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href="#Lactogenesis_I_and_other_changes_in_pregnancy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Lactogenesis I and other changes in pregnancy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lactogenesis_I_and_other_changes_in_pregnancy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lactogenesis_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lactogenesis_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Lactogenesis II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lactogenesis_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lactogenesis_III" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lactogenesis_III"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Lactogenesis III </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lactogenesis_III-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breast_milk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breast_milk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Breast milk </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Breast_milk-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Breast milk subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Breast_milk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nutritional_content" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nutritional_content"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Nutritional content </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nutritional_content-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bioactive_content" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioactive_content"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Bioactive content </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioactive_content-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Process </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Process-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Process subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Commencement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commencement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Commencement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commencement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Breast_crawl" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breast_crawl"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Breast crawl </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breast_crawl-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preterm_or_low-tone_infants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preterm_or_low-tone_infants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Preterm or low-tone infants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preterm_or_low-tone_infants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Timing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Duration_and_exclusivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Duration_and_exclusivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Duration and exclusivity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Duration_and_exclusivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Supplementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supplementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Supplementation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supplementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Position" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Position"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Position </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Position-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Latching </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Making_use_of_anatomy_and_reflexes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Making_use_of_anatomy_and_reflexes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.1 Making use of anatomy and reflexes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Making_use_of_anatomy_and_reflexes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bringing_the_infant_in_to_latch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bringing_the_infant_in_to_latch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.2 Bringing the infant in to latch </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bringing_the_infant_in_to_latch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signs_of_a_good,_deep_latch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signs_of_a_good,_deep_latch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.3 Signs of a good, deep latch </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Signs_of_a_good,_deep_latch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signs_of_a_poor,_shallow_latch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signs_of_a_poor,_shallow_latch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.4 Signs of a poor, shallow latch </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Signs_of_a_poor,_shallow_latch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Let-down_reflex" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Let-down_reflex"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Let-down reflex </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Let-down_reflex-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Problems_with_breastfeeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Problems_with_breastfeeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Problems with breastfeeding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Problems_with_breastfeeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Inverted_nipples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inverted_nipples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.1 Inverted nipples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inverted_nipples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_of_pacifiers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_of_pacifiers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.2 Use of pacifiers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_of_pacifiers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ankyloglossia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ankyloglossia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.3 Ankyloglossia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ankyloglossia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Engorgement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Engorgement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.4 Engorgement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Engorgement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nipple_pain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nipple_pain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.5 Nipple pain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nipple_pain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Delay_in_milk_"coming_in"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Delay_in_milk_"coming_in""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.6 Delay in milk "coming in" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Delay_in_milk_"coming_in"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Low_milk_supply" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low_milk_supply"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.7 Low milk supply </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low_milk_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Newborn_jaundice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Newborn_jaundice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.8 Newborn jaundice </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Newborn_jaundice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weaning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weaning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Weaning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weaning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extended_breastfeeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extended_breastfeeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Extended breastfeeding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extended_breastfeeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Professional_breastfeeding_support" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Professional_breastfeeding_support"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.10 Professional breastfeeding support </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Professional_breastfeeding_support-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contraindications_to_breastfeeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contraindications_to_breastfeeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Contraindications to breastfeeding </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contraindications_to_breastfeeding-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Contraindications to breastfeeding subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Contraindications_to_breastfeeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maternal_contraindications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maternal_contraindications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Maternal contraindications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maternal_contraindications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maternal_infections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maternal_infections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Maternal infections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maternal_infections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-HIV" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#HIV"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1.1 HIV </div> </a> <ul id="toc-HIV-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_T-lymphotropic_virus_(types_I_and_II)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_T-lymphotropic_virus_(types_I_and_II)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1.2 Human T-lymphotropic virus (types I and II) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_T-lymphotropic_virus_(types_I_and_II)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hemorrhagic_viral_disease_(Marburg_virus,_Ebola)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hemorrhagic_viral_disease_(Marburg_virus,_Ebola)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1.3 Hemorrhagic viral disease (Marburg virus, Ebola) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hemorrhagic_viral_disease_(Marburg_virus,_Ebola)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tuberculosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tuberculosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1.4 Tuberculosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tuberculosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Herpes_simplex" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Herpes_simplex"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1.5 Herpes simplex </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Herpes_simplex-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Herpes_zoster_(chickenpox_and_shingles)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Herpes_zoster_(chickenpox_and_shingles)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1.6 Herpes zoster (chickenpox and shingles) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Herpes_zoster_(chickenpox_and_shingles)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-COVID-19_(no_contraindication)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#COVID-19_(no_contraindication)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1.7 COVID-19 (no contraindication) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-COVID-19_(no_contraindication)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Substance_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Substance_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Substance use </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Substance_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alcohol" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alcohol"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2.1 Alcohol </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alcohol-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marijuana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marijuana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2.2 Marijuana </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marijuana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tobacco" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tobacco"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2.3 Tobacco </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tobacco-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_recreational_drugs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_recreational_drugs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2.4 Other recreational drugs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_recreational_drugs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medication_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medication_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.3 Medication use </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medication_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pumping-and-dumping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pumping-and-dumping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.3.1 Pumping-and-dumping </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pumping-and-dumping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infantile_contraindications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infantile_contraindications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Infantile contraindications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infantile_contraindications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Galactosemia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Galactosemia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Galactosemia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Galactosemia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Methods </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Methods subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Expressed_milk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expressed_milk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Expressed milk </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expressed_milk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Storage_of_expressed_breastmilk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Storage_of_expressed_breastmilk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Storage of expressed breastmilk </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Storage_of_expressed_breastmilk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breastmilk_storage_containers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breastmilk_storage_containers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Breastmilk storage containers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breastmilk_storage_containers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shared_nursing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shared_nursing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Shared nursing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shared_nursing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tandem_nursing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tandem_nursing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Tandem nursing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tandem_nursing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Re-lactation_and_induced_lactation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Re-lactation_and_induced_lactation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Re-lactation and induced lactation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Re-lactation_and_induced_lactation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Health effects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Health_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Health effects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Health_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Baby" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baby"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Baby </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baby-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 Growth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.2 Infections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mortality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mortality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.3 Mortality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mortality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Childhood_obesity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Childhood_obesity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.4 Childhood obesity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Childhood_obesity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allergic_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allergic_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.5 Allergic diseases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allergic_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Backwash_effect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Backwash_effect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.6 Backwash effect </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Backwash_effect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_health_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_health_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.7 Other health effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_health_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intelligence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intelligence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.8 Intelligence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intelligence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mother" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mother"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Mother </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mother-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maternal_bond" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maternal_bond"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Maternal bond </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maternal_bond-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fertility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fertility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Fertility </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fertility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postpartum_bleeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postpartum_bleeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.3 Postpartum bleeding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postpartum_bleeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weight_retention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weight_retention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.4 Weight retention </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weight_retention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronic_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronic_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.5 Chronic conditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronic_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dysphoric_milk_ejection_reflex" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dysphoric_milk_ejection_reflex"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.6 Dysphoric milk ejection reflex </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dysphoric_milk_ejection_reflex-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Social factors </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Social_factors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Social factors subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Social_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_support" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_support"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Social support </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_support-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maternity_leave" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maternity_leave"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Maternity leave </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maternity_leave-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Healthcare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Healthcare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Healthcare </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Healthcare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Caesarean_section" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caesarean_section"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1 Caesarean section </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caesarean_section-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breast_surgery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breast_surgery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.2 Breast surgery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breast_surgery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.3 Medications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.4 Medical conditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnicity_and_socioeconomic_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnicity_and_socioeconomic_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Ethnicity and socioeconomic status </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnicity_and_socioeconomic_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_acceptance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_acceptance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Social acceptance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_acceptance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Location" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Location"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Location </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Location-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevalence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevalence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Prevalence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prevalence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Financial_considerations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Financial_considerations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Financial considerations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Financial_considerations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_breastfeeding_advocacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_breastfeeding_advocacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Criticism of breastfeeding advocacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_breastfeeding_advocacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_marketing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_marketing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Social marketing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_marketing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Baby_Friendly_Hospital_Initiative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baby_Friendly_Hospital_Initiative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baby_Friendly_Hospital_Initiative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Representation_on_television" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Representation_on_television"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 Representation on television </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Representation_on_television-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.6 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transgender_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transgender_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.7 Transgender women </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transgender_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Workplace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Workplace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Workplace </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Workplace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Breastfeeding</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 91 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-91" aria-hidden="true" > 91 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="رضاعة طبيعية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رضاعة طبيعية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="স্তন্যপান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="স্তন্যপান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactancia_materna" title="Lactancia materna – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Lactancia materna" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ana_s%C3%BCd%C3%BC_il%C9%99_qidalanma" title="Ana südü ilə qidalanma – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ana südü ilə qidalanma" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="স্তন্যদান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="স্তন্যদান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Грудное выкормліванне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Грудное выкормліванне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Грудное выкормліваньне – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Грудное выкормліваньне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagpasuso" title="Pagpasuso – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Pagpasuso" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Кърмене – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Кърмене" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dojenje" title="Dojenje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Dojenje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rei%C3%B1_bronn" title="Reiñ bronn – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Reiñ bronn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lact%C3%A0ncia" title="Lactància – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Lactància" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kojen%C3%AD" title="Kojení – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kojení" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bwydo_o%27r_fron" title="Bwydo o'r fron – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Bwydo o'r fron" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amning" title="Amning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Amning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stillen" title="Stillen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Stillen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%B7%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Θηλασμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Θηλασμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactancia_materna" title="Lactancia materna – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lactancia materna" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamnutrado" title="Mamnutrado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mamnutrado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edoskitze" title="Edoskitze – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Edoskitze" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87%DB%8C" title="شیردهی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شیردهی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allaitement_maternel" title="Allaitement maternel – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Allaitement maternel" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beath%C3%BA_c%C3%ADche" title="Beathú cíche – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Beathú cíche" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactaci%C3%B3n" title="Lactación – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lactación" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AA%A8%EC%9C%A0_%EC%88%98%EC%9C%A0" title="모유 수유 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="모유 수유" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shayarwa" title="Shayarwa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Shayarwa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D6%80%D5%AE%D6%84%D5%B8%D5%BE_%D5%AF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Կրծքով կերակրում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կրծքով կերակրում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="स्तनपान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="स्तनपान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dojenje" title="Dojenje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Dojenje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BB%8A_chu_ara" title="Ị chu ara – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ị chu ara" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menyusui" title="Menyusui – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Menyusui" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukwanyisa_okanye_ukuncancisa" title="Ukwanyisa okanye ukuncancisa – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Ukwanyisa okanye ukuncancisa" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brj%C3%B3stagj%C3%B6f" title="Brjóstagjöf – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Brjóstagjöf" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allattamento" title="Allattamento – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Allattamento" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%A7%D7%94" title="הנקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הנקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyusoni" title="Nyusoni – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Nyusoni" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ಸ್ತನ್ಯಪಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸ್ತನ್ಯಪಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Лактация – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Лактация" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unyonyeshaji" title="Unyonyeshaji – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Unyonyeshaji" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B7%D2%AF%D2%AF_(%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Эмизүү (лактация) – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Эмизүү (лактация)" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C4%ABd%C4%AB%C5%A1ana" title="Zīdīšana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Zīdīšana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieren" title="Nieren – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Nieren" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maitinimas_kr%C5%ABtimi" title="Maitinimas krūtimi – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Maitinimas krūtimi" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famaenu_Ono_Sawuyu" title="Famaenu Ono Sawuyu – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Famaenu Ono Sawuyu" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target">Li Niha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komelisa_mwana_libele" title="Komelisa mwana libele – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Komelisa mwana libele" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szoptat%C3%A1s" title="Szoptatás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szoptatás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyoso%C3%A8" title="Nyosoè – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Nyosoè" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Madhurâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="स्तनपान – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="स्तनपान" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Доење – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Доење" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BD" title="മുലയൂട്ടൽ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മുലയൂട്ടൽ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="स्तनपान – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="स्तनपान" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%87_%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%87" title="رضاعه طبيعيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="رضاعه طبيعيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyusuan_susu_ibu" title="Penyusuan susu ibu – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Penyusuan susu ibu" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borstvoeding" title="Borstvoeding – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Borstvoeding" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="स्तनपान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="स्तनपान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AF%8D%E4%B9%B3%E6%A0%84%E9%A4%8A" title="母乳栄養 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="母乳栄養" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amming" title="Amming – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Amming" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amming" title="Amming – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Amming" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A4%E0%AC%A8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%9F%E0%AC%AA%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ସ୍ତନ୍ୟପାନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ସ୍ତନ୍ୟପାନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko%CA%BBkrak_suti_bilan_boqish" title="Koʻkrak suti bilan boqish – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Koʻkrak suti bilan boqish" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8" title="ਸਤਨਪਾਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਤਨਪਾਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karmienie_piersi%C4%85" title="Karmienie piersią – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Karmienie piersią" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amamenta%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Amamentação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Amamentação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%C4%83ptare" title="Alăptare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Alăptare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Грудное вскармливание – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Грудное вскармливание" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjidh%C3%ABnia" title="Gjidhënia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjidhënia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92_%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B8" title="මවුකිරි දීම – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මවුකිරි දීම" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Breastfeeding" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doj%C4%8Denie" title="Dojčenie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dojčenie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dojenje" title="Dojenje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Dojenje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuujin" title="Nuujin – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Nuujin" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%BE%DB%8E%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86" title="شیرپێدان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شیرپێدان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Дојење – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Дојење" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dojenje" title="Dojenje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Dojenje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imetys" title="Imetys – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Imetys" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amning" title="Amning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Amning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagpapasuso" title="Pagpapasuso – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pagpapasuso" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="தாய்ப்பாலூட்டல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தாய்ப்பாலூட்டல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D2%AF%D0%BA%D1%80%D3%99%D0%BA_%D1%81%D3%A9%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B7%D2%AF" title="Күкрәк сөтен имезү – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Күкрәк сөтен имезү" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%88" title="การเลี้ยงลูกด้วยนมแม่ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การเลี้ยงลูกด้วยนมแม่" data-language-autonym="ไทย" 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Suckling" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Suckling_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Suckling (disambiguation)">Suckling (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Breastfeeding_infant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Breastfeeding_infant.jpg/250px-Breastfeeding_infant.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Breastfeeding_infant.jpg/375px-Breastfeeding_infant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Breastfeeding_infant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="430" data-file-height="521" /></a><figcaption>A baby being breastfed</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Breastfeeding.webm/250px-seek%3D123-En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Breastfeeding.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="250" height="141" data-durationhint="162" data-mwtitle="En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Breastfeeding.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Breastfeeding.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Breastfeeding.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7f/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Breastfeeding.webm/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Breastfeeding.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7f/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Breastfeeding.webm/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Breastfeeding.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7f/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Breastfeeding.webm/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Breastfeeding.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7f/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Breastfeeding.webm/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Breastfeeding.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7f/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Breastfeeding.webm/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Breastfeeding.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7f/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Breastfeeding.webm/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Breastfeeding.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AEn.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Breastfeeding.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>Video summary of article with <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:VideoWiki/Breastfeeding" title="Wikipedia:VideoWiki/Breastfeeding">script</a></figcaption></figure> Breastfeeding, also known as nursing, is the process where <a href="/wiki/Breast_milk" title="Breast milk">breast milk</a> is fed to a child.<a href="#cite_note-NIH20132-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Infants may suck the milk directly from the breast, or milk may be extracted with a <a href="/wiki/Breast_pump" title="Breast pump">pump</a> and then fed to the infant. The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) recommend that breastfeeding begin within the first hour of a baby's birth and continue as the baby wants.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a> Health organizations, including the WHO, recommend breastfeeding exclusively for six months.<a href="#cite_note-WHO20142-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Johnston_2012-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kramer_2012-6">[6]</a> This means that no other foods or drinks, other than <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">vitamin D</a>, are typically given.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The WHO recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of life, followed by continued breastfeeding with appropriate complementary foods for up to 2 years and beyond.<a href="#cite_note-WHO20142-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Johnston_2012-5">[5]</a> Of the 135 million babies born every year, only 42% are breastfed within the first hour of life, only 38% of mothers practice exclusive breastfeeding during the first six months, and 58% of mothers continue breastfeeding up to the age of two years and beyond.<a href="#cite_note-WHO20142-4">[4]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] Breastfeeding has a number of benefits to both mother and baby that <a href="/wiki/Infant_formula" title="Infant formula">infant formula</a> lacks.<a href="#cite_note-Johnston_2012-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-IP20092-8">[8]</a> Increased breastfeeding to near-universal levels in low and medium income countries could prevent approximately 820,000 deaths of children under the age of five annually.<a href="#cite_note-Victora_2016-9">[9]</a> Breastfeeding decreases the risk of <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract_infection" title="Respiratory tract infection">respiratory tract infections</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otitis_media" title="Otitis media">ear infections</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sudden_infant_death_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Sudden infant death syndrome"> sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a> for the baby, both in <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed countries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO20142-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Johnston_2012-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 13  Other benefits have been proposed to include lower risks of <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Food_allergies" class="mw-redirect" title="Food allergies">food allergies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Johnston_2012-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Victora_2016-9">[9]</a> Breastfeeding may also improve <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">cognitive development</a> and decrease the risk of <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a> in adulthood.<a href="#cite_note-WHO20142-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Benefits for the mother include less <a href="/wiki/Bleeding" title="Bleeding">blood loss</a> following <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">delivery</a>, better contraction of the uterus, and a decreased risk of <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_depression" title="Postpartum depression">postpartum depression</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Johnston_2012-5">[5]</a> Breastfeeding delays the return of <a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">menstruation</a>, and in very specific circumstances, <a href="/wiki/Fertility" title="Fertility">fertility</a>, a phenomenon known as <a href="/wiki/Lactational_amenorrhea" title="Lactational amenorrhea">lactational amenorrhea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Johnston_2012-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 83  Long-term benefits for the mother include decreased risk of <a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">breast cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_syndrome" title="Metabolic syndrome">metabolic syndrome</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rheumatoid_arthritis" title="Rheumatoid arthritis">rheumatoid arthritis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Johnston_2012-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Victora_2016-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 13  Breastfeeding is less expensive than <a href="/wiki/Infant_formula" title="Infant formula">infant formula</a>,<a href="#cite_note-APP_19972-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> but its impact on mothers' ability to earn an income is not usually factored into calculations comparing the two feeding methods.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> It is also common for women to experience generally manageable symptoms such as; vaginal dryness, <a href="/wiki/De_Quervain_syndrome" title="De Quervain syndrome">De Quervain syndrome</a>, cramping, <a href="/wiki/Mastitis" title="Mastitis">mastitis</a>, moderate to severe nipple pain and a general lack of bodily autonomy. These symptoms generally peak at the start of breastfeeding but disappear or become considerately more manageable after the first few weeks. Feedings may last as long as 30–60 minutes each as milk supply develops and the infant learns the Suck-Swallow-Breathe pattern.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 50–51  However, as milk supply increases and the infant becomes more efficient at feeding, the duration of feeds may shorten.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 50–51  Older children may feed less often.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> When direct breastfeeding is not possible, expressing or pumping to empty the breasts can help mothers avoid <a href="/wiki/Plugged_milk_duct" class="mw-redirect" title="Plugged milk duct">plugged milk ducts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mastitis" title="Mastitis">breast infection</a>, maintain their milk supply, resolve <a href="/wiki/Breast_engorgement" title="Breast engorgement">engorgement</a>, and provide milk to be fed to their infant at a later time.<a href="#cite_note-NIH20132-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Berens_2016-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 55, 63–67  Medical conditions that do not allow breastfeeding are rare.<a href="#cite_note-Johnston_2012-5">[5]</a> Mothers who take certain <a href="/wiki/Recreational_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Recreational drugs">recreational drugs</a> should not breastfeed, however, most medications are compatible with breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 17  Current evidence indicates that it is unlikely that <a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a> can be transmitted through breast milk.<a href="#cite_note-auto-18">[18]</a> Smoking tobacco and consuming limited amounts of alcohol and/or coffee are not reasons to avoid breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Breastfeeding_physiology">Breastfeeding physiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Breastfeeding physiology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Breast-Diagram.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Breast-Diagram.gif/220px-Breast-Diagram.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Breast-Diagram.gif/330px-Breast-Diagram.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Breast-Diagram.gif 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="274" /></a><figcaption>When the baby suckles their mother's breast, a hormone called <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">oxytocin</a> compels the milk to flow from the <a href="/wiki/Mammary_alveolus" title="Mammary alveolus">alveoli</a> (lobules), through the ducts (milk canals), into the sacs (milk pools) behind the <a href="/wiki/Areola" title="Areola">areola</a>, and then into the baby's mouth.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Histology_of_lactating_breast,_annotated.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Histology_of_lactating_breast%2C_annotated.png/250px-Histology_of_lactating_breast%2C_annotated.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Histology_of_lactating_breast%2C_annotated.png/330px-Histology_of_lactating_breast%2C_annotated.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Histology_of_lactating_breast%2C_annotated.png/500px-Histology_of_lactating_breast%2C_annotated.png 2x" data-file-width="1223" data-file-height="833" /></a><figcaption>Normal histology of the breast during lactation.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Lactation" title="Lactation">Lactation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maternal_physiological_changes_in_pregnancy" title="Maternal physiological changes in pregnancy">Maternal physiological changes in pregnancy</a></div> Breast development starts in puberty with the growth of ducts, <a href="/wiki/Adipose_tissue" title="Adipose tissue">fat cells</a>, and connective tissue.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 18–21  The ultimate size of the breasts is determined by the number of fat cells. The size of the breast is not related to a mother's breastfeeding capability or the volume of milk she can produce.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 18–21  The process of milk production, termed lactogenesis, occurs in 3 stages. The first stage takes place during pregnancy, allowing for the development of the breast and production of colostrum, the thick, early form of milk that is low in volume, but rich in nutrition.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 18–21  The birth of the baby and the placenta triggers the onset of the second stage of milk production, triggering the milk to come in over the next several days. The third stage of milk production occurs gradually over several weeks, and is characterized by a full milk supply that is regulated locally (at the breast), predominately by the infant's demand for food. This differs from the second stage of lactogenesis, which is regulated centrally (in the brain) by hormone feedback loops that naturally occur after the placenta is delivered.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 18–21 <a href="#cite_note-Brodribb_2018-22">[22]</a> Although traditionally, lactation occurs following pregnancy, lactation may also be <a href="#Re-lactation_and_induced_lactation">induced</a> with hormone therapy and nipple stimulation in the absence of pregnancy. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lactogenesis_I_and_other_changes_in_pregnancy">Lactogenesis I and other changes in pregnancy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Lactogenesis I and other changes in pregnancy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Areolar_enlargement_-_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Areolar_enlargement_-_cropped.png/220px-Areolar_enlargement_-_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Areolar_enlargement_-_cropped.png/330px-Areolar_enlargement_-_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Areolar_enlargement_-_cropped.png/440px-Areolar_enlargement_-_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="503" data-file-height="249" /></a><figcaption>Areolar enlargement in early pregnancy</figcaption></figure> Changes in <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a>, starting around 16 weeks <a href="/wiki/Gestational_age_(obstetrics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gestational age (obstetrics)">gestational age</a>, prepare the breast for lactation. These changes, collectively known as Lactogenesis I, are directed by hormones produced by the placenta and the brain, namely <a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Progesterone" title="Progesterone">progesterone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prolactin" title="Prolactin">prolactin</a>, which gradually increase throughout the pregnancy, and result in the structural development of the alveolar (milk-producing) tissue and the production of <a href="/wiki/Colostrum" title="Colostrum">colostrum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 18–21 <a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> While prolactin is the predominant hormone in milk production, <a href="/wiki/Progesterone" title="Progesterone">progesterone</a>, which is at high levels during pregnancy, blocks the prolactin receptors in the breast, thus inhibiting milk from "coming in" during pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 18–21 <a href="#cite_note-Brodribb_2018-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lawrence-2016-25">[25]</a> Many other physiologic changes occur under the control of progesterone and estrogen. These changes include, but are not limited to, dilation of blood vessels, increased blood flow to the uterus, increased availability of glucose (which subsequently is passed through the <a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">placenta</a> to the fetus), and increased skin pigmentation, which results in darkening of the <a href="/wiki/Nipple" title="Nipple">nipples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Areola" title="Areola">areola</a>, formation of the <a href="/wiki/Linea_nigra" title="Linea nigra">linea nigra</a>, and onset of <a href="/wiki/Melasma" title="Melasma">melasma of pregnancy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 18–21 <a href="#cite_note-Elling_1997-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Simpson-2014-27">[27]</a> From about the 16th week of pregnancy the breasts are able to begin to produce milk. It’s not unusual for small amounts of straw-coloured fluid called <a href="/wiki/Colostrum" title="Colostrum">colostrum</a> to leak from the nipples during this relatively early stage.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Breast development throughout pregnancy may result in significant <a href="/wiki/Areola" title="Areola">Areola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Areolar_gland" title="Areolar gland">Areolar gland</a> enlargement, erectile nipples, and/or nipple sensitivity.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lactogenesis_II">Lactogenesis II</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Lactogenesis II">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hormone_Levels_in_Pregnancy_and_Postpartum_Period.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Hormone_Levels_in_Pregnancy_and_Postpartum_Period.jpg/220px-Hormone_Levels_in_Pregnancy_and_Postpartum_Period.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Hormone_Levels_in_Pregnancy_and_Postpartum_Period.jpg/330px-Hormone_Levels_in_Pregnancy_and_Postpartum_Period.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Hormone_Levels_in_Pregnancy_and_Postpartum_Period.jpg/440px-Hormone_Levels_in_Pregnancy_and_Postpartum_Period.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Maternal hormone levels during pregnancy and after delivery of the placenta. Estradiol, estriol, progesterone, testosterone, and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) all increase throughout the pregnancy, and experience an abrupt drop-off after delivery of the placenta.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence-2016-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Elling_1997-26">[26]</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Third_stage_of_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Third stage of labor">third stage of labor</a> describes the period between the birth of the baby and the delivery of the placenta, which normally lasts less than 30 minutes.<a href="#cite_note-Zheng_2020-33">[33]</a> The delivery of the placenta causes an abrupt drop off of placental hormones.<a href="#cite_note-Zheng_2020-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 18–21 <a href="#cite_note-Lawrence-2016-25">[25]</a> This drop, specifically in progesterone, allows prolactin to work effectively at its receptors in the breast, leading to an array of changes over the next several days that allow the milk to "come in"; these changes are known collectively as Lactogenesis II.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 18–21 <a href="#cite_note-Lawrence-2016-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <a href="/wiki/Colostrum" title="Colostrum">Colostrum</a> continues to be produced for these next few days, as Lactogenesis II occurs.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 18–21  Milk may "come in" as late as five days after delivery; however, this process may be delayed due to a number of factors as described in the <a href="#Process">Process</a> "Delay in milk 'coming in'" subsection below.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 18–21 <a href="#cite_note-Lawrence-2016-25">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">Oxytocin</a>, which signals the <a href="/wiki/Smooth_muscle" title="Smooth muscle">smooth muscle</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">uterus</a> to contract during pregnancy, labor, birth and following delivery, is also involved in the process of breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-Zheng_2020-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lawrence-2016-25">[25]</a> Oxytocin also contracts the smooth muscle layer of band-like cells surrounding the milk ducts and alveoli to s the newly produced milk through the duct system and out through the nipple.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 18–21 <a href="#cite_note-Lawrence-2016-25">[25]</a> This process is known as the milk ejection reflex, or let-down.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 18–21  Because of oxytocin's dual activity at the breast and the uterus, breastfeeding mothers may also experience uterine cramping at the time of breastfeeding, for the first several days to weeks.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence-2016-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lactogenesis_III">Lactogenesis III</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Lactogenesis III">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Prolactin" title="Prolactin">Prolactin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">oxytocin</a> are vital for establishing milk supply initially, however, once the milk supply is well established, the volume and content of the milk produced is controlled locally.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 18–21 <a href="#cite_note-Brodribb_2018-22">[22]</a> Although prolactin levels are higher on average among breastfeeding mothers, prolactin levels themselves do not correlate to milk volume.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 18–21  At this stage, production of milk is triggered by milk drainage from the breasts. The only way to maintain milk supply is to drain the breasts frequently. Infrequent or incomplete drainage of the breasts, decreases blood flow to the alveoli and signals the milk-producing cells to produce less milk.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 18–21 <a href="#cite_note-Brodribb_2018-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lawrence-2016-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 72–80  <a href="/wiki/Breast_pump" title="Breast pump">Breast pumps</a> are often used to drain the breasts when the infant is not feeding.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> A condition called <a href="/wiki/Mastitis" title="Mastitis">Mastitis</a> sometimes occurs in this stage, resulting from incomplete milk drainage. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Academy_of_Breastfeeding_Medicine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine (page does not exist)">Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine</a> recommends against trying to "empty" the breasts, whether through pushing the baby to feed more or through over use of a breast pump, to prevent causing <a href="/wiki/Hyperlactation_syndrome" title="Hyperlactation syndrome">milk oversupply</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Breast_milk">Breast milk</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Breast milk">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Breast_milk" title="Breast milk">Breast milk</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_Breastmilk_-_Foremilk_and_Hindmilk.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Human_Breastmilk_-_Foremilk_and_Hindmilk.png/250px-Human_Breastmilk_-_Foremilk_and_Hindmilk.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Human_Breastmilk_-_Foremilk_and_Hindmilk.png/330px-Human_Breastmilk_-_Foremilk_and_Hindmilk.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Human_Breastmilk_-_Foremilk_and_Hindmilk.png/500px-Human_Breastmilk_-_Foremilk_and_Hindmilk.png 2x" data-file-width="3208" data-file-height="1428" /></a><figcaption>Two 25 ml samples of human breast milk. The sample on the left is foremilk, the watery milk coming from a full breast. To the right is hindmilk, the creamy milk coming from a nearly empty breast.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></figcaption></figure> The content of <a href="/wiki/Breast_milk" title="Breast milk">breast milk</a> should be discussed in two separate categories – the nutritional content and the bioactive content, that is the <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibodies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">signaling molecules</a> that assist the infant in ways outside of nutrition.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 10–14  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nutritional_content">Nutritional content</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Nutritional content">edit</a>]</div> The pattern of intended <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrient</a> content in breast milk is relatively consistent. Breastmilk is made from nutrients in the mother's <a href="/wiki/Bloodstream" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloodstream">bloodstream</a> and bodily stores. It has an optimal balance of fat, sugar, water, and <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> that is needed for a baby's age appropriate growth and development.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 10–14 <a href="#cite_note-HHS-38">[38]</a> That being said, a variety of factors can influence the nutritional makeup of breastmilk, including gestational age, age of infant, maternal age, maternal smoking, and nutritional needs of the infant.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 10–14 <a href="#cite_note-Hendrickson2012-39">[39]</a> The first type of milk produced is called <a href="/wiki/Colostrum" title="Colostrum">colostrum</a>. The volume of colostrum produced during each feeding is appropriate for the size of the newborn stomach and is sufficient, calorically, for feeding a newborn during the first few days of life.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 27–34 <a href="#cite_note-Flaherman_2017-40">[40]</a> Produced during pregnancy and the first days after childbirth, colostrum is rich in protein and Vitamins A, B12 and K, which supports infants' growth, brain development, vision, immune systems, red blood cells, and clotting cascade.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-de_Vries-2018-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> The breast milk also has long-chain <a href="/wiki/Polyunsaturated_fatty_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyunsaturated fatty acids">polyunsaturated fatty acids</a> which help with normal <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retinal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neural" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural">neural</a> development.<a href="#cite_note-Colen_2014-45">[45]</a> The caloric content of colostrum is about 54 Calories/100mL.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> The second type of milk is transitional milk, which is produced during the transition from colostrum to mature breast milk. As the breast milk matures over the course to several weeks, the protein content of the milk decreases on average.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 10–14  The caloric content of breastmilk is reflective of the caloric requirements of the infant, increasing steadily after 12 months.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 10–14  The caloric content of breastmilk in the first 12 months of breastfeeding is approximated to be 58-72 Calories/100mL. Comparatively, the caloric content after 48 months is approximately 83-129 Calories/100mL.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 10–14  When a mother has her full milk supply and is feeding her infant, the first milk to be expressed is called the foremilk. Foremilk is typically thinner and less rich in calories. The hindmilk that follows is rich in calories and fat.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_2021-47">[47]</a>: 239  If the mother is not deficient in vitamins, breast milk normally supplies the baby's needs, with the exception of Vitamin D. The <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">CDC</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Health_Service" title="National Health Service">National Health Service</a> (UK), <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Paediatric_Society" title="Canadian Paediatric Society">Canadian Paediatric Society</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Pediatrics" title="American Academy of Pediatrics">American Academy of Pediatrics</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Family_Physicians" title="American Academy of Family Physicians">American Academy of Family Physicians</a> all agree that breast milk alone does not provide infants with an adequate amount of Vitamin D, thus they advise parents to supplement their infants with 400 <a href="/wiki/International_unit" title="International unit">IU</a> Vitamin D daily.<a href="#cite_note-AA_Peds-2021-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Casey-2010-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC-2021c-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC_20092-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Canadian_Paediatric_Society2-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-NHS_Choices_Home_Page2-53">[53]</a> Providing this quantity of Vitamin D to breastfeeding infants has been shown to reduce rates of Vitamin D insufficiency (defined as 25-OH vitamin D < 50 nmol/L). However, there was insufficient evidence in the most recent <a href="/wiki/Cochrane_(organisation)" title="Cochrane (organisation)">Cochrane Review</a>, to determine if this quantity reduced rates of Vitamin D deficiency (defined as 25-OH vitamin D < 30 nmol/L) or <a href="/wiki/Rickets" title="Rickets">rickets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Term infants typically do not need iron supplementation. Delaying clamping of the cord at birth for at least one minute improves the infants' iron status for the first year.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 50–51 <a href="#cite_note-CDC-2021b-55">[55]</a> When complementary (solid) foods are introduced at about 6 months of age, parents should make sure to choose iron-rich foods to help maintain their children's iron stores.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 50–51 <a href="#cite_note-CDC-2021b-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bioactive_content">Bioactive content</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Bioactive content">edit</a>]</div> In addition to the nutritional benefits of breastmilk, breast milk also provides enzymes, antibodies, and other substances that support the infant's growth and development.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 10–14  The bioactive makeup of breastmilk also changes based on the needs of the infant; for example, when an infant is recovering from an <a href="/wiki/Upper_respiratory_tract_infection" title="Upper respiratory tract infection">upper respiratory infection</a>, local signaling allows for increased passage of immune cells and proteins to aid the infant's immune system.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 10–14 <a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Produced during pregnancy and the first days after childbirth, <a href="/wiki/Colostrum" title="Colostrum">colostrum</a> is easy to digest and has laxative properties that help the infant to pass early stools.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 27–34 <a href="#cite_note-de_Vries-2018-42">[42]</a> This aids in the excretion of excess <a href="/wiki/Bilirubin" title="Bilirubin">bilirubin</a>, which helps to prevent <a href="/wiki/Jaundice" title="Jaundice">jaundice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 34–47  Colostrum also helps to seal the infants <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a> from foreign substances and germs, which may sensitize the baby to foods that the mother has eaten and decrease the risk of <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrheal illness</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 10–14 <a href="#cite_note-Lawrence-2016-25">[25]</a> Although the baby has received some antibodies (<a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_G" title="Immunoglobulin G">IgG</a>) through the placenta, colostrum contains a substance which is new to the newborn, secretory <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_A" title="Immunoglobulin A">immunoglobulin A</a> (IgA). IgA works to attack germs in the <a href="/wiki/Mucous_membrane" title="Mucous membrane">mucous membranes</a> of the throat, lungs, and intestines, which are most likely to come under attack from germs.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 10–14 <a href="#cite_note-Lawrence-2016-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-La_Leche_League-57">[57]</a> Additionally, colostrum and mature breast milk contain many <a href="/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-inflammatory" title="Anti-inflammatory">anti-inflammatory</a> <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> that decrease the risk of gastrointestinal allergies to food, <a href="/wiki/Allergic_rhinitis" title="Allergic rhinitis">respiratory allergies</a> to air particles like pollen, and other <a href="/wiki/Atopy" title="Atopy">atopic diseases</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atopic_dermatitis" title="Atopic dermatitis">eczema</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 10–14 <a href="#cite_note-Lawrence-2016-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Process">Process</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Process">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commencement">Commencement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Commencement">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geburt_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Geburt_01.jpg/220px-Geburt_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Geburt_01.jpg/330px-Geburt_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Geburt_01.jpg/440px-Geburt_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="637" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Newborn rests as a <a href="/wiki/Caregiver" title="Caregiver">caregiver</a> checks its breath sounds with a <a href="/wiki/Stethoscope" title="Stethoscope">stethoscope</a></figcaption></figure> It is recommended for mothers to initiate breastfeeding within the first hour after birth.<a href="#cite_note-Zheng_2020-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 27–34 <a href="#cite_note-who.int-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Holmes_2013-60">[60]</a> Uninterrupted skin-to-skin contact and breastfeeding can begin immediately after birth, and should continue for at least one hour after birth.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 27–34 <a href="#cite_note-Holmes_2013-60">[60]</a> This period of infant-mother interaction, known generally as <a href="/wiki/Kangaroo_care" title="Kangaroo care">kangaroo care</a>, or the "golden hour" during the immediate postpartum period, assists in the mother–child bonding for both mother and baby, and is thought to encourage instinctual breastfeeding behavior in the infant.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 27–34 <a href="#cite_note-Breast_Crawl-61">[61]</a> Newborns who are immediately placed on their mother's skin have a natural instinct to latch on to the breast and start nursing, typically within one hour of birth. Success with breastfeeding in this "golden hour" increases the likelihood of successful breastfeeding at discharge.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 27–34  Skin-to-skin mother-baby contact should still occur, even if the baby is born by <a href="/wiki/Cesarean" class="mw-redirect" title="Cesarean">Cesarean</a> surgery.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 27–34 <a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> The baby is placed on the mother in the operating room or the recovery area. If the mother is unable to immediately hold the baby a family member can provide skin-to-skin care until the mother is able. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Breast_crawl">Breast crawl</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Breast crawl">edit</a>]</div> According to studies cited by <a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a>, babies naturally follow a process which leads to a first breastfeed. Shortly after birth, the infant relaxes and makes small movements of the arms, shoulders and head. If placed on the mother's abdomen the baby gradually inches towards the breast, called the <a href="/wiki/Breast_crawl" title="Breast crawl">breast crawl</a><a href="#cite_note-Breast_Crawl-61">[61]</a> and begins to feed. After feeding, it is normal for a baby to remain latched to the breast while resting. This is sometimes mistaken for lack of appetite. Absent interruptions, all babies follow this process. Rushing, by picking up and moving the infant to the breast, or interrupting the process, such as removing the baby to be weighed, may complicate subsequent feeding.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-63">[63]</a> Activities such as weighing, measuring, bathing, needle-sticks, and eye prophylaxis wait until after the first feeding.<a href="#cite_note-Gartner_2005-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Preterm_or_low-tone_infants">Preterm or low-tone infants</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Preterm or low-tone infants">edit</a>]</div> Children who are born <a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">preterm</a> (before 37 weeks), children born in the early term period (37 weeks–38 weeks and 6 days), and children born with low muscular tone, such as those with <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_abnormality" title="Chromosome abnormality">chromosomal abnormalities</a> like <a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a> or neurological conditions like <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_palsy" title="Cerebral palsy">Cerebral palsy</a>, may have difficulty in initiating breast feeds immediately after birth.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 34–47 <a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> These <a href="/wiki/Late_preterm_infant" title="Late preterm infant">late preterm</a> (34 weeks –36 weeks and 6 days) and early term (37 weeks–38 weeks and 6 days) infants are at increased risk for both breastfeeding cessation and complications of insufficient milk intake (e.g., dehydration, hypoglycemia, jaundice, and excessive weight loss).<a href="#cite_note-Boies-2016-67">[67]</a> They are often expected to feed like term babies, but they have less strength and stamina to feed adequately.<a href="#cite_note-Boies-2016-67">[67]</a> By convention, such children are often fed on <a href="/wiki/Expressed_breast_milk" class="mw-redirect" title="Expressed breast milk">expressed breast milk</a> or other supplementary feeds through tubes, <a href="/wiki/Supplemental_nursing_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Supplemental nursing systems">supplemental nursing systems</a>, bottles, spoons or cups until they develop satisfactory ability to suck and swallow breast milk. Regardless of feeding method chosen, human milk feedings, whether from the mother or a donor, are important in the brain development of premature infants, and the NICU having a standardized protocol for feeding is protective against dangerous gastrointestinal infections (<a href="/wiki/Necrotizing_enterocolitis" title="Necrotizing enterocolitis">necrotizing enterocolitis</a>) in these infants.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_2021-47">[47]</a>: 502–545  Frequent breastfeeding and/or small amounts of supplementation may be needed for successful outcomes; breast pumping and/or <a href="/wiki/Hand_expression_of_breast_milk" title="Hand expression of breast milk">hand expression</a> is often helpful in providing adequate stimulation to the mother's breasts.<a href="#cite_note-Boies-2016-67">[67]</a> Starting to breastfeed may be challenging for mothers of preterm infants, especially those born before 34 weeks, because their breasts may still be developing (in Lactogenesis I, see Breastfeeding Physiology). Additionally, mother–infant separation and the stressful environment of the NICU are also barriers to breastfeeding. Availability of a lactation specialist in the NICU can be helpful for mothers trying to establish their milk supply.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_2021-47">[47]</a>: 502–545  Additionally, skin-to-skin <a href="/wiki/Kangaroo_care" title="Kangaroo care">(Kangaroo Care)</a> has been shown to be safe and beneficial to both mother and baby.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_2021-47">[47]</a>: 502–545  Kangaroo Care stabilizes newborn premature infants' vital signs, such as their heart rate, providing a naturally warm environment that helps them regulate their temperature.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_2021-47">[47]</a>: 502–545  It is also beneficial to the mother, as it may improve the development of milk supply and be beneficial for mental health.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 34–47  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timing">Timing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Timing">edit</a>]</div> Newborn babies usually breastfeed 8 to 12 times every 24 hours, and they typically express hunger cues every one to three hours for the first two to four weeks of their lives.<a href="#cite_note-Zheng_2020-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 27–34 <a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 50–51 <a href="#cite_note-cpmc-68">[68]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">newborn</a> has a small stomach capacity, approximately 20 ml.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> The amount of breast milk that is produced is timed to meet the infant's needs in that the first milk, colostrum, is concentrated but produced in only very small amounts, gradually increasing in volume to meet the expanding size of the infant's stomach capacity.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 27–34 <a href="#cite_note-La_Leche_League-57">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cluster_feeding" title="Cluster feeding">Cluster feeding</a> may occur for several months, whereby infants will feed very frequently (every 30 minutes to 1 hour), usually associated with <a href="/wiki/Child_development_stages" title="Child development stages">developmental milestones</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Many newborns will typically feed for 10 to 15 minutes on each breast, however feeds may last up to 45 minutes depending on infant wakefulness and efficiency.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 50–51 <a href="#cite_note-NIH2014How-72">[72]</a> It is important for parents to recognize the difference between Nutritive and Non-Nutritive Sucking. Nutritive Sucking follows a slow, rhythmic pattern, with 1–2 sucks per swallow. Non-nutritive sucking is a faster-paced sucking pattern with few swallows. This swallow pattern is often observed at the beginning and/or the end of a feed. At the beginning of the feed, this pattern triggers milk letdown, while at the end of the feed, this may be a signal of the infant tired or becoming relaxed with a slower milk velocity.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 27–34  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Duration_and_exclusivity">Duration and exclusivity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Duration and exclusivity">edit</a>]</div> Numerous health organizations, including, but not limited to, the CDC, WHO, National Health Service, Canadian Pediatric Society, American Academy of Pediatrics, and American Academy of Family Physicians, recommend breastfeeding exclusively for six months following birth, unless medically contraindicated.<a href="#cite_note-WHO20142-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 15–17 <a href="#cite_note-USCDC-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-Health_Canada2-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Australian_Government_Department_of_Health-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-UKNHS-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-Johnston_2012-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC2011-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-Promotion_of_Breastfeeding_in_Europe-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-AAFP_position_paper-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-ACOG_756-82">[82]</a> Exclusive breastfeeding is defined as "an infant's consumption of human milk with no supplementation of any type (no water, no juice, no nonhuman milk and no foods) except for vitamins, minerals and medications."<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 15–17 <a href="#cite_note-Gartner_2005-64">[64]</a> Supplementation with human donor breastmilk may be indicated in some specific cases, as discussed below.<a href="#cite_note-Abrams_2017-83">[83]</a> After solids are introduced at around six months of age, continued breastfeeding is recommended. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that babies be breastfed at least until 12 months, or longer if both the mother and child wish.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 15–17 <a href="#cite_note-Johnston_2012-5">[5]</a> The World Health Organization's guidelines recommend "continue[d] frequent, on-demand breastfeeding until two years of age or beyond.<a href="#cite_note-who.int-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2003-84">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Extended_breastfeeding" title="Extended breastfeeding">Extended breastfeeding</a> means breastfeeding after the age of 12 or 24 months, depending on the source. In Western countries such as the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, extended breastfeeding is relatively uncommon and can provoke criticism.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mayo_Clinic-86">[86]</a> In the United States, 22.4% of babies are breastfed for 12 months, the minimum amount of time advised by the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Pediatrics" title="American Academy of Pediatrics">American Academy of Pediatrics</a>. In <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, mothers commonly breastfeed for 2 to 3 years.<a href="#cite_note-Stein_2004-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Supplementation">Supplementation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Supplementation">edit</a>]</div> Supplementation is defined as the use of additional milk or fluid products to feed an infant, in addition to breastmilk, during the first 6 months of life.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 34–47 <a href="#cite_note-Kellams_2017-88">[88]</a> The Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine recommends only supplementing when medically indicated, as opposed to mixing use of formula and breastmilk for reasons that are not necessarily medical indications.<a href="#cite_note-Kellams_2017-88">[88]</a> Some medical indications for supplementation include low blood sugar, dehydration, excessive weight loss or poor gain, and jaundice in the infant; true low milk supply; severe nipple pain unrelieved by interventions; and medical contraindications to breastfeeding, as described below.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 34–47 <a href="#cite_note-Kellams_2017-88">[88]</a> Supplements can be delivered at the breast through a <a href="/wiki/Supplemental_nursing_system" title="Supplemental nursing system">supplemental nursing system</a> in order to stimulate the production of the mother's own milk and to preserve the breastfeeding relationship.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Some parents may desire to supplement proactively if early signs of insufficient intake, such as decreased urination, dry mucous membranes, or persistent signs of hunger, are noticed. If these signs are noticed, it is important to have the mother-infant dyad evaluated by a breastfeeding specialist or pediatrician to determine the true cause of the symptoms and determine the need for supplementation.<a href="#cite_note-Kellams_2017-88">[88]</a> Often, these symptoms are caused by poor milk transfer at the breast, and can be solved with adjustments to the latch, but occasionally they may be caused by other processes, unrelated to breastfeeding, so evaluation is necessary.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 72–73  Supplementation with formula is associated with decreased rates of exclusive breastfeeding at 6 months, and overall decreased length of breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-Kellams_2017-88">[88]</a> In terms of what to supplement with, the first choice is always the mother's own breastmilk, save any medical contraindications to its use.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 34–47 <a href="#cite_note-Kellams_2017-88">[88]</a> The second best option for supplementation is <a href="/wiki/Pasteurization" title="Pasteurization">pasteurized</a> human <a href="/wiki/Human_milk_bank" title="Human milk bank">donor milk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 34–47 <a href="#cite_note-Kellams_2017-88">[88]</a> Finally, specific formulas may be used for supplementation if maternal or donor breastmilk are not options.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 34–47 <a href="#cite_note-Kellams_2017-88">[88]</a> One situation where this may be the case is in cases of infant metabolic diseases, such as <a href="/wiki/Galactosemia" title="Galactosemia">galactosemia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 15–17 <a href="#cite_note-Kellams_2017-88">[88]</a> The Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine recommends that supplementation only be used when medically indicated and when overseen by a medical professional, such as a pediatrician or family physician, and after consultation with an IBCLC.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 34–47  Without sufficient breast stimulation, supplementation can reduce the mother's milk production, so pumping would be indicated in these cases if continued breastfeeding is desired. Indications for use of <a href="/wiki/Human_milk_bank" title="Human milk bank">donor breastmilk</a> are very closely outlined by the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Pediatrics" title="American Academy of Pediatrics">American Academy of Pediatrics</a> (AAP). Due to low availability and high cost of donor breastmilk, the AAP recommends prioritizing the use of the milk for infants born with a weight of less than 1500g (approximately 3lb 5oz), as it is helpful in decreasing rates of the severe intestinal infection, <a href="/wiki/Necrotizing_enterocolitis" title="Necrotizing enterocolitis">necrotizing enterocolitis</a>, in this population.<a href="#cite_note-Abrams_2017-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Position">Position</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Position">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Woman_breastfeeding_an_infant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Woman_breastfeeding_an_infant.jpg/250px-Woman_breastfeeding_an_infant.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Woman_breastfeeding_an_infant.jpg/330px-Woman_breastfeeding_an_infant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Woman_breastfeeding_an_infant.jpg/500px-Woman_breastfeeding_an_infant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="738" data-file-height="998" /></a><figcaption>A mother cradling an infant while breastfeeding</figcaption></figure> Effective positioning and technique for latching on are necessary to prevent nipple soreness and allow the baby to obtain enough milk.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 27–34 <a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 50–51 <a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Babies can successfully latch on to the breast from multiple positions. Each baby may prefer a particular position. The "football" hold places the baby's legs next to the mother's side with the baby facing the mother. Using the "cradle" or "cross-body" hold, the mother supports the baby's head in the crook of her arm. The "cross-over" hold is similar to the cradle hold, except that the mother supports the baby's head with the opposite hand. The mother may choose a reclining position on her back or side with the baby lying next to her.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> No matter the position the parent-infant dyad finds most comfortable, there are a few components of every position which will help facilitate a successful <a href="/wiki/Latch_(breastfeeding)" title="Latch (breastfeeding)">latch</a>. One key component is maternal comfort. The mother should be comfortable while breastfeeding, and should have her back, feet, and arms supported with pillows as necessary. Additionally, when starting the latch process, the infant should be aligned with their abdomen facing their mother, which can be remembered as "tummy-to-mummy," and with their hips, shoulders and head aligned. This alignment helps to facilitate proper, efficient swallowing mechanics.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 27–34  <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:ASC_Leiden_-_Coutinho_Collection_-_1_12_-_Life_in_Canjambari,_Guinea-Bissau_-_Guinean_mother_breastfeeding_her_baby_-_1973_(cropped).tiff" class="mw-file-description" title="Standing mother breastfeeding her baby, Canjambari, Guinea-Bissau, 1973"><img alt="Standing mother breastfeeding her baby, Canjambari, Guinea-Bissau, 1973" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/ASC_Leiden_-_Coutinho_Collection_-_1_12_-_Life_in_Canjambari%2C_Guinea-Bissau_-_Guinean_mother_breastfeeding_her_baby_-_1973_%28cropped%29.tiff/lossy-page1-120px-ASC_Leiden_-_Coutinho_Collection_-_1_12_-_Life_in_Canjambari%2C_Guinea-Bissau_-_Guinean_mother_breastfeeding_her_baby_-_1973_%28cropped%29.tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/ASC_Leiden_-_Coutinho_Collection_-_1_12_-_Life_in_Canjambari%2C_Guinea-Bissau_-_Guinean_mother_breastfeeding_her_baby_-_1973_%28cropped%29.tiff/lossy-page1-180px-ASC_Leiden_-_Coutinho_Collection_-_1_12_-_Life_in_Canjambari%2C_Guinea-Bissau_-_Guinean_mother_breastfeeding_her_baby_-_1973_%28cropped%29.tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/ASC_Leiden_-_Coutinho_Collection_-_1_12_-_Life_in_Canjambari%2C_Guinea-Bissau_-_Guinean_mother_breastfeeding_her_baby_-_1973_%28cropped%29.tiff/lossy-page1-240px-ASC_Leiden_-_Coutinho_Collection_-_1_12_-_Life_in_Canjambari%2C_Guinea-Bissau_-_Guinean_mother_breastfeeding_her_baby_-_1973_%28cropped%29.tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4571" data-file-height="3110" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Standing mother breastfeeding her baby, Canjambari, <a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a>, 1973</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Breastfeeding_-_Cradle_Hold.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Breastfeeding – Cradle hold."><img alt="Breastfeeding – Cradle hold." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Breastfeeding_-_Cradle_Hold.png/120px-Breastfeeding_-_Cradle_Hold.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Breastfeeding_-_Cradle_Hold.png/250px-Breastfeeding_-_Cradle_Hold.png 1.5x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Breastfeeding – Cradle hold.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Breastfeeding_-_Cross_Cradle_Position.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Breastfeeding – Cross cradle position."><img alt="Breastfeeding – Cross cradle position." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Breastfeeding_-_Cross_Cradle_Position.png/120px-Breastfeeding_-_Cross_Cradle_Position.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Breastfeeding_-_Cross_Cradle_Position.png/250px-Breastfeeding_-_Cross_Cradle_Position.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Breastfeeding – Cross cradle position.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Breastfeeding_-_Football_Hold.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Breastfeeding – Football hold."><img alt="Breastfeeding – Football hold." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Breastfeeding_-_Football_Hold.png/90px-Breastfeeding_-_Football_Hold.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Breastfeeding_-_Football_Hold.png/135px-Breastfeeding_-_Football_Hold.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Breastfeeding_-_Football_Hold.png/180px-Breastfeeding_-_Football_Hold.png 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Breastfeeding – Football hold.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Breastfeeding_-_Semi-Reclining_Position.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Breastfeeding – Semi-reclining position."><img alt="Breastfeeding – Semi-reclining position." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Breastfeeding_-_Semi-Reclining_Position.png/120px-Breastfeeding_-_Semi-Reclining_Position.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Breastfeeding_-_Semi-Reclining_Position.png/180px-Breastfeeding_-_Semi-Reclining_Position.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Breastfeeding_-_Semi-Reclining_Position.png/240px-Breastfeeding_-_Semi-Reclining_Position.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Breastfeeding – Semi-reclining position.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Breastfeeding_-_Side-Lying_Position.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Breastfeeding – Side-lying position."><img alt="Breastfeeding – Side-lying position." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Breastfeeding_-_Side-Lying_Position.png/90px-Breastfeeding_-_Side-Lying_Position.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Breastfeeding_-_Side-Lying_Position.png/135px-Breastfeeding_-_Side-Lying_Position.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Breastfeeding_-_Side-Lying_Position.png/180px-Breastfeeding_-_Side-Lying_Position.png 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Breastfeeding – Side-lying position.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Breastfeeding_-_Supine_Position.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Breastfeeding – Supine position."><img alt="Breastfeeding – Supine position." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Breastfeeding_-_Supine_Position.png/120px-Breastfeeding_-_Supine_Position.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Breastfeeding_-_Supine_Position.png/250px-Breastfeeding_-_Supine_Position.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="750" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Breastfeeding – Supine position.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Breastfeeding_-_Twins,_Cross_Cradle_Position_I.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Breastfeeding – Twins, cross cradle position I."><img alt="Breastfeeding – Twins, cross cradle position I." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Breastfeeding_-_Twins%2C_Cross_Cradle_Position_I.png/90px-Breastfeeding_-_Twins%2C_Cross_Cradle_Position_I.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Breastfeeding_-_Twins%2C_Cross_Cradle_Position_I.png/135px-Breastfeeding_-_Twins%2C_Cross_Cradle_Position_I.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Breastfeeding_-_Twins%2C_Cross_Cradle_Position_I.png/180px-Breastfeeding_-_Twins%2C_Cross_Cradle_Position_I.png 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Breastfeeding – Twins, cross cradle position I.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Blausen_0134_Breastfeeding_Twins_FootballorClutchHold_02.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Breastfeeding – Twins, football or clutch hold."><img alt="Breastfeeding – Twins, football or clutch hold." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Blausen_0134_Breastfeeding_Twins_FootballorClutchHold_02.png/90px-Blausen_0134_Breastfeeding_Twins_FootballorClutchHold_02.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Blausen_0134_Breastfeeding_Twins_FootballorClutchHold_02.png/135px-Blausen_0134_Breastfeeding_Twins_FootballorClutchHold_02.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Blausen_0134_Breastfeeding_Twins_FootballorClutchHold_02.png/180px-Blausen_0134_Breastfeeding_Twins_FootballorClutchHold_02.png 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Breastfeeding – Twins, football or clutch hold.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Breastfeeding_-_Twins,_Parallel_Position_II.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Breastfeeding – Twins, parallel position II."><img alt="Breastfeeding – Twins, parallel position II." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Breastfeeding_-_Twins%2C_Parallel_Position_II.png/120px-Breastfeeding_-_Twins%2C_Parallel_Position_II.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Breastfeeding_-_Twins%2C_Parallel_Position_II.png/250px-Breastfeeding_-_Twins%2C_Parallel_Position_II.png 1.5x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Breastfeeding – Twins, parallel position II.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latching">Latching</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Latching">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Latch_(breastfeeding)" title="Latch (breastfeeding)">Latch (breastfeeding)</a></div> Latching refers to how the baby uses their lips, cheek, and tongue to attach to the nipple and breast. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Making_use_of_anatomy_and_reflexes">Making use of anatomy and reflexes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Making use of anatomy and reflexes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Good_breastfeeding_latch_and_breast_compression.ogv/170px--Good_breastfeeding_latch_and_breast_compression.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="170" height="83" data-durationhint="68" data-mwtitle="Good_breastfeeding_latch_and_breast_compression.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Good_breastfeeding_latch_and_breast_compression.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/79/Good_breastfeeding_latch_and_breast_compression.ogv/Good_breastfeeding_latch_and_breast_compression.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="156" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Good_breastfeeding_latch_and_breast_compression.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="320" data-height="156" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/79/Good_breastfeeding_latch_and_breast_compression.ogv/Good_breastfeeding_latch_and_breast_compression.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="156" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/79/Good_breastfeeding_latch_and_breast_compression.ogv/Good_breastfeeding_latch_and_breast_compression.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="124" /></video><figcaption>The process of latching a newborn onto the breast<a href="#cite_note-Newman-92">[92]</a></figcaption></figure> Sebaceous glands called <a href="/wiki/Glands_of_Montgomery" class="mw-redirect" title="Glands of Montgomery">Glands of Montgomery</a> located in the areola secrete an oily fluid that lubricate and protect the nipple during latching. The visible portions of the glands can be seen on the skin's surface as small round bumps.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 18–21  The <a href="/wiki/Rooting_reflex" class="mw-redirect" title="Rooting reflex">rooting reflex</a> is the baby's natural tendency to turn towards the breast with the mouth open wide.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> When preparing to latch, mothers should make use of this reflex by gently stroking the baby's <a href="/wiki/Philtrum" title="Philtrum">philtrum</a>, the area between the upper lip and the nose, with their nipple to induce the baby to open their mouth with a wide gape.<a href="#cite_note-Newman-92">[92]</a> One way to help the infant achieve a deep latch is to compress the breast tissue into a "U" or "hamburger shape," so that the infant can fit the breast tissue into their mouth. This is done by the mother placing her thumb and fingers in line with the infant's nose and mouth respectively and using this grip to compress the breast tissue.<a href="#cite_note-Newman-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bringing_the_infant_in_to_latch">Bringing the infant in to latch</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Bringing the infant in to latch">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Breastfeeding_-_Incorrect_vs_Correct_Latch-On.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Breastfeeding_-_Incorrect_vs_Correct_Latch-On.png/220px-Breastfeeding_-_Incorrect_vs_Correct_Latch-On.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Breastfeeding_-_Incorrect_vs_Correct_Latch-On.png/330px-Breastfeeding_-_Incorrect_vs_Correct_Latch-On.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Breastfeeding_-_Incorrect_vs_Correct_Latch-On.png/440px-Breastfeeding_-_Incorrect_vs_Correct_Latch-On.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Illustration noting the lower lip of the infant during latching</figcaption></figure> If the newborn seems to need help in latching on, the mother should focus on helping the infant by bringing their chin to the breast first. This facilitates a deep, asymmetric latch, and also helps the infant <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_motion" title="Anatomical terms of motion">extend their neck</a> and tilt their forehead back to maintain this deep latch and ease the swallowing process.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Signs_of_a_good,_deep_latch">Signs of a good, deep latch</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Signs of a good, deep latch">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Good_Latch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Good_Latch.jpg/250px-Good_Latch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Good_Latch.jpg/330px-Good_Latch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Good_Latch.jpg/500px-Good_Latch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2550" data-file-height="3300" /></a><figcaption>Example and indicators of a good latch<a href="#cite_note-ibconline.ca-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-Simpson-2014-27">[27]</a></figcaption></figure>In a good latch, a large amount of the areola, in addition to the nipple, is in the baby's mouth. The amount of areola visible on either side of the infant's mouth should be asymmetric, meaning most of the "bottom" of the areola should be in the infants mouth and much more of the "top" of the areola should be visible. This position is helpful in pointing the nipple toward the roof of the infant's mouth, helping the infant recruit more milk.<a href="#cite_note-ibconline.ca-95">[95]</a> The baby's lips should be flanged out.<a href="#cite_note-NHS_2016-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrenceLawrence2015249-97">[97]</a> The neck should be <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_motion" title="Anatomical terms of motion">extended</a> to facilitate swallowing, and as such, the chin will be close to the breast, and the forehead and nose should be far from the breast.<a href="#cite_note-ibconline.ca-95">[95]</a> Another sign of a good latch is the contour of the infant's cheeks; the cheeks should be rounded all the way to the edge of the mouth, rather than dimpled or creased at the edge of the mouth.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> This is a good indicator of effective suck mechanics. Additionally, in order to achieve a deep latch, the infant's mouth must be open wide, preferably wider than 140 degrees.<a href="#cite_note-Simpson-2014-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Signs_of_a_poor,_shallow_latch">Signs of a poor, shallow latch</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Signs of a poor, shallow latch">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shallow_Latch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Shallow_Latch.jpg/220px-Shallow_Latch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Shallow_Latch.jpg/330px-Shallow_Latch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Shallow_Latch.jpg/440px-Shallow_Latch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2550" data-file-height="3300" /></a><figcaption>Example and indicators of a poor, shallow latch<a href="#cite_note-ibconline.ca-95">[95]</a></figcaption></figure> In a poor, shallow latch, the infant may latch close to, or at, the nipple, which can cause the mother pain.<a href="#cite_note-LLL_GB-2016-99">[99]</a> While the infant is at the breast, the first indicators of a shallow latch are having the <a href="/wiki/Areola" title="Areola">areola</a> be largely visible outside the infant's mouth and a narrow infant mouth angle.<a href="#cite_note-ibconline.ca-95">[95]</a> Additional signs result from poor positioning when the infant comes toward the breast to latch. If the infant leads with their brow or forehead, they are likely to flex their neck; this mechanism of latching causes the nipple to point down and then hit the hard palate during sucking.<a href="#cite_note-LLL_GB-2016-99">[99]</a> From an external view, this manifests as the nose and forehead being close to the breast and the chin far from the breast.<a href="#cite_note-ibconline.ca-95">[95]</a> This neck flexion also obstructs the normal swallowing mechanism, preventing the infant from drinking efficiently.<a href="#cite_note-ibconline.ca-95">[95]</a> In addition to not being able to swallow properly, this shallow latch prevents the infant from adequately compressing the glandular tissue behind the nipple and stimulating milk flow; thus, they may begin to apply more suction, which manifests externally as cheek dimpling, or sucking their cheeks in.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 27–34 <a href="#cite_note-ibconline.ca-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Let-down_reflex">Let-down reflex</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Let-down reflex">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lactation#Milk_ejection_reflex" title="Lactation">Lactation § Milk ejection reflex</a></div> When the baby suckles muscles in the breast squeeze milk towards the nipples. This is called the let-down reflex. Some women report that they do not experience anything while others report a tingling feeling which is sometimes described as quite strong. The baby may be seen to respond to the beginning of the flow of milk by changing from quick sucks to deep rhythmic swallows. Sometimes the let-down is so strong that the baby splutters and coughs and the mother may need to remove the baby from her breast for a short time until the flow becomes less forceful. Milk may also let-down unexpectedly when a mother hears her baby cry or even only thinks about the baby. Nursing pads may be made or purchased to absorb unexpected milk flows.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Problems_with_breastfeeding">Problems with breastfeeding</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Problems with breastfeeding">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_difficulties" title="Breastfeeding difficulties">Breastfeeding difficulties</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inverted_nipples">Inverted nipples</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Inverted nipples">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Inverted_nipple" title="Inverted nipple">Inverted nipple</a></div> Infants of mothers with inverted nipples can still achieve a good latch with perhaps a little extra effort. For some women, the nipple may easily become erect when stimulated. Other women may require modified breastfeeding techniques, and some may need extra devices, such as nipple shells, modified syringes, or breast pumps to expose the nipple.<a href="#cite_note-LLLI-2021b-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cheung_2017-103">[103]</a> La Leche League and Toronto Public Health offer several techniques to use during pregnancy or even in the early days following birth that may help to bring a flat or inverted nipple out.<a href="#cite_note-LLLI-2021b-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cheung_2017-103">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Use_of_pacifiers">Use of pacifiers</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Use of pacifiers">edit</a>]</div> The World Health Organization's Ten Steps to Successful Breastfeeding recommends total avoidance of pacifiers for breastfeeding infants. In 2016 a large review of studies reported that the use of a pacifier beginning at birth or after lactation was established did not significantly affect the duration of exclusive and partial breastfeeding up to four months of age. The CDC, however, currently (2022) reports that early use of pacifiers can have a negative outcome on the success of breastfeeding and they suggest that it should be delayed until breastfeeding is firmly established.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-Marmet_2000-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-JaafarHo2016-106">[106]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ankyloglossia_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Ankyloglossia_1.jpg/220px-Ankyloglossia_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Ankyloglossia_1.jpg/330px-Ankyloglossia_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Ankyloglossia_1.jpg/440px-Ankyloglossia_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2258" data-file-height="2305" /></a><figcaption>Anterior tongue-tie<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ankyloglossia">Ankyloglossia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Ankyloglossia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ankyloglossia" title="Ankyloglossia">Ankyloglossia</a></div> Ankyloglossia, also called "tongue-tie" may cause shallow latch, poor milk transfer, and other problems with breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 34–47  There are two types of tongue-ties; an anterior tongue-tie occurs when a band of tissue, known as the <a href="/wiki/Frenulum_of_tongue" class="mw-redirect" title="Frenulum of tongue">frenulum</a>, attaches the tongue to the base of the mouth, restricting the tongue's vertical movement and preventing the infant from pressing the breast and nipple into the <a href="/wiki/Soft_palate" title="Soft palate">soft palate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 34–47  A posterior tongue-tie is a band of tissue that can only be felt on exam, and tends to impact breastfeeding less severely than its anterior counterpart.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 34–47  If it is determined that the inability to latch on properly is related to ankyloglossia, a simple surgical procedure to clip the frenulum can correct the condition.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 34–47 <a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-whgov-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-whgov2-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> The Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine and the Australian Dental Association have raised concern over the growing trend of oral tie surgeries, due to evidence for benefit being low-quality, inconsistent, or unsupported.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Engorgement">Engorgement</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Engorgement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Breast_engorgement" title="Breast engorgement">Breast engorgement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mont%C3%A9e_lait_avant.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Mont%C3%A9e_lait_avant.JPG/220px-Mont%C3%A9e_lait_avant.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Mont%C3%A9e_lait_avant.JPG/330px-Mont%C3%A9e_lait_avant.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Mont%C3%A9e_lait_avant.JPG/440px-Mont%C3%A9e_lait_avant.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Pre-pregnant human breasts</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mont%C3%A9e_lait_apr%C3%A8s.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Mont%C3%A9e_lait_apr%C3%A8s.JPG/250px-Mont%C3%A9e_lait_apr%C3%A8s.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Mont%C3%A9e_lait_apr%C3%A8s.JPG/330px-Mont%C3%A9e_lait_apr%C3%A8s.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Mont%C3%A9e_lait_apr%C3%A8s.JPG/500px-Mont%C3%A9e_lait_apr%C3%A8s.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Lactating human breasts showing evidence of engorgement</figcaption></figure> Engorgement is the swelling and stretching of the breast tissue due to accumulation of fluid in the tissue surrounding and supporting the milk-producing cells and ducts.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 55 <a href="#cite_note-Berens_2016-17">[17]</a> Engorgement most frequently occurs as milk "comes in" and during the <a href="/wiki/Weaning" title="Weaning">weaning</a> process.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 55 <a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> As milk is coming in, several processes occur. At the end of pregnancy there is dilation of the blood vessels which supply the breast, allowing for leaking into the tissue or <a href="/wiki/Interstitial_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstitial fluid">interstitial space</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Berens_2016-17">[17]</a> Additionally, the birth of an infant is followed by massive fluid shifts to both offload excess fluid, which had been used to supply oxygen and nutrients to the fetus through the placenta, which is no longer needed, and supply additional fluid to the breasts in order to start the process of making milk. These fluid shifts often result in some of this excess fluid leaking into the breast tissue.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 55  Finally, milk "coming in" can create an uncomfortably full feeling, which combined with the aforementioned fluid accumulation in the breast tissue, can cause severe pain.<a href="#cite_note-Berens_2016-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 55  If breastfeeding is suddenly stopped, the breasts are likely to become engorged. Pumping small amounts to relieve discomfort helps to gradually train the breasts to produce less milk. There is presently no safe medication to prevent engorgement, but cold compresses and <a href="/wiki/Ibuprofen" title="Ibuprofen">ibuprofen</a> may help to relieve pain and swelling. Pain should go away with emptying of the breasts. If symptoms continue and comfort measures are not helpful, it is possible a <a href="/wiki/Blocked_milk_duct" title="Blocked milk duct">blocked milk duct</a> or infection may be present and seek medical intervention.<a href="#cite_note-WebMed,_LLC-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nipple_pain">Nipple pain</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Nipple pain">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nipple_pain_in_breastfeeding" title="Nipple pain in breastfeeding">Nipple pain in breastfeeding</a></div> Although very common, nipple pain and nipple trauma (cracking, open sores) should not be normalized, as these are often signs of a shallow latch or other underlying problem that can be evaluated and fixed.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 34–47  In addition to shallow latch, other causes of nipple pain include, but are not limited to, skin infection or <a href="/wiki/Dermatitis" title="Dermatitis">inflammation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vasospasm" title="Vasospasm">blood vessel spasm</a> or the equivalent of <a href="/wiki/Raynaud_syndrome" title="Raynaud syndrome">Raynaud Syndrome</a> in the breast, <a href="/wiki/Mastitis" title="Mastitis">mastitis</a>, plugged ducts, and <a href="/wiki/Nipple_bleb" title="Nipple bleb">nipple blebs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_2021-47">[47]</a>: 572–593 <a href="#cite_note-Berens_2016b-118">[118]</a> Pain caused by a problem deep in the breast may also present with nipple pain due to the paths of nerves in the breast.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_2021-47">[47]</a>: 572–593  In addition to the serious nature of many of these causes, nipple pain is a common reason for a mother stopping breastfeeding, so it is important that mothers experiencing nipple pain be evaluated.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_2021-47">[47]</a>: 572–593 <a href="#cite_note-Berens_2016b-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Delay_in_milk_"coming_in"">Delay in milk "coming in"</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Delay in milk "coming in"">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Delayed_onset_of_lactation" title="Delayed onset of lactation">Delayed onset of lactation</a></div> While milk normally "comes in" by 3 days after birth, there are several reasons this may be delayed. Risk factors for this delay include <a href="/wiki/Diabetes_and_pregnancy" title="Diabetes and pregnancy">maternal diabetes</a>, stressful delivery, <a href="/wiki/Retained_placenta" title="Retained placenta">retained placenta</a>, prolonged labor and birth by <a href="/wiki/Caesarean_section" title="Caesarean section">C-section</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_2021-47">[47]</a>: 84 <a href="#cite_note-Berens_2016-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 34–47  Mothers experiencing a delay in their milk coming in should consult with a lactation specialist and their pediatrician, as they may need to supplement with donor milk or formula to help the infant gain weight and pump to encourage milk to come in sooner and in greater volume.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 34–47  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Low_milk_supply">Low milk supply</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Low milk supply">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Low_milk_supply" title="Low milk supply">Low milk supply</a></div> Breast milk supply augments in response to the baby's demand for milk, and decreases when milk is allowed to remain in the breasts.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 18–21 <a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 27–34 <a href="#cite_note-Brodribb_2018-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 72–80 <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrenceLawrence201567-119">[119]</a> When considering a possibly low milk supply, it is important to consider the difference between "perceived low milk supply" and "true low milk supply". Perceived low milk supply occurs when mothers, for a variety of reasons, believe that they are not making enough milk to feed their infant.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 72–80  These reasons may include fussiness, <a href="/wiki/Baby_colic" title="Baby colic">colic</a>, preference for the bottle as opposed to the breast, long nursing duration, decreased sensation of breast fulness, and even decreased frequency of infant stools.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 72–80  However, in these cases, it important to reassure the parent that infant weight gain is absolute proof of adequate milk intake.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 49  Thus, if the infant breastfeeding exclusively, and is gaining weight appropriately, then the parent can be reassured that they are producing enough milk.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 49  True low milk supply can be either primary (caused by medical conditions or anatomical issues in the mother), secondary (caused by not thoroughly and regularly removing milk from the breasts) or both. Primary causes may manifest prior to or during pregnancy, during labor, and even after birth.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 72–73  Secondary causes are far more common than primary ones. One study found that 15% of healthy first-time mothers had low milk supply 2–3 weeks after birth, with secondary causes accounting for at least two-thirds of those cases.<a href="#cite_note-neifert-120">[120]</a> Poor milk intake is signaled by poor infant weight gain, signs of dehydration, and hypoglycemia.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 49 <a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 34–47  Poor milk intake can be caused by poor milk transfer by the infant or by true low milk supply by the mother.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 52–54  When the milk "comes in" appropriately, but is followed by decreased <a href="/wiki/Low_milk_supply" title="Low milk supply">milk supply</a>, this is most often caused by allowing milk to remain in the breasts for long periods of time, or insufficiently draining the breasts during feeds.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 72–80  If the baby is <a href="/wiki/Latch_(breastfeeding)" title="Latch (breastfeeding)">latching</a> and swallowing well (signs of good milk transfer), but is not gaining weight as expected or is showing signs of dehydration, low milk supply in the mother can be suspected, and a lactation specialist should be consulted.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 52–54 <a href="#cite_note-neifert-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Newborn_jaundice">Newborn jaundice</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Newborn jaundice">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neonatal_jaundice" title="Neonatal jaundice">Neonatal jaundice</a></div> More than 80% of newborns develop <a href="/wiki/Jaundice" title="Jaundice">jaundice</a> within several days of birth.<a href="#cite_note-Flaherman_2017-40">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neonatal_jaundice" title="Neonatal jaundice">Jaundice</a>, or yellowing of the skin and eyes, occurs when <a href="/wiki/Bilirubin" title="Bilirubin">bilirubin</a>, a byproduct of the breakdown/recycling of red blood cells, builds up in the newborn's bloodstream faster than the liver can break it down and excrete it through the baby's urine and stool. By continuing to breastfeed frequently (start at 8-12 times per day), the infant's body can usually rid itself of the bilirubin excess by encouraging more urine and stool production.<a href="#cite_note-Flaherman_2017-40">[40]</a> However, in some cases, the infant may need additional treatments, such as <a href="/wiki/Light_therapy" title="Light therapy">UV light therapy</a> or additional feedings (see Supplementation) to keep the condition from progressing into more severe problems.<a href="#cite_note-Flaherman_2017-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-cdc.gov-121">[121]</a> There are two types of newborn jaundice related to breastfeeding. Breastfeeding jaundice is quite common and may occur in the first week of life in conjunction with ongoing weight loss.<a href="#cite_note-Flaherman_2017-40">[40]</a> The cause is thought to be low caloric intake. Formula-fed infants tend to lose less weight after birth compared to breastfed infants, supporting the hypothesis that breastfeeding jaundice is related to caloric intake rather than volume intake.<a href="#cite_note-Flaherman_2017-40">[40]</a> Individual risk factors, such as breastfeeding, are not predictive of developing severe jaundice: Breastfeeding is a risk factor for severely high levels of bilirubin, but the risk factor is very common, and the risk of severely high bilirubin remains small.<a href="#cite_note-AA_Peds-2004-122">[122]</a> Breast milk jaundice is jaundice that persists despite appropriate weight gain.<a href="#cite_note-Flaherman_2017-40">[40]</a> This type of jaundice may start as breastfeeding jaundice and persist, or may not appear until after the baby has begun to gain weight, typically around 4–5 days old.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 34–47 <a href="#cite_note-Flaherman_2017-40">[40]</a> It often persists beyond the second and third weeks of life.<a href="#cite_note-Flaherman_2017-40">[40]</a> There is no single cause of breast milk jaundice; rather, the causes are multifactorial and frequently debated in the literature.<a href="#cite_note-Flaherman_2017-40">[40]</a> The causes of breast milk jaundice include variations in <a href="/wiki/Bilirubin_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilirubin metabolism">bilirubin metabolism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">genetic variations</a>, and variations in breastmilk, including the <a href="/wiki/Human_microbiome" title="Human microbiome">harmless and helpful germs found naturally on the surface of the skin</a> and in the breastmilk.<a href="#cite_note-Flaherman_2017-40">[40]</a> Breast milk jaundice is usually not a reason to stop nursing.<a href="#cite_note-cdc.gov-121">[121]</a> It is important to consult with a physician to determine when it may be necessary to test for other causes of jaundice that may require additional treatment, such as enzyme deficiencies or problems with the <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cells</a> (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_elliptocytosis" title="Hereditary elliptocytosis">elliptocytosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_spherocytosis" title="Hereditary spherocytosis">spherocytosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemolysis" title="Hemolysis">hemolysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glucose-6-phosphate_dehydrogenase_deficiency" title="Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency">glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Flaherman_2017-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weaning">Weaning</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Weaning">edit</a>]</div> Weaning is the process of replacing breast milk with other foods; the infant is fully weaned after the replacement is complete.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 112–116 <a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a> Psychological factors affect the weaning process for both mother and infant, as issues of closeness and separation are very prominent.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Unless a medical emergency necessitates abruptly stopping breastfeeding, it is best to gradually increase the period between feedings and/or eliminate feedings to allow the breasts to adjust to the decreased demands without becoming <a href="/wiki/Breast_engorgement" title="Breast engorgement">engorged</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a> Studies show that a large number of women discontinue breastfeeding early due to lack of working place support for breastfeeding mothers.<a href="#cite_note-today.com-124">[124]</a> La Leche League advises parents to shift their children's focus at bedtime away from breastfeeding, as it is often the most difficult feeding for them to let go.<a href="#cite_note-La_Leche_League_International-125">[125]</a> If weaning is begun at 12 months or later it is not necessary to switch to infant formula or "toddler formula" as is sold commercially. At 12 months it is recommended that the baby be switched to whole cow's milk. Reduced-fat or skim milk generally is not appropriate before age 2 because it does not have enough fat or calories to promote early brain development.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> If the mother was experiencing <a href="/wiki/Lactational_amenorrhea_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Lactational amenorrhea method">lactational amenorrhea</a>, periods will begin to return with weaning, along with restored fertility.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extended_breastfeeding">Extended breastfeeding</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Extended breastfeeding">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Extended_breastfeeding" title="Extended breastfeeding">Extended breastfeeding</a></div> Extended breastfeeding usually means breastfeeding beyond the age of 12 to 24 months, depending on the culture. The American Academy of Family Physicians states that "health outcomes for mothers and babies are best when breastfeeding continues for at least two years.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that mothers nurse for the first 12 months and "thereafter for as long as mother and baby desire." The World Health Organization recommends breastfeeding up to age 2 "or beyond."<a href="#cite_note-today.com-124">[124]</a> Breast milk is known to contain <a href="/wiki/Lactoferrin" title="Lactoferrin">lactoferrin</a> (Lf), which protects the infant from infection caused by a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Pathogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogens">pathogens</a>. The amount of Lf in breast milk is lactation-stage related. One study looked at Lf concentration in prolonged lactation from the first to the 48th month postpartum. It was found to be at the highest level in colostrum, dropped to the lowest level during 1 – 12 months of lactation, and then increased significantly during the 13–24 months of lactation, close to the Lf concentration in colostrum. At over 24 months the level dropped, though not significantly.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Professional_breastfeeding_support">Professional breastfeeding support</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Professional breastfeeding support">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Lactation_consultants" class="mw-redirect" title="Lactation consultants">Lactation consultants</a> are trained to assist mothers in preventing and solving breastfeeding difficulties such as sore nipples and low milk supply. They commonly work in hospitals, physician or midwife practices, public health programs, and private practice. Lactation consultants earn their credential, International Board Certified Lactation Consultant (IBCLC), through the International Board of Lactation Consultant Examiners.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-ussg-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Breastfeeding support from a lactation consultant is associated with higher rates of any breastfeeding at 6 months but not at 1 month or 3 months post pregnancy based on a meta-analysis of studies conducted in the US and Canada.<a href="#cite_note-:0-134">[134]</a> Peer support for breastfeeding has been found to be associated with higher rates of any breastfeeding at 1 month and 3 to 6 months and of exclusive breastfeeding at 1 month, but it is unrelated to breastfeeding outcomes past 6 months post pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-:0-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contraindications_to_breastfeeding">Contraindications to breastfeeding</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Contraindications to breastfeeding">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maternal_contraindications">Maternal contraindications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Maternal contraindications">edit</a>]</div> Medical conditions that do not allow breastfeeding are fairly rare.<a href="#cite_note-Johnston_2012-5">[5]</a> Infants that are otherwise healthy uniformly benefit from breastfeeding,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrenceLawrence2015Chapter_7._Facilitating_an_Informed_Decision_About_Breastfeeding_pp._215–232-135">[135]</a> however, extra precautions should be taken or breastfeeding avoided in circumstances including certain infectious diseases and medical conditions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Maternal_infections">Maternal infections</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Maternal infections">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="HIV"><a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a></h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: HIV">edit</a>]</div> A breastfeeding child can become infected with HIV. Factors such as the mother's <a href="/wiki/Viral_load" title="Viral load">viral load</a> complicate breastfeeding recommendations for HIV-positive mothers. The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> highlights the possibility of breastfeeding in mothers on <a href="/wiki/HIV_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="HIV treatment">anti-viral therapy</a> and with undetectable <a href="/wiki/Viral_load_monitoring_for_HIV" title="Viral load monitoring for HIV">viral loads</a>, especially in areas where access to clean water is poor and where death from infectious diseases is common, citing low transmission rates when the mother is on anti-viral therapy.<a href="#cite_note-WHO20142-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO-2014-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-Aus_DOH-2017-137">[137]</a> They also recommend that national authorities in each country decide which infant feeding practice should be promoted by their maternal and child health services to best avoid HIV transmission from mother to child.<a href="#cite_note-Mead-138">[138]</a> However, the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">CDC</a> continues to recommend against HIV-positive mothers breastfeeding in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Aus_DOH-2017-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Infant formula should only be given if this can be safely done.<a href="#cite_note-WHO20142-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Human_T-lymphotropic_virus_(types_I_and_II)"><a href="/wiki/Human_T-lymphotropic_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human T-lymphotropic virus">Human T-lymphotropic virus</a> (types I and II)</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Human T-lymphotropic virus (types I and II)">edit</a>]</div> Human T-Lymphotrophic Virus (HTLV) is able to be passed through breastmilk from mother to child.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 15–17 <a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> The worldwide rate of transmission through breastmilk is estimated to be 3.9–27%, and this risk is increased by high maternal viral load and prolonged periods of breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Current data demonstrates that while breastfeeding for less than six months does not, independently, increase risk of HTLV-1 transmission, not breastfeeding during that time does decrease risk of transmission.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> As such, <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">CDC</a> recommends against breastfeeding when mothers have HTLV Types I or II.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 15–17 <a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Recognizing the importance of breastfeeding in more resource-poor areas of the world, the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> recommends shortening the duration of breastfeeding, or avoiding breastfeeding where possible.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Hemorrhagic_viral_disease_(Marburg_virus,_Ebola)">Hemorrhagic viral disease (<a href="/wiki/Marburg_virus_disease" title="Marburg virus disease">Marburg virus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ebola" title="Ebola">Ebola</a>)</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Hemorrhagic viral disease (Marburg virus, Ebola)">edit</a>]</div> Mothers with Marburg virus or Ebola should not breastfeed their infants or feed them with expressed breastmilk.<a href="#cite_note-CDC-2021f-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_2021-47">[47]</a>: 738–753  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Tuberculosis"><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a></h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Tuberculosis">edit</a>]</div> Infants whose mothers have suspected untreated tuberculosis (TB) should be isolated from their mothers to reduce risk of transmission. As such, these infants should not be breastfed during this time and until the mother has been treated appropriately for 2 weeks and is no longer contagious.<a href="#cite_note-CDC-2021f-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_2021-47">[47]</a>: 411–313 <a href="#cite_note-HealthyChildren-2021-146">[146]</a> However, these infants may be fed expressed breastmilk from their mother.<a href="#cite_note-CDC-2021f-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_2021-47">[47]</a>: 411–313 <a href="#cite_note-HealthyChildren-2021-146">[146]</a> Transmission of TB through breastmilk, without an isolated breast infection caused by the Tuberculosis bacteria (<a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</a>), has never been documented in the scientific literature.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_2021-47">[47]</a>: 411–313  Mothers who do have an isolated breast infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, termed tuberculous mastitis, should not feed their infants with their own breastmilk, even if it is fed by bottle.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_2021-47">[47]</a>: 411–313  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Herpes_simplex"><a href="/wiki/Herpes_simplex" class="mw-redirect" title="Herpes simplex">Herpes simplex</a></h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Herpes simplex">edit</a>]</div> Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is the virus that causes genital herpes and oral cold sores, and it can be very dangerous to infants.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-147">[147]</a> The CDC advises to continue breastfeeding if there are no open/active lesions on the breast and other lesions covered.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-147">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Herpes_zoster_(chickenpox_and_shingles)"><a href="/wiki/Herpes_zoster" class="mw-redirect" title="Herpes zoster">Herpes zoster</a> (chickenpox and shingles)</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Herpes zoster (chickenpox and shingles)">edit</a>]</div> Varicella zoster is the virus responsible for chickenpox and shingles (also known as herpes zoster).<a href="#cite_note-CDC-2021-148">[148]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">CDC</a> advises that breastfeeding is safe to continue as long as the breasts are clear of lesions, also emphasizing that if pumping or <a href="/wiki/Hand_expression_of_breast_milk" title="Hand expression of breast milk">hand expressing milk</a>, proper <a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">hand-hygiene</a> should be used to minimize transfer.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 15–17 <a href="#cite_note-CDC-2021-148">[148]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WHO_EN_women_with_COVID-19_can_breastfeed_COVID-19.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/WHO_EN_women_with_COVID-19_can_breastfeed_COVID-19.png/220px-WHO_EN_women_with_COVID-19_can_breastfeed_COVID-19.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/WHO_EN_women_with_COVID-19_can_breastfeed_COVID-19.png/330px-WHO_EN_women_with_COVID-19_can_breastfeed_COVID-19.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/WHO_EN_women_with_COVID-19_can_breastfeed_COVID-19.png/440px-WHO_EN_women_with_COVID-19_can_breastfeed_COVID-19.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>An infographic from the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> on COVID-19 preventive measures to be taken while breastfeeding</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="COVID-19_(no_contraindication)"><a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a> (no contraindication)</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: COVID-19 (no contraindication)">edit</a>]</div> In May 2020, <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a> and <a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a> stressed that the ongoing <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> was not a reason to discontinue breastfeeding. They recommend that women should continue to breastfeed during the pandemic even if they have confirmed or suspected COVID-19 because evidence indicates that it is not likely that COVID-19 can be transmitted through breast milk.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> A study published in 2021 found that, while <a href="/wiki/SARS-CoV-2" title="SARS-CoV-2">SARS-CoV-2</a> <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> may be found in some samples of breastmilk from recently infected mothers, the breastmilk does not contain infectious virus and is not considered a transmission risk factor.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Mothers who have suspected or confirmed diagnoses of COVID-19 should thoroughly wash their hands and wear a well-fitting mask prior to breastfeeding their infant, or express breastmilk and feed the infant by bottle.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Substance_use">Substance use</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Substance use">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_difficulties#Substance_use" title="Breastfeeding difficulties">Breastfeeding difficulties § Substance use</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Alcohol">Alcohol</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Alcohol">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol and pregnancy">Alcohol and pregnancy</a></div> Moderate <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a> consumption by breastfeeding mothers can significantly affect infants. Even one or two drinks, including beer, may reduce milk intake by 20 to 23%, leading to increased agitation and poor sleep patterns. Regular heavy drinking (more than two drinks daily) can shorten breastfeeding duration and cause issues in infants, such as excessive sedation, fluid retention, and hormonal imbalances. Additionally, higher alcohol consumption may negatively impact children's <a href="/wiki/Academic_achievement" title="Academic achievement">academic achievement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> When breastfeeding, alcohol may be consumed in moderation and does not require "Pumping-and-Dumping" (pumping and discarding breastmilk).<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 105–109 <a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Alcohol crosses from the blood to the breastmilk by <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a>. Thus, the concentration of alcohol in the breastmilk is approximately equal to the concentration in the maternal bloodstream at any given time.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 105–109 <a href="#cite_note-Haastrup_2014-154">[154]</a> As the mother's liver processes the alcohol, more and more alcohol is pulled out of the breastmilk and back into the bloodstream.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 105–109  Thus, it is suggested to wait 2 hours after drinking before nursing or pumping.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 105–109 <a href="#cite_note-AA_Peds-2017-155">[155]</a> In the case of infrequent binge drinking, it has been shown that infants consume through breastmilk only a fraction of the alcohol their mothers have ingested. While a minute, clinically insignificant amount of alcohol may be absorbed into the infant's bloodstream, it is unlikely that this amount would cause any noticeable cognitive or neuromotor effects.<a href="#cite_note-Haastrup_2014-154">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Marijuana">Marijuana</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Marijuana">edit</a>]</div> The data on the use of <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">marijuana</a> during breastfeeding is limited, however, in part due to our lack of knowledge in this area, the CDC recommends against using marijuana or marijuana-containing products, including <a href="/wiki/CBD_Oil" class="mw-redirect" title="CBD Oil">CBD</a>, during breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-NLM-2006-157">[157]</a> The main active ingredient in marijuana, <a href="/wiki/Tetrahydrocannabinol" title="Tetrahydrocannabinol">tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)</a>, can be found in breastmilk anywhere from six days to more than six weeks after marijuana use.<a href="#cite_note-NLM-2006-157">[157]</a> There is limited data on the long term effects of this exposure on the infant, however some studies have voiced concern regarding delayed motor development in infants exposed to THC.<a href="#cite_note-NLM-2006-157">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Tobacco">Tobacco</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Tobacco">edit</a>]</div> Mothers who smoke or use other <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> products can breastfeed their infants, according to <a href="/wiki/La_Leche_League" title="La Leche League">La Leche League</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">CDC</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Women%27s_Hospital" title="Royal Women's Hospital">Royal Women's Hospital</a> (Australia).<a href="#cite_note-CDC-2021d-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> However, it is important to note that maternal tobacco use may decrease milk supply.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 105–109  Additionally, tobacco smoking, regardless of feeding method, increases risk of SIDS and respiratory illnesses.<a href="#cite_note-CDC-2021d-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 105–109  Thus, attempting to decrease tobacco use or even cease helps to minimize tobacco exposure to infants and maximize the benefits of breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 105–109  <a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">Tobacco cessation products</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Nicotine_patch" title="Nicotine patch">nicotine patches</a> and other medications, like <a href="/wiki/Bupropion" title="Bupropion">bupropion</a>, are able to be used by breastfeeding mothers.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 105–109  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Other_recreational_drugs">Other recreational drugs</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Other recreational drugs">edit</a>]</div> Mothers utilizing recreational drugs, such as cocaine, methamphetamines, PCP, and heroin, should not breastfeed.<a href="#cite_note-CDC-2021e-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 17  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medication_use">Medication use</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Medication use">edit</a>]</div> Most medications are compatible with continuing to breastfeed.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 17 <a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 105–109  Many medicines pass into breastmilk in small amounts, however, very few medications actually reach the infant and are absorbed in a way that would actually impact the infant.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 105–109  Several characteristics of medications, including size and pH of the medication molecule and how well the medication is absorbed in the GI tract, influence how much of a medication may reach, and may ultimately be absorbed, by the infant.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 105–109  In addition to the effects on the infant, many medications are known to significantly suppress milk production, including <a href="/wiki/Pseudoephedrine" title="Pseudoephedrine">pseudoephedrine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diuretic" title="Diuretic">diuretics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Contraceptive" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraceptive">contraceptives</a> that contain <a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrenceLawrence2015390–392-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 105–109  There are several resources to assist medical professionals in determining which medications are safe for pregnancy and breastfeeding. While patients are able to use these resources as well, they are targeted toward medical professionals. Patients should be encouraged to consult a lactation specialist or a medical provider trained in breastfeeding medicine if any concerns arise. Two helpful resources are listed below. <ol><li>LactMed @ NIH (Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed))<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a></li> <li>InfantRisk App (InfantRisk Center at Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center)<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pumping-and-dumping">Pumping-and-dumping</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Pumping-and-dumping">edit</a>]</div> "Pumping-and-dumping" is the concept of expressing breastmilk and discarding it due to a medication or substance "tainting" the breastmilk.<a href="#cite_note-NW_Med-2021-165">[165]</a> It was once believed that drinking alcohol or taking any medications, even medicines like ibuprofen, required pumping-and-dumping.<a href="#cite_note-NW_Med-2021-165">[165]</a> However, this is no longer the case. Pumping-and-dumping, or stopping breastfeeding altogether, is only required in very rare circumstances, such as with radioactive medications or chemotherapy.<a href="#cite_note-LLLI-2018-166">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 105–109  If a parent is concerned with a possible milk contaminant, they can express and save the breastmilk until they are able to consult with a lactation specialist or another medical professional trained in breastfeeding medicine. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infantile_contraindications">Infantile contraindications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Infantile contraindications">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Galactosemia"><a href="/wiki/Galactosemia" title="Galactosemia">Galactosemia</a></h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Galactosemia">edit</a>]</div> Galactosemia is a <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_disorder" title="Metabolic disorder">metabolic disorder</a> that prevents the infant from breaking down <a href="/wiki/Galactose" title="Galactose">galactose</a>, which is one of the two components of <a href="/wiki/Lactose" title="Lactose">lactose</a>, a type of sugar found in milk. Lactose is also found in breastmilk, so infants with galactosemia should not breastfeed.<a href="#cite_note-pmid20301691-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eglash_2020-10">[10]</a>: 15 <a href="#cite_note-CDC-2021e-161">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Methods">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Formula_and_breastmilk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Formula_and_breastmilk.jpg/250px-Formula_and_breastmilk.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Formula_and_breastmilk.jpg/330px-Formula_and_breastmilk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Formula_and_breastmilk.jpg/500px-Formula_and_breastmilk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Infant_formula" title="Infant formula">Formula</a> and pumped breastmilk side by side. Note that the formula is of uniform consistency and color, while the expressed breast milk exhibits properties of an organic solution by separating into a layer of fat at the top (the "creamline"), followed by the milk, and then a watery blue-colored layer at the bottom.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expressed_milk">Expressed milk</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Expressed milk">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manual_Breast_Pump_2005_SeanMcClean.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Manual_Breast_Pump_2005_SeanMcClean.jpg/220px-Manual_Breast_Pump_2005_SeanMcClean.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Manual_Breast_Pump_2005_SeanMcClean.jpg/330px-Manual_Breast_Pump_2005_SeanMcClean.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Manual_Breast_Pump_2005_SeanMcClean.jpg/440px-Manual_Breast_Pump_2005_SeanMcClean.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2083" data-file-height="2780" /></a><figcaption>Manual breast pump</figcaption></figure> A mother may express milk (remove milk from breasts) for <a href="/wiki/Breastmilk_storage_and_handling" title="Breastmilk storage and handling">storage</a> and later use. Expression may occur manually with hand expression, or by using a <a href="/wiki/Breast_pump" title="Breast pump">breast pump</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_2021-47">[47]</a>: 220 <a href="#cite_note-Eglash-2017-168">[168]</a> Mothers express milk for multiple reasons. Expressing breast milk can maintain a mother's milk supply when mother and child are apart. A sick baby who is unable to nurse can take expressed milk through a <a href="/wiki/Nasogastric_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasogastric tube">nasogastric tube</a>. Some babies are unable or unwilling to nurse. Maternal breastmilk is the food of choice for <a href="/wiki/Premature_babies" class="mw-redirect" title="Premature babies">premature babies</a>; these infants may be fed maternal milk through tubes, <a href="/wiki/Supplemental_nursing_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Supplemental nursing systems">supplemental nursing systems</a>, bottles, spoons or cups until they develop satisfactory ability to suck and swallow breast milk.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_2021-47">[47]</a>: 502–545  Some women donate expressed breast milk (EBM) to others, either directly or through a <a href="/wiki/Human_milk_bank" title="Human milk bank">milk bank</a>. This allows mothers who cannot breastfeed to give their baby the benefits of breast milk. While informally-shared breastmilk does carry the nutritional benefits of breastmilk, this breastmilk is most often not pasteurized or screened, and thus carries with it the risk of transmitting diseases or medications that are unsafe for infants.<a href="#cite_note-Sriraman-2018-169">[169]</a> Parents considering directed or informal milk sharing should discuss this option with their doctor, and they should be familiar with the donors medical history and milk handling practices.<a href="#cite_note-Sriraman-2018-169">[169]</a> Use of informally-shared (unscreened, not pasteurized) milk from an anonymous donor is discouraged by the Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine.<a href="#cite_note-Sriraman-2018-169">[169]</a> Babies feed differently with artificial nipples than from a breast. With the breast, the infant's tongue massages the milk out rather than sucking, and the nipple does not go as far into the mouth. Drinking from a bottle takes less effort and the milk may come more rapidly, potentially causing the baby to lose desire for the breast. This is often referred to as nipple confusion or nipple preference.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_2021-47">[47]</a>: 241  While some infants do experience this preference for the bottle, many infants do not and will be able to alternate between bottle and breast without issue.<a href="#cite_note-Lawrence_2021-47">[47]</a>: 241  "Exclusively expressing" and "exclusively pumping" are terms for a mother who exclusively feeds a baby expressed milk. Exclusively pumping is poorly studied in the literature, especially in recent years. However, from available evidence, it appears to be fairly uncommon, with only approximately 7% of study participants reporting exclusive pumping.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Storage_of_expressed_breastmilk">Storage of expressed breastmilk</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Storage of expressed breastmilk">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Breastmilk_storage_and_handling" title="Breastmilk storage and handling">Breastmilk storage and handling</a></div> Breastmilk may be stored for various amounts of time depending on storage temperature and conditions. The content and quality of expressed milk changes over time as it is stored, particularly when frozen.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash-2017-168">[168]</a> For example, there is a decrease in the ability of breastmilk to kill bacteria when it is stored in the refrigerator for more than 48 hours.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash-2017-168">[168]</a> Additionally, the quantity of fat, protein, and calories in breastmilk decreases when the milk is frozen for more than 3 months. While several components of breastmilk change over time, inflammatory factors (cytokines) and maternal antibodies, and growth factors are thought to be stable for at least 6 months when the breastmilk is frozen.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash-2017-168">[168]</a> Storage guidelines, according to the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">CDC</a>, <a href="/wiki/La_Leche_League_International" class="mw-redirect" title="La Leche League International">La Leche League International</a> and the Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine, are noted in the table below. <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible"> <caption>Storage of Expressed Breastmilk </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Storage Location </th> <th>Optimal Storage Time </th> <th>Acceptable Storage Time </th> <th>Source </th></tr> <tr> <td>Countertop </td> <td>4 hours </td> <td>8 hours </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-LLLI-2021a-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eglash-2017-168">[168]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Insulated bag with icepack </td> <td>24 hours </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-LLLI-2021a-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC-2021a-172">[172]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Refrigerator </td> <td>4 days </td> <td>5 days </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Eglash-2017-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC-2021a-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-LLLI-2021a-171">[171]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Freezer compartment of minifridge </td> <td>2 weeks </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-LLLI-2021a-171">[171]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Standard Freezer </td> <td>6 months </td> <td>12 months </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Eglash-2017-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC-2021a-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-LLLI-2021a-171">[171]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Deep Freezer (usually separate from refrigerator) </td> <td>6–12 months </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Eglash-2017-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-LLLI-2021a-171">[171]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Breastmilk_storage_containers">Breastmilk storage containers</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Breastmilk storage containers">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Breastmilk_storage_and_handling" title="Breastmilk storage and handling">Breastmilk storage and handling</a></div> Expressed breastmilk can be stored in freezer storage bags, containers made specifically for breastmilk, a <a href="/wiki/Supplemental_nursing_system" title="Supplemental nursing system">supplemental nursing system</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Baby_bottle" title="Baby bottle">bottle</a> ready for use. Parents should avoid using storage containers which contain <a href="/wiki/BPA-free" class="mw-redirect" title="BPA-free">bisphenol A (BPA)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CDC-2021a-172">[172]</a> Additionally, use of <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">polyethylene containers</a> have been shown to decrease the immune benefits of breastmilk, including its ability to kill bacteria and the maternal antibodies it contains, by up to 60%.<a href="#cite_note-Eglash-2017-168">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shared_nursing">Shared nursing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Shared nursing">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wet_nurse" title="Wet nurse">Wet nurse</a></div> It is not only a mother who may breastfeed a child. Parents may hire another person to do so (a <a href="/wiki/Wet_nurse" title="Wet nurse">wet nurse</a>), or may share childcare with another mother (cross-nursing). Both of these were common throughout history. It remains popular in some <a href="/wiki/Developing_nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing nation">developing nations</a>, including those in Africa, for more than one woman to breastfeed a child. Shared breastfeeding is a risk factor for <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> infection in infants.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> Shared nursing can sometimes provoke negative social reactions in the <a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">English-speaking world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tandem_nursing">Tandem nursing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Tandem nursing">edit</a>]</div> It is possible for a mother to continue breastfeeding an older sibling while also breastfeeding a new baby; this is called tandem nursing. During the late stages of pregnancy, the milk changes to colostrum. While some children continue to breastfeed even with this change, others may <a href="/wiki/Wean" class="mw-redirect" title="Wean">wean</a>. Most mothers can produce enough milk for tandem nursing, but the new baby should be nursed first for at least the first few days after delivery to ensure that it receives enough colostrum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrenceLawrence2015707–708-176">[176]</a> Breastfeeding <a href="/wiki/Multiple_birth" title="Multiple birth">triplets or larger broods</a> is a challenge given babies' varying appetites. Breasts can respond to the demand and produce larger milk quantities; mothers have breastfed triplets successfully.<a href="#cite_note-Grunberg_1992-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-ABA-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brown,_S-179">[179]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Breastfeeding_newborn_twins.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Newborn twins being breastfed"><img alt="Newborn twins being breastfed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Breastfeeding_newborn_twins.jpg/90px-Breastfeeding_newborn_twins.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Breastfeeding_newborn_twins.jpg/135px-Breastfeeding_newborn_twins.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Breastfeeding_newborn_twins.jpg/180px-Breastfeeding_newborn_twins.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Newborn twins being breastfed</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Breastfeeding_2_year_old_twins.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Woman breastfeeds 2 year old twins whilst reading them a book."><img alt="Woman breastfeeds 2 year old twins whilst reading them a book." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Breastfeeding_2_year_old_twins.jpg/120px-Breastfeeding_2_year_old_twins.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Breastfeeding_2_year_old_twins.jpg/250px-Breastfeeding_2_year_old_twins.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Woman breastfeeds 2 year old twins whilst reading them a book.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Tandem_breastfeeding_toddler_and_baby.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Woman tandem nurses an infant and a toddler."><img alt="Woman tandem nurses an infant and a toddler." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Tandem_breastfeeding_toddler_and_baby.jpg/120px-Tandem_breastfeeding_toddler_and_baby.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Tandem_breastfeeding_toddler_and_baby.jpg/250px-Tandem_breastfeeding_toddler_and_baby.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Woman tandem nurses an infant and a toddler.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Re-lactation_and_induced_lactation">Re-lactation and induced lactation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Re-lactation and induced lactation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lactation#Without_pregnancy,_induced_lactation,_relactation" title="Lactation">Lactation § Without pregnancy, induced lactation, relactation</a></div> Re-lactation is the process of restarting breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-Wambach-180">[180]</a> In developing countries, mothers may restart breastfeeding after a weaning as part of an <a href="/wiki/Oral_rehydration" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral rehydration">oral rehydration</a> treatment for <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>. In developed countries, re-lactation is common after early medical problems are resolved, or because a mother changes her mind about breastfeeding. Re-lactation is most easily accomplished with a newborn or with a baby that was previously breastfeeding; if the baby was initially bottle-fed, the baby may refuse to suckle. If the mother has recently stopped breastfeeding, chances are higher that the milk supply will return and be adequate. Although some mothers successfully re-lactate after months-long interruptions, success is higher for shorter interruptions.<a href="#cite_note-Wambach-180">[180]</a> Techniques to promote lactation use frequent attempts to breastfeed, extensive skin-to-skin contact with the baby, and frequent, long pumping sessions.<a href="#cite_note-Wambach-180">[180]</a> Suckling may be encouraged with a tube filled with infant formula, so that the baby associates suckling at the breast with food. A dropper or syringe without the needle may be used to place milk onto the breast while the baby suckles. The mother should allow the infant to suckle at least ten times during 24 hours, and more times if the baby is interested. These times can include every two hours, whenever the baby seems interested, longer at each breast, and when the baby is sleepy when they might suckle more readily. In keeping with increasing contact between mother and child, including increasing skin-to-skin contact, grandmothers should pull back and help in other ways. Later on, grandmothers can again provide more direct care for the infant.<a href="#cite_note-TreatmentOfDiarrhoea-WHO-2005-181">[181]</a> These techniques require the mother's commitment over a period of weeks or months. However, even when lactation is established, the supply may not be large enough to breastfeed exclusively. A supportive social environment improves the likelihood of success.<a href="#cite_note-Wambach-180">[180]</a> As the mother's milk production increases, other feeding can decrease. Parents and other family members should watch the baby's weight gain and urine output to assess nutritional adequacy.<a href="#cite_note-TreatmentOfDiarrhoea-WHO-2005-181">[181]</a> A WHO manual for physicians and senior health workers citing a 1992 source states: "If a baby has been breastfeeding sometimes, the breastmilk supply increases in a few days. If a baby has stopped breastfeeding, it may take 1–2 weeks or more before much breastmilk comes."<a href="#cite_note-TreatmentOfDiarrhoea-WHO-2005-181">[181]</a> Induced lactation, also called adoptive lactation, is the process of starting breastfeeding in a woman who did not give birth.<a href="#cite_note-Wambach-180">[180]</a> This usually requires the adoptive mother to take hormones and other drugs to stimulate breast development and promote milk production. In some cultures, breastfeeding an adoptive child creates <a href="/wiki/Milk_kinship" title="Milk kinship">milk kinship</a> that builds community bonds across class and other hierarchal bonds.<a href="#cite_note-Wambach-180">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_effects">Health effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Health effects">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bloco_Popular_Fora_Temer_-_Otros_Carnavales_%E2%80%A2_24-02-2017_%E2%80%A2_Rio_de_Janeiro_(33088497186).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Bloco_Popular_Fora_Temer_-_Otros_Carnavales_%E2%80%A2_24-02-2017_%E2%80%A2_Rio_de_Janeiro_%2833088497186%29.jpg/220px-Bloco_Popular_Fora_Temer_-_Otros_Carnavales_%E2%80%A2_24-02-2017_%E2%80%A2_Rio_de_Janeiro_%2833088497186%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Bloco_Popular_Fora_Temer_-_Otros_Carnavales_%E2%80%A2_24-02-2017_%E2%80%A2_Rio_de_Janeiro_%2833088497186%29.jpg/330px-Bloco_Popular_Fora_Temer_-_Otros_Carnavales_%E2%80%A2_24-02-2017_%E2%80%A2_Rio_de_Janeiro_%2833088497186%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Bloco_Popular_Fora_Temer_-_Otros_Carnavales_%E2%80%A2_24-02-2017_%E2%80%A2_Rio_de_Janeiro_%2833088497186%29.jpg/440px-Bloco_Popular_Fora_Temer_-_Otros_Carnavales_%E2%80%A2_24-02-2017_%E2%80%A2_Rio_de_Janeiro_%2833088497186%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>A mom using a baby carrier to support a feeding baby in Rio de Janeiro</figcaption></figure> Support for breastfeeding is universal among major health and children's organizations. WHO states, "Breast milk is the ideal food for the healthy growth and development of infants; breastfeeding is also an integral part of the reproductive process with important implications for the health of mothers."<a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-182">[182]</a> Breastfeeding is associated with a lowered risk of a number of diseases in both mothers and babies.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> Comparing infants that were exclusively breastfed for at least 3 months with never-breastfed infants, the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Pediatrics" title="American Academy of Pediatrics">American Academy of Pediatrics</a> reported that in the first year of life breastfed babies averaged about $400 in savings of health care costs.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baby">Baby</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Baby">edit</a>]</div> Early breastfeeding is associated with fewer nighttime feeding problems.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> Early skin-to-skin contact between mother and baby improves breastfeeding outcomes and increases cardio-respiratory stability.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> Some studies show that breastfeeding aids general health, growth and development in the infant. Infants who are not breastfed are at mildly increased risk of developing acute and chronic diseases, including lower <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory infection">respiratory infection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otitis_media" title="Otitis media">ear infections</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacteremia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteremia">bacteremia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_meningitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial meningitis">bacterial meningitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Botulism" title="Botulism">botulism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urinary_tract_infection" title="Urinary tract infection">urinary tract infection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Necrotizing_enterocolitis" title="Necrotizing enterocolitis">necrotizing enterocolitis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_2007-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-AHRQ_2007-188">[188]</a> Breastfeeding may protect against <a href="/wiki/Sudden_infant_death_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Sudden infant death syndrome">sudden infant death syndrome</a>,<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> <a href="/wiki/Insulin-dependent_diabetes_mellitus" class="mw-redirect" title="Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus">insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crohn%27s_disease" title="Crohn's disease">Crohn's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ulcerative_colitis" title="Ulcerative colitis">ulcerative colitis</a>, childhood <a href="/wiki/Lymphoma" title="Lymphoma">lymphoma</a>, allergic diseases, digestive diseases,<a href="#cite_note-Gartner_2005-64">[64]</a> obesity, or childhood leukemia later in life.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> and may enhance <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">cognitive development</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gartner_2005-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> The CDC reports that infants who are breastfed have reduced risks of ear infections, obesity, type 1 diabetes, asthma, <a href="/wiki/Sudden_infant_death_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Sudden infant death syndrome">SIDS</a>, and lower respiratory, and gastrointestinal infections.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> It is hard however to distinguish the importance of breastfeeding per se and other correlated socioeconomic factors (breastfeeding is more frequent in richer families with higher educations). Comparing breastfed and non-breastfed siblings in a given family drastically decreases the association between breastfeeding and long-term child well-being.<a href="#cite_note-Colen_2014-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Growth">Growth</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Growth">edit</a>]</div> The average breastfed baby doubles its birth weight in 5–6 months. By one year, a typical breastfed baby weighs about <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>2+1⁄2 times its birth weight. At one year, breastfed babies tend to be leaner than formula-fed babies, which improves long-run health.<a href="#cite_note-Kingdom_of_Bahrain_Ministry_of_Health_Health_Promotion_Council-193">[193]</a> The Davis Area Research on Lactation, Infant Nutrition and Growth (DARLING) study reported that breastfed and formula-fed groups had similar weight gain during the first 3 months, but the breastfed babies began to drop below the median beginning at 6 to 8 months and were significantly lower weight than the formula-fed group between 6 and 18 months. Length gain and head circumference values were similar between groups, suggesting that the breastfed babies were leaner.<a href="#cite_note-Pediatrics_Journal-194">[194]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Infections">Infections</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Infections">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_milk_immunity" title="Human milk immunity">Human milk immunity</a></div> Breast milk contains several <a href="/wiki/Infection_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Infection control">anti-infective</a> factors such as <a href="/wiki/Bile_salt_dependent_lipase" class="mw-redirect" title="Bile salt dependent lipase">bile salt stimulated lipase</a> (protecting against <a href="/wiki/Amoeba" title="Amoeba">amoebic</a> infections) and <a href="/wiki/Lactoferrin" title="Lactoferrin">lactoferrin</a> (which binds to iron and inhibits the growth of <a href="/wiki/Gut_flora" class="mw-redirect" title="Gut flora">intestinal bacteria</a>).<a href="#cite_note-pmid10394490-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid10394491-196">[196]</a> Exclusive breastfeeding until six months of age helps to protect an infant from gastrointestinal infections in both developing and industrialized countries. The risk of death due to diarrhea and other infections increases when babies are either partially breastfed or not breastfed at all.<a href="#cite_note-WHO20142-4">[4]</a> Infants who are exclusively breastfed for the first six months are less likely to die of <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrointestinal">gastrointestinal</a> infections than infants who switched from exclusive to partial breastfeeding at three to four months.<a href="#cite_note-Kramer_2012-6">[6]</a> During breastfeeding, approximately 0.25–0.5 grams per day of secretory <a href="/wiki/IgA_antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="IgA antibodies">IgA antibodies</a> pass to the baby via milk.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC-198">[198]</a> This is one of the important features of colostrum.<a href="#cite_note-Immune-199">[199]</a> The main target for these antibodies are probably microorganisms in the baby's <a href="/wiki/Intestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestine">intestine</a>. The rest of the body displays some uptake of IgA,<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> but this amount is relatively small.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> Maternal vaccinations while breastfeeding is safe for almost all vaccines. Additionally, the mother's immunity obtained by vaccination against <a href="/wiki/Tetanus" title="Tetanus">tetanus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Whooping_cough" title="Whooping cough">whooping cough</a> and <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a> can protect the baby from these diseases, and breastfeeding can reduce fever rate after infant immunization. However, <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a> vaccines increase the risk of infants developing <a href="/wiki/Vaccinia" title="Vaccinia">vaccinia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Encephalitis" title="Encephalitis">encephalitis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-breastfedvaccine-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-breastfeddrug-203">[203]</a> Several studies have suggested that breast milk can pass antibodies to the infant for as long as the child continues to nurse. The antibodies may be in the mother's system as a result of being ill or they may be acquired by drinking milk from a mother who has recently been vaccinated for a particular disease. One small study done on nursing mothers who had received the COVID-19 vaccine found that breastmilk continued to contain antibodies for as long as 80 days after receiving the vaccine.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mortality">Mortality</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Mortality">edit</a>]</div> The World Health Organization reports that babies who receive no breast milk are almost six times more likely to die by the age of one month than those who are partially or fully breastfed. Access to healthcare is the single critical determinant of survival or death for the infant.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Childhood_obesity">Childhood obesity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Childhood obesity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Childhood_obesity" title="Childhood obesity">Childhood obesity</a></div> The protective effect of breastfeeding against obesity is consistent, though small, across many studies.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_2007-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-AHRQ_2007-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> A 2013 <a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_study" title="Longitudinal study">longitudinal study</a> reported less obesity at ages two and four years among infants who were breastfed for at least four months.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Allergic_diseases">Allergic diseases</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Allergic diseases">edit</a>]</div> In children who are at risk for developing allergic diseases (defined as at least one parent or sibling having <a href="/wiki/Atopy" title="Atopy">atopy</a>), atopic syndrome can be prevented or delayed through 4-month exclusive breastfeeding, though these benefits may not persist.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18166574-208">[208]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Backwash_effect">Backwash effect</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Backwash effect">edit</a>]</div> The backwash effect in breastfeeding refers to the process where an infant's saliva flows back into the mother's breast during nursing. This backward flow may introduce the baby's saliva into the mammary gland, potentially prompting the mother's body to produce tailored immune responses in her breast milk to meet the infant's specific needs.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-hassiotou2013-210">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_health_effects">Other health effects</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Other health effects">edit</a>]</div> Breastfeeding may reduce the risk of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) in premature babies.<a href="#cite_note-AHRQ_2007-188">[188]</a> Breastfeeding or introduction of gluten while breastfeeding does not protect against <a href="/wiki/Celiac_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Celiac disease">celiac disease</a> among at-risk children. Breast milk of healthy human mothers who eat <a href="/wiki/Gluten" title="Gluten">gluten</a>-containing foods presents high levels of non-degraded <a href="/wiki/Gliadin" title="Gliadin">gliadin</a> (the main gluten protein). Early introduction of traces of gluten in babies to potentially induce tolerance does not reduce the risk of developing celiac disease. Delaying the introduction of gluten does not prevent, but is associated with a delayed onset of the disease.<a href="#cite_note-SzajewskaShamir-211">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-BethuneKhosla2008-212">[212]</a> About 14 to 19 percent of leukemia cases may be prevented by breastfeeding for six months or longer.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> However, breastfeeding is also the primary cause of <a href="/wiki/Adult_T-cell_leukemia/lymphoma" title="Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma">adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma</a>, as the <a href="/wiki/HTLV-1" class="mw-redirect" title="HTLV-1">HTLV-1</a> virus is transmitted through breastmilk.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> Breastfeeding is associated with a lower chance of developing <a href="/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus_type_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus type 1">diabetes mellitus type 1</a> in the offspring.<a href="#cite_note-AHRQ_2007-188">[188]</a> Breastfed babies also appear to have a lower likelihood of developing <a href="/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus_type_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus type 2">diabetes mellitus type 2</a> later in life.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_2007-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-AHRQ_2007-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid17093156-215">[215]</a> Breastfeeding may decrease the risk of <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular disease</a> in later life, as indicated by lower <a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a> and <a href="/wiki/C-reactive_protein" title="C-reactive protein">C-reactive protein</a> levels in breastfed adult women.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_2007-187">[187]</a> Breastfed infants have somewhat lower blood pressure later in life, but it is unclear how much practical benefit this provides.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_2007-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-AHRQ_2007-188">[188]</a> A 1998 study suggested that breastfed babies have a better chance of good dental health than formula-fed infants because of the developmental effects of breastfeeding on the <a href="/wiki/Oral_cavity" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral cavity">oral cavity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Airway" class="mw-redirect" title="Airway">airway</a>. It was thought that with fewer <a href="/wiki/Malocclusion" title="Malocclusion">malocclusions</a>, breastfed children may have a reduced need for <a href="/wiki/Orthodontic" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthodontic">orthodontic</a> intervention. The report suggested that children with a well rounded, "U-shaped" <a href="/wiki/Dental_arch" title="Dental arch">dental arch</a>, which is found more commonly in breastfed children, may have fewer problems with snoring and <a href="/wiki/Sleep_apnea" title="Sleep apnea">sleep apnea</a> in later life.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> A 2016 review found that breastfeeding protected against malocclusions.<a href="#cite_note-Victora_2016-9">[9]</a> Breastfeeding duration has been correlated with child maltreatment outcomes, including neglect and sexual abuse.<a href="#cite_note-Kremer_2018-217">[217]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Intelligence">Intelligence</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Intelligence">edit</a>]</div> It is unclear whether breastfeeding improves <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a> later in life. Several studies found no relationship after controlling for <a href="/wiki/Confounding" title="Confounding">confounding</a> factors like maternal intelligence (smarter mothers were more likely to breastfeed their babies).<a href="#cite_note-AHRQ_2007-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid17020911-218">[218]</a> However, other studies concluded that breastfeeding was associated with increased cognitive development in childhood, although the cause may be increased mother–child interaction rather than nutrition.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_2007-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mother">Mother</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Mother">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Maternal_bond">Maternal bond</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Maternal bond">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">Oxytocin</a>, a hormone released during breastfeeding, may play a role in maternal-infant attachment and bonding, potentially via decreased anxiety and stress.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fertility">Fertility</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Fertility">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lactational_amenorrhea" title="Lactational amenorrhea">Lactational amenorrhea</a></div> Exclusive breastfeeding usually delays the return of fertility through <a href="/wiki/Lactational_amenorrhea" title="Lactational amenorrhea">lactational amenorrhea</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Chowdhury_2015-221">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> although it does not provide reliable <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">birth control</a>. Breastfeeding may delay the return to fertility for some women by suppressing ovulation. Mothers may not <a href="/wiki/Ovulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovulate">ovulate</a>, or have regular periods, during the entire lactation period. The non-ovulating period varies by individual. This has been used as natural contraception, with greater than 98% effectiveness during the first six months after birth if specific nursing behaviors are followed.<a href="#cite_note-Price_&Robinson_2004-223">[223]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Postpartum_bleeding">Postpartum bleeding</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Postpartum bleeding">edit</a>]</div> During the third stage of labor, the time between the delivery of the baby and the passage of the placenta, and the fourth, the final stage of birth, excessive blood loss can endanger the life of the mother. When the newborn nurses the mother secretes <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">oxytocin</a> which causes the uterus to cramp and reduce blood loss. Nursing also causes the uterus to cramp for a number of days postpartum, helping it to return to its pre-pregnancy size. Some women report moderate to severe pain, especially women who have given birth several times, during a nursing session for the first few days following delivery.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Weight_retention">Weight retention</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: Weight retention">edit</a>]</div> It is unclear whether breastfeeding causes mothers to lose weight after giving birth.<a href="#cite_note-Chowdhury_2015-221">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-Feltner_2018-228">[228]</a> The National Institutes of Health states that it may help with weight loss.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chronic_conditions">Chronic conditions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: Chronic conditions">edit</a>]</div> Breastfeeding is also associated with a lower risk of type 2 diabetes among mothers who practice it.<a href="#cite_note-Aune_2014-230">[230]</a> Longer duration of breastfeeding is associated with reduced risk of hypertension.<a href="#cite_note-Feltner_2018-228">[228]</a> For breastfeeding women, long-term health benefits include reduced risk of <a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">breast cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ovarian_cancer" title="Ovarian cancer">ovarian cancer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Endometrial_cancer" title="Endometrial cancer">endometrial cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chowdhury_2015-221">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/American_Heart_Association" title="American Heart Association">American Heart Association</a>, breastfeeding also reduces the risk of maternal heart disease and stroke.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> A 2011 review found it unclear whether breastfeeding affects the risk of <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_depression" title="Postpartum depression">postpartum depression</a>.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> Later reviews have found tentative evidence of a lower risk among mothers who successfully breastfeed, though it is unknown whether breastfeeding decreases depression, or whether depression decreases breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dysphoric_milk_ejection_reflex">Dysphoric milk ejection reflex</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: Dysphoric milk ejection reflex">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dysphoric_milk_ejection_reflex" title="Dysphoric milk ejection reflex">Dysphoric milk ejection reflex</a></div> Dysphoric milk ejection reflex (D-MER) is a condition in which breastfeeding women develop negative emotions that begin just before the milk letdown reflex and last less than a few minutes. It may recur with every letdown, including unexpected letdowns when the baby is not feeding. It presents as an emotional reaction but may also produce physical feelings such as nausea. It is different from postpartum depression and other known psychological conditions. A 2019 study reported a prevalence rate of 9.1%. As of 2021, very little research has been done and many health care providers and lactation practitioners remain barely able to recognize the syndrome. An October 2021 review of literature published to that date suggested that the lack of up-to-date information "makes it necessary to educate mothers because educated mothers are usually better at handling postpartum situations if they are prepared in advance." There is as yet no medication to treat the symptoms although women have reported that they have found it of benefit to learn that they are not alone and that the symptoms were not "just in their head".<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_factors">Social factors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: Social factors">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_difficulties" title="Breastfeeding difficulties">Breastfeeding difficulties</a></div> The majority of mothers intend to breastfeed at birth. Many factors can disrupt this intent. Research done in the US shows that information about breastfeeding is rarely provided by a women's obstetricians during their prenatal visits and some health professionals incorrectly believe that commercially prepared formula is nutritionally equivalent to breast milk.<a href="#cite_note-U.S._Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services-239">[239]</a> Many hospitals have instituted practices that encourage breastfeeding, however a 2012 survey in the US found that 24% of maternity services were still providing supplements of commercial infant formula as a general practice in the first 48 hours after birth.<a href="#cite_note-Johnston_2012-5">[5]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States" title="Surgeon General of the United States">Surgeon General</a>'s Call to Action to Support Breastfeeding attempts to educate practitioners.<a href="#cite_note-pmid21886320-240">[240]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_support">Social support</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: Social support">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_confinement" title="Postpartum confinement">Postpartum confinement</a></div> A review found that when effective forms of support are offered to women, exclusive breastfeeding and duration of breastfeeding are increased. Characteristics of effective support includes ongoing, face-to-face support tailored to fit their needs. It may be offered by lay/peer supporters, professional supporters, or a combination of both.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> This review contrasts with another large review that looked at education programs alone, which found no conclusive evidence of initiation of breastfeeding or the proportion of women breastfeeding either exclusively or partially at 3 months and 6 months.<a href="#cite_note-Lumbiganon_2016-242">[242]</a> Positive social support in essential relationships of new mothers plays a central role in the promotion of breastfeeding outside of the confines of medical centers. Social support can come in many incarnations, including tangible, affectionate, social interaction, and emotional and informational support. An increase in these capacities of support has shown to greatly positively effect breastfeeding rates, especially among women with education below a high school level.<a href="#cite_note-Laugen_2016-243">[243]</a> Some mothers that have used lactation rooms have taken to leaving sticky notes to not only thank the businesses that have provided them but to support, encourage, and praise the nursing mothers who use them.<a href="#cite_note-washingtonpost.com-244">[244]</a> In the social circles surrounding the mother, support is most crucial from the male partner, the mother's mother, and her family and friends.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> Research has shown that the closest relationships to the mother have the strongest impact on breastfeeding rates, while negative perspectives on breastfeeding from close relatives hinder its prevalence.<a href="#cite_note-Laugen_2016-243">[243]</a> <ul><li>Mother – Adolescence is a risk factor for low breastfeeding rates, although classes, books and personal counseling (professional or lay) can help compensate.<a href="#cite_note-Woods_2013-246">[246]</a> Some women fear that breastfeeding will negatively impact the look of their breasts. However, a 2008 study found that breastfeeding had no effect on the breasts; other factors did contribute to <a href="/wiki/Ptosis_(breasts)" title="Ptosis (breasts)">"drooping" of the breasts</a>, such as advanced age, number of pregnancies and smoking behavior.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a></li> <li>Partner – Partners may lack knowledge of breastfeeding and their role in the practice.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_nursing" class="mw-redirect" title="Wet nursing">Wet nursing</a> – Social and cultural attitudes towards breastfeeding in the African-American community are also influenced by the legacy of forced wet-nursing during slavery.<a href="#cite_note-Lutenbacher_2016-248">[248]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Maternity_leave">Maternity leave</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: Maternity leave">edit</a>]</div> Work is the most commonly cited reason for not breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> In 2012 <a href="/wiki/Save_the_Children" title="Save the Children">Save the Children</a> examined <a href="/wiki/Maternity_leave" class="mw-redirect" title="Maternity leave">maternity leave</a> laws, ranking 36 industrialized countries according to their support for breastfeeding. Norway ranked first, while the United States came in last.<a href="#cite_note-savethechildren.org-250">[250]</a> <a href="/wiki/Maternity_leave_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Maternity leave in the United States">Maternity leave in the US</a> varies widely, including by state. The United States does not mandate paid maternity leave for any employee however the <a href="/wiki/Family_Medical_Leave_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Family Medical Leave Act">Family Medical Leave Act</a> (FMLA) guarantees qualifying mothers up to 12 weeks unpaid leave although the majority of US mothers resume work earlier. A large 2011 study found that women who returned to work at or after 13 weeks after childbirth were more likely to predominantly breastfeed beyond three months.<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Healthcare">Healthcare</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: Healthcare">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caesarean_section">Caesarean section</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=81" title="Edit section: Caesarean section">edit</a>]</div> Women are less likely to start breastfeeding after caesarean delivery compared with vaginal delivery.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Breast_surgery">Breast surgery</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=82" title="Edit section: Breast surgery">edit</a>]</div> Breastfeeding can generally be attempted after breast augmentation or reduction surgery,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrenceLawrence2015615–616-254">[254]</a> however prior breast surgery is a risk factor for <a href="/wiki/Low_milk_supply" title="Low milk supply">low milk supply</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrenceLawrence2015231-255">[255]</a> A 2014 review found that women who have <a href="/wiki/Breast_implant" title="Breast implant">breast implant</a> surgery were less likely to exclusively breast feed, however it was based on only three small studies and the reasons for the correlation were not clear.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> A large follow-up study done in 2014 found a reduced rate of breastfeeding in women who had undergone breast augmentation surgery, however again the reasons were unclear. The authors suggested that women contemplating augmentation should be provided with information related to the rates of successful breastfeeding as part of informed decision making when contemplating surgery.<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> Prior <a href="/wiki/Breast_reduction_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Breast reduction surgery">breast reduction surgery</a> is strongly associated with an increased probability of <a href="/wiki/Low_milk_supply" title="Low milk supply">low milk supply</a> due to disruption to tissues and nerves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrenceLawrence2015231,_616-258">[258]</a> Some surgical techniques for breast reduction appear to be more successful than others in preserving the tissues that generate and channel milk to the nipple. A 2017 review found that women were more likely to have success with breastfeeding with these techniques.<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medications">Medications</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=83" title="Edit section: Medications">edit</a>]</div> Breastfeeding mothers should inform their healthcare provider about all of the medications they are taking, including herbal products. Nursing mothers may be immunized and may take most <a href="/wiki/Over-the-counter_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Over-the-counter drugs">over-the-counter drugs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prescription_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Prescription drugs">prescription drugs</a> without risk to the baby but certain drugs, including some <a href="/wiki/Analgesic" title="Analgesic">painkillers</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychiatric drugs">psychiatric drugs</a>, may pose a risk.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> The <a href="/wiki/US_National_Library_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="US National Library of Medicine">US National Library of Medicine</a> publishes "LactMed," an up-to-date online database of information on drugs and lactation. Geared to both healthcare practitioners and nursing mothers, LactMed contains over 450 drug records with information such as potential drug effects and alternative drugs to consider.<a href="#cite_note-breastfeddrug-203">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-American_Academy_of_Pediatrics-261">[261]</a> Some substances in the mother's food and drink are passed to the baby through breast milk, including <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a> (found in some <a href="/wiki/Carnivorous" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnivorous">carnivorous</a> fish),<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> <a href="/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">caffeine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bisphenol_A" title="Bisphenol A">bisphenol A</a>.<a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medical_conditions">Medical conditions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=84" title="Edit section: Medical conditions">edit</a>]</div> Undiagnosed maternal <a href="/wiki/Coeliac_disease" title="Coeliac disease">celiac disease</a> may cause a short duration of the breastfeeding period. Treatment with the <a href="/wiki/Gluten-free_diet" title="Gluten-free diet">gluten-free diet</a> can increase its duration and restore it to the average value of the healthy women.<a href="#cite_note-TersigniCastellani2014-266">[266]</a> Mothers with all types of <a href="/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus">diabetes mellitus</a> normally use insulin to control their blood sugar, as the safety of other <a href="/wiki/Antidiabetic_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Antidiabetic drugs">antidiabetic drugs</a> while breastfeeding is unknown.<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> Women with <a href="/wiki/Polycystic_ovary_syndrome" title="Polycystic ovary syndrome">polycystic ovary syndrome</a>, which is associated with some hormonal differences and obesity, may have greater difficulty with producing a sufficient supply to support exclusive breastfeeding, especially during the first weeks.<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnicity_and_socioeconomic_status">Ethnicity and socioeconomic status</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=85" title="Edit section: Ethnicity and socioeconomic status">edit</a>]</div> The rates of breastfeeding in the African-American community remain much lower than any other race, for a variety of proposed reasons. These include the legacy of <a href="/wiki/Wet_nursing" class="mw-redirect" title="Wet nursing">wet nursing</a> during slavery, higher rates of poor perinatal health, higher stress levels, less access to support, and less flexibility in the workplace.<a href="#cite_note-Johnson-269">[269]</a> While for other races as socio-economic class raises rates of breastfeeding also go up, for the African-American community breastfeeding rates remain consistently low regardless of socio-economic class.<a href="#cite_note-Reeves_2015-270">[270]</a> There are also racial disparities in access to maternity care practices that support breastfeeding. In the US, primarily African-American neighborhoods are more likely to have facilities (such as hospitals and female healthcare clinics) that do not support breastfeeding, contributing to the low rate of breastfeeding in the African-American community. Comparing facilities in primarily African American neighborhoods to ones in primarily European-American neighborhoods, the rates of practices that support or discourage breastfeeding were: limited use of supplements (13.1% compared with 25.8%) and rooming-in (27.7–39.4%)<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a> Low-income mothers are more likely to have unintended pregnancies.<a href="#cite_note-surgeongeneral.gov-272">[272]</a> Mothers whose pregnancies are unintended are less likely to breastfeed.<a href="#cite_note-HP2020FP-273">[273]</a> Especially the combination of powdered formula with unclean water can be very harmful to the health of babies. In the late 1970s, there was a boycott against Nestle due to the great number of baby deaths due to formula. <a href="/wiki/Michele_Barry" title="Michele Barry">Dr. Michele Barry</a> explains that breastfeeding is most imperative in poverty environments due to the lack of access of clean water for the formula. A Lancet study in 2016 found that universal breastfeeding would prevent the deaths of 800,000 children as well as save $300,000,000.<a href="#cite_note-Rabin_2018-274">[274]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_acceptance">Social acceptance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=86" title="Edit section: Social acceptance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_in_public" title="Breastfeeding in public">Breastfeeding in public</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nursing_area_sign.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Nursing_area_sign.png/250px-Nursing_area_sign.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Nursing_area_sign.png/330px-Nursing_area_sign.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Nursing_area_sign.png/500px-Nursing_area_sign.png 2x" data-file-width="1572" data-file-height="1530" /></a><figcaption>Sign for a private nursing area at a museum using the <a href="/wiki/International_breastfeeding_symbol" title="International breastfeeding symbol">international breastfeeding symbol</a></figcaption></figure> Some women feel discomfort when breastfeeding in public.<a href="#cite_note-Boyer_2011-275">[275]</a> Public breastfeeding may be forbidden in some <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">places</a>, not addressed by law in others, and a legal right in others. Even given a legal right, some mothers are reluctant to breastfeed,<a href="#cite_note-Wolf_2008-276">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vance_2005-277">[277]</a> while others may object to the practice.<a href="#cite_note-Jordan_2002-278">[278]</a> It is estimated that around 63% of mothers across the world have publicly breast-fed.<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> The media have reported a number of incidents in which workers or members of the public have objected to or forbidden women breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a> Some mothers avoid the negative attention and choose to move to another location. But some mothers have protested their treatment, and have taken legal action or engaged in protests.<a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a> Protests have included a public <a href="/wiki/Boycott" title="Boycott">boycott</a> of the offender's business, organizing a "nurse-in" or a breastfeeding <a href="/wiki/Flash_mob" title="Flash mob">flash mob</a>, in which groups of nursing mothers gather at the location where the complaint originated and nursed their babies at the same time. In response, some companies have apologised and instituted reforms.<a href="#cite_note-legoland-282">[282]</a> The use of infant formula was thought to be a way for western culture to adapt to negative perceptions of breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-Hausman,_B._L._2007-283">[283]</a> The breast pump offered a way for mothers to supply breast milk with most of formula feeding's convenience and without enduring possible disapproval of nursing.<a href="#cite_note-Boyer,_K._2010-284">[284]</a> Some may object to breastfeeding because of the implicit association between infant feeding and sex.<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> These negative cultural connotations may reduce breastfeeding duration.<a href="#cite_note-Wolf_2008-276">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-Spencer_2015-288">[288]</a> Maternal guilt and shame is often affected by how a mother feeds an infant. These emotions occur in both bottle- and breast- feeding mothers, although for different reasons. Bottle feeding mothers may feel that they should be breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-Taylor_Wallace_2012-289">[289]</a> Conversely, breastfeeding mothers may feel forced to feed in uncomfortable circumstances. Some may see breastfeeding as, "indecent, disgusting, animalistic, sexual, and even possibly a perverse act."<a href="#cite_note-Forbes_2003-290">[290]</a> Advocates (known by the <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologism</a> "lactivists") use "<a href="/wiki/Sit-in" title="Sit-in">nurse-ins</a>" to show support for breastfeeding in public.<a href="#cite_note-Boyer_2011-275">[275]</a> One study that approached the subject from a feminist viewpoint suggested that both nursing and non-nursing mothers often feel maternal guilt and shame with formula feeding mothers feeling that they are not living up to the ideals of motherhood and nursing mothers concerned that they are transgressing "cultural expectations regarding feminine modesty." The authors advocate that women be provided with education on breastfeeding's benefits as well as problem-solving skills,<a href="#cite_note-Taylor_Wallace_2012-289">[289]</a> however there is no conclusive evidence that breastfeeding education alone improves initiation of breastfeeding or the proportion of women breastfeeding either exclusively or partially at 3 months and 6 months.<a href="#cite_note-Lumbiganon_2016-242">[242]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Location">Location</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=87" title="Edit section: Location">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the United States and the United Kingdom and do not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject. You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit">improve this section</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Breastfeeding" title="Talk:Breastfeeding">talk page</a>, or create a new section, as appropriate. (December 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, all fifty <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a>, along with the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> and the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Virgin_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a>, have laws that allow a mother to breastfeed a baby in any public or private location.<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> In that country, the Friendly Airports for Mothers (FAM) Act was signed into law in 2019, and the requirements went into effects in 2021. This law requires that all large and medium hub airports in the U.S. provide a private, non-bathroom lactation space in each terminal building.<a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a> Some commercial establishments in the U.S. provide breastfeeding rooms, although laws generally specify that mothers may breastfeed anywhere without requiring a special area. Despite these laws, many women in the United States continue to be publicly shamed or asked to refrain from breastfeeding in public.<a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Equality_Act_2010" title="Equality Act 2010">Equality Act 2010</a> makes the prevention of breastfeeding in any public place <a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">discrimination</a> under the law.<a href="#cite_note-uk-294">[294]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, it is a criminal offense for one to attempt to prevent another from feeding a child under 24 months in public.<a href="#cite_note-uk-294">[294]</a> While laws in the U.S. were passed in 2010 which required that nursing mothers who had returned to work be given a non-bathroom space to express milk and a reasonable break time to do so, as of 2016 the majority of American women still did not have access to both accommodations.<a href="#cite_note-Breastfeeding:_The_Illusion_of_Choi-295">[295]</a> In 2014, newly elected <a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a> drew worldwide commentary when he encouraged mothers to breastfeed babies in church. During a papal <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptism</a>, he said that mothers "should not stand on ceremony" if their children were hungry. "If they are hungry, mothers, feed them, without thinking twice," he said, smiling. "Because they are the most important people here."<a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevalence">Prevalence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=88" title="Edit section: Prevalence">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BreastFeedingPrevalence6months.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/BreastFeedingPrevalence6months.png/170px-BreastFeedingPrevalence6months.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/BreastFeedingPrevalence6months.png/255px-BreastFeedingPrevalence6months.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/BreastFeedingPrevalence6months.png/340px-BreastFeedingPrevalence6months.png 2x" data-file-width="634" data-file-height="263" /></a><figcaption>Percentage of babies exclusively breastfed for the first six months of life. Data from 2004 to 2011.<a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CaptionBreastFeeding.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/CaptionBreastFeeding.png" decoding="async" width="97" height="43" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="97" data-file-height="43" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Breastfeeding_chart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Breastfeeding_chart.svg/170px-Breastfeeding_chart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Breastfeeding_chart.svg/255px-Breastfeeding_chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Breastfeeding_chart.svg/340px-Breastfeeding_chart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1167" data-file-height="698" /></a><figcaption>Percentage of US infants breastfeeding by month since birth in 2008. Dotted line: Exclusive breastfeeding Dashed line Any breastfeeding * Estimated at 7 days after birth</figcaption></figure> In 2012 37.1% of infants under six months of age were breastfeeding exclusively which rose to 48% in 2022. The Sustainable Development Goals target is to achieve 70% by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-WHO20142-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-298">[298]</a> In the United States, the rate of women beginning to breastfeed was 76% in 2009 increasing to 83% in 2015 with 58% still breastfeeding at 6 months, although only 25% were still breastfeeding exclusively.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2018Rate-299">[299]</a> African-American women have persistently low rates of breastfeeding compared to White and Hispanic American women. In 2014, 58.1% of African-American women breastfeed in the early postpartum period, compared to 77.7% of White women and 80.6% of Hispanic women.<a href="#cite_note-Reeves_2015-270">[270]</a> In 2019, 84.1% of U.S women giving birth initiated breastfeeding, with 87.4%, 85.5%, 73.6%, 90.3% and 83.1% of Hispanic, White, African-American, Asian and Multiracial mothers initiating, respectively. Rates of initiation among African-American mothers varied widely by state, with lows under 53% and highs over 90%.<a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a> Breastfeeding rates in different parts of China vary considerably.<a href="#cite_note-XuQiu2009-301">[301]</a> Rates in the United Kingdom were the lowest in the world in 2015 with only 0.5% of mothers still breastfeeding at a year, while in Germany 23% are doing so, 56% in Brazil and 99% in Senegal.<a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a> In Australia, for children born in 2004, more than 90% were initially breastfed.<a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a> In Canada for children born in 2005–06, more than 50% were only breastfed and more than 15% received both breastmilk and other liquids, by the age of 3 months.<a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=89" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_and_culture_of_breastfeeding" title="History and culture of breastfeeding">History and culture of breastfeeding</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Wet_nurse" title="Wet nurse">Wet nurse</a></div> In the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empires</a>, women usually fed only their own children.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] However, breastfeeding began to be seen as something too common to be done by royalty, and wet nurses were employed to breastfeed the children of the royal families. This extended over time, particularly in western Europe, where <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">noble women</a> often made use of wet nurses. Lower-class women breastfed their infants and used a wet nurse only if they were unable to feed their own infant. Attempts were made in 15th-century Europe to use cow or goat milk, but these attempts were not successful. In the 18th century, flour or cereal mixed with broth were introduced as substitutes for breastfeeding, but this provided inadequate nutrition.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The appearance of improved infant formulas in the mid 19th century and its increased use caused a decrease in breastfeeding rates, which accelerated after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, and for some in the US, Canada, and UK, breastfeeding was seen as uncultured. From the 1960s onwards, breastfeeding experienced a revival which continued into the 2000s, though negative attitudes towards the practice were still entrenched in some countries up to the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-naoo-305">[305]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=90" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stanis%C5%82aw_Wyspia%C5%84ski,_Macierzy%C5%84stwo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Stanis%C5%82aw_Wyspia%C5%84ski%2C_Macierzy%C5%84stwo.jpg/220px-Stanis%C5%82aw_Wyspia%C5%84ski%2C_Macierzy%C5%84stwo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Stanis%C5%82aw_Wyspia%C5%84ski%2C_Macierzy%C5%84stwo.jpg/330px-Stanis%C5%82aw_Wyspia%C5%84ski%2C_Macierzy%C5%84stwo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Stanis%C5%82aw_Wyspia%C5%84ski%2C_Macierzy%C5%84stwo.jpg/440px-Stanis%C5%82aw_Wyspia%C5%84ski%2C_Macierzy%C5%84stwo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2064" data-file-height="2804" /></a><figcaption>Macierzyństwo ("Maternity"), a 1902 painting by <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Wyspia%C5%84ski" title="Stanisław Wyspiański">Stanisław Wyspiański</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Financial_considerations">Financial considerations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=91" title="Edit section: Financial considerations">edit</a>]</div> Breastfeeding is less costly than alternatives, but the mother generally must eat more food than would otherwise be necessary. In the US, the extra money spent on food (about US $17 each week[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]) is usually about half as much money as the cost of infant formula.<a href="#cite_note-APP_19972-12">[12]</a> According to the CDC, breastfeeding mothers need an extra 450 to 500 calories per day compared to their pre-pregnancy caloric intake.<a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a> Breastfeeding reduces health care costs and the cost of caring for sick babies. Parents of breastfed babies are less likely to miss work and lose income because their babies are sick.<a href="#cite_note-APP_19972-12">[12]</a> Looking at three of the most common infant illnesses, lower respiratory tract illnesses, <a href="/wiki/Otitis_media" title="Otitis media">otitis media</a>, and gastrointestinal illness, one study compared infants that had been exclusively breastfed for at least three months to those who had not. It found that in the first year of life there were 2033 excess office visits, 212 excess days of hospitalization, and 609 excess prescriptions for these three illnesses per 1000 never-breastfed infants compared with 1000 infants exclusively breastfed for at least 3 months.<a href="#cite_note-Ball_1999-307">[307]</a><a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a> However, in a study of over 140,000 newborns in the first month of life, exclusively breastfed newborns had higher hospital readmission rates than those exclusively formula fed, and those exclusively breastfed also had more neonatal outpatient visits compared to those exclusively formula fed.<a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism_of_breastfeeding_advocacy">Criticism of breastfeeding advocacy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=92" title="Edit section: Criticism of breastfeeding advocacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22See_It%22_project,_Iceland,_installation_in_2011_by_Fiann_Paul.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/%22See_It%22_project%2C_Iceland%2C_installation_in_2011_by_Fiann_Paul.jpg/250px-%22See_It%22_project%2C_Iceland%2C_installation_in_2011_by_Fiann_Paul.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/%22See_It%22_project%2C_Iceland%2C_installation_in_2011_by_Fiann_Paul.jpg/330px-%22See_It%22_project%2C_Iceland%2C_installation_in_2011_by_Fiann_Paul.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/%22See_It%22_project%2C_Iceland%2C_installation_in_2011_by_Fiann_Paul.jpg/500px-%22See_It%22_project%2C_Iceland%2C_installation_in_2011_by_Fiann_Paul.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption>"See It", a project by <a href="/wiki/Fiann_Paul" title="Fiann Paul">Fiann Paul</a> dedicated to promoting awareness of breastfeeding in <a href="/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk" title="Reykjavík">Reykjavík, Iceland</a>, in 2011<a href="#cite_note-310">[310]</a></figcaption></figure> There are controversies and ethical considerations surrounding the means used by public campaigns which attempt to increase breastfeeding rates, relating to pressure put on women, and potential feeling of guilt and shame of women who fail to breastfeed; and social condemnation of women who use formula.<a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a><a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a><a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a> In addition to this, there is also the moral question as to what degree the state or medical community can interfere with a person's self-determination: for example in the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> the law requires women to breastfeed babies for at least 2 years and allows husbands to sue them if they do not.<a href="#cite_note-315">[315]</a><a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a> It is widely assumed that if women's healthcare providers encourage them to breastfeed, those who choose not to will experience more guilt. Evidence does not support this assumption. On the contrary, a study on the effects of prenatal breastfeeding counselling found that those who had received such counselling and chosen to formula-feed denied experiencing feelings of guilt. Women were equally comfortable with their subsequent choices for feeding their infant regardless of whether they had received encouragement to breastfeed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrenceLawrence2015210–211-317">[317]</a> Preventing a situation where women are denied agency and/or stigmatized for formula use is also seen as important. In 2018, in the UK, a policy statement from the <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Midwives" title="Royal College of Midwives">Royal College of Midwives</a> said that women should be supported and not stigmatized, if after being given advice and information, they choose to formula feed.<a href="#cite_note-318">[318]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_marketing">Social marketing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=93" title="Edit section: Social marketing">edit</a>]</div> Social marketing is a marketing approach intended to change people's behavior to benefit both individuals and society.<a href="#cite_note-319">[319]</a> When applied to breastfeeding promotion, social marketing works to provide positive messages and images of breastfeeding to increase visibility. Social marketing in the context of breastfeeding has shown efficacy in media campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-320">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-321">[321]</a><a href="#cite_note-322">[322]</a><a href="#cite_note-323">[323]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC_Breatfeeeing_Guide-324">[324]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wakefield_2010-325">[325]</a> Some oppose the marketing of infant formula, especially in developing countries. They are concerned that mothers who use formula will stop breastfeeding and become dependent upon substitutes that are unaffordable or less safe.<a href="#cite_note-Moorhead_2007-326">[326]</a><a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a> Through efforts including the <a href="/wiki/Nestl%C3%A9_boycott" class="mw-redirect" title="Nestlé boycott">Nestlé boycott</a>, they have advocated for bans on free samples of infant formula and for the adoption of pro-breastfeeding codes such as the <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Marketing_of_Breast-milk_Substitutes" title="International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes">International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes</a> by the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Assembly" title="World Health Assembly">World Health Assembly</a> in 1981 and the Innocenti Declaration by WHO and UNICEF policy-makers in August 1990.<a href="#cite_note-Moorhead_2007-326">[326]</a> Additionally, formula companies have spent millions internationally on campaigns to promote the use of formula as an alternative to mother's milk.<a href="#cite_note-328">[328]</a> Giving out gift bags that contain infant formula to women as they leave the hospital is also a marketing strategy. The U.S. Government Accountability Office has reported that women who receive formula samples at discharge are associated with lower breastfeeding rates than those who did not receive gift bags.<a href="#cite_note-329">[329]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baby_Friendly_Hospital_Initiative">Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=94" title="Edit section: Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Baby_Friendly_Hospital_Initiative" title="Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative">Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative</a></div> The Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI) is a program launched by the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) in conjunction with <a href="/wiki/UNICEF_UK" title="UNICEF UK">UNICEF</a> in order to promote infant feeding and maternal bonding through certified hospitals and birthing centers. BFHI was developed as a response to the influence held by formula companies in private and public maternal health care. The initiative has two core tenets: the Ten Steps to Successful Breastfeeding and the <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Marketing_of_Breast-milk_Substitutes" title="International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes">International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-330">[330]</a> The BFHI has especially targeted hospitals and birthing centers in the developing world, as these facilities are most at risk to the detrimental effects of reduced breastfeeding rates. As of 2018, 530 hospitals in the United States hold the "Baby-Friendly" title in all 50 states. Globally, there are more than 20,000 "Baby-Friendly" hospitals worldwide in over 150 countries.<a href="#cite_note-331">[331]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Representation_on_television">Representation on television</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=95" title="Edit section: Representation on television">edit</a>]</div> The first depiction of breastfeeding on television was in the children's program <a href="/wiki/Sesame_Street" title="Sesame Street">Sesame Street</a>, in 1977.<a href="#cite_note-Sen_2018-332">[332]</a> With few exceptions since that time, breastfeeding on television has either been portrayed as strange, disgusting, or a source of comedy, or it has been omitted entirely in favor of bottle feeding.<a href="#cite_note-Sen_2018-332">[332]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=96" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GhazanBeingBreastfed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/GhazanBeingBreastfed.jpg/220px-GhazanBeingBreastfed.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/GhazanBeingBreastfed.jpg/330px-GhazanBeingBreastfed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/GhazanBeingBreastfed.jpg/440px-GhazanBeingBreastfed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="812" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a> prince <a href="/wiki/Ghazan" title="Ghazan">Ghazan</a> being breastfed</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Milk_kinship" title="Milk kinship">Milk kinship</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mahram" title="Mahram">Mahram</a></div> In some cultures, people who have been breastfed by the same woman are milk-siblings who are equal in legal and social standing to a consanguineous sibling.<a href="#cite_note-333">[333]</a> Islam has a complex system of rules regarding this, known as <a href="/wiki/Rada_(fiqh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rada (fiqh)">Rada (fiqh)</a>. Like the Christian practice of <a href="/wiki/Godparent" title="Godparent">godparenting</a>, milk kinship established a second family that could take responsibility for a child whose biological parents came to harm. "Milk kinship in Islam thus appears to be a culturally distinctive, but by no means unique, institutional form of adoptive kinship."<a href="#cite_note-334">[334]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western</a> countries, differences in breastfeeding practices have also been observed according to the affiliation or practice of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> religions; unaffiliated and <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> women exhibit higher rates of breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-335">[335]</a><a href="#cite_note-336">[336]</a><a href="#cite_note-337">[337]</a><a href="#cite_note-338">[338]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transgender_women">Transgender women</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=97" title="Edit section: Transgender women">edit</a>]</div> Milk production can be induced in transgender women by the use of hormone medications, although the volume of milk produced is too small to be used as a significant source of nutrition for an infant. In one case report, a transgender woman was able to produce 7 ml of milk per day with hormone treatment.<a href="#cite_note-339">[339]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Workplace">Workplace</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=98" title="Edit section: Workplace">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Breastfeeding-icon-med.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Breastfeeding-icon-med.svg/220px-Breastfeeding-icon-med.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Breastfeeding-icon-med.svg/330px-Breastfeeding-icon-med.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Breastfeeding-icon-med.svg/440px-Breastfeeding-icon-med.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/International_breastfeeding_symbol" title="International breastfeeding symbol">International breastfeeding symbol</a></figcaption></figure> Many mothers have to return to work a short time after their babies have been born.<a href="#cite_note-Abd2012-340">[340]</a> In the U.S. about 70% of mothers with children younger than three years old work full-time with 1/3 of the mothers returning to work within 3 months and 2/3 returning within 6 months. Working outside of the home and full-time work are significantly associated with lower rates of breastfeeding and breastfeeding for a shorter duration of time.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2018Work-341">[341]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>, support for breastfeeding in the workplace includes several types of <a href="/wiki/Employee_benefits" title="Employee benefits">employee benefits</a> and services, including writing corporate policies to support breastfeeding women; teaching employees about breastfeeding; providing designated private space for breastfeeding or expressing milk; allowing <a href="/wiki/Flextime" title="Flextime">flextime</a> to support milk expression during work; giving mothers options for returning to work, such as <a href="/wiki/Remote_work" title="Remote work">remote work</a>, <a href="/wiki/Part-time_job" title="Part-time job">part-time jobs</a>, and extended <a href="/wiki/Maternity_leave" class="mw-redirect" title="Maternity leave">maternity leave</a>; providing on-site or near-site <a href="/wiki/Child_care" title="Child care">child care</a>; providing high-quality <a href="/wiki/Breast_pump" title="Breast pump">breast pumps</a>; and offering professional <a href="/wiki/Lactation_consultant" title="Lactation consultant">lactation consultants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2018Work-341">[341]</a> Programs to promote and assist nursing mothers have been found to help maintain breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-342">[342]</a> In the United States the CDC reports on a study that "examined the effect of corporate lactation programs on breastfeeding behavior among employed women in California [which] included prenatal classes, perinatal counseling, and lactation management after the return to work". They found that "about 75% of mothers in the lactation programs continued breastfeeding at least 6 months, although nationally only 10% of mothers employed full-time who initiated breastfeeding were still breastfeeding at 6 months."<a href="#cite_note-CDC2018Work-341">[341]</a> Section 4207 of the United States' <a href="/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act">Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act</a> (2010) amended the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Labor Standards Act">Fair Labor Standards Act</a> and required employers to provide a reasonable break time for an hourly employee to breastfeed a child if the child is less than one year old.<a href="#cite_note-Breastfeedingauto13-343">[343]</a><a href="#cite_note-ppaca-344">[344]</a> The employee must be allowed to breastfeed in a private place, other than a bathroom. The employer is not required to pay the employee during the break time.<a href="#cite_note-ppaca-344">[344]</a> Employers with fewer than 50 employees are not required to comply with the law if doing so would impose an undue hardship to the employer based on its size, finances, nature, or structure of its business.<a href="#cite_note-345">[345]</a> A 2016 study found: "1) federal law does not address lactation space functionality and accessibility, 2) federal law only protects a subset of employees, and 3) enforcement of the federal law requires women to file a complaint with the United States Department of Labor. To address each of these issues, we recommend the following modifications to current law: 1) additional requirements surrounding lactation space and functionality, 2) mandated coverage of exempt employees, and 3) requirement that employers develop company-specific lactation policies."<a href="#cite_note-Breastfeeding:_The_Illusion_of_Choi-295">[295]</a> As of 2019 the majority of women still did not have access to both accommodations. Working mother advocate and <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneur_(magazine)" title="Entrepreneur (magazine)">Entrepreneur</a> writer <a href="/wiki/Christine_Michel_Carter" title="Christine Michel Carter">Christine Michel Carter</a> documented her experience pumping in a bathroom while working for an employer violating the Fair Labor Standards Act.<a href="#cite_note-346">[346]</a> In 2022 the Providing Urgent Maternal Protections for Nursing Mothers Act, also known as the PUMP Act, became law in the United States. It mandates that salaried workers who are breastfeeding must have break time and a private space that is not a bathroom. However, employers who do not have 50 or more employees do not have to follow this law if following it would create an undue hardship because of expense or difficulty.<a href="#cite_note-347">[347]</a><a href="#cite_note-Breastfeedingauto13-343">[343]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a>, provincial Human Rights Codes prevent against workplace discrimination due to breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-infactcanada.ca-348">[348]</a><a href="#cite_note-349">[349]</a> In British Columbia, employers are required to provide accommodation to employees who breastfeed or express breast milk. Although no specific requirements are mandated, under the Human Rights Code, accommodations suggested include paid breaks (not including meal breaks), private facilities that include clean running water, comfortable seating areas, and refrigeration equipment, as well as flexibility in terms of work-related conflicts.<a href="#cite_note-infactcanada.ca-348">[348]</a> In Ontario, employers are encouraged to accommodate breastfeeding employees by providing additional breaks without fear of discrimination. Unlike in British Columbia, the Ontario Code does not include specific recommendations, and therefore leaves significant flexibility for employers.<a href="#cite_note-350">[350]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=99" title="Edit section: Research">edit</a>]</div> Breastfeeding research continues to assess prevalence, HIV transmission, pharmacology, costs, benefits, immunology, contraindications, and comparisons to synthetic breast milk substitutes.<a href="#cite_note-Kramer_2012-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-SahaRyan2015-351">[351]</a> Factors related to the mental health of the nursing mother in the perinatal period have been studied. While cognitive behavior therapy may be the treatment of choice, medications are sometimes used. The use of therapy rather than medication reduces the infant's exposure to medication that may be transmitted through the milk.<a href="#cite_note-MarchesiOssola2016-352">[352]</a> In coordination with institutional organisms, researchers are also studying the social impact of breastfeeding throughout history. Accordingly, strategies have been developed to foster the increase of the breastfeeding rates in the different countries.<a href="#cite_note-353">[353]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=100" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baby-led_weaning" title="Baby-led weaning">Baby-led weaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_shell" title="Breast shell">Breast shell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_in_public" title="Breastfeeding in public">Breastfeeding in public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_promotion" title="Breastfeeding promotion">Breastfeeding promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_development" title="Child development">Child development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dairy_allergy" class="mw-redirect" title="Dairy allergy">Dairy allergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_and_fertility" class="mw-redirect" title="Breastfeeding and fertility">Breastfeeding and fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactation_failure_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Lactation failure (disambiguation)">Lactation failure (disambiguation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactation_room" title="Lactation room">Lactation room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milk_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Milk line">Milk line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_chair" title="Nursing chair">Nursing chair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Alliance_for_Breastfeeding_Action" title="World Alliance for Breastfeeding Action">World Alliance for Breastfeeding Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_and_mental_health" title="Breastfeeding and mental health">Breastfeeding and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastmilk_storage_and_handling" title="Breastmilk storage and handling">Breastmilk storage and handling</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=101" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/12px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/18px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/24px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="219" data-file-height="218" /></a> This article incorporates text from a <a href="/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">free content</a> work. Licensed under CC BY 4.0. Text taken from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd1254en">The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2024</a>, FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO, FAO. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=102" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-NIH20132-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NIH20132_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH20132_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150727155223/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/breastfeeding/conditioninfo/Pages/default.aspx">"Breastfeeding and Breast Milk: Condition Information"</a>. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 19 December 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/breastfeeding/conditioninfo/Pages/default.aspx">the original</a> on 27 July 2015. Retrieved 27 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Institute+of+Child+Health+and+Human+Development&rft.atitle=Breastfeeding+and+Breast+Milk%3A+Condition+Information&rft.date=2013-12-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichd.nih.gov%2Fhealth%2Ftopics%2Fbreastfeeding%2Fconditioninfo%2FPages%2Fdefault.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABreastfeeding" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPintoCosta2023" class="citation book cs1">Pinto TM, Costa R (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-031-08956-5_369-1">"Infancy: Breastfeeding"</a>. 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Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-4-159523-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-4-159523-0"><bdi>978-92-4-159523-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091229015411/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241595230_eng.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 29 December 2009. 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Stilwell, KS: Assessment Technologies Institute. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56533-569-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56533-569-1"><bdi>978-1-56533-569-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=RN+maternal+newborn+nursing+%3A+review+module&rft.place=Stilwell%2C+KS&rft.pub=Assessment+Technologies+Institute&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-56533-569-1&rft.aulast=Henry&rft.aufirst=N&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABreastfeeding" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDavidson2014" class="citation book cs1">Davidson M (2014). Fast facts for the antepartum and postpartum nurse : a nursing orientation and care guide in a nutshell. New York: Springer Publishing Company, LLC. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8261-6887-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8261-6887-0"><bdi>978-0-8261-6887-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fast+facts+for+the+antepartum+and+postpartum+nurse+%3A+a+nursing+orientation+and+care+guide+in+a+nutshell&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Springer+Publishing+Company%2C+LLC&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-8261-6887-0&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABreastfeeding" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLawrenceLawrence2015" class="citation book cs1">Lawrence RA, Lawrence RM (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S6y6CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA227">Breastfeeding: A Guide for the Medical Professional</a>. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 227–228. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-323-39420-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-323-39420-8"><bdi>978-0-323-39420-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Breastfeeding%3A+A+Guide+for+the+Medical+Professional&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E227-%3C%2Fspan%3E228&rft.pub=Elsevier+Health+Sciences&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-323-39420-8&rft.aulast=Lawrence&rft.aufirst=RA&rft.au=Lawrence%2C+RM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS6y6CgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABreastfeeding" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=104" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAzadNickelBodeBrockway2021" class="citation journal cs1">Azad MB, Nickel NC, Bode L, Brockway M, Brown A, Chambers C, et al. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7988860">"Breastfeeding and the origins of health: Interdisciplinary perspectives and priorities"</a>. Maternal & Child Nutrition. 17 (2): e13109. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fmcn.13109">10.1111/mcn.13109</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7988860">7988860</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33210456">33210456</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Maternal+%26+Child+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Breastfeeding+and+the+origins+of+health%3A+Interdisciplinary+perspectives+and+priorities&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=e13109&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7988860%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33210456&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fmcn.13109&rft.aulast=Azad&rft.aufirst=Meghan+B.&rft.au=Nickel%2C+Nathan+C.&rft.au=Bode%2C+Lars&rft.au=Brockway%2C+Meredith&rft.au=Brown%2C+Amy&rft.au=Chambers%2C+Christina&rft.au=Goldhammer%2C+Camie&rft.au=Hinde%2C+Katie&rft.au=McGuire%2C+Michelle&rft.au=Munblit%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Patel%2C+Aloka+L.&rft.au=P%C3%A9rez-Escamilla%2C+Rafael&rft.au=Rasmussen%2C+Kathleen+M.&rft.au=Shenker%2C+Natalie&rft.au=Young%2C+Bridget+E.&rft.au=Zuccolo%2C+Luisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7988860&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABreastfeeding" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlimoradiJavadiBarikaniKalantari2014" class="citation journal cs1">Alimoradi F, Javadi M, Barikani A, Kalantari N, Ahmadi M (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17795%2Fcompreped-14028">"An Overview of Importance of Breastfeeding"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Comprehensive_Pediatrics" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Comprehensive Pediatrics">Journal of Comprehensive Pediatrics</a>. 5 (2): e14028. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17795%2Fcompreped-14028">10.17795/compreped-14028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Comprehensive+Pediatrics&rft.atitle=An+Overview+of+Importance+of+Breastfeeding&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=e14028&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17795%2Fcompreped-14028&rft.aulast=Alimoradi&rft.aufirst=Foad&rft.au=Javadi%2C+Maryam&rft.au=Barikani%2C+Ameneh&rft.au=Kalantari%2C+Naser&rft.au=Ahmadi%2C+Mohamad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.17795%252Fcompreped-14028&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABreastfeeding" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBaumslagMichels1995" class="citation book cs1">Baumslag N, Michels DL (1995). Milk, money, and madness: the culture and politics of breastfeeding. Westport, Connecticut: Bergin & Garvey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-36060-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-36060-2"><bdi>978-0-313-36060-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Milk%2C+money%2C+and+madness%3A+the+culture+and+politics+of+breastfeeding&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Bergin+%26+Garvey&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-313-36060-2&rft.aulast=Baumslag&rft.aufirst=N&rft.au=Michels%2C+DL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABreastfeeding" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCassidyEl_Tom2015" class="citation book cs1">Cassidy T, El Tom A, eds. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=acbuBQAAQBAJ">Ethnographies of Breastfeeding: Cultural Contexts and Confrontations</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4725-6926-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4725-6926-4"><bdi>978-1-4725-6926-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnographies+of+Breastfeeding%3A+Cultural+Contexts+and+Confrontations&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4725-6926-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DacbuBQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABreastfeeding" class="Z3988"> Scholarly essays on a variety of topics such as networks of milk sharing through Facebook, public-health guidelines on infant feeding and HIV in Malawi, and dilemmas involving breastfeeding and bonding for babies born from surrogate mothers.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHaliliChe2014" class="citation journal cs1">Halili HK, Che MN (June 2014). "Women's right to breastfeed in the workplace: legal lacunae in Malaysia". <a href="/wiki/Asian_Women_(journal)" title="Asian Women (journal)">Asian Women</a>. 30 (2): 85–108. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14431%2Faw.2014.03.30.2.85">10.14431/aw.2014.03.30.2.85</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Women&rft.atitle=Women%27s+right+to+breastfeed+in+the+workplace%3A+legal+lacunae+in+Malaysia&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E85-%3C%2Fspan%3E108&rft.date=2014-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14431%2Faw.2014.03.30.2.85&rft.aulast=Halili&rft.aufirst=HK&rft.au=Che%2C+MN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABreastfeeding" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHausman2014" class="citation book cs1">Hausman BL (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h6TKAgAAQBAJ">Mother's Milk: Breastfeeding Controversies in American Culture</a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-20826-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-20826-4"><bdi>978-1-135-20826-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mother%27s+Milk%3A+Breastfeeding+Controversies+in+American+Culture&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-135-20826-4&rft.aulast=Hausman&rft.aufirst=BL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh6TKAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABreastfeeding" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLucas2019" class="citation journal cs1">Lucas A (2019). "Scientific Evidence for Breastfeeding". Nestlé Nutrition Institute Workshop Series. 90: 1–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1159%2F000490290">10.1159/000490290</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-318-06340-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-318-06340-0"><bdi>978-3-318-06340-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30865972">30865972</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nestl%C3%A9+Nutrition+Institute+Workshop+Series&rft.atitle=Scientific+Evidence+for+Breastfeeding&rft.volume=90&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E12&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30865972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1159%2F000490290&rft.isbn=978-3-318-06340-0&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABreastfeeding" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMoore2001" class="citation journal cs1">Moore ML (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1595080">"Research Update: Current Research Continues to Support Breastfeeding Benefits"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Perinatal_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Perinatal Education">Journal of Perinatal Education</a>. 10 (3): 38–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1624%2F105812401X88327">10.1624/105812401X88327</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1595080">1595080</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17273265">17273265</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Perinatal+Education&rft.atitle=Research+Update%3A+Current+Research+Continues+to+Support+Breastfeeding+Benefits&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E38-%3C%2Fspan%3E41&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1595080%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17273265&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1624%2F105812401X88327&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Mary+Lou&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1595080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABreastfeeding" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShamir2016" class="citation journal cs1">Shamir R (2016). "The Benefits of Breast Feeding". Nestlé Nutrition Institute Workshop Series. 86: 67–76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1159%2F000442724">10.1159/000442724</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-318-05482-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-318-05482-8"><bdi>978-3-318-05482-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27336781">27336781</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nestl%C3%A9+Nutrition+Institute+Workshop+Series&rft.atitle=The+Benefits+of+Breast+Feeding&rft.volume=86&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E67-%3C%2Fspan%3E76&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27336781&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1159%2F000442724&rft.isbn=978-3-318-05482-8&rft.aulast=Shamir&rft.aufirst=Raanan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABreastfeeding" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding&action=edit&section=105" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/120px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/breastfeeding" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/breastfeeding">breastfeeding</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Breastfeeding" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Breastfeeding">Breastfeeding</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Breastfeeding" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Breastfeeding">Breastfeeding</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Breastfeeding <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Breastfeeding">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Breastfeeding&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061106095742/http://www.llli.org/resources.html">Breastfeeding Resources</a> – La Leche League International (archived 6 November 2006)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/topics/breastfeeding/en/">"Breast-Feeding Content Resources"</a> – WHO reports on Breast Feeding</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/breastfeeding/Pages/default.aspx">"Breastfeeding and Breast Milk"</a> – US National Institute of Health</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/index.htm">Center for Disease Control and Prevention Breastfeeding</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bfmed.org/about">Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.waba.org.my/">The World Alliance for Breastfeeding Action</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/htmlgen?LACT">LactMed</a> – a database of the safety of drugs to which breastfeeding mothers may be exposed by the <a href="/wiki/US_National_Library_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="US National Library of Medicine">US National Library of Medicine</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Breastfeeding</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anatomy, physiology and immunology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti_inflammatory_agents_in_breast_milk" title="Anti inflammatory agents in breast milk">Anti inflammatory agents in breast milk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Areola" title="Areola">Areola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Areolar_gland" title="Areolar gland">Areolar gland (gland of Montgomery)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast" title="Breast">Breast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Breast anatomy">Breast anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_crawl" title="Breast crawl">Breast crawl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_milk" title="Breast milk">Breast milk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_and_medications" title="Breastfeeding and medications">Breastfeeding and medications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysphoric_milk_ejection_reflex" title="Dysphoric milk ejection reflex">Dysphoric milk ejection reflex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frenulum_of_tongue" class="mw-redirect" title="Frenulum of tongue">Frenulum of tongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactose" title="Galactose">Galactose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_milk_oligosaccharide" title="Human milk oligosaccharide">Human milk oligosaccharide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93prolactin_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis">Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latch_(breastfeeding)" title="Latch (breastfeeding)">Latching on</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactation_suppression" title="Lactation suppression">Lactation suppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactiferous_duct" title="Lactiferous duct">Lactiferous duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactose" title="Lactose">Lactose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">Milk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overactive_let-down" title="Overactive let-down">Overactive let-down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">Oxytocin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_immunity" title="Passive immunity">Passive immunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prolactin" title="Prolactin">Prolactin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prolactin_modulator" title="Prolactin modulator">Prolactin modulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colostrum" title="Colostrum">Colostrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactation" title="Lactation">Lactation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nipple" title="Nipple">Nipple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammary_gland" title="Mammary gland">Mammary gland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammary_alveoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammary alveoli">Mammary alveoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammary_lobule" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammary lobule">Mammary lobule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disorders and difficulties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blocked_milk_duct" title="Blocked milk duct">Blocked milk duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_difficulties" title="Breastfeeding difficulties">Breastfeeding difficulties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_engorgement" title="Breast engorgement">Breast engorgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_milk_supply" title="Low milk supply">Low milk supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fissure_of_the_nipple" title="Fissure of the nipple">Fissure of the nipple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverted_nipple" title="Inverted nipple">Inverted nipple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cracked_nipple" title="Cracked nipple">Cracked nipple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mastitis" title="Mastitis">Mastitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nipple_bleb" title="Nipple bleb">Nipple bleb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nipple_vasospasm" class="mw-redirect" title="Nipple vasospasm">Nipple vasospasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neonatal_jaundice" title="Neonatal jaundice">Neonatal jaundice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nipple_pain_in_breastfeeding" title="Nipple pain in breastfeeding">Nipple pain in breastfeeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_infertility" class="mw-redirect" title="Breastfeeding infertility">Breastfeeding infertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_and_HIV" title="Breastfeeding and HIV">Breastfeeding and HIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prolactinoma" title="Prolactinoma">Prolactinoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_and_mental_health" title="Breastfeeding and mental health">Breastfeeding and mental health</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture and support</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_advocacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Breastfeeding advocacy">Breastfeeding advocacy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding_in_art&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Breastfeeding in art (page does not exist)">Breastfeeding in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_in_Islam" title="Breastfeeding in Islam">Breastfeeding in Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_in_public" title="Breastfeeding in public">Breastfeeding in public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Breastfeeding in the United States">Breastfeeding in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Breastfeeding_organizations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Breastfeeding organizations (page does not exist)">Breastfeeding organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_promotion" title="Breastfeeding promotion">Breastfeeding promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child%27s_Right_to_Nurse_Act" title="Child's Right to Nurse Act">Child's Right to Nurse Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diana_West_(lactation_consultant)" title="Diana West (lactation consultant)">Diana West (lactation consultant)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_culture_of_breastfeeding" title="History and culture of breastfeeding">History and culture of breastfeeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human-animal_breastfeeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Human-animal breastfeeding">Human-animal breastfeeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_milk_bank" title="Human milk bank">Human milk bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_milk_banking_in_North_America" title="Human milk banking in North America">Human milk banking in North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Breastfeeding_Symbol" class="mw-redirect" title="International Breastfeeding Symbol">International Breastfeeding Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Newman_(doctor)" title="Jack Newman (doctor)">Jack Newman (doctor)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Breast_Milk_Project" title="International Breast Milk Project">International Breast Milk Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Leche_League" title="La Leche League">La Leche League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactation_room" title="Lactation room">Lactation room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactivism" title="Lactivism">Lactivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mothers%27_rights" title="Mothers' rights">Mothers' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Shelly" title="Pat Shelly">Pat Shelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Spangler" title="Amy Spangler">Amy Spangler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Rose_Tully" title="Mary Rose Tully">Mary Rose Tully</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Breastfeeding_Week" title="World Breastfeeding Week">World Breastfeeding Week</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doula" title="Doula">Doula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwifery" title="Midwifery">Midwifery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactation_consultant" title="Lactation consultant">Lactation consultant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactation_counselor" title="Lactation counselor">Lactation counselor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_breastfeeding_activists" title="List of breastfeeding activists">List of breastfeeding activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_nurse" title="Wet nurse">Wet nurse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment used with breastfeeding</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breast_pump" title="Breast pump">Breast pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nipple_shield_(breastfeeding)" title="Nipple shield (breastfeeding)">Nipple shield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_bra" title="Nursing bra">Nursing bra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_chair" title="Nursing chair">Nursing chair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplemental_nursing_system" title="Supplemental nursing system">Supplemental nursing system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baby-led_weaning" title="Baby-led weaning">Baby-led weaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaning" title="Weaning">Weaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_breastfeeding" title="Extended breastfeeding">Extended breastfeeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nipple_confusion" title="Nipple confusion">Nipple confusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_and_fertility" class="mw-redirect" title="Breastfeeding and fertility">Breastfeeding and fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_and_medications" title="Breastfeeding and medications">Breastfeeding and medications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_contraindications" title="Breastfeeding contraindications">Breastfeeding contraindications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_and_mental_health" title="Breastfeeding and mental health">Breastfeeding and mental health</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Infants_and_their_care122" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#FFCBA4;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Infants_and_their_care" title="Template:Infants and their care"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Infants_and_their_care" title="Template talk:Infants and their care"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Infants_and_their_care" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Infants and their care"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Infants_and_their_care122" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">Infants</a> and their care</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health (<a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baby_food" title="Baby food">Baby food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_weight" title="Birth weight">Birth weight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_pump" title="Breast pump">Breast pump</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Breastfeeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_and_medications" title="Breastfeeding and medications">Breastfeeding and medications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_and_mental_health" title="Breastfeeding and mental health">Breastfeeding and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottle_feeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottle feeding">Bottle feeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_colic" title="Baby colic">Colic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_cap" title="Cradle cap">Cradle cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esotropia" title="Esotropia">Esotropia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Failure_to_thrive" title="Failure to thrive">Failure to thrive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunization" title="Immunization">Immunization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_and_toddler_safety" title="Infant and toddler safety">Infant and toddler safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_bathing" class="mw-redirect" title="Infant bathing">Infant bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_feeding" title="Infant feeding">Infant feeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_food_safety" title="Infant food safety">Infant food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_formula" title="Infant formula">Infant formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_massage" title="Infant massage">Infant massage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_respiratory_distress_syndrome" title="Infant respiratory distress syndrome">Infant respiratory distress syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_sleep_training" title="Infant sleep training">Infant sleep training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neonatal_intensive_care_unit" title="Neonatal intensive care unit">Neonatal intensive care unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newborn_care_and_safety" title="Newborn care and safety">Newborn care and safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_rehydration_therapy" title="Oral rehydration therapy">Oral rehydration therapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pedialyte" title="Pedialyte">Pedialyte</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">Preterm birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaken_baby_syndrome" title="Shaken baby syndrome">Shaken baby syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soy_formula" title="Soy formula">Soy formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SIDS" title="SIDS">SIDS</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_parenting" title="Attachment parenting">Attachment parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby-led_weaning" title="Baby-led weaning">Baby-led weaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_talk" title="Baby talk">Baby talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babbling" title="Babbling">Babbling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_defect" title="Birth defect">Birth defect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">Childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crawling_(human)" title="Crawling (human)">Crawling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestational_age" title="Gestational age">Gestational age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_visual_development" title="Infant visual development">Infant visual development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irritant_diaper_dermatitis" title="Irritant diaper dermatitis">Irritant diaper dermatitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_cognitive_development" title="Infant cognitive development">Infant cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_crying" title="Infant crying">Infant crying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangaroo_care" title="Kangaroo care">Kangaroo care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother" title="Mother">Mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursery_rhyme" title="Nursery rhyme">Nursery rhyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_permanence" title="Object permanence">Object permanence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent" title="Parent">Parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenting" title="Parenting">Parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peekaboo" title="Peekaboo">Peekaboo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Play_(activity)" title="Play (activity)">Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_development" title="Prenatal development">Prenatal development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Prenatal_development_table.svg" title="File:Prenatal development table.svg">Prenatal development table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teething" title="Teething">Teething</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gross_motor_skill#Learning_to_walk" title="Gross motor skill">Walking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaning" title="Weaning">Weaning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Socialization and Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babysitting" title="Babysitting">Babysitting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">Child abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_care" title="Child care">Child care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_custody" title="Child custody">Child custody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_rights" title="Children's rights">Children's rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child" title="Convention on the Rights of the Child">UN Child rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">Circumcision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster_care" title="Foster care">Foster care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grandparent_visitation" title="Grandparent visitation">Grandparent visitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_swimming" title="Infant swimming">Infant swimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_milk_banking_in_North_America" title="Human milk banking in North America">Milk bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanny" title="Nanny">Nanny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_nurse" title="Wet nurse">Wet nurse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infant care and equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baby_jumper" title="Baby jumper">Baby bouncer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_gate" title="Baby gate">Baby gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_monitor" title="Baby monitor">Baby monitor</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hidden_camera" title="Hidden camera">Hidden camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_powder" title="Baby powder">Baby powder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_shampoo" title="Baby shampoo">Baby shampoo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baby_toy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baby toy (page does not exist)">Baby toy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_walker" title="Baby walker">Baby walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bib_(garment)" title="Bib (garment)">Bib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swing_(seat)" title="Swing (seat)">Baby swing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_transport" title="Baby transport">Baby transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bassinet" title="Bassinet">Bassinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car_seat_safety" class="mw-redirect" title="Car seat safety">Car seat safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_vehicular_heat_stroke_deaths" title="Child vehicular heat stroke deaths">Child vehicular heat stroke deaths</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloth_diaper" title="Cloth diaper">Cloth diaper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_board" class="mw-redirect" title="Cradle board">Cradle board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaper" title="Diaper">Diaper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaper_bag" title="Diaper bag">Diaper bag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_wipes" class="mw-redirect" title="Baby wipes">Baby wipes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haberman_Feeder" title="Haberman Feeder">Haberman Feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_chair" title="High chair">High chair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_bed" title="Infant bed">Infant bed</a> (American 'crib' and 'cradle', British 'cot')</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_carrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Infant carrier">Infant carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_clothing" title="Infant clothing">Infant clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifier" title="Pacifier">Pacifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Playpen" title="Playpen">Playpen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroller" class="mw-redirect" title="Stroller">Stroller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplemental_nursing_system" title="Supplemental nursing system">Supplemental nursing system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaddling" title="Swaddling">Swaddling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swim_diaper" title="Swim diaper">Swim diaper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teether" title="Teether">Teether</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_cot" title="Travel cot">Travel cot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baby_shower" title="Baby shower">Baby shower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babywearing" title="Babywearing">Babywearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_neglect" title="Child neglect">Child neglect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_adoption" title="Closed adoption">Closed adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cry_room" title="Cry room">Cry room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_ear_piercing" title="Infant ear piercing">Infant ear piercing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_adoption" title="Open adoption">Open adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_cocaine_exposure" title="Prenatal cocaine exposure">Prenatal cocaine exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neonatal_withdrawal" title="Neonatal withdrawal">Neonatal withdrawal syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_child_abduction" title="Parental child abduction">Parental child abduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_responsibility_(access_and_custody)" title="Parental responsibility (access and custody)">Parental responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenting_plan" title="Parenting plan">Parenting plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternity_law" title="Paternity law">Paternity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paternity_fraud" title="Paternity fraud">Paternity fraud</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Milk150" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Milk_navbox" title="Template:Milk navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Milk_navbox" title="Template talk:Milk navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Milk_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Milk navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Milk150" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">Milk</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Source</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_milk" class="mw-redirect" title="Buffalo milk">Buffalo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camel_milk" title="Camel milk">Camel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">Cow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donkey_milk" title="Donkey milk">Donkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goat_milk" title="Goat milk">Goat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mare_milk" title="Mare milk">Horse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_milk" title="Breast milk">Human</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colostrum" title="Colostrum">Colostrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch%27s_milk" title="Witch's milk">Newborn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moose_milk" title="Moose milk">Moose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pig_milk" title="Pig milk">Pig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheep_milk" title="Sheep milk">Sheep</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Milk_001.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Milk_001.JPG/120px-Milk_001.JPG" decoding="async" width="63" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Milk_001.JPG/250px-Milk_001.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1431" data-file-height="1908" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A2_milk" title="A2 milk">A2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baked_milk" title="Baked milk">Baked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonated_milk" title="Carbonated milk">Carbonated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensed_milk" title="Condensed milk">Condensed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporated_milk" title="Evaporated milk">Evaporated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filled_milk" title="Filled milk">Filled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavored_milk" title="Flavored milk">Flavored</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anijsmelk" title="Anijsmelk">Anise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chocolate_milk" title="Chocolate milk">Chocolate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_milk" title="Coffee milk">Coffee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papaya_milk" title="Papaya milk">Papaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strawberry_milk" class="mw-redirect" title="Strawberry milk">Strawberry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanilla_milk" title="Vanilla milk">Vanilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watermelon_milk" title="Watermelon milk">Watermelon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymilk" title="Haymilk">Haymilk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malted_milk" title="Malted milk">Malted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_milk" title="Organic milk">Organic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasteurized_milk" class="mw-redirect" title="Pasteurized milk">Pasteurized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powdered_milk" title="Powdered milk">Powdered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raw_milk" title="Raw milk">Raw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalded_milk" title="Scalded milk">Scalded</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skimmed_milk" title="Skimmed milk">Skimmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soured_milk" title="Soured milk">Soured</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toned_milk" title="Toned milk">Toned</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-high-temperature_processing" title="Ultra-high-temperature processing">UHT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultrafiltered_milk" title="Ultrafiltered milk">Ultrafiltered</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayran" title="Ayran">Ayran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butter" title="Butter">Butter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buttermilk" title="Buttermilk">Buttermilk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheese" title="Cheese">Cheese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cream" title="Cream">Cream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curd" title="Curd">Curd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Custard" title="Custard">Custard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghee" title="Ghee">Ghee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cream" title="Ice cream">Ice cream</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_milk" title="Ice milk">Ice milk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_milk_jewelry" title="Breast milk jewelry">Jewelry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filmj%C3%B6lk" title="Filmjölk">Filmjölk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kefir" title="Kefir">Kefir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumis" title="Kumis">Kumis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milkshake" title="Milkshake">Milkshake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skyr" title="Skyr">Skyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sour_cream" title="Sour cream">Sour cream</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%A8me_fra%C3%AEche" title="Crème fraîche">Crème fraîche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whey" title="Whey">Whey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ymer_(dairy_product)" title="Ymer (dairy product)">Ymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogurt" title="Yogurt">Yogurt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Containers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bag-in-box" title="Bag-in-box">Bag-in-box</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_milk_bottle" title="Glass milk bottle">Glass milk bottle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jug" title="Jug">Jug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milk_bag" title="Milk bag">Milk bag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milk_carton" class="mw-redirect" title="Milk carton">Milk carton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milk_churn" title="Milk churn">Milk churn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milk_crate" title="Milk crate">Milk crate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milk_delivery" title="Milk delivery">Milk delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_milk_container" title="Plastic milk container">Plastic milk container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_milk_jug" title="Square milk jug">Square milk jug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetra_Brik" title="Tetra Brik">Tetra Brik</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Milk_allergy" title="Milk allergy">Allergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dairy" title="Dairy">Dairy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro_and_dairy" title="Fidel Castro and dairy">Fidel Castro and dairy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactation" title="Lactation">Lactation</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Breastfeeding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milking" title="Milking">Milking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Milking_pipeline" title="Milking pipeline">Pipeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milkmaid" title="Milkmaid">Milkmaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milkman" class="mw-redirect" title="Milkman">Milkman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milk_quotas_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Milk quotas in the United Kingdom">Milk quotas in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Milk_Day" title="World Milk Day">World Milk Day</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_reproductive_physiology" title="Template:Human reproductive physiology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_reproductive_physiology" title="Template talk:Human reproductive physiology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_reproductive_physiology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human reproductive physiology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_physiology_of_sexual_reproduction385" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">Human physiology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Human_reproduction" title="Human reproduction">sexual reproduction</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Menstrual_cycle" title="Menstrual cycle">Menstrual cycle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Menarche" title="Menarche">Menarche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">Menstruation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Follicular_phase" title="Follicular phase">Follicular phase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulation" title="Ovulation">Ovulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luteal_phase" title="Luteal phase">Luteal phase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gametogenesis" title="Gametogenesis">Gametogenesis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatogenesis" title="Spermatogenesis">Spermatogenesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatogonium" title="Spermatogonium">spermatogonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatocyte" title="Spermatocyte">spermatocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatid" title="Spermatid">spermatid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oogenesis" title="Oogenesis">Oogenesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oogonium" title="Oogonium">oogonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oocyte" title="Oocyte">oocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immature_ovum" title="Immature ovum">ootid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">ovum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_cell" title="Germ cell">Germ cell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gonocyte" title="Gonocyte">gonocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gamete</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Human sexual activity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Sexual arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">Sexual intercourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masturbation" title="Masturbation">Masturbation</a></li> <li>Erection <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erection" title="Erection">Penile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clitoral_erection" title="Clitoral erection">Clitoral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgasm" title="Orgasm">Orgasm</a></li> <li>Ejaculation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ejaculation" title="Ejaculation">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_ejaculation" title="Female ejaculation">Female</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insemination" title="Insemination">Insemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_fertilization" title="Human fertilization">Fertilization</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fertility" title="Fertility">Fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implantation_(embryology)" title="Implantation (embryology)">Implantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_period" title="Postpartum period">Postpartum period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics_of_human_sexuality" title="Mechanics of human sexuality">Mechanics of sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_lubrication" title="Vaginal lubrication">Vaginal lubrication</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_reproductive_system" title="Development of the reproductive system">Development of the reproductive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation_in_humans" title="Sexual differentiation in humans">Sexual differentiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminization_(biology)" title="Feminization (biology)">Feminization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virilization" title="Virilization">Virilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puberty" title="Puberty">Puberty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gonadarche" title="Gonadarche">Gonadarche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanner_scale" title="Tanner scale">Tanner scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pubarche" title="Pubarche">Pubarche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menarche" title="Menarche">Menarche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermarche" title="Spermarche">Spermarche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenarche" title="Adrenarche">Adrenarche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_maternal_age" title="Advanced maternal age">Maternal age</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paternal_age_effect" title="Paternal age effect">Paternal age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menopause" title="Menopause">Menopause</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Egg" title="Egg">Egg</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">Ovum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viviparity" title="Viviparity">Vivipary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93gonadal_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis">Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93prolactin_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis">Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">Hormone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Breast" title="Breast">Breast</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thelarche" title="Thelarche">Thelarche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_development" title="Breast development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactation" title="Lactation">Lactation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Breastfeeding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_reproductive_system" title="Human reproductive system">Human 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</div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-5c6f46dcf-xw96z","wgBackendResponseTime":462,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"4.146","walltime":"4.464","ppvisitednodes":{"value":55975,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":952924,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":19955,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":21,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":39,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1469330,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3793.119 1 -total"," 50.18% 1903.294 1 Template:Reflist"," 21.47% 814.255 161 Template:Cite_journal"," 17.56% 665.955 131 Template:Rp"," 16.80% 637.355 131 Template:R/superscript"," 16.11% 610.896 139 Template:Cite_web"," 8.41% 318.940 393 Template:R/where"," 5.27% 199.980 9 Template:Sfn"," 4.33% 164.099 32 Template:Cite_book"," 2.84% 107.685 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.349","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":10636360,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"Benefits_for_mothers\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbdulwadudSnow2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbediJahanfarNamvarLee2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbramsLandersNoblePoindexter2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdamArdingerPagonWallace1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Awadi1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlcorn2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlexBhandaryMcGuire2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlimoradiJavadiBarikaniKalantari2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAltorki1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmerican_Academy_of_Pediatrics\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmerican_Academy_of_Pediatrics_Subcommittee_on_Hyperbilirubinemia2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmir2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmirJamesDonath2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmitayKeinan-Boker2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArenzRückerlKoletzkovon_Kries2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAuneNoratRomundstadVatten2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustralian_Government_Department_of_Health\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAzadNickelBodeBrockway2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaldursdóttir\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBallWright1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBattersby2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaumgardner2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaumslagMichels1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBellEricksonCarter2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenjamin2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerensBrodribb2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerensEglashMalloySteube2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBergman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernardCohenKramer2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernardRifas-ShimanCohenLioret2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBethuneKhosla2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBever_BabendureReifsniderMendiasMoramarco2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlack2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoiesVaucher2016\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBoostaniSadeghiSabouriGhabeli-Juibary2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoyer2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoyer2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrodribb2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurdettePilkauskas2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCDC2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCDC2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCDC2021\"] = 10,\n [\"CITEREFCanadian_Paediatric_Society\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarneiro-ProiettiAmaranto-DamasioLeal-HoriguchiBastos2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarter2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCaseySlawsonNeal2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCassidyEl_Tom2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCattaneoBurmazArendtNilsson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCenter_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCheung\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChowdhurySinhaSankarTaneja2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohenWright2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColenRamey2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollaborative_Group_on_Hormonal_Factors_in_Breast_Cancer2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCox2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurzer2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCzosnykowska-ŁukackaOrczyk-PawiłowiczBroersKrólak-Olejnik2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDailey2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavidson2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaws1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeifBurchAzarYonis2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDerBattyDeary2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeweyHeinigNommsenPeerson1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiasFigueiredo2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDinourBai2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDinourSzaro2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDobransky\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuckworth2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurham2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEglashLeeper2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEglashSimon2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllingPowell1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEusebio-PonceCandelAnguita2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFAOIFADUNICEFWFP2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeltnerWeberStuebeGrodensky2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFigueiredoDiasBrandãoCanário2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlahermanMaisels2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlahermanSchaeferKuzniewiczLi2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForbesAdams-CurtisHammWhite2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGartnerMortonLawrenceNaylor2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGavineShinwellBuchananFarre2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGidrewiczFenton2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGouveriPapanasHatzitoliosMaltezos2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraham-Harrison2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreerSichererBurks2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGroskop2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrunberg1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGzzz2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaastrupPottegårdDamkier2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaleHartmannCzankHenderson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaliliChe2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHansonSöderström1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarmon2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHassiotouGeddesHartmann2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHauckThompsonTanabeMoon2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHausman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHausman2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeZhuHuTao2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHealthwise_Staff\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHendricksonMcKeown2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenry2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoldcroftSnidvongsCasonDoré2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolmesMcLeodBunik2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHortaBahlMartinesVictora2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHospital\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHowardLawrence1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuangPetersVaughnWitko2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuangVaughnKremer2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHurst2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIpChungRamanChew2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFIpChungRamanTrikalinos2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIreland2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJaafarHoJahanfarAngolkar2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacksonNazar2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnsonKirkRosenblumMuzik2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnstonLandersNobleSzucs2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJordanPile2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaplanGraff2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKatelyn_V._ChiangRuowei_LiErica_H._AnsteyCria_G._Perrine2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeimBooneOza-FrankGeraghty2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKellamsHarrelOmageGregory2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKramerKakuma2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKrautBrownKorownykKatz2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKremerKremer2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrogstadContrerasNgTobin2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKunzRodriguez-PalmeroKoletzkoJensen1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLandau2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaugenIslamJanssen2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawrenceLawrence2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawrenceLawrence2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawrenceLawrence2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawrenceLawrenceNobleRosen-Carole2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeFortEvansLivingstoneDouglas2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindPerrineLiScanlon2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLucas2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLumbiganonMartisLaopaiboonFestin2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLutenbacherKarpMoore2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarchesiOssolaAmerioDaniel2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarmetShellAldana2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMason2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxted2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMead2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillerLaRusso2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMinistry_of_Health_Health_Promotion_Council\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchellJohnsonRodríguezEglash2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitoulasDavanzo2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMomigliano2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMooreBergmanAndersonMedley2016\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMoorhead2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorrisonWambach2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMossYeaton2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMotoskoBieberPomeranzStein2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMyersThurstonPearsonDavidson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNapsoYongLopez-TelloSferruzzi-Perri2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNathooOstry2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeifert2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNevilleMcKinleyHolmesSpence2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewman2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorthwestern_Medicine\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;SheaFosterO\u0026#039;DonnellBreathnach2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOffice_of_the_Surgeon_General_(US)Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention_(US)Office_on_Women\u0026#039;s_Health_(US)2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOgbuanuGloverProbstLiu2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOwenMartinWhincupSmith2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaivaAssoneHaziotSmid2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmer1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParkes2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPennyJudgeBrownellMcGrath2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPintoCosta2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPriceRobinson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPriorSanthakumaranGalePhilipps2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRabin2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRajPlichta1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamsayKentOwensHartmann2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReevesWoods-Giscombé2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRenfrewLangWoolridge2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiskinAlmogPeriHalasz2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobertsAmptAlgertSywak2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodriguez-PalmeroKoletzkoKunzJensen1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSachs2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSahaRyanAmir2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSampson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchiffAlgertAmptSywak2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSen2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShamir2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpsonCreehan2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithBecker2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpencerWambachDomain2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSriramanEvansLawrenceNoble2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteinBoiesSnyder2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStroopeRackinStroopeUecker2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSunIrieKishikawaWada2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzajewskaShamirChmielewskaPieścik-Lech2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTanAbramsOsborn2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorWallace2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTersigniCastellanide_WaureFattorossi2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomasMarinelli2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUreñoBerry-CabánAdamsBuchheit2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_de_Perre2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVictoraBahlBarrosFrança2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFViscontiHayesEalyScarborough2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVukavic1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWakefieldLokenHornik2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalker2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalkerO\u0026#039;DonoghueGraceDorling2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeaverWaddTaylorGreenwell1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinslow2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolf2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodsChesserWipperman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorld_Health_Organization.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXuQiuBinnsLiu2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFY_de_VriesPundirMckenzieKeijer2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYeKuklenyikNeedhamCalafat2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhaoZhaoDuBinns2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZheng2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_AmesfoortVan_Mellovan_Genugten2024\"] = 1,\n [\"Feeding_protocols\"] = 1,\n [\"NBK52688\"] = 1,\n [\"Protocols\"] = 1,\n [\"Shared_breastfeeding\"] = 1,\n [\"Use\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 9,\n [\"Also\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 3,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Breastfeeding\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 32,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 161,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 21,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 139,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons cat\"] = 1,\n [\"Cs1 config\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Fact\"] = 1,\n [\"Frac\"] = 1,\n [\"Free access\"] = 1,\n [\"Free-content attribution\"] = 1,\n [\"Globalize\"] = 1,\n [\"Google books\"] = 8,\n [\"Infants and their care\"] = 1,\n [\"Inflation\"] = 1,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 22,\n [\"Milk navbox\"] = 1,\n [\"PD-notice\"] = 2,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Reproductive physiology\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 131,\n [\"Scholia\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 7,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 9,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Wiktionary\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","520","22.2"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","220","9.4"],["type","180","7.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","160","6.8"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","160","6.8"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","160","6.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","140","6.0"],["select_one 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