes">Pityohyphantes</a> <a href="/wiki/Species_affinis" title="Species affinis">sp.</a>) courting. Female left and male right.</figcaption></figure> Many <a href="/wiki/Arachnid" title="Arachnid">arachnid</a> groups exhibit sexual dimorphism,<a href="#cite_note-McLean-2018-45">[45]</a> but it is most widely studied in the spiders. In the orb-weaving spider <a href="/wiki/Zygiella_x-notata" title="Zygiella x-notata">Zygiella x-notata</a>, for example, adult females have a larger body size than adult males.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Size dimorphism shows a correlation with <a href="/wiki/Sexual_cannibalism" title="Sexual cannibalism">sexual cannibalism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Prenter-1999-47">[47]</a> which is prominent in spiders (it is also found in insects such as <a href="/wiki/Praying_mantis" class="mw-redirect" title="Praying mantis">praying mantises</a>). In the size dimorphic <a href="/wiki/Wolf_spider" title="Wolf spider">wolf spider</a> <a href="/wiki/Tigrosa_helluo" title="Tigrosa helluo">Tigrosa helluo</a>, food-limited females cannibalize more frequently.<a href="#cite_note-Wilder-2008-48">[48]</a> Therefore, there is a high risk of low fitness for males due to pre-copulatory cannibalism, which led to male selection of larger females for two reasons: higher <a href="/wiki/Fecundity" title="Fecundity">fecundity</a> and lower rates of cannibalism.<a href="#cite_note-Wilder-2008-48">[48]</a> In addition, female fecundity is positively correlated with female body size and large female body size is selected for, which is seen in the family <a href="/wiki/Orb-weaver_spider" title="Orb-weaver spider">Araneidae</a>. All Argiope species, including <a href="/wiki/Argiope_bruennichi" title="Argiope bruennichi">Argiope bruennichi</a>, use this method. Some males evolved ornamentation[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness">vague</a>] including binding the female with silk, having proportionally longer legs, modifying the female's web, mating while the female is feeding, or providing a nuptial gift in response to sexual cannibalism.<a href="#cite_note-Wilder-2008-48">[48]</a> Male body size is not under selection due to cannibalism in all spider species such as <a href="/wiki/Nephila_pilipes" title="Nephila pilipes">Nephila pilipes</a>, but is more prominently selected for in less dimorphic species of spiders, which often selects for larger male size.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> In the species <a href="/wiki/Maratus_volans" title="Maratus volans">Maratus volans</a>, the males are known for their characteristic colorful fan which attracts the females during mating.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fish">Fish</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fish">edit</a>]</div> Ray-finned fish are an ancient and diverse class, with the widest degree of sexual dimorphism of any animal class. Fairbairn notes that "females are generally larger than males but males are often larger in species with male–male combat or male paternal care ... [sizes range] from dwarf males to males more than 12 times heavier than females."<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] There are cases where males are substantially larger than females. An example is <a href="/wiki/Lamprologus_callipterus" title="Lamprologus callipterus">Lamprologus callipterus</a>, a type of cichlid fish. In this fish, the males are characterized as being up to 60 times larger than the females. The male's increased size is believed to be advantageous because males collect and defend empty snail shells in each of which a female breeds.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Males must be larger and more powerful in order to collect the largest shells. The female's body size must remain small because in order for her to breed, she must lay her eggs inside the empty shells. If she grows too large, she will not fit in the shells and will be unable to breed. The female's small body size is also likely beneficial to her chances of finding an unoccupied shell. Larger shells, although preferred by females, are often limited in availability.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Hence, the female is limited to the growth of the size of the shell and may actually change her growth rate according to shell size availability.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> In other words, the male's ability to collect large shells depends on his size. The larger the male, the larger the shells he is able to collect. This then allows for females to be larger in his brooding nest which makes the difference between the sizes of the sexes less substantial. Male–male competition in this fish species also selects for large size in males. There is aggressive competition by males over territory and access to larger shells. Large males win fights and steal shells from competitors. Another example is the <a href="/wiki/Dragonet" title="Dragonet">dragonet</a>, in which males are considerably larger than females and possess longer fins. Sexual dimorphism also occurs in hermaphroditic fish. These species are known as <a href="/wiki/Sequential_hermaphrodites" class="mw-redirect" title="Sequential hermaphrodites">sequential hermaphrodites</a>. In fish, <a href="/wiki/Life_history_theory" title="Life history theory">reproductive histories</a> often include the sex-change from female to male where there is a strong connection between growth, the sex of an individual, and the mating system within which it operates.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> In protogynous mating systems where males dominate mating with many females, size plays a significant role in male reproductive success.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Males have a propensity to be larger than females of a comparable age but it is unclear whether the size increase is due to a growth spurt at the time of the sexual transition or due to the history of faster growth in sex changing individuals.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Larger males are able to stifle the growth of females and control environmental resources.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Social organization plays a large role in the changing of sex by the fish. It is often seen that a fish will change its sex when there is a lack of a dominant male within the social hierarchy. The females that change sex are often those who attain and preserve an initial size advantage early in life. In either case, females which change sex to males are larger and often prove to be a good example of dimorphism. In other cases with fish, males will go through noticeable changes in body size, and females will go through morphological changes that can only be seen inside of the body. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Sockeye_salmon" title="Sockeye salmon">sockeye salmon</a>, males develop larger body size at maturity, including an increase in body depth, hump height, and snout length. Females experience minor changes in snout length, but the most noticeable difference is the huge increase in <a href="/wiki/Gonad" title="Gonad">gonad</a> size, which accounts for about 25% of body mass.<a href="#cite_note-Hendry-1999-58">[58]</a> Sexual selection was observed for female ornamentation in <a href="/wiki/Gobiusculus_flavescens" class="mw-redirect" title="Gobiusculus flavescens">Gobiusculus flavescens</a>, known as two-spotted gobies.<a href="#cite_note-Amundsen-2001-59">[59]</a> Traditional hypotheses suggest that male–male competition drives selection. However, selection for ornamentation within this species suggests that showy female traits can be selected through either female–female competition or male mate choice.<a href="#cite_note-Amundsen-2001-59">[59]</a> Since carotenoid-based ornamentation suggests mate quality, female two-spotted guppies that develop colorful orange bellies during breeding season are considered favorable to males.<a href="#cite_note-Svensson-2006-60">[60]</a> The males invest heavily in offspring during incubation, which leads to the sexual preference in colorful females due to higher egg quality.<a href="#cite_note-Svensson-2006-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Amphibians_and_non-avian_reptiles">Amphibians and non-avian reptiles</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Amphibians and non-avian reptiles">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mississippi_map_turtles_(Graptemys_pseudogeographica_kohni)_female_%26_male.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Mississippi_map_turtles_%28Graptemys_pseudogeographica_kohni%29_female_%26_male.jpg/260px-Mississippi_map_turtles_%28Graptemys_pseudogeographica_kohni%29_female_%26_male.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Mississippi_map_turtles_%28Graptemys_pseudogeographica_kohni%29_female_%26_male.jpg/390px-Mississippi_map_turtles_%28Graptemys_pseudogeographica_kohni%29_female_%26_male.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Mississippi_map_turtles_%28Graptemys_pseudogeographica_kohni%29_female_%26_male.jpg/520px-Mississippi_map_turtles_%28Graptemys_pseudogeographica_kohni%29_female_%26_male.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_map_turtle" title="Mississippi map turtle">Mississippi map turtles</a> (Graptemys pseudogeographica kohni) adult female (left) and adult male (right)</figcaption></figure> In amphibians and reptiles, the degree of sexual dimorphism varies widely among <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomic groups">taxonomic groups</a>. The sexual dimorphism in amphibians and reptiles may be reflected in any of the following: anatomy; relative length of tail; relative size of head; overall size as in many species of <a href="/wiki/Viperidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Viperidae">vipers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lizards" class="mw-redirect" title="Lizards">lizards</a>; coloration as in many <a href="/wiki/Amphibians" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphibians">amphibians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Snakes">snakes</a>, and lizards, as well as in some <a href="/wiki/Turtles" class="mw-redirect" title="Turtles">turtles</a>; an ornament as in many <a href="/wiki/Newts" class="mw-redirect" title="Newts">newts</a> and lizards; the presence of specific sex-related behaviour is common to many lizards; and vocal qualities which are frequently observed in <a href="/wiki/Frogs" class="mw-redirect" title="Frogs">frogs</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Anole" class="mw-redirect" title="Anole">Anole</a> lizards show prominent size dimorphism with males typically being significantly larger than females. For instance, the average male <a href="/wiki/Anolis_sagrei" class="mw-redirect" title="Anolis sagrei">Anolis sagrei</a> was 53.4 mm vs. 40 mm in females.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Different sizes of the heads in anoles have been explained by differences in the estrogen pathway.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> The sexual dimorphism in lizards is generally attributed to the effects of sexual selection, but other mechanisms including ecological divergence and fecundity selection provide alternative explanations.<a href="#cite_note-Pinto-2005-63">[63]</a> The development of color dimorphism in lizards is induced by hormonal changes at the onset of sexual maturity, as seen in Psamodromus algirus, Sceloporus gadoviae, and S. undulates erythrocheilus.<a href="#cite_note-Pinto-2005-63">[63]</a> Sexual dimorphism in size is also seen in frog species like <a href="/wiki/Bibron%27s_toadlet" title="Bibron's toadlet">P. bibroni</a>i. Male painted dragon lizards, <a href="/wiki/Ctenophorus_pictus" title="Ctenophorus pictus">Ctenophorus pictus</a>. are brightly conspicuous in their breeding coloration, but male colour declines with <a href="/wiki/Ageing" title="Ageing">aging</a>. Male coloration appears to reflect innate anti-oxidation capacity that protects against <a href="/wiki/DNA_oxidation" title="DNA oxidation">oxidative DNA damage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Olsson-2012-64">[64]</a> Male breeding coloration is likely an indicator to females of the underlying level of oxidative DNA damage (a significant component of aging) in potential mates.<a href="#cite_note-Olsson-2012-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Birds">Birds</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Birds">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Golden-shouldered_Parrot_0A2A7450.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Golden-shouldered_Parrot_0A2A7450.jpg/240px-Golden-shouldered_Parrot_0A2A7450.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Golden-shouldered_Parrot_0A2A7450.jpg/360px-Golden-shouldered_Parrot_0A2A7450.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Golden-shouldered_Parrot_0A2A7450.jpg/480px-Golden-shouldered_Parrot_0A2A7450.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3862" data-file-height="2575" /></a><figcaption>Female (left) and male (right) <a href="/wiki/Golden-shouldered_parrot" title="Golden-shouldered parrot">golden-shouldered parrot</a>, showing that the male is much more colorful than the female</figcaption></figure> Possible mechanisms have been proposed to explain macroevolution of sexual size dimorphism in birds. These include sexual selection, selection for fecundity in females, niche divergence between the sexes, and allometry, but their relative importance is still not fully understood .<a href="#cite_note-Caron-2024-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bravo-2024-66">[66]</a> Sexual dimorphism in birds can be manifested in size or plumage differences between the sexes. Sexual size dimorphism varies among taxa, with males typically being larger, though this is not always the case, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Birds_of_prey" class="mw-redirect" title="Birds of prey">birds of prey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hummingbird" title="Hummingbird">hummingbirds</a>, and some species of flightless birds.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Plumage dimorphism, in the form of ornamentation or coloration, also varies, though males are typically the more ornamented or brightly colored sex.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Such differences have been attributed to the unequal reproductive contributions of the sexes.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> This difference produces a stronger female choice since they have more risk in producing offspring. In some species, the male's contribution to reproduction ends at copulation, while in other species the male becomes the main (or only) caregiver. Plumage polymorphisms have evolved to reflect these differences and other measures of reproductive fitness, such as body condition<a href="#cite_note-Lindsay-2009-71">[71]</a> or survival.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> The male phenotype sends signals to females who then choose the 'fittest' available male. Sexual dimorphism is a product of both genetics and environmental factors. An example of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_polymorphism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual polymorphism">sexual polymorphism</a> determined by environmental conditions exists in the <a href="/wiki/Red-backed_fairywren" title="Red-backed fairywren">red-backed fairywren</a>. Red-backed fairywren males can be classified into three categories during <a href="/wiki/Breeding_season" class="mw-redirect" title="Breeding season">breeding season</a>: black breeders, brown breeders, and brown auxiliaries.<a href="#cite_note-Lindsay-2009-71">[71]</a> These differences arise in response to the bird's body condition: if they are healthy they will produce more androgens thus becoming black breeders, while less healthy birds produce less androgens and become brown auxiliaries.<a href="#cite_note-Lindsay-2009-71">[71]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_success" title="Reproductive success">reproductive success</a> of the male is thus determined by his success during each year's non-breeding season, causing reproductive success to vary with each year's environmental conditions. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eclectus_roratus-20030511.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Eclectus_roratus-20030511.jpg/240px-Eclectus_roratus-20030511.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Eclectus_roratus-20030511.jpg/360px-Eclectus_roratus-20030511.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Eclectus_roratus-20030511.jpg/480px-Eclectus_roratus-20030511.jpg 2x" data-file-width="975" data-file-height="553" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Eclectus_parrot" class="mw-redirect" title="Eclectus parrot">eclectus parrot</a> is an example of a bird where the female (right) is more colorful than the male (left).</figcaption></figure> Migratory patterns and behaviors also influence sexual dimorphisms. This aspect also stems back to size dimorphism in species. It has been shown that the larger males are better at coping with the difficulties of migration and thus are more successful in reproducing when reaching the breeding destination.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> When viewing this from an evolutionary standpoint, many theories and explanations come into consideration. If these are the result for every migration and breeding season, the expected results should be a shift towards a larger male population through sexual selection. Sexual selection is strong when the factor of environmental selection is also introduced. Environmental selection may support a smaller chick size if those chicks were born in an area that allowed them to grow to a larger size, even though under normal conditions they would not be able to reach this optimal size for migration. When the environment gives advantages and disadvantages of this sort, the strength of selection is weakened and the environmental forces are given greater morphological weight. The sexual dimorphism could also produce a change in timing of migration leading to differences in mating success within the bird population.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> When the dimorphism produces that large of a variation between the sexes and between the members of the sexes, multiple evolutionary effects can take place. This timing could even lead to a speciation phenomenon if the variation becomes strongly drastic and favorable towards two different outcomes. Sexual dimorphism is maintained by the counteracting pressures of natural selection and sexual selection. For example, sexual dimorphism in coloration increases the vulnerability of bird species to predation by European sparrowhawks in Denmark.<a href="#cite_note-Møller-2006-75">[75]</a> Presumably, increased sexual dimorphism means males are brighter and more conspicuous, leading to increased predation.<a href="#cite_note-Møller-2006-75">[75]</a> Moreover, the production of more exaggerated ornaments in males may come at the cost of suppressed immune function.<a href="#cite_note-Lindsay-2009-71">[71]</a> So long as the reproductive benefits of the trait due to sexual selection are greater than the costs imposed by natural selection, then the trait will propagate throughout the population. Reproductive benefits arise in the form of a larger number of offspring, while natural selection imposes costs in the form of reduced survival. This means that even if the trait causes males to die earlier, the trait is still beneficial so long as males with the trait produce more offspring than males lacking the trait. This balance keeps dimorphism alive in these species and ensures that the next generation of successful males will also display these traits that are attractive to females. Such differences in form and reproductive roles often cause differences in behavior. As previously stated, males and females often have different roles in reproduction. The courtship and mating behavior of males and females are regulated largely by hormones throughout a bird's lifetime.<a href="#cite_note-Adkins-Regan-2007-76">[76]</a> Activational hormones occur during puberty and adulthood and serve to 'activate' certain behaviors when appropriate, such as territoriality during breeding season.<a href="#cite_note-Adkins-Regan-2007-76">[76]</a> Organizational hormones occur only during a critical period early in development, either just before or just after hatching in most birds, and determine patterns of behavior for the rest of the bird's life.<a href="#cite_note-Adkins-Regan-2007-76">[76]</a> Such behavioral differences can cause disproportionate sensitivities to anthropogenic pressures.<a href="#cite_note-Martin-2008-77">[77]</a> Females of the whinchat in Switzerland breed in intensely managed grasslands.<a href="#cite_note-Martin-2008-77">[77]</a> Earlier harvesting of the grasses during the breeding season lead to more female deaths.<a href="#cite_note-Martin-2008-77">[77]</a> Populations of many birds are often male-skewed and when sexual differences in behavior increase this ratio, populations decline at a more rapid rate.<a href="#cite_note-Martin-2008-77">[77]</a> Also not all male dimorphic traits are due to hormones like testosterone, instead they are a naturally occurring part of development, for example plumage.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> In addition, the strong hormonal influence on phenotypic differences suggests that the genetic mechanism and genetic basis of these sexually dimorphic traits may involve transcription factors or cofactors rather than regulatory sequences.<a href="#cite_note-Coyne-2008-79">[79]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Male_and_female_black_casqued_hornbill_skeletons.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Male_and_female_black_casqued_hornbill_skeletons.jpg/240px-Male_and_female_black_casqued_hornbill_skeletons.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Male_and_female_black_casqued_hornbill_skeletons.jpg/360px-Male_and_female_black_casqued_hornbill_skeletons.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Male_and_female_black_casqued_hornbill_skeletons.jpg/480px-Male_and_female_black_casqued_hornbill_skeletons.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1598" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Skeletons of female (left) and Male (right) black-casqued hornbills (<a href="/wiki/Black-casqued_hornbill" title="Black-casqued hornbill">Ceratogymna atrata</a>). The difference between the sexes is apparent in the casque on the top of their bill. This pair is on display at the <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Osteology" title="Museum of Osteology">Museum of Osteology</a>. </figcaption></figure> Sexual dimorphism may also influence differences in parental investment during times of food scarcity. For example, in the <a href="/wiki/Blue-footed_booby" title="Blue-footed booby">blue-footed booby</a>, the female chicks grow faster than the males, resulting in booby parents producing the smaller sex, the males, during times of food shortage. This then results in the maximization of parental lifetime reproductive success.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Black-tailed_godwit" title="Black-tailed godwit">Black-tailed Godwits</a> Limosa limosa limosa females are also the larger sex, and the growth rates of female chicks are more susceptible to limited environmental conditions.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Sexual dimorphism may also only appear during mating season; some species of birds only show dimorphic traits in seasonal variation. The males of these species will molt into a less bright or less exaggerated color during the off-breeding season.<a href="#cite_note-Coyne-2008-79">[79]</a> This occurs because the species is more focused on survival than on reproduction, causing a shift into a less ornate state. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Sexual_dimorphism#Dubious" title="Talk:Sexual dimorphism">discuss</a>] Consequently, sexual dimorphism has important ramifications for conservation. However, sexual dimorphism is not only found in birds and is thus important to the conservation of many animals. Such differences in form and behavior can lead to <a href="/wiki/Sexual_segregation_(biology)" title="Sexual segregation (biology)">sexual segregation</a>, defined as sex differences in space and resource use.<a href="#cite_note-Main-2008-82">[82]</a> Most sexual segregation research has been done on ungulates,<a href="#cite_note-Main-2008-82">[82]</a> but such research extends to <a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">bats</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Safi-2007-83">[83]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kangaroo" title="Kangaroo">kangaroos</a>,<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> and birds.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Sex-specific conservation plans have even been suggested for species with pronounced sexual segregation.<a href="#cite_note-Safi-2007-83">[83]</a> The term sesquimorphism (the Latin <a href="/wiki/Numeral_prefix" title="Numeral prefix">numeral prefix</a> sesqui- means one-and-one-half, so halfway between mono- (one) and di- (two)) has been proposed for bird species in which "both sexes have basically the same plumage pattern, though the female is clearly distinguishable by reason of her paler or washed-out colour".<a href="#cite_note-Summers-Smith-1988-86">[86]</a>: 14  Examples include <a href="/wiki/Cape_sparrow" title="Cape sparrow">Cape sparrow</a> (Passer melanurus),<a href="#cite_note-Summers-Smith-1988-86">[86]</a>: 67  <a href="/wiki/Great_sparrow" title="Great sparrow">rufous sparrow</a> (subspecies P. motinensis motinensis),<a href="#cite_note-Summers-Smith-1988-86">[86]</a>: 80  and <a href="/wiki/Saxaul_sparrow" title="Saxaul sparrow">saxaul sparrow</a> (P. ammodendri).<a href="#cite_note-Summers-Smith-1988-86">[86]</a>: 245  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-avian_dinosaurs">Non-avian dinosaurs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Non-avian dinosaurs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism_in_dinosaurs" title="Sexual dimorphism in dinosaurs">Sexual dimorphism in dinosaurs</a></div> Examining fossils of <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">non-avian dinosaurs</a> in search of sexually dimorphic characteristics requires the supply of complete and articulated skeletal and tissue remains. As terrestrial organisms, dinosaur carcasses are subject to ecological and geographical influence that inevitably constitutes the degree of preservation. The availability of well-preserved remains is not a probable outcome as a consequence of <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">decomposition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossilization</a>. Some <a href="/wiki/Paleontologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleontologists">paleontologists</a> have looked for sexual dimorphism among dinosaurs using statistics and comparison to ecologically or <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetically</a> related modern animals. Apatosaurus and Diplodocus Female <a href="/wiki/Apatosaurus" title="Apatosaurus">Apatosaurus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diplodocus" title="Diplodocus">Diplodocus</a> had interconnected <a href="/wiki/Caudal_vertebrae" title="Caudal vertebrae">caudal vertebrae</a> that allowed them to keep their tails elevated to aid in copulation. Discovering that this fusion occurred in only 50% of Apatosaurus and Diplodocus skeletons and 25% of <a href="/wiki/Camarasaurus" title="Camarasaurus">Camarasaurus</a> skeletons indicated that this is a sexually dimorphic trait. Theropoda It has been hypothesized that male <a href="/wiki/Theropoda" title="Theropoda">theropods</a> possessed a retractable penis, a feature similar to modern day <a href="/wiki/Crocodilia" title="Crocodilia">crocodilians</a>. Crocodilian skeletons were examined to determine whether there is a skeletal component that is distinctive between both sexes, to help provide an insight on the physical disparities between male and female theropods. Findings revealed the caudal <a href="/wiki/Haemal_arch" title="Haemal arch">chevrons</a> of male crocodiles, used to anchor the penis muscles, were significantly larger than those of females. There have been criticisms of these findings, but it remains a subject of debate among advocates and adversaries.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Ornithopoda Studies of sexual dimorphism in <a href="/wiki/Hadrosaurid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadrosaurid">hadrosaurs</a> have generally centered on the distinctive <a href="/wiki/Cranial_neural_crest" title="Cranial neural crest">cranial crests</a>, which likely provided a function in sexual display. A biometric study of 36 skulls found sexual dimorphism was exhibited in the crest of 3 species of hadrosaurids. The crests could be categorized as full (male) or narrow (female) and may have given some advantage in intrasexual mating-competition. Ceratopsians According to Scott D. Sampson, if ceratopsids were to exhibit sexual dimorphism, modern ecological analogues suggest it would be found in display structures, such as horns and frills. No convincing evidence for sexual dimorphism in body size or mating signals is known in ceratopsids, although there is evidence that the more primitive ceratopsian <a href="/wiki/Protoceratops_andrewsi" class="mw-redirect" title="Protoceratops andrewsi">Protoceratops andrewsi</a> possessed sexes that were distinguishable based on frill and nasal prominence size. This is consistent with other known <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapod</a> groups where midsized animals tend to exhibit markedly more sexual dimorphism than larger ones. However, it has been proposed that these differences can be better explained by intraspecific and ontogenic variation rather than sexual dimorphism.<a href="#cite_note-Maiorino-2015-87">[87]</a> In addition, many sexually dimorphic traits that may have existed in ceratopsians include soft tissue variations such as coloration or <a href="/wiki/Dewlaps" class="mw-redirect" title="Dewlaps">dewlaps</a>, which would be unlikely to have been preserved in the fossil record. Stegosaurians A 2015 study on specimens of <a href="/wiki/Hesperosaurus" title="Hesperosaurus">Hesperosaurus mjosi</a> found evidence of sexual dimorphism in the shape of the dermal plates. Two plate morphs were described: one was short, wide, and oval-shaped, the other taller and narrower.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mammals">Mammals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mammals">edit</a>]</div> In 45% of mammal species, males are larger than females, in 39%, males and females are the same size and in 16% of mammals, females are larger than males.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Both <a href="/wiki/Genes" class="mw-redirect" title="Genes">genes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormones</a> affect the formation of many animal brains before "<a href="/wiki/Birth" title="Birth">birth</a>" (or <a href="/wiki/Egg_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg (biology)">hatching</a>), and also behaviour of adult individuals. Hormones significantly affect human brain formation, and also brain development at puberty. A 2004 review in <a href="/wiki/Nature_Reviews_Neuroscience" title="Nature Reviews Neuroscience">Nature Reviews Neuroscience</a> observed that "because it is easier to manipulate hormone levels than the expression of sex chromosome genes, the effects of hormones have been studied much more extensively, and are much better understood, than the direct actions in the brain of sex chromosome genes." It concluded that while "the differentiating effects of gonadal secretions seem to be dominant," the existing body of research "support the idea that sex differences in neural expression of X and Y genes significantly contribute to sex differences in brain functions and disease."<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pinnipeds">Pinnipeds</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Pinnipeds">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Male_and_female_Mirounga_angustirostris_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Male_and_female_Mirounga_angustirostris_2.jpg/260px-Male_and_female_Mirounga_angustirostris_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Male_and_female_Mirounga_angustirostris_2.jpg/390px-Male_and_female_Mirounga_angustirostris_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Male_and_female_Mirounga_angustirostris_2.jpg/520px-Male_and_female_Mirounga_angustirostris_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2616" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Male and female <a href="/wiki/Northern_elephant_seal" title="Northern elephant seal">northern elephant seal</a>, the male being larger with a big <a href="/wiki/Proboscis" title="Proboscis">proboscis</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine mammals">Marine mammals</a> show some of the greatest sexual size differences of mammals, because of sexual selection and environmental factors like breeding location.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> The mating system of <a href="/wiki/Pinnipeds" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinnipeds">pinnipeds</a> varies from polygamy to <a href="/wiki/Serial_monogamy" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial monogamy">serial monogamy</a>. Pinnipeds are known for early differential growth and maternal investment since the only nutrients for newborn pups is the milk provided by the mother.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> For example, the males are significantly larger (about 10% heavier and 2% longer) than the females at birth in sea lion pups.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The pattern of differential investment can be varied principally prenatally and post-natally.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Mirounga leonina, the <a href="/wiki/Southern_elephant_seal" title="Southern elephant seal">southern elephant seal</a>, is one of the most dimorphic mammals.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primates">Primates</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Primates">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism_in_non-human_primates" title="Sexual dimorphism in non-human primates">Sexual dimorphism in non-human primates</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Humans">Humans</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Humans">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_humans" title="Sex differences in humans">Sex differences in humans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences in psychology</a></div> <table class="wikitable" style="width:200px; float:right;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="2"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Human.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pioneer plaque"><img alt="Pioneer plaque" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Human.svg/200px-Human.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Human.svg/300px-Human.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Human.svg/400px-Human.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1060" data-file-height="1320" /></a><figcaption>Pioneer plaque</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray241.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Male pelvis"><img alt="Male pelvis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Gray241.png/100px-Gray241.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Gray241.png/150px-Gray241.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Gray241.png/200px-Gray241.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="808" /></a><figcaption>Male pelvis</figcaption></figure> </td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray242.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Female pelvis"><img alt="Female pelvis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Gray242.png/100px-Gray242.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Gray242.png/150px-Gray242.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Gray242.png/200px-Gray242.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="321" /></a><figcaption>Female pelvis</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> Top: Stylised illustration of humans on the <a href="/wiki/Pioneer_plaque" title="Pioneer plaque">Pioneer plaque</a>, showing both male (left) and female (right). Bottom: Comparison between male (left) and female (right) <a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">pelvises</a>. </td></tr></tbody></table> According to Clark Spencer Larsen, modern day <a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a> show a range of sexual dimorphism, with average body mass between the sexes differing by roughly 15%.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Substantial discussion in academic literature considers potential evolutionary advantages associated with sexual competition (both intrasexual and intersexual), as well as short- and long-term sexual strategies.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> According to Daly and Wilson, "The sexes differ more in human beings than in monogamous mammals, but much less than in extremely polygamous mammals."<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> The average <a href="/wiki/Basal_metabolic_rate" title="Basal metabolic rate">basal metabolic rate</a> is about 6 percent higher in adolescent males than females and increases to about 10 percent higher after puberty. Females tend to convert more food into <a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">fat</a>, while males convert more into <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscle</a> and expendable circulating energy reserves. According to Tim Hewett, director of research in the department of sports medicine at <a href="/wiki/Ohio_State_University_Wexner_Medical_Center" title="Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center">Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center</a>, females have, on average, 50–60% of the upper body strength of males, and 80–90% of the lower body strength of males, relative to body size.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The difference in strength relative to body mass is less pronounced in trained individuals. In Olympic weightlifting, male records vary from 5.5× body mass in the lowest weight category to 4.2× in the highest weight category, while female records vary from 4.4× to 3.8×, a weight-adjusted difference of only 10–20%, and an absolute difference of about 30% (i.e., 492 kg vs 348 kg for unlimited weight classes; see <a href="/wiki/List_of_world_records_in_Olympic_weightlifting" title="List of world records in Olympic weightlifting">Olympic weightlifting records</a>). A study, carried out by analyzing annual world rankings from 1980 to 1996, found that males' running times were, on average, 10% faster than females', with wider hips being a disadvantage for running.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> However, females have higher <a href="/wiki/Endurance" title="Endurance">endurance</a> than males<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> and there is less than a second difference in the 100m race of <a href="/wiki/Usain_Bolt" title="Usain Bolt">Usain Bolt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Florence_Griffith_Joyner" title="Florence Griffith Joyner">Florence Griffith Joyner</a>. In early adolescence, females are on average taller than males (as females tend to <a href="/wiki/Puberty#Differences_between_male_and_female_puberty" title="Puberty">go through puberty earlier</a>), but males, on average, surpass them in height in later adolescence and adulthood. In the United States, adult males are on average 9% taller<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> and 16.5% heavier<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> than adult females. Males typically have larger <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate_trachea" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrate trachea">tracheae</a> and branching <a href="/wiki/Bronchus" title="Bronchus">bronchi</a>, with about 30 percent greater <a href="/wiki/Lung_volumes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lung volumes">lung volume</a> per <a href="/wiki/Body_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Body mass">body mass</a>. On average, males have larger <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">hearts</a>, slower <a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">heart rates</a>, 10 percent higher <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cell</a> count, higher <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</a>, hence greater oxygen-carrying capacity. They also have higher circulating <a href="/wiki/Coagulation" title="Coagulation">clotting factors</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vitamin_K" title="Vitamin K">vitamin K</a>, pro<a href="/wiki/Thrombin" title="Thrombin">thrombin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Platelet" title="Platelet">platelets</a>). These differences lead to faster healing of <a href="/wiki/Wound" title="Wound">wounds</a> and lower sensitivity to nerve <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a> after injury.<a href="#cite_note-Glucksman-1981-106">[106]</a> In males, pain-causing injury to the <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nerve</a> occurs through the <a href="/wiki/Microglia" title="Microglia">microglia</a>, while in females it occurs through the <a href="/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">T cells</a> (except in pregnant women, who follow a male pattern).<a href="#cite_note-Dance-2019-107">[107]</a> Females typically have more <a href="/wiki/White_blood_cell" title="White blood cell">white blood cells</a> (stored and circulating), as well as more <a href="/wiki/Granulocyte" title="Granulocyte">granulocytes</a> and B and T <a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">lymphocytes</a>. Additionally, they produce more <a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibodies</a> at a faster rate than males, hence they develop fewer <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infectious</a> diseases and succumb for shorter periods.<a href="#cite_note-Glucksman-1981-106">[106]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethologists</a> argue that females, interacting with other females and multiple offspring in social groups, have experienced such traits as a <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">selective</a> advantage.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Females have a higher sensitivity to pain due to aforementioned nerve differences that increase the sensation, and females thus require higher levels of pain medication after injury.<a href="#cite_note-Dance-2019-107">[107]</a> Hormonal changes in females affect pain sensitivity, and pregnant women have the same sensitivity as males. Acute pain tolerance is also more consistent over a lifetime in females than males, despite these hormonal changes.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Despite differences in physical feeling, both sexes have similar psychological tolerance to (or ability to <a href="/wiki/Coping" title="Coping">cope</a> with and ignore) pain.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a>, a difference between sexes was observed in the <a href="/wiki/Gene_transcription" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene transcription">transcription</a> of the <a href="/wiki/PCDH11X" title="PCDH11X">PCDH11X</a>/Y gene pair unique to Homo sapiens.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Sexual differentiation in the human brain from the undifferentiated state is triggered by testosterone from the fetal testis. Testosterone is converted to estrogen in the brain through the action of the enzyme aromatase. Testosterone acts on many brain areas, including the <a href="/wiki/INAH_3" title="INAH 3">SDN-POA</a>, to create the masculinized brain pattern.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> The brains of pregnant females carrying male fetuses may be shielded from the masculinizing effects of androgen through the action of <a href="/wiki/Sex_hormone-binding_globulin" title="Sex hormone-binding globulin">sex hormone-binding globulin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> The relationship between sex differences in the brain and human behavior is a subject of controversy in psychology and society at large.<a href="#cite_note-Fine-2010-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jordan-Young-2010-119">[119]</a> Many females tend to have a higher ratio of <a href="/wiki/Gray_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Gray matter">gray matter</a> in the left hemisphere of the brain in comparison to males.<a href="#cite_note-Marner-2003-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gur-1999-121">[121]</a> Males on average have larger brains than females; however, when adjusted for total brain volume, the gray matter differences between sexes are almost nonexistent. Thus, the percentage of gray matter appears to be more related to brain size than it is to sex.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Differences in brain physiology between sexes do not necessarily relate to differences in intellect. Haier et al. found in a 2004 study that "men and women apparently achieve similar IQ results with different brain regions, suggesting that there is no singular underlying neuroanatomical structure to general intelligence and that different types of brain designs may manifest equivalent intellectual performance".<a href="#cite_note-Haier-2005-124">[124]</a> (See the <a href="/wiki/Sex_and_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex and intelligence">sex and intelligence</a> article for more on this subject.) Strict graph-theoretical analysis of the human brain connections revealed<a href="#cite_note-Szalkai-2015-125">[125]</a> that in numerous graph-theoretical parameters (e.g., minimum bipartition width, edge number, the <a href="/wiki/Expander_graph" title="Expander graph">expander graph</a> property, minimum <a href="/wiki/Vertex_cover" title="Vertex cover">vertex cover</a>), the structural connectome of women are significantly "better" connected than the connectome of men. It was shown<a href="#cite_note-Szalkai-2018-126">[126]</a> that the graph-theoretical differences are due to the sex and not to the differences in the cerebral volume, by analyzing the data of 36 females and 36 males, where the brain volume of each man in the group was smaller than the brain volume of each woman in the group. Sexual dimorphism was also described in the gene level and shown to extend from the sex chromosomes. Overall, about 6500 genes have been found to have sex-differential expression in at least one tissue. Many of these genes are not directly associated with reproduction, but rather linked to more general biological features. In addition, it has been shown that genes with sex-specific expression undergo reduced selection efficiency, which leads to higher population frequencies of deleterious mutations and contributes to the prevalence of several human diseases.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Immune_function">Immune function</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Immune function">edit</a>]</div> Sexual dimorphism in immune function is a common pattern in vertebrates and also in a number of invertebrates. Most often, females are more 'immunocompetent' than males. This trait is not consistent among all animals, but differs depending on taxonomy, with the most female-biased immune systems being found in insects.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> In mammals this results in more frequent and severe infections in males and higher rates of autoimmune disorders in females. One potential cause may be differences in gene expression of immune cells between the sexes.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Another explanation is that endocrinological differences between the sexes impact the immune system – for example, testosterone acts as an immunosuppressive agent.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cells">Cells</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Cells">edit</a>]</div> Phenotypic differences between sexes are evident even in <a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">cultured cells</a> from tissues.<a href="#cite_note-Pollitzer-2013-132">[132]</a> For example, female muscle-derived <a href="/wiki/Stem_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem cells">stem cells</a> have a better muscle regeneration efficiency than male ones.<a href="#cite_note-Deasy-2007-133">[133]</a> There are reports of several metabolic differences between male and female cells<a href="#cite_note-Mittelstrass-2011-134">[134]</a> and they also respond to <a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)" title="Stress (biology)">stress</a> differently.<a href="#cite_note-Penaloza-2009-135">[135]</a> These differences align with concepts of <a href="/wiki/Cell_autonomous_sex_identity" title="Cell autonomous sex identity">cell autonomous sex identity</a>, where cells maintain intrinsic sex-based traits regardless of systemic influences. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reproductively_advantageous">Reproductively advantageous</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Reproductively advantageous">edit</a>]</div> In theory, larger females are favored by competition for mates, especially in polygamous species. Larger females offer an advantage in fertility, since the physiological demands of reproduction are limiting in females. Hence there is a theoretical expectation that females tend to be larger in species that are monogamous. Females are larger in many species of <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>, many <a href="/wiki/Spider" title="Spider">spiders</a>, many <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, many reptiles, <a href="/wiki/Owl" title="Owl">owls</a>, birds of prey and certain mammals such as the <a href="/wiki/Spotted_hyena" title="Spotted hyena">spotted hyena</a>, and baleen whales such as <a href="/wiki/Blue_whale" title="Blue whale">blue whale</a>. As an example, in some species, females are sedentary, and so males must search for them. Fritz Vollrath and <a href="/wiki/Geoff_Parker" title="Geoff Parker">Geoff Parker</a> argue that this difference in behaviour leads to radically different selection pressures on the two sexes, evidently favouring smaller males.<a href="#cite_note-Vollrath-1992-136">[136]</a> Cases where the male is larger than the female have been studied as well,<a href="#cite_note-Vollrath-1992-136">[136]</a> and require alternative explanations. One example of this type of sexual size dimorphism is the bat <a href="/wiki/Myotis_nigricans" class="mw-redirect" title="Myotis nigricans">Myotis nigricans</a>, (black myotis bat) where females are substantially larger than males in terms of body weight, skull measurement, and forearm length.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> The interaction between the sexes and the energy needed to produce viable offspring makes it favorable for females to be larger in this species. Females bear the energetic cost of producing eggs, which is much greater than the cost of making sperm by the males. The fecundity advantage hypothesis states that a larger female is able to produce more offspring and give them more favorable conditions to ensure their survival; this is true for most ectotherms. A larger female can provide parental care for a longer time while the offspring matures. The gestation and lactation periods are fairly long in M. nigricans, the females suckling their offspring until they reach nearly adult size.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> They would not be able to fly and catch prey if they did not compensate for the additional mass of the offspring during this time. Smaller male size may be an adaptation to increase maneuverability and agility, allowing males to compete better with females for food and other resources. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cryptopsaras_couesii_(triplewart_seadevil).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Cryptopsaras_couesii_%28triplewart_seadevil%29.png/300px-Cryptopsaras_couesii_%28triplewart_seadevil%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Cryptopsaras_couesii_%28triplewart_seadevil%29.png/450px-Cryptopsaras_couesii_%28triplewart_seadevil%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Cryptopsaras_couesii_%28triplewart_seadevil%29.png/600px-Cryptopsaras_couesii_%28triplewart_seadevil%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2344" data-file-height="1434" /></a><figcaption>Female <a href="/wiki/Triplewart_seadevil" title="Triplewart seadevil">triplewart seadevil</a>, an anglerfish, with male attached near vent (arrow)</figcaption></figure> Some species of <a href="/wiki/Anglerfish" title="Anglerfish">anglerfish</a> also display extreme sexual dimorphism. Females are more typical in appearance to other fish, whereas males are tiny rudimentary creatures with stunted digestive systems. A male must find a female and fuse with her: he then lives parasitically, becoming little more than a sperm-producing body in what amounts to an effectively hermaphrodite composite organism. A similar situation is found in the Zeus water bug <a href="/wiki/Phoreticovelia_disparata" title="Phoreticovelia disparata">Phoreticovelia disparata</a> where the female has a glandular area on her back that can serve to feed a male, which clings to her (although males can survive away from females, they generally are not free-living).<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> This is taken to the logical extreme in the <a href="/wiki/Rhizocephala" title="Rhizocephala">Rhizocephala</a> crustaceans, like the <a href="/wiki/Sacculina" title="Sacculina">Sacculina</a>, where the male injects itself into the female's body and becomes nothing more than sperm producing cells, to the point that the superorder used to be mistaken for hermaphroditic.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Some plant species also exhibit dimorphism in which the females are significantly larger than the males, such as in the moss <a href="/wiki/Dicranum" title="Dicranum">Dicranum</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> and the liverwort <a href="/wiki/Sphaerocarpos" title="Sphaerocarpos">Sphaerocarpos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schuster-1984-142">[142]</a> There is some evidence that, in these genera, the dimorphism may be tied to a sex chromosome,<a href="#cite_note-Schuster-1984-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-Crum-1980-143">[143]</a> or to chemical signalling from females.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Another complicated example of sexual dimorphism is in <a href="/wiki/Vespula_squamosa" title="Vespula squamosa">Vespula squamosa</a>, the southern yellowjacket. In this wasp species, the female workers are the smallest, the male workers are slightly larger, and the female queens are significantly larger than her female workers and male counterparts.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Evolution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Evolution of sexual reproduction</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eccaparadoxides_mediterraneus_-_Murero,_Zaragoza_-_Museo_Ciencias_Naturales_Universidad_Zaragoza.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Eccaparadoxides_mediterraneus_-_Murero%2C_Zaragoza_-_Museo_Ciencias_Naturales_Universidad_Zaragoza.jpg/260px-Eccaparadoxides_mediterraneus_-_Murero%2C_Zaragoza_-_Museo_Ciencias_Naturales_Universidad_Zaragoza.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Eccaparadoxides_mediterraneus_-_Murero%2C_Zaragoza_-_Museo_Ciencias_Naturales_Universidad_Zaragoza.jpg/390px-Eccaparadoxides_mediterraneus_-_Murero%2C_Zaragoza_-_Museo_Ciencias_Naturales_Universidad_Zaragoza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Eccaparadoxides_mediterraneus_-_Murero%2C_Zaragoza_-_Museo_Ciencias_Naturales_Universidad_Zaragoza.jpg/520px-Eccaparadoxides_mediterraneus_-_Murero%2C_Zaragoza_-_Museo_Ciencias_Naturales_Universidad_Zaragoza.jpg 2x" data-file-width="896" data-file-height="679" /></a><figcaption>Sexual dimorphism in <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Trilobite" title="Trilobite">trilobites</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1871, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> advanced the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_sexual_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of sexual selection">theory of sexual selection</a>, which related sexual dimorphism to <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> The first step towards sexual dimorphism is the size differentiation of sperm and eggs (<a href="/wiki/Anisogamy" title="Anisogamy">anisogamy</a>).<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a>: 917  <a href="/wiki/Anisogamy" title="Anisogamy">Anisogamy</a> and the usually large number of small male gametes relative to the larger female gametes usually lies in the development of strong <a href="/wiki/Sperm_competition" title="Sperm competition">sperm competition</a>,<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> because small sperm enable organisms to produce a large number of sperm, and make males (or male function of hermaphrodites<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a>) more redundant. Volvocine algae have been useful in understanding the evolution of sexual dimorphism<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> and species like the beetle <a href="/wiki/Callosobruchus_maculatus" title="Callosobruchus maculatus">C. maculatus</a>, where the females are larger than the males, are used to study its underlying genetic mechanisms.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> In many non-monogamous species, the benefit to a male's reproductive fitness of mating with multiple females is large, whereas the benefit to a female's reproductive fitness of mating with multiple males is small or nonexistent.<a href="#cite_note-Futuyma_2005-156">[156]</a> In these species, there is a <a href="/wiki/Selection_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Selection pressure">selection pressure</a> for whatever traits enable a male to have more matings. The male may therefore come to have different traits from the female. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sumatran_orangutan_family_in_Toronto_Zoo.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Sumatran_orangutan_family_in_Toronto_Zoo.JPG/220px-Sumatran_orangutan_family_in_Toronto_Zoo.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Sumatran_orangutan_family_in_Toronto_Zoo.JPG/330px-Sumatran_orangutan_family_in_Toronto_Zoo.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Sumatran_orangutan_family_in_Toronto_Zoo.JPG/440px-Sumatran_orangutan_family_in_Toronto_Zoo.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Male (left), offspring (center), and female (right) <a href="/wiki/Sumatran_orangutan" title="Sumatran orangutan">Sumatran orangutans</a></figcaption></figure> These traits could be ones that allow him to fight off other males for control of territory or a <a href="/wiki/Harem_(zoology)" title="Harem (zoology)">harem</a>, such as large size or weapons;<a href="#cite_note-Futuyma_2005-2-157">[157]</a> or they could be traits that females, for whatever reason, prefer in mates.<a href="#cite_note-Futuyma_2005-3-158">[158]</a> <a href="/wiki/Male%E2%80%93male_competition" class="mw-redirect" title="Male–male competition">Male–male competition</a> poses no deep theoretical questions<a href="#cite_note-Ridley_2004-159">[159]</a> but <a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">mate choice</a> does. Females may choose males that appear strong and healthy, thus likely to possess "good <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a>" and give rise to healthy offspring.<a href="#cite_note-Futuyma_2005-4-160">[160]</a> In some species, however, females seem to choose males with traits that do not improve offspring survival rates, and even traits that reduce it (potentially leading to traits like the peacock's tail).<a href="#cite_note-Ridley_2004-159">[159]</a> Two hypotheses for explaining this fact are the <a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">sexy son hypothesis</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">handicap principle</a>. The sexy son hypothesis states that females may initially choose a trait because it improves the survival of their young, but once this preference has become widespread, females must continue to choose the trait, even if it becomes harmful. Those that do not will have sons that are unattractive to most females (since the preference is widespread) and so receive few matings.<a href="#cite_note-Ridley_2004-2-161">[161]</a> The handicap principle states that a male who survives despite possessing some sort of handicap thus proves that the rest of his genes are "good alleles". If males with "bad alleles" could not survive the handicap, females may evolve to choose males with this sort of handicap; the trait is acting as a hard-to-fake signal of fitness.<a href="#cite_note-Ridley_2004-3-162">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_homologues_of_the_human_reproductive_system" class="mw-redirect" title="List of homologues of the human reproductive system">List of homologues of the human reproductive system</a>      </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_humans" title="Sex differences in humans">Sex differences in humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_human_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in human psychology">Sex differences in human psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation" title="Sexual differentiation">Sexual differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism_measures" title="Sexual dimorphism measures">Sexual dimorphism measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_dimorphic_nucleus" title="Sexually dimorphic nucleus">Sexually dimorphic nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynandromorphism" title="Gynandromorphism">Gynandromorphism</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O5lnDwAAQBAJ&q=sexual+dimorphism+encyclopedia&pg=RA1-PA7">Encyclopedia of Animal Behaviour</a>. Vol. 2. Academic Press. 21 January 2019. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-813252-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-813252-4"><bdi>978-0-12-813252-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Animal+Behaviour&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2019-01-21&rft.isbn=978-0-12-813252-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO5lnDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dsexual%2Bdimorphism%2Bencyclopedia%26pg%3DRA1-PA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexual+dimorphism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRallsMesnick2009" class="citation book cs1">Ralls K, Mesnick S (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123735539002339">"Sexual dimorphism"</a>. 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href="#cite_ref-Futuyma_2005-2_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFutuyma2005">Futuyma 2005</a>, p. 331 </li> <li id="cite_note-Futuyma_2005-3-158"><a href="#cite_ref-Futuyma_2005-3_158-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFutuyma2005">Futuyma 2005</a>, p. 332 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ridley_2004-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ridley_2004_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ridley_2004_159-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRidley2004">Ridley 2004</a>, p. 328 </li> <li id="cite_note-Futuyma_2005-4-160"><a href="#cite_ref-Futuyma_2005-4_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFutuyma2005">Futuyma 2005</a>, p. 335 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ridley_2004-2-161"><a href="#cite_ref-Ridley_2004-2_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRidley2004">Ridley 2004</a>, p. 330 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ridley_2004-3-162"><a href="#cite_ref-Ridley_2004-3_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRidley2004">Ridley 2004</a>, p. 332 </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersson1994" class="citation book cs1">Andersson MB (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lNnHdvzBlTYC">Sexual Selection</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00057-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00057-2"><bdi>978-0-691-00057-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sexual+Selection&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00057-2&rft.aulast=Andersson&rft.aufirst=MB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlNnHdvzBlTYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexual+dimorphism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFutuyma2005" class="citation book cs1">Futuyma D (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu">Evolution</a> (1st ed.). Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-187-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-187-3"><bdi>978-0-87893-187-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+Massachusetts&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-87893-187-3&rft.aulast=Futuyma&rft.aufirst=D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolution0000futu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexual+dimorphism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRidley2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Ridley_(zoologist)" title="Mark Ridley (zoologist)">Ridley M</a> (2004). Evolution (3rd ed.). Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0345-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0345-9"><bdi>978-1-4051-0345-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution&rft.place=Malden%2C+Massachusetts&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-0345-9&rft.aulast=Ridley&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexual+dimorphism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonduriansky2007" class="citation journal cs1">Bonduriansky R (January 2007). "The evolution of condition-dependent sexual dimorphism". The American Naturalist. 169 (1): 9–19. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007ANat..169....9B">2007ANat..169....9B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F510214">10.1086/510214</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17206580">17206580</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17439073">17439073</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Naturalist&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+condition-dependent+sexual+dimorphism&rft.volume=169&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E9-%3C%2Fspan%3E19&rft.date=2007-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F510214&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17439073%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17206580&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007ANat..169....9B&rft.aulast=Bonduriansky&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexual+dimorphism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiguerola1999" class="citation journal cs1">Figuerola J (1999). "A comparative study on the evolution of reversed size dimorphism in monogamous waders". <a href="/wiki/Biological_Journal_of_the_Linnean_Society" title="Biological Journal of the Linnean Society">Biological Journal of the Linnean Society</a>. 67 (1): 1–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8312.1999.tb01926.x">10.1111/j.1095-8312.1999.tb01926.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10261%2F44557">10261/44557</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85330510">85330510</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Journal+of+the+Linnean+Society&rft.atitle=A+comparative+study+on+the+evolution+of+reversed+size+dimorphism+in+monogamous+waders&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E18&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10261%2F44557&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A85330510%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1095-8312.1999.tb01926.x&rft.aulast=Figuerola&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexual+dimorphism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzékelyLislevandFiguerolaFairbairn2007" class="citation book cs1">Székely T, Lislevand T, Figuerola J, Fairbairn D, Blanckenhorn W (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oupcanada.com/catalog/9780199545582.html">Sex, Size, and Gender Roles: Evolutionary Studies of Sexual Size Dimorphism</a>. pp. 16–26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sex%2C+Size%2C+and+Gender+Roles%3A+Evolutionary+Studies+of+Sexual+Size+Dimorphism.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E16-%3C%2Fspan%3E26&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Sz%C3%A9kely&rft.aufirst=T&rft.au=Lislevand%2C+T&rft.au=Figuerola%2C+J&rft.au=Fairbairn%2C+D&rft.au=Blanckenhorn%2C+W&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oupcanada.com%2Fcatalog%2F9780199545582.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASexual+dimorphism" class="Z3988"> </li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sexual_dimorphism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235611614">.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{border:1px solid 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sex207" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">Sex</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sexual dimorphism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Male" title="Male">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">Female</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation" title="Sexual differentiation">Sexual differentiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminization_(biology)" title="Feminization (biology)">Feminization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virilization" title="Virilization">Virilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/XY_sex-determination_system" title="XY sex-determination system">XY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZW_sex-determination_system" title="ZW sex-determination system">ZW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XO_sex-determination_system" title="XO sex-determination system">XO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZO_sex-determination_system" title="ZO sex-determination system">ZO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature-dependent_sex_determination" title="Temperature-dependent sex determination">Temperature-dependent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haplodiploidy" title="Haplodiploidy">Haplodiploidy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">Sex chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testis-determining_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Testis-determining factor">Testis-determining factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">Hermaphrodite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sequential_hermaphroditism" title="Sequential hermaphroditism">Sequential hermaphroditism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_hermaphroditism" title="Simultaneous hermaphroditism">Simultaneous hermaphroditism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasexual_cycle" title="Parasexual cycle">parasexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_as_a_biological_variable" title="Sex as a biological variable">Sex as a biological variable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Evolution of sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy" title="Anisogamy">Anisogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isogamy" title="Isogamy">Isogamy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_cell" title="Germ cell">Germ cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_organ" title="Sex organ">Sex organ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating" title="Mating">Mating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametogenesis" title="Gametogenesis">Gametogenesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatogenesis" title="Spermatogenesis">Spermatogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oogenesis" title="Oogenesis">Oogenesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">Gamete</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatozoon" title="Spermatozoon">spermatozoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">ovum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">Fertilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/External_fertilization" title="External fertilization">External</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_fertilization" title="Internal fertilization">Internal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Plant reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_in_fungi" title="Mating in fungi">Fungal reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction_in_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual reproduction in animals">Sexual reproduction in animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">Sexual intercourse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penile%E2%80%93vaginal_intercourse" title="Penile–vaginal intercourse">Penile–vaginal intercourse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copulation_(zoology)" title="Copulation (zoology)">Copulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_reproduction" title="Human reproduction">Human reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordosis_behavior" title="Lordosis behavior">Lordosis behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_thrust" title="Pelvic thrust">Pelvic thrust</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Plant sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_sexual_behaviour" title="Animal sexual behaviour">Animal sexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Human sexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics_of_human_sexuality" title="Mechanics of human sexuality">Mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation_in_humans" title="Sexual differentiation in humans">Differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Sex" title="Category:Sex">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_physiology_of_sexual_reproduction385" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_reproductive_physiology" title="Template:Human reproductive physiology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_reproductive_physiology" title="Template talk:Human reproductive physiology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_reproductive_physiology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human reproductive physiology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_physiology_of_sexual_reproduction385" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">Human physiology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Human_reproduction" title="Human reproduction">sexual reproduction</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Menstrual_cycle" title="Menstrual cycle">Menstrual cycle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Menarche" title="Menarche">Menarche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">Menstruation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Follicular_phase" title="Follicular phase">Follicular phase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulation" title="Ovulation">Ovulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luteal_phase" title="Luteal phase">Luteal phase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gametogenesis" title="Gametogenesis">Gametogenesis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatogenesis" title="Spermatogenesis">Spermatogenesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatogonium" title="Spermatogonium">spermatogonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatocyte" title="Spermatocyte">spermatocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatid" title="Spermatid">spermatid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oogenesis" title="Oogenesis">Oogenesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oogonium" title="Oogonium">oogonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oocyte" title="Oocyte">oocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immature_ovum" title="Immature ovum">ootid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">ovum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_cell" title="Germ cell">Germ cell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gonocyte" title="Gonocyte">gonocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gamete</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Human sexual activity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Sexual arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">Sexual intercourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masturbation" title="Masturbation">Masturbation</a></li> <li>Erection <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erection" title="Erection">Penile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clitoral_erection" title="Clitoral erection">Clitoral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgasm" title="Orgasm">Orgasm</a></li> <li>Ejaculation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ejaculation" title="Ejaculation">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_ejaculation" title="Female ejaculation">Female</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insemination" title="Insemination">Insemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_fertilization" title="Human fertilization">Fertilization</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fertility" title="Fertility">Fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implantation_(embryology)" title="Implantation (embryology)">Implantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_period" title="Postpartum period">Postpartum period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics_of_human_sexuality" title="Mechanics of human sexuality">Mechanics of sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_lubrication" title="Vaginal lubrication">Vaginal lubrication</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_reproductive_system" title="Development of the reproductive system">Development of the reproductive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation_in_humans" title="Sexual differentiation in humans">Sexual differentiation</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sexual dimorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminization_(biology)" title="Feminization (biology)">Feminization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virilization" title="Virilization">Virilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puberty" title="Puberty">Puberty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gonadarche" title="Gonadarche">Gonadarche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanner_scale" title="Tanner scale">Tanner scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pubarche" title="Pubarche">Pubarche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menarche" title="Menarche">Menarche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermarche" title="Spermarche">Spermarche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenarche" title="Adrenarche">Adrenarche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_maternal_age" title="Advanced maternal age">Maternal age</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paternal_age_effect" title="Paternal age effect">Paternal age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menopause" title="Menopause">Menopause</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Egg" title="Egg">Egg</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">Ovum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viviparity" title="Viviparity">Vivipary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93gonadal_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis">Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93prolactin_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis">Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">Hormone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Breast" title="Breast">Breast</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thelarche" title="Thelarche">Thelarche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_development" title="Breast development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactation" title="Lactation">Lactation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">Breastfeeding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_reproductive_system" title="Human reproductive system">Human reproductive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Male_reproductive_system" title="Male reproductive system">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_reproductive_system" title="Female reproductive system">Female</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diseases and disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anorgasmia" title="Anorgasmia">Anorgasmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysorgasmia" title="Dysorgasmia">Dysorgasmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyspareunia" title="Dyspareunia">Dyspareunia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erectile_dysfunction" title="Erectile dysfunction">Erectile dysfunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_flaccid_syndrome" title="Hard flaccid syndrome">Hard flaccid syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premature_ejaculation" title="Premature ejaculation">Premature ejaculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginismus" title="Vaginismus">Vaginismus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_biology753" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolution" title="Template:Evolution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolution" title="Template talk:Evolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_biology753" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">Evolutionary arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">Evolutionary pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonadaptive_radiation" title="Nonadaptive radiation">Non-adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">Handicap principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene-centered view of evolution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Artificial selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sexual dimorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_flowering_plants" title="Sexual selection in flowering plants">Flowering plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_fungi" title="Sexual selection in fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canalisation_(genetics)" title="Canalisation (genetics)">Canalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_assimilation" title="Genetic assimilation">Genetic assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inversion_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Inversion (evolutionary biology)">Inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modularity_(biology)" title="Modularity (biology)">Modularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">Phenotypic plasticity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bacteria" title="Evolution of bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_brachiopods" title="Evolution of brachiopods">Brachiopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_molluscs" title="Evolution of molluscs">Molluscs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur#Evolutionary_history" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_butterflies" title="Evolution of butterflies">butterflies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cat_gap" title="Cat gap">cats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canidae#Evolution" title="Canidae">canids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_wolf" title="Evolution of the wolf">wolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_dog" title="Domestication of the dog">dogs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyena#Evolution" title="Hyena">hyenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">dolphins and whales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_horse" title="Evolution of the horse">horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Macropodidae" title="Evolution of Macropodidae">Kangaroos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_primates" title="Evolution of primates">primates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_lemurs" title="Evolution of lemurs">lemurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">sea cows</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator-mediated_selection" title="Pollinator-mediated selection">pollinator-mediated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_evolution" title="Viral evolution">Viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_DNA_evolution" title="Models of DNA evolution">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote#Origin_of_eukaryotes" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome#Eukaryotes" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomembrane_system#Evolution" title="Endomembrane system">endomembrane system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion#Origin_and_evolution" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus#Evolution" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid#Origin" title="Plastid">plastids</a></li></ul></li> <li>In animals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair#Evolution" title="Hair">hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">auditory ossicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">brain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_ageing" title="Evolution of ageing">Aging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death#Evolution_of_aging_and_mortality" title="Death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death#Evolutionary_origin_of_mitochondrial_apoptosis" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_biological_complexity" title="Evolution of biological complexity">Biological complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Color vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">in primates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy#Evolution_across_species" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_eusociality" title="Evolution of eusociality">Eusociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system#Evolution_and_other_mechanisms" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism#Evolution" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">Monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism#Evolutionary_history" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy#Evolution" title="Anisogamy">Gamete differentiation/sexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles/nuclear phases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system#Evolution" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_snake_venom" title="Evolution of snake venom">Snake venom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempo_and_Mode_in_Evolution" title="Tempo and Mode in Evolution">Tempo and modes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phyletic_gradualism" title="Phyletic gradualism">Gradualism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_mutation" title="Point mutation">Micromutation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mutationism#Later_mutationist_theories" title="Mutationism">Macromutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">Anagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catagenesis_(biology)" title="Catagenesis (biology)">Catagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_speciation" title="Ecological speciation">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonecological_speciation" title="Nonecological speciation">Non-ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">Parapatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Peripatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">Reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">Sympatric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance and Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Transmutation of species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">Blending inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">The eclipse of Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">Extended evolutionary synthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution" title="Alternatives to Darwinian evolution">Alternatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology in biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_biology" title="Category:Evolutionary biology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template talk:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="History of evolutionary psychology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_foundations_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology">Theoretical foundations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Criticism of evolutionary psychology">Criticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Evolutionary processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">Adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_spite" title="Hamiltonian spite">Hamiltonian spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> / <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="/wiki/Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_children" title="Attachment in children">Childhood attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> / <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rank_theory_of_depression" title="Rank theory of depression">Rank theory of depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_effects_of_cars" title="Societal effects of cars">Societal effects of cars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pair_bond" title="Pair bond">Pair bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">Functional psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">indeterminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_social_science_model" title="Standard social science model">Standard social science model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">Multilineal evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">Sociocultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">Unilineal evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_evolutionary_psychologists" title="List of evolutionary psychologists">Evolutionary psychologists</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Category:Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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</div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-57rb8","wgBackendResponseTime":241,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.957","walltime":"2.161","ppvisitednodes":{"value":13797,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":553044,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":9919,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":18,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":21,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":667587,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1822.510 1 -total"," 53.81% 980.780 1 Template:Reflist"," 29.39% 535.721 118 Template:Cite_journal"," 8.98% 163.641 22 Template:Cite_book"," 7.57% 137.969 13 Template:Fix"," 6.14% 111.957 9 Template:Harvnb"," 5.77% 105.226 1 Template:Sex_(biology)_sidebar"," 5.57% 101.497 1 Template:Sidebar"," 5.32% 96.934 8 Template:Citation_needed"," 4.32% 78.747 2 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[\"CITEREFCassini2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoulsonMacFarlaneParsonsCutter2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoyneKayPruett-Jones2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrumAnderson1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDalyWilson1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDance2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDanforth1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeasyLuTebbetsFeduska2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDies_AlvarezRushtonGozaloPillola2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurden-SmithdeSimone1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmlenMarangeloBallCunningham2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFairbairn2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFiguerola1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFine2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoellmerFairbairn2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedmanBarrett2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFutuyma2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGal-OzMaierYoshidaSeddu2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeber1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGengDe_HoffUmen2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGershGersh1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGershoniPietrokovski2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGershoniPietrokovski2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiacomelloMarchiniRasotto2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibbsWeatherheadBoagWhite1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGirardEliasKasumovic2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlucksman1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGonzález-SolísCroxallWood2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrossman1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGruberEckelEveraarsDormann2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGurTuretskyMatsuiYan1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaierJungYeoHead2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanschenHerronWiensNozaki2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHayssenKunz1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHendryBerg1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHongo2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJaycox_Elbert1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnsenDelheyAnderssonKempenaers2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJordan-Young2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaufmannWolakHusbyImmonen2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKellyStoehrNunnSmyth2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKissnerWeatherheadFrancis2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKukuk1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKunte2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLarsen2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLe_MatGéryBessonFerdynus2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeonardTowlerWelcomeHalderman2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindsayWebsterVarianSchwabl2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLombardoAshwinAuyeungChakrabarti2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoonstraVerhoevenPiersma2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLopesRossCloseDagnall2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLozano1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLüdersSteinmetzJäncke2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMain2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaiorinoFarkeKotsakisPiras2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarnerNyengaardTangPakkenberg2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartinGrüeblerMüllerSpaar2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCormickRyenMundayWalker2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcEwen1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGrawHillStradiParker2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcLaughlinShryer1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcLeanGarwoodBrassey2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMittelstrassRiedYuKrumsiek2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMøllerNielsen2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOliverMonteiro2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlssonToblerHealeyPerrin2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOnoBoness1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOtaKohdaSato2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPadianHorner2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParker1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaxtonGiovanettiAndriettiScamoni1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPenalozaEstevezOrlanskiSikorska2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetrie1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPollitzer2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrenterElwoodMontgomery1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRachael_Rettner2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRallsMesnick2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamawatMerillonShivanna2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRennerRicklefs1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReshCardé2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRettner2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRidley2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobertsonMonteiro2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRomeroNelson1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuboliniSpinaSaino2004\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRustTorchioTrostle1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRyanRand1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSafiKönigKerth2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaitta2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalogniGalimbertiSanvitoMiller2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSangerSeavTokitaLangerhans2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSato1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchuster1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchützTaborsky2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSenarFiguerolaPascual2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaw2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShortBalaban1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSiljestamMartinossi-Allibert2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlagsvoldLifjeld1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSparlingO\u0026#039;DonnellSnow1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStein1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSugiuraYamauraMakihara2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSummers-Smith1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSvenssonPélabonBlountSurai2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzalkaiVargaGrolmusz2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzalkaiVargaGrolmusz2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzékelyLislevandFiguerolaFairbairn2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTarnawskiCassiniFlores2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTogashiBarteltYoshimuraTainaka2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVelando2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVollrathParker1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangYang2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWarner1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiklundLindforsForsberg1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilderRypstra2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoznicki\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYang2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZahavi1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZiYuLiHu2003\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"-\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 8,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 22,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 118,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 11,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Sexual Dimorphism\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Dubious\"] = 1,\n [\"Evolution\"] = 1,\n [\"Evolutionary psychology\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 9,\n [\"ISBN?\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"Main articles\"] = 1,\n [\"MeshName\"] = 1,\n [\"Nb5\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Reproductive physiology\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 7,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sex (biology)\"] = 1,\n [\"Sex (biology) sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Spoken Wikipedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Vague\"] = 1,\n [\"Wiktionary\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","320","24.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","240","18.2"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","100","7.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","100","7.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","100","7.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","4.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","60","4.5"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","40","3.0"],["chunk 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Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-03-16T08:42:18Z","dateModified":"2025-02-07T01:31:53Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/43\/Pair_of_mandarin_ducks.jpg","headline":"condition where the two sexes of the same species exhibit different characteristics beyond the differences in their sexual organs"}</script> </body> </html>