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<li id="toc-Eighteenth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eighteenth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Eighteenth century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eighteenth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Legal_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Legal changes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education_for_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education_for_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Education for women</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education_for_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_in_the_nobility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_in_the_nobility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Women in the nobility</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_in_the_nobility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_in_the_merchant_class" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_in_the_merchant_class"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.4</span> <span>Women in the merchant class</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_in_the_merchant_class-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_in_the_peasantry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_in_the_peasantry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.5</span> <span>Women in the peasantry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_in_the_peasantry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1850_to_1917" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1850_to_1917"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>1850 to 1917</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1850_to_1917-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_era:_feminist_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_era:_feminist_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Soviet era: feminist reforms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_era:_feminist_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1990s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1990s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>1990s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1990s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Abuse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abuse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Abuse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abuse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women's_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women's_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span> <span>Women's organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women's_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Employment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Employment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.3</span> <span>Employment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Employment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_participation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_participation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.4</span> <span>Political participation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_participation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soldiers'_Mothers_Movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soldiers'_Mothers_Movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.5</span> <span>Soldiers' Mothers Movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soldiers'_Mothers_Movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_officials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_officials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.6</span> <span>Government officials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_officials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_situation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_situation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Contemporary situation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary_situation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Contemporary situation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_situation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Contemporary_situation_for_female_politicians_in_Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_situation_for_female_politicians_in_Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Contemporary situation for female politicians in Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_situation_for_female_politicians_in_Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decriminalization_of_domestic_violence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decriminalization_of_domestic_violence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Decriminalization of domestic violence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decriminalization_of_domestic_violence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Sports</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_trafficking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_trafficking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Human trafficking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_trafficking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Russia</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 10 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-10" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">10 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A3%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="المرأة في روسيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="المرأة في روسيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9B%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%80" title="ৰাছিয়াৰ নাৰী – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ৰাছিয়াৰ নাৰী" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%87" title="زنان در روسیه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زنان در روسیه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condizione_della_donna_in_Russia" title="Condizione della donna in Russia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Condizione della donna in Russia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3_%D9%88%DA%86_%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="روس وچ عورتاں – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="روس وچ عورتاں" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%9A%DA%81%DB%90_%D9%BE%D9%87_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%87_%DA%A9%DB%90" title="ښځې په روسيه کې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ښځې په روسيه کې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3_%D9%88%D9%90%DA%86_%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="روس وِچ زنانیاں – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="روس وِچ زنانیاں" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D1%83_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B8" title="Жене у Русији – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Жене у Русији" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="உருசியாவில் பெண்கள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உருசியாவில் பெண்கள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3_%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%BA_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%86" title="روس میں خواتین – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="روس میں خواتین" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q8031487#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> 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Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Russian_Woman" title="Russian Woman">Russian Woman</a> or <a href="/wiki/Russian_Women" title="Russian Women">Russian Women</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Women in Russia</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Akhmadulina_Netrebko.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Akhmadulina_Netrebko.jpg/220px-Akhmadulina_Netrebko.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Akhmadulina_Netrebko.jpg/330px-Akhmadulina_Netrebko.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Akhmadulina_Netrebko.jpg/440px-Akhmadulina_Netrebko.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="334" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The poet <a href="/wiki/Bella_Akhmadulina" title="Bella Akhmadulina">Bella Akhmadulina</a> (to the left) and <a href="/wiki/Anna_Netrebko" title="Anna Netrebko">Anna Netrebko</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">General Statistics</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Maternal_death" title="Maternal death">Maternal mortality</a><span class="nowrap"> (per 100,000)</span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="white-space: nowrap;">34 (2010)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Women_in_government" title="Women in government">Women in parliament</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="white-space: nowrap;">16% (2017)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Women over 25 with <a href="/wiki/Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">secondary education</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="white-space: nowrap;">93.5% (2010)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Women in labour force</th><td class="infobox-data" style="white-space: nowrap;">66.1% <a href="/wiki/Employment_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Employment rate">employment rate</a>, data from <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a>, 2018<sup id="cite_ref-stats.oecd.org_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stats.oecd.org-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Gender_Inequality_Index" title="Gender Inequality Index">Gender Inequality Index</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Value</th><td class="infobox-data" style="white-space: nowrap;">0.203 (2021)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Rank</th><td class="infobox-data" style="white-space: nowrap;">50th out of 191</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Global_Gender_Gap_Report" title="Global Gender Gap Report"> Global Gender Gap Index</a><sup id="cite_ref-ggr_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ggr-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Value</th><td class="infobox-data" style="white-space: nowrap;">0.706 (2020)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Rank</th><td class="infobox-data" style="white-space: nowrap;">81st</td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Legal_rights_of_women_in_history" title="Legal rights of women in history">legal rights</a>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Woman" title="Woman">Woman</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_animal_advocacy" title="Women and animal advocacy">Animal advocacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_business" title="Women in business">Business</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Female_entrepreneurs" title="Female entrepreneurs">Female entrepreneurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_representation_on_corporate_boards_of_directors" title="Gender representation on corporate boards of directors"><span class="wrap">Gender representation on corporate boards of directors</span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity (politics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_development" title="Women in development">Economic development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_explorers_and_travelers" title="List of women explorers and travelers">Explorers and travelers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_education" title="Female education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Womyn" title="Womyn">Womyn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_government" title="Women in government">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Women in conservatism in the United States">Conservatives in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_elected_and_appointed_female_heads_of_state_and_government" title="List of elected and appointed female heads of state and government">Heads of state or government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_legislatures_by_female_members" title="List of legislatures by female members">Legislators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_regnant" title="Queen regnant">Queen regnant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="List of women monarchs">List</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health" title="Women's health">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_journalism" title="Women in journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_law" title="Women in law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_law_enforcement" title="Women in law enforcement">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_military" title="Women in the military">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother" title="Mother">Mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_Nobel_laureates" title="List of female Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_piracy" title="Women in piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_positions_of_power" title="Women in positions of power">Positions of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_venture_capital" title="Women in venture capital">Venture capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence and abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">Voting rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_workforce" title="Women in the workforce">Workforce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exchange_of_women" title="Exchange of women">Exchange of women</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Science</a></li><li>Technology</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_computing" title="Women in computing">Computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_engineering" title="Women in engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_geology" title="Women in geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_medicine" title="Women in medicine">Medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_dentistry" title="Women in dentistry">dentistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_dentistry_in_the_United_States" title="Women in dentistry in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_for_women_in_science" title="List of organizations for women in science">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields"><span class="wrap">Science, technology, engineering and mathematics</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_space" title="Women in space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_telegraphy" title="Women in telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_artists" title="Women artists">Arts</a></li><li>Humanities</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_architecture" title="Women in architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_artists" title="Women artists">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_art_history_field" title="Women in the art history field">Art history field</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_cinema" title="Women's cinema">Women's cinema</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_dance" title="Women in dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_film" title="Women in film">Film</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chick_flick" title="Chick flick">"Chick flicks"</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_artists" title="Women artists">Fine arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_writing_(literary_category)" title="Women's writing (literary category)">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_speculative_fiction" title="Women in speculative fiction">Science fiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_photographers" title="Women photographers">Photographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_music" title="Women in music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_jazz" title="Women in jazz">Jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_punk_rock" title="Women in punk rock">Punk rock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Shakespeare%27s_works" title="Women in Shakespeare's works">In Shakespeare's works</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_religion" title="Women and religion">Religion</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_as_theological_figures" title="Women as theological figures">Theological figures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_gender_equality" title="Baháʼí Faith and gender equality">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Bible" title="Women in the Bible">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Christianity" title="Women in Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Women in the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_women" title="Mormonism and women">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Opus_Dei" title="Women in Opus Dei">Opus Dei</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Hinduism" title="Women in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Judaism" title="Women in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Sikhism" title="Women in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Taoism" title="Women in Taoism">Taoism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Popular culture</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Female_comics_creators" title="Female comics creators">Comics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_in_American_comics" title="Portrayal of women in American comics">Portrayal in American comics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_film" title="Women in film">Film industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_music" title="Women in music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_piracy#Pirate_women_in_fiction" title="Women in piracy">Fictional pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_speculative_fiction" title="Women in speculative fiction">Speculative fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_video_games" title="Women and video games">Video games</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_representation_in_video_games" title="Gender representation in video games">Gender representation in video games</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_sports" title="Women's sports">Sports</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auto_racing" title="Auto racing">Auto racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_baseball" title="Women in baseball">Baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_basketball" title="Women's basketball">Basketball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_boxing" title="Women's boxing">Boxing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_cricket" title="Women's cricket">Cricket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curling" title="Curling">Curling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycle_sport" title="Cycle sport">Cycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fastpitch_softball" title="Fastpitch softball">Fastpitch softball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_association_football" title="Women's association football">Football / soccer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_major_golf_championships" title="Women's major golf championships">Golf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnastics" title="Gymnastics">Gymnastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_hockey" title="Ice hockey">Ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_lacrosse" title="Women's lacrosse">Lacrosse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_mixed_martial_arts" title="Women's mixed martial arts">Mixed martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netball" title="Netball">Netball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paralympic_Games" title="Paralympic Games">Paralympic Games</a></li> <li>Rodeo</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roller_derby" title="Roller derby">Roller derby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rowing" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's rowing">Rowing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_surfing" title="Women's surfing">Surfing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimming_(sport)" title="Swimming (sport)">Swimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_tennis" title="Women's tennis">Tennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Track_and_field" title="Track and field">Track and field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volleyball" title="Volleyball">Volleyball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_sports" title="Winter sports">Winter sports</a><br /></li></ul> See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_sports" title="List of sports">List of sports</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Women_by_country" title="Category:Women by country">By country</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Afghanistan" title="Women in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Albania" title="Women in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Algeria" title="Women in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Andorra" title="Women in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Angola" title="Women in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Argentina" title="Women in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Armenia" title="Women in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Australia" title="Women in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Azerbaijan" title="Women in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bahrain" title="Women in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bangladesh" title="Women in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Belgium" title="Women in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Benin" title="Women in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bhutan" title="Women in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bolivia" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Women in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Brunei" title="Women in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bulgaria" title="Women in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Cambodia" title="Women in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Chad" title="Women in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Chile" title="Women in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_China" title="Women in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Colombia" title="Women in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Comoros" title="Women in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Croatia" title="Women in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Cuba" title="Women in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Cyprus" title="Women in Cyprus">Cyprus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Women_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Women in Northern Cyprus">North</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Denmark" title="Women in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Women in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">DR Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Women in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ecuador" title="Women in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Egypt" title="Women in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_El_Salvador" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_East_Timor" title="Women in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ethiopia" title="Women in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Women in the Federated States of Micronesia">FS Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Fiji" title="Women in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Finland" title="Women in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_France" title="Women in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Women in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Germany" title="Women in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ghana" title="Women in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Greece" title="Women in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Guatemala" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Guyana" title="Women in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Haiti" title="Women in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Honduras" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iceland" title="Women in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Italy" title="Women in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_India" title="Women in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Indonesia" title="Women in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iran" title="Women in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iraq" title="Women in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Israel" title="Women in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Women in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Japan" title="Women in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Jordan" title="Women in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kazakhstan" title="Women in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kenya" title="Women in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kiribati" title="Women in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kuwait" title="Women in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Women in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Laos" title="Women in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Lebanon" title="Women in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Libya" title="Women in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Madagascar" title="Women in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Malaysia" title="Women in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Maldives" title="Women in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Mali" title="Women in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Women in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Mauritania" title="Women in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Mauritius" title="Women in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Mexico" title="Women in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Mongolia" title="Women in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Morocco" title="Women in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Myanmar" title="Women in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Nepal" title="Women in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_New_Zealand" title="Women in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Niger" title="Women in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Nigeria" title="Women in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_North_Korea" title="Women in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Oman" title="Women in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Pakistan" title="Women in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Palau" title="Women in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Panama" title="Women in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Paraguay" title="Women in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Peru" title="Women in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Philippines" title="Women in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Poland" title="Women in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Portugal" title="Women in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Puerto_Rico" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Qatar" title="Women in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Senegal" title="Women in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Seychelles" title="Women in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Women in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Singapore" title="Women in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Spain" title="Women in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Somalia" title="Women in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_South_Africa" title="Women in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_South_Korea" title="Women in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_South_Sudan" title="Women in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Sudan" title="Women in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Suriname" title="Women in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Women in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Sweden" title="Women in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Syria" title="Women in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Taiwan" title="Women in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Tajikistan" title="Women in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Thailand" title="Women in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Tonga" title="Women in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Tunisia" title="Women in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Turkey" title="Women in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Turkmenistan" title="Women in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Tuvalu" title="Women in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Women in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Uganda" title="Women in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ukraine" title="Women in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Women in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of women in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_United_States" title="Women in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Uruguay" title="Women in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Uzbekistan" title="Women in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Vanuatu" title="Women in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Vatican_City" title="Women in Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Venezuela" title="Women in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Vietnam" title="Women in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Yemen" title="Women in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_women" title="Kurdish women">Kurdistan</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Women_in_society_sidebar" title="Template:Women in society sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Women_in_society_sidebar" title="Template talk:Women in society sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Women_in_society_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Women in society sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Women in Russia</b> have a rich and varied history during numerous regimes throughout the centuries. Since <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Russia" title="Culture of Russia">Russian society</a> is multicultural, the experiences of women in Russia vary significantly across ethnic, religious, and social lines. The life of an <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">ethnic Russian</a> woman can be dramatically different from the life of women of minority groups like the <a href="/wiki/Bashkirs" title="Bashkirs">Bashkirs</a> and the life of a woman from a lower-class rural family can be different from the life of a woman from an upper-middle-class urban family. Nevertheless, a common historical and political context provides a framework for speaking about women in Russia in general. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:C22693-gorbanevskaya02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/C22693-gorbanevskaya02.jpg/150px-C22693-gorbanevskaya02.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/C22693-gorbanevskaya02.jpg/225px-C22693-gorbanevskaya02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/C22693-gorbanevskaya02.jpg/300px-C22693-gorbanevskaya02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="413" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Natalya_Gorbanevskaya" title="Natalya Gorbanevskaya">Natalya Gorbanevskaya</a> in Moscow, 2005.</figcaption></figure> <p>Archaeological evidence suggests that the present day territory of Russia was inhabited since <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistoric</a> times: 1.5-million-year-old <a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a> flint tools were discovered in the <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Afghanistan-Dagestan</a> Akusha region of the north Caucasus, demonstrating the presence of early humans in Russia from a very early time.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The direct ancestors of Russians are the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Slavs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Slavs">Eastern Slavs</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Finnic_peoples" title="Finnic peoples">Finnic peoples</a>. For most of the 20th century, the history of Russia is essentially that of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. Its fall in 1991 led, as in most of the former communist bloc countries of Eastern Europe, to an economic collapse and other social problems. </p><p>Women in Russia are not a monolithic group, because the country itself is very diverse: there are almost 200 national/ethnic groups in Russia (77.7% being Russians - as of 2010<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), and although most of the population is (at least nominally) <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Orthodoxy">Christian Orthodox</a>, other religions are present too, such as <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> (approximately 6% - see <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Russia" title="Islam in Russia">Islam in Russia</a>). </p><p>Famous women in Russian history include <a href="/wiki/Anna_of_Russia" title="Anna of Russia">Anna of Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_Russia" title="Elizabeth of Russia">Elizabeth of Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yekaterina_Vorontsova-Dashkova" title="Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova">Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eighteenth_century">Eighteenth century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Eighteenth century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg/200px-Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg/300px-Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg/400px-Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3320" data-file-height="2873" /></a><figcaption>Young women offer berries to visitors to their <a href="/wiki/Izba" title="Izba">izba</a> home, 1909. Photograph by <a href="/wiki/Sergey_Prokudin-Gorsky" title="Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky">Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsarina_Catherine_the_Great,_Hermitage,_St._Petersburg_(1)_(36792336200).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Tsarina_Catherine_the_Great%2C_Hermitage%2C_St._Petersburg_%281%29_%2836792336200%29.jpg/220px-Tsarina_Catherine_the_Great%2C_Hermitage%2C_St._Petersburg_%281%29_%2836792336200%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Tsarina_Catherine_the_Great%2C_Hermitage%2C_St._Petersburg_%281%29_%2836792336200%29.jpg/330px-Tsarina_Catherine_the_Great%2C_Hermitage%2C_St._Petersburg_%281%29_%2836792336200%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Tsarina_Catherine_the_Great%2C_Hermitage%2C_St._Petersburg_%281%29_%2836792336200%29.jpg/440px-Tsarina_Catherine_the_Great%2C_Hermitage%2C_St._Petersburg_%281%29_%2836792336200%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5964" data-file-height="3946" /></a><figcaption>A portrait of Catherine the Great, located inside the State Hermitage Museum which she founded in St. Petersburg.</figcaption></figure> <p>Women of eighteenth-century Russia were luckier than their European counterparts in some ways; in others, the life of a Russian woman was more difficult. The eighteenth-century was a time of social and legal changes that began to affect women in a way that they had never before experienced. <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a> ruled Russia from 1682 to 1725 and in that time brought about many changes to Russian culture, altering the Orthodox traditions that had been observed since the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> in the 1450s. The three major social classes present during these reforms experienced changes in varying degrees according to their proximity to the tsar and urban settings where reforms could be more strictly enforced. Large cities underwent the westernization process more rapidly and successfully than the outlying rural villages. Noblewomen, merchant class women, and peasant (serf) women each witnessed Petrine reforms differently. For the lower classes it was not until the end of the eighteenth-century (during the time of <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a>'s reign) that they began to see any changes at all. When these reforms did begin to change women's lives legally, they also helped to expand their abilities socially. The <a href="/wiki/Government_reform_of_Peter_the_Great" title="Government reform of Peter the Great">Petrine reforms</a> of this century allowed for more female participation in society, when before they were merely an afterthought as wives and mothers. “The change in women's place in Russian society can be illustrated no better than by the fact that five women ruled the empire, in their own names, for a total of seventy years.”<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPushkareva1997153_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPushkareva1997153-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Legal_changes">Legal changes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Legal changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Arguably the most important legal change that affected women's lives was the Law of Single Inheritance instituted by Peter the Great in 1714. The law was supposed to help the tax revenue for Russia by banning the allowance of noble families to divide their land and wealth among multiple children. This law effectively ended the practice of excluding women from inheriting patrimonial estates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosslyn2003228_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosslyn2003228-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Law of Single Inheritance was clarified in the decree of 1725. It sought to address the question of married daughter’ inheritance rights. The law mandated that if a man was survived by unmarried daughters, the eldest girl would inherit his estate, while the remaining sisters would divide his movable property. His married daughters would receive nothing, however, since they would have received dowries at the time they married.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELamarche-Marrese2002[httpsarchiveorgdetailswomanskingdomnob00marrpage30_30]_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELamarche-Marrese2002[httpsarchiveorgdetailswomanskingdomnob00marrpage30_30]-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1730 Anna Ivanova revoked the Law of Single Inheritance, as it had been a major point of contestation among the nobility since Peter first announced it in 1714. After 1731, property rights were expanded to include inheritance in land property. It also gave women greater power over the estates that had been willed to them, or received in their wedding dowry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELamarche-Marrese200230–31_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELamarche-Marrese200230–31-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Education_for_women">Education for women</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Education for women"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In pre-Petrine centuries the Russian tsars had never been concerned with educating their people, neither the wealthy nor the serfs. Education reforms were a large part of Petrine Westernization; however, it was not until Catherine II's reforms that education rights applied to both men and women of each class. Education for girls occurred mainly in the home because they were focused on learning about their duties as wife and mother rather than getting an education. “The provision of formal education for women began only in 1764 and 1765, when Catherine II established first the <a href="/wiki/Smolny_Institute" title="Smolny Institute">Smolny Institute</a> for girls of the nobility in St. Petersburg and then the <a href="/wiki/Novodevichii_Institute" title="Novodevichii Institute">Novodevichii Institute</a> for the daughters of commoners.”<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisha2002162–163_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBisha2002162–163-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Women_in_the_nobility">Women in the nobility</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Women in the nobility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the eighteenth-century Petrine reforms and enlightenment ideas brought both welcome and unwelcome changes required of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_nobility" title="Russian nobility">Russian nobility</a> and aristocratic families. Daughters in well-to-do families were raised in the <a href="/wiki/Terem_(Russia)" title="Terem (Russia)">terem</a>, which was usually a separate building connected to the house by an outside passageway.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPushkareva199789_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPushkareva199789-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The terem was used to isolate girls of marriageable age and was intended to keep them "pure" (sexually inexperienced). These girls were raised solely on the prospect of marrying to connect their own family to another aristocratic family. Many rural and urban lower classes houses had no space to separate young women so there was no designated terem to keep them isolated. Women of lower classes had to live and work with their brothers, fathers, and husbands as well as manage all household matters along with them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPushkareva199796–97_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPushkareva199796–97-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marriage customs changed gradually with the new reforms instituted by Peter the Great; average marriageable age increased, especially in the cities among the wealthier tier of people closest to the tsar and in the public eye. “By the end of the eighteenth-century, brides in cities were usually fifteen to eighteen years old, and even in villages young marriages were becoming more and more rare.”<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPushkareva1997157_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPushkareva1997157-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marriage laws were a significant aspect of the Petrine reforms, but had to be corrected or clarified by later tsars because of their frequent ambiguities. In 1753, a decree was issued to assure that noble families could secure their daughter's inheritance of land by making it a part of the dowry that she would have access to once she was married.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPushkareva199795_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPushkareva199795-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The constant change in property rights was an important part of the Petrine reforms that women witnessed. Family as well as marriage disputes often went to the court system because of the confusion about the dowry, and the rights it was supposed to ensure, in the event of a father's death or in disputed divorces. For women, the right to own and sell property was a new experience that only came because of Russia's gradual westernization in the eighteenth century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Women_in_the_merchant_class">Women in the merchant class</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Women in the merchant class"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Merchant class women also enjoyed newly granted freedoms to own property and manage it; with this new right upper-class women gained more independence from their patriarchal restrictions. Wives of merchant class men had more independence than wives of the nobility or peasants because of the nature of their husband's work, especially when their husbands were away from home on government service, as they were frequently and for long periods of time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPushkareva199797_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPushkareva199797-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rights of married women from the nobility and merchantry to own and manage their own property offered them an opportunity to become involved in commercial and manufacturing ventures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisha2002_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBisha2002-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Women_in_the_peasantry">Women in the peasantry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Women in the peasantry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A life among the peasant class was hard whether that peasant was male or female; each led lives filled with strenuous labor. They participated in work in the fields and in the making of handicrafts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPushkareva1997153_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPushkareva1997153-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women were expected to do domestic work such as cooking, weaving clothes, and cleaning for their families. During planting and harvest time, when help was needed in the fields, women worked with their husbands to plow, sow seeds, then collect and prepare the crops.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early in the eighteenth-century, the average age for peasant girls to marry was around twelve years old. At this time they were still learning what would be expected of them as wives and also needed their parent's consent to marry. “The requirement of the law code of 1649 that girls not marry before the age of fifteen was rarely observed.”<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPushkareva1997156_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPushkareva1997156-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various permissions for marriage were required; widows and unmarried women living on government owned property had to obtain the permission of the village assembly before they could marry anyone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosslyn2003229_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosslyn2003229-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Young peasant women (like other Russian women) spent far more of their child-bearing years as married women than their counterparts in Western Europe did.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlpern-Engel200452_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlpern-Engel200452-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Childbirth was dangerous for both mother and child in the eighteenth-century but if a peasant woman was able to, she could potentially give birth, on average, to seven children. In the harsh climate of the Russian steppe, and a life of labor from an early age, perhaps half of all children would live to adulthood.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlpern-Engel200453_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlpern-Engel200453-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> “The birth of her first child, preferably a son, established her position in her husband's household. As she continued to bear sons, her status further improved.”<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlpern-Engel200455_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlpern-Engel200455-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russian peasant families needed help in the fields and to manage the household; not being able to hire anyone for these tasks, children were the only way to get the help they needed. Having a son ensured that the family name would continue as well as any property they might own, though as Petrine reforms came into effect, it began to be equally profitable to have a girl. However, women of any class could turn infrequently to the ecclesiastical courts to resolve their marital conflicts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosslyn2003228–229_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosslyn2003228–229-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1850_to_1917">1850 to 1917</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1850 to 1917"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Smolny_Institute,_a_lesson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Smolny_Institute%2C_a_lesson.jpg/220px-Smolny_Institute%2C_a_lesson.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Smolny_Institute%2C_a_lesson.jpg/330px-Smolny_Institute%2C_a_lesson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Smolny_Institute%2C_a_lesson.jpg/440px-Smolny_Institute%2C_a_lesson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="383" /></a><figcaption>A lesson at <a href="/wiki/Smolny_Institute" title="Smolny Institute">Smolny Institute</a> school for girls, 1913-1914</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anna_Filosovova.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Anna_Filosovova.jpg/220px-Anna_Filosovova.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Anna_Filosovova.jpg/330px-Anna_Filosovova.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Anna_Filosovova.jpg 2x" data-file-width="404" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Anna_Filosofova" title="Anna Filosofova">Anna Filosofova</a></figcaption></figure> <p>By the mid-nineteenth century, West European notions of <a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">equality</a> were starting to take hold in Russia. In 1859 <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Imperial_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Petersburg Imperial University">Saint Petersburg Imperial University</a> allowed women to <a href="/wiki/Audit_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Audit (disambiguation)">audit</a> its courses, but the policy was revoked just four years later. In the 1860s in Saint Petersburg a feminist movement began to coalesce, led by <a href="/wiki/Anna_Filosofova" title="Anna Filosofova">Anna Filosofova</a> (1837–1912), <a href="/wiki/Nadezhda_Stasova" title="Nadezhda Stasova">Nadezhda Stasova</a> (1835–1895), and <a href="/wiki/Mariia_Trubnikova" class="mw-redirect" title="Mariia Trubnikova">Mariia Trubnikova</a> (1835–1897), together known as the "triumvirate". Along with members of the Saint-Petersburg literati, such as <a href="/wiki/Evgenia_Konradi" title="Evgenia Konradi">Evgenia Konradi</a> (1838–1898), they petitioned universities to educate women and wrote to prominent male figures to support their cause.<sup id="cite_ref-change_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-change-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This group also founded organizations to help unattached women become financially self-sufficient, and in 1878 they helped to establish the <a href="/wiki/Bestuzhev_Courses" title="Bestuzhev Courses">Bestuzhev Courses</a>, which for the first time gave Russia's women reliable access to higher education. By the early 1900s Russia boasted more female doctors, lawyers, and teachers than almost any country in Europe—a fact noted with admiration by many<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (November 2020)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> foreign visitors. However, most educational benefits were reaped by urban women from the middle and upper classes. While literacy rates were slowly growing throughout the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, educational and other opportunities for peasant remained relatively few. Their main role was to have children. </p><p>In 1910 <a href="/wiki/Poliksena_Shishkina-Iavein" title="Poliksena Shishkina-Iavein">Poliksena Shishkina-Iavein</a> (1875–1947), the first female gynecologist in Russia, became president of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_League_for_Women%27s_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian League for Women's Rights">Russian League for Women's Rights</a>. The League made universal <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">women's suffrage</a> its primary goal, and under Shishkina-Iavein's leadership the women's suffrage movement gained a great deal of popular support, both in Russia and abroad. In March 1917 the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Provisional Government</a>, which had <a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">replaced</a> Emperor <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Nicholas II</a>'s autocracy, granted Russia's women the right to vote and to hold political office. It was the first such reform enacted by a major political power.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_era:_feminist_reforms">Soviet era: feminist reforms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Soviet era: feminist reforms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Russian_Revolution" title="Women in the Russian Revolution">Women in the Russian Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_women_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet women in World War II">Soviet women in World War II</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Russian_and_Soviet_military" title="Women in the Russian and Soviet military">Women in the Russian and Soviet military</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/1936_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union">Constitution of the USSR</a> guaranteed equality for women - "Women in the USSR are accorded equal rights with men in all spheres of economic, state, cultural, social, and political life." (Article 122).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 70 years of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet era</a>, women's roles were complex.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIlič20012_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIlič20012-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women in Soviet Russia became a vital part of the mobilization into the work force, and this opening of women into sectors that were previously unattainable allowed opportunities for education, <a href="/wiki/Personal_development" title="Personal development">personal development</a>, and training. The responsibilities of the ideal industrial Soviet woman meant that she matched working quotas, never complained, and did everything for the betterment of <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Soviet Russia</a>. These expectations came in addition to the standards demanded of women in the domestic sphere. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stamp_Soviet_Union_1930_324.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Stamp_Soviet_Union_1930_324.jpg/220px-Stamp_Soviet_Union_1930_324.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Stamp_Soviet_Union_1930_324.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="318" data-file-height="448" /></a><figcaption>Female worker on a 1930 stamp. <a href="/wiki/Socialist_realist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist realist">Socialist realist</a> art glorified ordinary workers, and women were often not depicted in a traditionally feminine manner.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> of 1917 established legal equality of women and men. <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a> saw women as a force of labor that had previously been untapped; he encouraged women to participate in the communist revolution. He stated: "Petty housework crushes, strangles, stultifies and degrades [the woman], chains her to the kitchen and to the nursery, and wastes her labor on barbarously unproductive, petty, nerve-racking, stultifying and crushing drudgery."<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bolshevik doctrine aimed to free women economically from men, and this meant allowing women to enter the <a href="/wiki/Workforce" title="Workforce">workforce</a>. The number of women who entered the workforce rose from 423,200 in 1923 to 885,000 in 1930.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To achieve this increase of women in the workforce, the new communist government issued the first Family Code in October 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This code separated marriage from the church, allowed a couple to choose a surname, gave illegitimate children the same rights as legitimate children, gave rights to maternal entitlements, health and safety protections at work, and provided women with the right to a divorce on extended grounds.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1920 the Soviet government legalized abortion. In 1922 <a href="/wiki/Marital_rape" title="Marital rape">marital rape</a> was made illegal in the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Labor laws also assisted women. Women were given equal rights in regard to insurance in case of illness, eight-week paid maternity-leave, and a minimum wage standard that was set for both men and women. Both sexes were also afforded paid holiday-leave.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuckley198935_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuckley198935-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet government enacted these measures in order to produce a quality labor-force from both of the sexes. While the reality was that not all women were granted these rights, they established a pivot from the traditional systems of the Russian imperialist past.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuckley198935_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuckley198935-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To oversee this code and women's freedoms, the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">All-Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks)</a> set up a specialist women's department, the <a href="/wiki/Zhenotdel" title="Zhenotdel">Zhenotdel</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIlič2001138_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIlič2001138-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1919. The department produced propaganda encouraging more women to become a part of the urban population and of the communist revolutionary party. The 1920s saw changes in the urban centers of family policy, sexuality, and women's political activism. The creation of the <a href="/wiki/New_Soviet_man" title="New Soviet man">"new soviet woman"</a>, who would be self-sacrificing and dedicated to the revolutionary cause, paved the way for the expectation of women to come. In 1925, with the number of divorces increasing, the Zhenotdel created the second family plan, proposing a common-law marriage for couples that were living together. However, a year later, the government passed a marriage law as a reaction to the <i>de facto</i> marriages that were causing inequality for women.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuckley198940_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuckley198940-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of the policy implementation of the <a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a> (NEP) of 1921–1928, if a man left his <i>de facto</i> wife, she was left unable to secure assistance. Men had no legal ties and as such, if a woman got pregnant, he would be able to leave, and not be legally responsible to assist the woman or child; this led to an increase in the number of homeless children.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuckley198940_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuckley198940-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because a <i>de facto</i> wife enjoyed no rights, the government sought to resolve this through the 1926 marriage law, granting registered and unregistered marriages equal rights and emphasized the obligations that came with marriage. The Bolsheviks also established "women's soviets" (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">женсоветы</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Russian-language romanization"><i lang="ru-Latn">zhensoviety</i></span> - singular: <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">женсовет</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Russian-language romanization"><i lang="ru-Latn">zhensoviet</i></span>) to cater for and support women.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1930 the Zhenotdel disbanded, as the government claimed that their work was completed. Women began to enter the Soviet workforce on a scale never seen before. However, in the mid-1930s there was a return to more traditional and conservative values in many areas of social and family policy. Abortion became illegal, homosexuality was declared a crime, legal differences between legitimate and illegitimate children were restored, and divorce once again became difficult to attain.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women became the heroines of the home and made sacrifices for their husbands and were to create a positive life at home that would "increase productivity and improve quality of work".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuckley1989117_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuckley1989117-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1940s continued the traditional ideology - the nuclear family was the driving force of the time. Women held the social responsibility of motherhood that could not be ignored. </p><p>Some local women's organizations also existed. For example, a group of Azeri Bolshevik women in the <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic">Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic</a> founded (1920) the <a href="/wiki/Ali_Bayramov_Club" title="Ali Bayramov Club">Ali Bayramov Club</a>, a women's club dedicated to the unveiling of Muslim women, promoting female literacy, giving women opportunities for vocational training and employment, and organizing leisure and cultural events.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Stalinist_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalinist era">Stalinist era</a> (1927–1953), women also fell victim to the <a href="/wiki/Purges_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">purges</a> that plagued the country. From 1934 to 1940 the number of women imprisoned in the <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> system rose from 30,108 to 108,898.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIlič2001133_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIlič2001133-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women were not sent to hard-labor camps, but rather worked at camps that were textile- or sewing-factories, and were only forced to perform hard labor as a punishment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIlič2001133_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIlič2001133-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women in the camps were often subjects of violence and/or sexual abuse.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIlič2001138_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIlič2001138-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, "Thank you literature" arose as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_cult_of_personality" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's cult of personality">personality cult</a> that <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Stalin</a> had implemented, and articles in women's magazines would praise Stalin for the work that he had done for women. </p><p>During the Soviet Union's participation (1941–1945) in <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">World War II</a>, women exemplified the motherland and patriotism. Many became widowed during the war, making them more likely to become impoverished. As men were called away to assist with the fighting, women stepped in - some took charge of <a href="/wiki/Sovkhoz" title="Sovkhoz">state farms</a> and large <a href="/wiki/Kolkhoz" title="Kolkhoz">collective farms</a>. In 1942 women made up over half of the agricultural labor force. Soviet women not only assumed roles in industry and agriculture: 8,476 girls joined the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Navy" title="Soviet Navy">Soviet Navy</a> to assist in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Patriotic_War_(term)" title="Great Patriotic War (term)">Great Patriotic War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuckley1989121_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuckley1989121-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The motto of the time became: "Soviet women gave all their strengthen to the motherland… no difficulties arising on the path to building peace could frighten them."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Soviet authorities repealed the ban on abortion in 1955 - after almost 20 years of prohibition, abortion became legal again. After Stalin's death in March 1953, the Soviet government revoked the 1936 laws<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and issued a new law on abortion.<sup id="cite_ref-1955-11-12_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1955-11-12-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_612748_Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/RIAN_archive_612748_Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_612748_Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/RIAN_archive_612748_Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_612748_Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/RIAN_archive_612748_Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_612748_Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1014" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Valentina Tereshkova in 1969</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Valentina_Vladimirovna_Tereshkova" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova">Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova</a> (Russian: Валентина Владимировна Терешкова-Сучка-Тварь; born 6 March 1937) was the <a href="/wiki/Vostok_6" title="Vostok 6">first woman to fly in space</a>, having been selected from more than four-hundred applicants and five finalists to pilot the <a href="/wiki/Vostok_6" title="Vostok 6">Vostok 6</a> mission on 16 June 1963. Before her recruitment as a cosmonaut, Tereshkova was a textile-factory assembly-worker and an amateur skydiver. In order to become a <a href="/wiki/Cosmonaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmonaut">cosmonaut</a>, Tereshkova was only honorarily inducted into the Soviet Air Force, and thus she also became the first civilian to fly in space. During her three-day mission, she performed various tests on herself to collect data on the female body's reaction to spaceflight. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/1977_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1977 Soviet Constitution">1977 Soviet Constitution</a> supported women's rights both in public life (Article 35) and in family life (Article 53). The Constitution made clear the multiple roles of a woman: to educate herself, and to work for the benefit of society, as well as, to be a mother and raise the next generation of Soviet citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1990s">1990s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 1990s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Women in post-Soviet Russia lost most of the state benefits that they had enjoyed in the USSR. However, as in the Soviet era, <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russian</a> women in the 1990s predominated in economic sectors where pay is low, and they continued to receive less pay than men for comparable positions. In 1995 men in health care earned an average of 50 percent more than women in that field, and male engineers received an average of 40 percent more than their female colleagues.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Despite being better educated than men on average, women remained in the minority in <a href="/wiki/Senior_management" title="Senior management">senior management</a> positions. In the later Soviet era, women's wages averaged 70 percent of men's; by 1995 the figure was 40 percent, according to the Moscow-based Center for Gender Studies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> According to a 1996 report<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (January 2022)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup>, 87 percent of employed urban Russians earning less than 100,000 <a href="/wiki/Ruble" title="Ruble">rubles</a> a month were women, and the percentage of women decreased consistently in the higher wage-categories. </p><p>According to reports,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (January 2022)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> women generally are the first to be fired, and they face other forms of on-the-job discrimination as well. Struggling companies often<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="This term requires quantification. (January 2022)">quantify</span></a></i>]</sup> fire women to avoid paying child-care benefits or granting maternity leave, as the law still requires. In 1995 women constituted an estimated 70 percent of Russia's unemployed, and as much as 90 percent in some areas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abuse">Abuse</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Abuse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sociological surveys show that <a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">sexual harassment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">violence</a> against women increased at all levels of society in the 1990s.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> More than 13,000 <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rapes</a> were reported in 1994.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In 1993 an estimated 14,000 women were murdered by their husbands or lovers,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> about twenty times the figure in the United States and several times the figure in Russia five years earlier.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> More than 300,000 other types of crimes, including <a href="/wiki/Spousal_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Spousal abuse">spousal abuse</a>, were committed against women in 1994; in 1996 the State <a href="/wiki/Duma" title="Duma">Duma</a> (the lower house of the Federal Assembly, Russia's parliament) drafted a law against <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">domestic violence</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Women's_organizations"><span id="Women.27s_organizations"></span>Women's organizations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Women's organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Independent women's organizations, a form of activity suppressed in the Soviet era,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This statement appears at odds with details above. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> formed in large numbers in the 1990s at the local, regional, and national levels. One such group is the Center for Gender Studies, a private research-institute. The center analyzes demographic and social problems of women and acts as a link between Russian and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western</a> feminist groups. A traveling group called Feminist Alternative offers women <a href="/wiki/Assertiveness" title="Assertiveness">assertiveness</a> training. Many local groups have emerged to engage in court actions on behalf of women, to set up rape and domestic-violence awareness programs (about a dozen of which were active in 1995), and to aid women in establishing <a href="/wiki/Company" title="Company">businesses</a>. Another prominent organization is the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Women_of_Russia" title="Union of Women of Russia">Women's Union of Russia</a>, which focuses on job-training programs, career counseling, and the development of <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurial" class="mw-redirect" title="Entrepreneurial">entrepreneurial</a> skills with a view to enabling women to compete more successfully in Russia's emerging <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a>. Despite the proliferation of such groups and programs, in the mid-1990s most Russians (including many women) remained contemptuous of their efforts, which many<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="This term requires quantification. (January 2022)">quantify</span></a></i>]</sup> regard as a kind of Western subversion of traditional (Soviet and even pre-Soviet) <a href="/wiki/Social_values" class="mw-redirect" title="Social values">social values</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Employment">Employment</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Employment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ending of Soviet assurance of the right to work caused severe unemployment among both men and women. After the 1991 <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">fall of the USSR</a>, many women who had previously worked as engineers, scientists and teachers, had to resort to <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Russia" title="Prostitution in Russia">prostitution</a> in order to feed themselves and their families. The most frequently-offered job in new businesses is that of <i>sekretarsha</i> (<a href="/wiki/Secretary" title="Secretary">secretary</a>/receptionist), and advertisements for such positions in private-sector companies often specify physical attractiveness as a primary requirement (a condition that is illegal in governmental organizations). Russian law provides for as much as three years' imprisonment for sexual harassment, but the law is rarely enforced. Although the Fund for Protection from Sexual Harassment has blacklisted 300 <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> firms where sexual harassment is known<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (January 2022)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> to have taken place, demands for sex and even rape are still common on-the-job occurrences. </p><p>Russian labor law lists 98 occupations<sup id="cite_ref-publication.pravo.gov.ru_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-publication.pravo.gov.ru-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that are forbidden to women, as they are considered too dangerous to female health, especially reproductive health (until 2019 the figure was 456<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ohchr.org_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ohchr.org-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Political_participation">Political participation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Political participation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the national level, the most notable manifestation of women's newfound political success has been the <a href="/wiki/Women_of_Russia" title="Women of Russia">Women of Russia</a> party, which won 11 percent of the vote and twenty-five seats<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> in the <a href="/wiki/1993_Russian_legislative_election" title="1993 Russian legislative election">1993 national parliamentary election</a>. Subsequently, the party became active in a number of issues, including opposition to the military campaign in <a href="/wiki/Chechnya" title="Chechnya">Chechnya</a> that began in 1994. In the <a href="/wiki/1995_Russian_legislative_election" title="1995 Russian legislative election">1995 national parliamentary election</a> the Women of Russia bloc chose to maintain its platform unchanged, emphasizing social issues such as the protection of children and women rather than entering into a coalition with other liberal parties. As a result, the party failed to reach the 5 percent threshold of votes required for proportional representation in the new <a href="/wiki/State_Duma" title="State Duma">State Duma</a>, gaining only three seats in the single-seat portion of the elections. The party considered running a candidate in the 1996 presidential election but remained outside the crowded field. </p><p>A smaller organization, the Russian Women's Party, ran as part of an unsuccessful coalition with several other splinter-parties in the 1995 elections.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A few women, such as <a href="/wiki/Ella_Pamfilova" title="Ella Pamfilova">Ella Pamfilova</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Republican Party of Russia">Republican Party of Russia</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Socialist_Workers%27_Party&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Russian Socialist Workers' Party (page does not exist)">Russian Socialist Workers' Party</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%8F%D1%89%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%81%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Социалистическая партия трудящихся">ru</a>]</span> chief Lyudmila Vartazarova, and <a href="/wiki/Valeriya_Novodvorskaya" title="Valeriya Novodvorskaya">Valeriya Novodvorskaya</a>, leader of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Union_(Russia)" title="Democratic Union (Russia)">Democratic Union</a>, established themselves as influential political figures. Pamfilova has gained particular stature as an advocate on behalf of women and elderly people. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Soldiers'_Mothers_Movement"><span id="Soldiers.27_Mothers_Movement"></span>Soldiers' Mothers Movement</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Soldiers' Mothers Movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Soldiers' Mothers Movement formed in 1989 to expose human-rights violations in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Armed_Forces" title="Russian Armed Forces">armed forces</a> and to help youths resist the draft. The movement gained national prominence through its opposition to the 1994-2009 <a href="/wiki/Chechen_War_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Chechen War (disambiguation)">wars in Chechnya</a> . Numerous protests have been organized, and representatives have gone to the Chechen capital, <a href="/wiki/Groznyy" class="mw-redirect" title="Groznyy">Groznyy</a>, to demand the release of Russian prisoners and to locate missing soldiers. The group, which claimed 10,000 members in 1995, also has lobbied against extending the term of <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Russia" title="Conscription in Russia">mandatory military service</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Government_officials">Government officials</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Government officials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ryazan_Airborne_School_2013_(505-10).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Ryazan_Airborne_School_2013_%28505-10%29.jpg/220px-Ryazan_Airborne_School_2013_%28505-10%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Ryazan_Airborne_School_2013_%28505-10%29.jpg/330px-Ryazan_Airborne_School_2013_%28505-10%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Ryazan_Airborne_School_2013_%28505-10%29.jpg/440px-Ryazan_Airborne_School_2013_%28505-10%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2250" data-file-height="1447" /></a><figcaption>Women in the Russian Armed forces</figcaption></figure> <p>Women have occupied few positions of influence in the executive branch of Russia's national government. One post in the Government (cabinet), that of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Minister_of_Social_Protection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Minister of Social Protection (page does not exist)">Minister of Social Protection</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%89%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8B_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Министерство труда и социальной защиты Российской Федерации">ru</a>]</span>, has become a "traditional" women's position; in 1994 Ella Pamfilova was followed in that position by Lyudmila Bezlepkina, who headed the ministry until the end of President <a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a>'s first term in mid-1996. Tat'yana Paramanova was acting chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Central_Bank" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Central Bank">Russian Central Bank</a> for one year before Yeltsin replaced her in November 1995, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tat%27yana_Regent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tat'yana Regent (page does not exist)">Tat'yana Regent</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82,_%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Регент, Татьяна Михайловна">ru</a>]</span> served as head of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Migration_Service" title="Federal Migration Service">Federal Migration Service</a> from its inception in 1992 until 1999. Prior to the 1995 elections, women held about 10 percent of the seats in parliament: fifty-seven of 450 seats in the lower-house <a href="/wiki/State_Duma" title="State Duma">State Duma</a> and nine of 178 seats in the upper house of parliament, the <a href="/wiki/Federation_Council_(Russia)" title="Federation Council (Russia)">Federation Council</a>. The Soviet system of filling legislative seats had generally allocated about one-third of the seats in republic-level legislatures and one-half of the seats in local soviets to women, but those proportions shrank drastically with the first multiparty elections<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (January 2022)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> of 1990. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_situation">Contemporary situation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Contemporary situation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Article 19 of the 1993 <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Russia" title="Constitution of Russia">Constitution of Russia</a> guarantees equal rights to women and men.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the Labour law, women have the right to paid maternity leave, paid parental leave, and unpaid parental leave, that can be extended until the child is 3.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Women now have for generations worked outside the home; dual income families are the most common: the <a href="/wiki/Employment_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Employment rate">employment rate</a> of women and men is 66.1% and 76.2% respectively (age 15–64, as of 2018). Nevertheless, women often face discrimination in the labour market; and the law itself lists 100 occupations<sup id="cite_ref-publication.pravo.gov.ru3_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-publication.pravo.gov.ru3-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that are forbidden to women, as they are considered too dangerous to their health, especially reproductive health (until 2019 the figure was 456<sup id="cite_ref-ohchr.org3_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ohchr.org3-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). Despite this, many Russian women have achieved success in business.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Total_fertility_rate" title="Total fertility rate">total fertility rate</a> of Russia is 1.61 as of 2015,<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which, although below replacement rate of 2.1, is still higher than in the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_situation_for_female_politicians_in_Russia">Contemporary situation for female politicians in Russia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Contemporary situation for female politicians in Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1999, there were only four (at most) women named as part of the <i>Nezavisimaya gazeta</i>'s monthly ranking of influential Russian politicians, the highest-ranking being <a href="/wiki/Tatyana_Dyachenko" class="mw-redirect" title="Tatyana Dyachenko">Tatyana Dyachenko</a>, the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of women in Russian politics has increased; at the federal level, this is partially due to electoral victories by Women of Russia bloc in the Duma.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1990s saw an increase in female legislators; another notable increase occurred during the 2007 elections, when every major political party increased its number of female candidates.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While there has been an increase in the share of women in politics in Russia, this has not led to increased gender equality in Russian society overall.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2016 study argues that women's <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_representation" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive representation">descriptive representation</a> in Russian politics will not align with an ability for them to demonstrate <a href="/wiki/Substantive_Representation" class="mw-redirect" title="Substantive Representation">substantive representation</a> because female politicians in Russia are "boxed in by informal rules and by parallel institutions and posts, with virtually no opportunities to advocate for women's interests. Furthermore, female politicians are portrayed in Russian media in a very specific manner which further reveals their purpose as silly props, rather than legislators who should be taken seriously by the public. The women of the Duma are frequently photographed putting on makeup on the floor of the legislature, as well as being kissed on the hand by their male counterparts, to name two examples of their gendered portrayal.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Putin's regime has promoted women to be “stand ins” during times of crisis or change, “loyalists” and “showgirls” when the regime needs to showcase elections and representation, and “cleaners” when the appearance of corruption threatens the regime."<sup id="cite_ref-:32_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Putin's choice to use female politicians as "cleaners" may reflect the regime's focus on image. Interestingly, political science research shows that female politicians are largely perceived to be less corrupt than their male counterparts (though there is no evidence that this perception reflects the reality of whether gender has any significant impact on a person's likelihood to engage in corrupt behavior).<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is significant modern public sentiment that opposes the presence of women in Russian politics. The findings of a 2017 independent research study reveal a culture "not ready" for female leaders. In 2017, one in three Russians "do not approve of women in the political sphere." In 2016, only twenty percent of respondents felt this way. The same study also concluded that the 2017 response against gender equality among the "high echelons of power" was stronger (38%), comparatively, than in 2016, when only 28% of respondents submitted these sentiments. Furthermore, only 33% of respondents would welcome a female president.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decriminalization_of_domestic_violence">Decriminalization of domestic violence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Decriminalization of domestic violence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=477NOvo_77I">Her husband cut off her hands, now she wants tougher laws -CBC News National</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In January 2017, the lower house of the Russian legislature decriminalized first time <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Russia" title="Domestic violence in Russia">domestic violence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This applies to first offenses which do not cause serious injury, decreasing from a maximum penalty of two years imprisonment to a maximum of fifteen days in police custody. It became an administrative offense, with the penalty for first offenses falling under the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_the_Russian_Federation_on_Administrative_Offenses" title="Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses">Administrative Code</a>, these usually being fines or suspended sentences if the accused is a family member, which constitutes the vast majority of domestic violence cases. For second offense and beyond, it is considered a criminal offense, prosecuted under the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_Code_of_Russia" title="Criminal Code of Russia">Criminal Code</a>. The move was widely seen as part of a state-sponsored turn to traditional values under Putin and shift away from liberal notions of individual and human rights. President Putin signed the bill into law in February 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Guardian reported in February 2017 that "according to some estimates, one woman dies every 40 minutes from domestic abuse." <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a> responded extremely critically to this legislation, presenting recommendations to the Russian legislature to reverse course by increasing protections for victims of domestic violence. To substantiate this recommendation, Human Rights Watch cites an independent study which concludes Russian women are three times as likely to encounter violence at the hands of a family member or loved one than a stranger. Furthermore, Human Rights Watch observed that only 3% of domestic violence cases in Russia go to trial, and notes that the 2017 decriminalization makes it even harder to prosecute abusers.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 2017 decriminalization of domestic violence opposed over two decades of activism in favor of increased penalties for abusers. In 1993, upon the first State Duma, the <a href="/wiki/Women_of_Russia" title="Women of Russia">Women of Russia</a> party drafted a bill against domestic violence; a petition in favor of codifying a stance against such abuse received 884,000 signatories nationwide.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2012-2016 effort to craft a bill which allowed for victims of domestic violence to file restraining orders against their abusers, as well as fund shelters and "guarantee judicial and psychological help," was ultimately rejected.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2019, a group of women's rights activists and female politicians, including Vice-Speaker of Russia's Federation Council <a href="/wiki/Galina_Karelova" title="Galina Karelova">Galina Karelova</a>, promoted another bill against domestic violence. Ultimately, this effort was rejected as well, most notably by the Russian Orthodox Church, whose "Patriarchal Commission on the Family and Protection of Motherhood and Childhood" lobbied against the bill, labeling it "anti-family" and "reducing the rights and freedoms of people who have chosen a familial way of life and birth and the raising of children." The commission further claims that the bill "unjustly overburdens families and parents" and "introduces punishment for family life."<sup id="cite_ref-:12_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Protesters want to keep government interference away from the home, however, a study by St. Petersburg State University finds that 90% of domestic violence cases take place within the home, and that 85-91% of victims of marital violence are women.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lockdowns due to the COVID-19 pandemic trapped many women at home with their abusers. Russia initially denied a spike in domestic violence, despite national domestic violence organizations reporting their inability to keep up with a steep increase in calls from victims.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women were fined for breaking quarantine in order to escape their abusers until May 2020, when the government finally declared domestic violence an emergency in which breaking quarantine was acceptable.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In March 2020, Putin signed a bill increasing the severity of punishments for breaking quarantine, which include fines up to US$640 (more for companies and public officials). If their actions caused others health issues or even death, those who break quarantine would receive a minimum of 5-7 extra years in prison and fines worth up to US$4,800.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, under Russia's domestic violence legislation, only abuse that results in a victim's hospitalization is criminal; first-time offenders are punished with a fine worth merely US$88.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sports">Sports</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sports"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Julia_Lipnitskaia_Olympics_2014.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Julia_Lipnitskaia_Olympics_2014.jpeg/220px-Julia_Lipnitskaia_Olympics_2014.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Julia_Lipnitskaia_Olympics_2014.jpeg/330px-Julia_Lipnitskaia_Olympics_2014.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Julia_Lipnitskaia_Olympics_2014.jpeg/440px-Julia_Lipnitskaia_Olympics_2014.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="535" data-file-height="735" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Julia_Lipnitskaia" class="mw-redirect" title="Julia Lipnitskaia">Julia Lipnitskaia</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sports_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sports in Russia">Sports in Russia</a></div> <p>Russia has a long history of successful female skaters and gymnasts. <a href="/wiki/Figure_skating" title="Figure skating">Figure skating</a> is a popular sport; in the 1960s the Soviet Union rose to become a dominant power in figure skating, especially in pairs skating and ice dancing; and this continued even after the fall the USSR.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Artistic Gymnastics are among Russia's most popular sports; <a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Khorkina" title="Svetlana Khorkina">Svetlana Khorkina</a> is one of the most successful female gymnasts of all time. One of the most famous tennis players is Maria Sharapova who became the #1 Tennis players in the world at only the age of 18.<sup id="cite_ref-r1_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r1-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russian women are also internationally successful in many other sports, such as <a href="/wiki/Sport_of_athletics" title="Sport of athletics">athletics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basketball" title="Basketball">basketball</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tennis" title="Tennis">tennis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volleyball" title="Volleyball">volleyball</a>. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_trafficking">Human trafficking</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Human trafficking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Russia" title="Human trafficking in Russia">Human trafficking in Russia</a></div> <p>As in other former communist countries, the fall of the state <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">planned economy</a> after the collapse of the USSR, led to increased socioeconomic problems, such as unemployment, insecurity and crime. This created a fertile ground for <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human trafficking</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking" title="Sex trafficking">sex trafficking</a>. </p><p>Women and children who live in poverty are at most risk of becoming trafficking victims. <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Russia" title="Prostitution in Russia">Prostitution in Russia</a> has spread rapidly in recent years, with women from small towns and rural areas migrating (willing or unwillingly) to big cities such as <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, <a href="/wiki/St._Petersburg" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omsk" title="Omsk">Omsk</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Yekaterinburg" title="Yekaterinburg">Yekaterinburg</a> to engage in prostitution. Russian women are also lured abroad with sham promises of jobs such as dancers, models, waitresses or domestic helpers and end up caught in <a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">forced prostitution</a> situations.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Russia has ratified the <a href="/wiki/Protocol_to_Prevent,_Suppress_and_Punish_Trafficking_in_Persons,_especially_Women_and_Children" class="mw-redirect" title="Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children">UN Trafficking Protocol</a>, and has taken steps to curb this phenomenon. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Russian_Revolution" title="Women in the Russian Revolution">Women in the Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Russian_and_Soviet_military" title="Women in the Russian and Soviet military">Women in the Russian and Soviet military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_reproductive_health_in_Russia" title="Women's reproductive health in Russia">Women's reproductive health in Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_women_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet women in World War II">Soviet women in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap_in_Russia" title="Gender pay gap in Russia">Gender pay gap in Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_roles_in_post-communist_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Gender roles in post-communist Central and Eastern Europe">Gender roles in post-communist Central and Eastern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Heroine" title="Mother Heroine">Mother Heroine</a> (1944-1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Heroine_(Russia)" title="Mother Heroine (Russia)">Mother Heroine</a>, (2022–present)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free 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.id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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(2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160106134303/http://paleogeo.org/article3.html">"Geoarchaeology of the earliest paleolithic sites (Oldowan) in the North Caucasus and the East Europe"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://paleogeo.org/article3.html">the original</a> on 6 January 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-12-18</span></span>. <q>Early Paleolithic cultural layers with tools of oldowan type was discovered in East Caucasus (Dagestan, Russia) by Kh. Amirkhanov (2006) [...]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Geoarchaeology+of+the+earliest+paleolithic+sites+%28Oldowan%29+in+the+North+Caucasus+and+the+East+Europe&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Chepalyga&rft.aufirst=A.L.&rft.au=Amirkhanov%2C+Kh.A.&rft.au=Trubikhin%2C+V.M.&rft.au=Sadchikova%2C+T.A.&rft.au=Pirogov%2C+A.N.&rft.au=Taimazov%2C+A.I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpaleogeo.org%2Farticle3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Russia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/">"The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency"</a>. <i>Cia.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cia.gov&rft.atitle=The+World+Factbook+%E2%80%94+Central+Intelligence+Agency&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Frussia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Russia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPushkareva1997153-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPushkareva1997153_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPushkareva1997153_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPushkareva1997">Pushkareva 1997</a>, p. 153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERosslyn2003228-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosslyn2003228_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRosslyn2003">Rosslyn 2003</a>, p. 228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELamarche-Marrese2002[httpsarchiveorgdetailswomanskingdomnob00marrpage30_30]-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELamarche-Marrese2002[httpsarchiveorgdetailswomanskingdomnob00marrpage30_30]_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLamarche-Marrese2002">Lamarche-Marrese 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/womanskingdomnob00marr/page/30">30</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELamarche-Marrese200230–31-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELamarche-Marrese200230–31_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLamarche-Marrese2002">Lamarche-Marrese 2002</a>, p. 30–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBisha2002162–163-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisha2002162–163_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBisha2002">Bisha 2002</a>, pp. 162–163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPushkareva199789-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPushkareva199789_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPushkareva1997">Pushkareva 1997</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPushkareva199796–97-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPushkareva199796–97_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPushkareva1997">Pushkareva 1997</a>, p. 96–97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPushkareva1997157-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPushkareva1997157_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPushkareva1997">Pushkareva 1997</a>, p. 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPushkareva199795-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPushkareva199795_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPushkareva1997">Pushkareva 1997</a>, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPushkareva199797-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPushkareva199797_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPushkareva1997">Pushkareva 1997</a>, p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBisha2002-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisha2002_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBisha2002">Bisha 2002</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlpern-Engel2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Engel_(historian)" title="Barbara Engel (historian)">Alpern-Engel, Barbara</a> (2003). <i>Women in Russia, 1700-2000</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521003186" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521003186"><bdi>978-0521003186</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+Russia%2C+1700-2000&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0521003186&rft.aulast=Alpern-Engel&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Russia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPushkareva1997156-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPushkareva1997156_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPushkareva1997">Pushkareva 1997</a>, p. 156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERosslyn2003229-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosslyn2003229_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRosslyn2003">Rosslyn 2003</a>, p. 229.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlpern-Engel200452-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlpern-Engel200452_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlpern-Engel2004">Alpern-Engel 2004</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlpern-Engel200453-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlpern-Engel200453_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlpern-Engel2004">Alpern-Engel 2004</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlpern-Engel200455-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlpern-Engel200455_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlpern-Engel2004">Alpern-Engel 2004</a>, p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERosslyn2003228–229-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosslyn2003228–229_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRosslyn2003">Rosslyn 2003</a>, p. 228–229.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-change-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-change_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalysheva1992" class="citation book cs1">Malysheva, Marina (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/womeninfaceofcha00shir/page/188">"Feminism and Bolshevism: two worlds, two ideologies"</a></span>. In Rai, Shirin; Pilkington, Hilary; Phizacklea, Annie (eds.). <i>Women in the face of change: the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe and China</i>. Translated by Pilkington, Hilary. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/womeninfaceofcha00shir/page/188">188</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-07540-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-07540-8"><bdi>0-415-07540-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Feminism+and+Bolshevism%3A+two+worlds%2C+two+ideologies&rft.btitle=Women+in+the+face+of+change%3A+the+Soviet+Union%2C+Eastern+Europe+and+China&rft.place=London&rft.pages=188&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-415-07540-8&rft.aulast=Malysheva&rft.aufirst=Marina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwomeninfaceofcha00shir%2Fpage%2F188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Russia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuthchild2010" class="citation book cs1">Ruthchild, R. (2010). <i>Equality & revolution : Women's rights in the Russian Empire, 1905-1917</i>. Series in Russian and East European studies. Pittsburgh, Pa.: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh_Press" title="University of Pittsburgh Press">University of Pittsburgh Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Equality+%26+revolution+%3A+Women%27s+rights+in+the+Russian+Empire%2C+1905-1917&rft.place=Pittsburgh%2C+Pa.&rft.series=Series+in+Russian+and+East+European+studies&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Ruthchild&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Russia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Constitution of the USSR. Moscow: Co-operative Pub. Society of Foreign Workers in the U.S.S.R., Chapter 10, 1936</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIlič20012-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIlič20012_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIlič2001">Ilič 2001</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlpern-Engel1987" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Engel_(historian)" title="Barbara Engel (historian)">Alpern-Engel, Barbara</a> (16 December 1987). "Women in Russia and the Soviet Union". <i><a href="/wiki/Signs_(journal)" title="Signs (journal)">Signs</a></i>. <b>12</b> (4): 781–796. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F494366">10.1086/494366</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174213">3174213</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144091323">144091323</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Signs&rft.atitle=Women+in+Russia+and+the+Soviet+Union&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=781-796&rft.date=1987-12-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144091323%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3174213%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F494366&rft.aulast=Alpern-Engel&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Russia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldman2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wendy_Z._Goldman" title="Wendy Z. Goldman">Goldman, Wendy Z.</a> (2002). <i>Women at the Gates: Gender and Industry in Stalin's Russia</i>. Cambridge, UK: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521785532" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521785532"><bdi>978-0521785532</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+at+the+Gates%3A+Gender+and+Industry+in+Stalin%27s+Russia&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0521785532&rft.aulast=Goldman&rft.aufirst=Wendy+Z.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Russia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchlesinger1949" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Schlesinger" title="Rudolf Schlesinger">Schlesinger, Rudolf</a>, ed. (1949). "The Original Family Law of the Russian Soviet Republic". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rcdYAQAAQBAJ"><i>The Family in the USSR</i></a>. International Library of Sociology. London: <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a> (published 2013). p. 33ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136280788" title="Special:BookSources/9781136280788"><bdi>9781136280788</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2020</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>. <q>From the Code of Laws concerning the civil Registration of Deaths, Births and Marriages, of oct. 17, 1918</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Original+Family+Law+of+the+Russian+Soviet+Republic&rft.btitle=The+Family+in+the+USSR&rft.place=London&rft.series=International+Library+of+Sociology&rft.pages=33ff&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1949&rft.isbn=9781136280788&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrcdYAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Russia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlpern-EngelPosadskaya-VanderbeckHoisington1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Engel_(historian)" title="Barbara Engel (historian)">Alpern-Engel, Barbara</a>; Posadskaya-Vanderbeck, Anastasia; Hoisington, Sona Stephan (1997). <i>A Revolution of Their Own: Voices of Women in Soviet History</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813333663" title="Special:BookSources/9780813333663"><bdi>9780813333663</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Revolution+of+Their+Own%3A+Voices+of+Women+in+Soviet+History&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780813333663&rft.aulast=Alpern-Engel&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft.au=Posadskaya-Vanderbeck%2C+Anastasia&rft.au=Hoisington%2C+Sona+Stephan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Russia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRule1996" class="citation book cs1">Rule, Wilma (1996). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russianwomenpoli00noon"><i>Russian women in politics and society</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russianwomenpoli00noon/page/n172">160</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29363-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29363-4"><bdi>978-0-313-29363-4</bdi></a>. <q>The first criminal law code in Soviet Russia differed from Tsarist law on rape: "although the Tsarist law explicitly excluded marital rape, the Soviet law code of 1922 did not."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+women+in+politics+and+society&rft.pages=160&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-313-29363-4&rft.aulast=Rule&rft.aufirst=Wilma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frussianwomenpoli00noon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Russia" class="Z3988"></span> Marital rape was explicitly included in the 1960 code.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuckley198935-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuckley198935_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuckley198935_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuckley1989">Buckley 1989</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIlič2001138-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIlič2001138_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIlič2001138_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIlič2001">Ilič 2001</a>, p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuckley198940-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuckley198940_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuckley198940_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuckley1989">Buckley 1989</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJosephNaǧmābādī2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Suad_Joseph" title="Suad Joseph">Joseph, Suad</a>; Naǧmābādī, Afsāna, eds. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Uyypm6T7ZsC"><i>Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Family, Law and Politics</i></a>. Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures. Vol. 2. Leiden: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. p. 140. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004128187" title="Special:BookSources/9789004128187"><bdi>9789004128187</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Ann Arbor: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+Ideology+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Buckley&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Russia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIlič2001" class="citation book cs1">Ilič, Melanie (2001). <i>Women in the Stalin Era</i>. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+the+Stalin+Era&rft.place=Houndmills%2C+Basingstoke%2C+Hampshire&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Ili%C4%8D&rft.aufirst=Melanie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Russia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLamarche-Marrese2002" class="citation book cs1">Lamarche-Marrese, Michelle (2002). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/womanskingdomnob00marr"><i>A Woman's Kingdom: Noblewomen and the Control of Property in Russia, 1700-1861</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801439117" title="Special:BookSources/9780801439117"><bdi>9780801439117</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Woman%27s+Kingdom%3A+Noblewomen+and+the+Control+of+Property+in+Russia%2C+1700-1861&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780801439117&rft.aulast=Lamarche-Marrese&rft.aufirst=Michelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwomanskingdomnob00marr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Russia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPushkareva1997" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%91%D0%B2%D0%B0,_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F_%D0%9B%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Пушкарёва, Наталья Львовна">Pushkareva, Natalia</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in Russian]</span> (1997). <i>Women in Russian History: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Century</i>. Armonk, NY: <a href="/wiki/M.E._Sharpe" class="mw-redirect" title="M.E. Sharpe">M.E. Sharpe</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+Russian+History%3A+From+the+Tenth+to+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.place=Armonk%2C+NY&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Pushkareva&rft.aufirst=Natalia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Russia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosslyn2003" class="citation book cs1">Rosslyn, Wendy (2003). <i>Women and Gender in 18th-Century Russia</i>. Burlington, VT: <a href="/wiki/Ashgate_Publishing" title="Ashgate Publishing">Ashgate Publishing</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+Gender+in+18th-Century+Russia&rft.place=Burlington%2C+VT&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Rosslyn&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Russia" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Clements, Barbara Evans. <i>Bolshevik Women</i> (1997)</li> <li>Clements, Barbara Evans. <i> A History of Women in Russia: From Earliest Times to the Present</i> (2012)</li> <li>Goldman, Wendy Z. <i>Women at the Gates: Gender and Industry in Stalin's Russia</i> (2002).</li> <li>Ilic, Melanie, ed. <i>The Palgrave Handbook of Women and Gender in Twentieth-Century Russia and the Soviet Union</i> (Springer, 2017).</li> <li>Lindenmeyr, Adele. "“The First Woman in Russia”: Countess Sofia Panina and Women's Political Participation in the Revolutions of 1917." <i>Journal of Modern Russian History and Historiography</i> 9.1 (2016): 158-181.</li> <li>Stites, Richard. <i>The women's liberation movement in Russia: feminism, nihilism, and bolshevism, 1860-1930</i> (1978).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Pushkareva, Natalia, and Maria Zolotukhina. "Women's and Gender Studies of the Russian Past: two contemporary trends." <i>Women's History Review</i> 27.1 (2018): 71–87.</li> <li>Pushkareva, Natalia. "My Women's History, My Memory." <i>Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History</i> 20.3 (2019): 577–582.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Russia&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Engel, Barbara Alpern et al. eds. <i>A Revolution of Their Own: Voices of Women in Soviet History</i> (1997)</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 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cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Russia" title="Geography of Russia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_Russia" title="Borders of Russia">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Russia" title="List of cities and towns in Russia">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Russia" title="Climate of Russia">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Russia" title="List of earthquakes in Russia">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_Russia" title="Environment of Russia">Environment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Russia" title="Environmental issues in Russia">Environmental issues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Extreme points of Russia">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Russian_Upland" title="Central Russian Upland">Central Russian Upland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Russia" title="Northwest Russia">Northwest Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meshchera_Lowlands" title="Meshchera Lowlands">Meshchera Lowlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oka%E2%80%93Don_Lowland" title="Oka–Don Lowland">Oka–Don Lowland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smolensk_Upland" title="Smolensk Upland">Smolensk Upland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fjords_of_Russia" title="List of fjords of Russia">Fjords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Russia" title="Geology of Russia">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_glaciers_in_Russia" title="List of glaciers in Russia">Glaciers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Russian_Regions" title="Great Russian Regions">Great Russian Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_highest_points_of_Russian_federal_subjects" title="List of highest points of Russian federal subjects">Highest points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Russia" title="List of islands of Russia">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Russia" title="List of lakes of Russia">Lakes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of mountains of Russia">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains" title="Caucasus Mountains">Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Urals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Russia" title="List of 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Russia">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Russia" title="Anarchism in Russia">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Russia" title="Capital punishment in Russia">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Civil Service of the Russian Federation">Civil Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classified_information_in_Russia" title="Classified information in Russia">Classified information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Russia" title="Conscription in Russia">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Russia" title="Constitution of Russia">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_Code_of_Russia" title="Criminal Code of Russia">Criminal code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Russia" title="Elections in Russia">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics_in_Russia" title="Far-right politics in Russia">Far-right politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_budget_of_Russia" title="Federal budget of Russia">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Russia" title="Foreign relations of Russia">Foreign relations</a> (<a href="/wiki/Foreign_Relations_of_Russia_since_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Relations of Russia since the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Foreign Relations of Russia since the Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly_in_Russia" title="Freedom of assembly in Russia">Freedom of assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Russia" title="Government of Russia">Government</a> (<a href="/wiki/Apparatus_of_the_Government_of_Russia" title="Apparatus of the Government of Russia">Apparatus</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Russia" title="Judiciary of Russia">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Russia" title="Law of Russia">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Russia" title="Law enforcement in Russia">Law enforcement</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_Russia" title="Prisons in Russia">Prisons</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_Russia" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in Russia">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_divisions_of_Russia" title="Political divisions of Russia">Political divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Propaganda in Russia">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Russia" title="Liberalism in Russia">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Conservatism in Russia">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_irredentism" title="Russian irredentism">Irredentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_nationalism" title="Russian nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Russia" title="Martial law in Russia">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_Russia" title="Monarchism in Russia">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_freedom_in_Russia" title="Media freedom in Russia">Media freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism_in_Russia" title="Neo-Nazism in Russia">Neo-Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Armed_Forces" title="Russian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_agencies_of_Russia" title="Intelligence agencies of Russia">Intelligence agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_opposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian opposition">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Political parties in Russia">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Russia" title="President of Russia">President of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Russia" title="Prime Minister of Russia">Prime Minister of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">Commonwealth of Independent States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization" title="Collective Security Treaty Organization">Collective Security Treaty Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency_in_Russia" title="State of emergency in Russia">State of emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense_in_Russia" title="Civil defense in Russia">Civil defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_and_rescue_in_Russia" title="Search and rescue in Russia">Search and rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Russia" title="Urban planning in Russia">Urban planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_surveillance_in_Russia" title="Mass surveillance in Russia">Mass surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism_in_Russia" title="Separatism in Russia">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Term_limits_in_Russia" title="Term limits in Russia">Term limits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Russia" title="Terrorism in Russia">Terrorism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Russia" title="Economy of Russia">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Russia" title="Agriculture in Russia">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_industry_of_Russia" title="Aircraft industry of Russia">Aircraft industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Russia" title="Banking in Russia">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droughts_and_famines_in_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union">Droughts and famines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Russia" title="Automotive industry in Russia">Car industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Russia" title="Central Bank of Russia">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_industry_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense industry of Russia">Defence industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_regions_of_Russia" title="Economic regions of Russia">Economic regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Russia" title="Energy in Russia">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Russia" title="Fishing industry in Russia">Fishing industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Russia" title="Forestry in Russia">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Financial_districts_in_Russia" title="Category:Financial districts in Russia">Financial districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_Russia" title="Gambling in Russia">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Russia" title="Homelessness in Russia">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_industry_of_Russia" title="Mining industry of Russia">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Russia" title="Petroleum industry in Russia">Petroleum industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal_codes_in_Russia" title="Postal codes in Russia">Postal codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_oligarchs" title="Russian oligarchs">Russian oligarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_ruble" title="Russian ruble">Ruble <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Russia" title="Science and technology in Russia">Science and technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Academy of Sciences</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding_in_Russia" title="Shipbuilding in Russia">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_security_system_in_Russia" title="Social security system in Russia">Social security system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_industry_of_Russia" title="Space industry of Russia">Space industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Russia" title="Taxation in Russia">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Russia" title="Telecommunications in Russia">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Russia" title="Tourism in Russia">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_Russia" title="List of trade unions in Russia">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Russia" title="Transport in Russia">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Russia" title="Waste management in Russia">Waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Russia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Russia">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Russia" title="Category:Society of Russia">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Russia" title="Abortion in Russia">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_in_Russia" title="Alcohol in Russia">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-American_sentiment_in_Russia" title="Anti-American sentiment in Russia">Anti-American sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Russia" title="Cannabis in Russia">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Censorship in the Russian Federation">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizenship of Russia">Citizens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Russia" title="Corruption in Russia">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Russia" title="Crime in Russia">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deafness_in_Russia" title="Deafness in Russia">Deafness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Russia" title="Demographics of Russia">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Russia" title="Domestic violence in Russia">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doping_in_Russia" title="Doping in Russia">Doping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Russia" title="Education in Russia">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Russia" title="Ethnic groups in Russia">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Russia" title="Feminism in Russia">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_public_apologies_in_Russia" title="Forced public apologies in Russia">Forced public apologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funerals_in_Russia" title="Funerals in Russia">Funerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_control_in_Russia" title="Gun control in Russia">Gun control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Russia" title="Health in Russia">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Russia" title="Healthcare in Russia">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Russia" title="HIV/AIDS in Russia">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health_in_Russia" title="Mental health in Russia">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Russia" title="Human rights in Russia">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_in_Russia" title="LGBTQ rights in Russia">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Russia" title="Immigration to Russia">Immigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_Russia" title="Illegal immigration to Russia">Illegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migrant_workers_in_Russia" title="Migrant workers in Russia">Labour</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Russia" title="Languages of Russia">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_subjects_of_Russia_by_life_expectancy" title="List of federal subjects of Russia by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_access_in_Russia" title="Open access in Russia">Open access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphans_in_Russia" title="Orphans in Russia">Orphans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygamy_in_Russia" title="Polygamy in Russia">Polygamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Russia" title="Prostitution in Russia">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Russia" title="Racism in Russia">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Russia" title="Religion in Russia">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scouting_in_Russia" title="Scouting in Russia">Scouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_entrepreneurship_in_Russia" title="Social entrepreneurship in Russia">Social entrepreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_in_Russia" title="Sociology in Russia">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Russia" title="Smoking in Russia">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_in_Russia" title="Suicide in Russia">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_wedding_traditions" title="Russian wedding traditions">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Russia" title="Witch trials in Russia">Witch trials</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Women</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Russian_and_Soviet_military" title="Women in the Russian and Soviet military">in army</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Russia" title="Culture of Russia">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Russia" title="Architecture of Russia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armorial_of_Russia" title="Armorial of Russia">Armorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Russian_Armed_Forces" title="Culture of the Russian Armed Forces">Army culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honorary_weapons_of_Russia" title="Honorary weapons of Russia">Honorary weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_artists" title="List of Russian artists">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_ballet" title="Russian ballet">Ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Russia" title="Cinema of Russia">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cuisine" title="Russian cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_wine" title="Russian wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_fashion" title="Russian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_fairy_tale" title="Russian fairy tale">Fairy tales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_fashion" title="Russian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Festivals_in_Russia" title="Category:Festivals in Russia">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Folklore of Russia">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_traditions_and_superstitions" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian traditions and superstitions">Traditions and superstitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_forms_of_addressing" title="Russian forms of addressing">Forms of addressing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graffiti_in_Russia" title="Graffiti in Russia">Graffiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_heraldry" title="Russian heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Russia" title="Internet in Russia">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation" title="Timeline of Russian innovation">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_literature" title="Russian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_martial_arts" title="Russian martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Russia" title="Mass media in Russia">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Russia" title="Music of Russia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_Rus%CA%B9,_Russia_and_Ruthenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Names of Rusʹ, Russia and Ruthenia">Names of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_given_name" title="Russian given name">Russian given name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_nobility" title="Russian nobility">Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Russia" title="National symbols of Russia">National symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_anthem_of_Russia" title="National anthem of Russia">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Russia" title="Coat of arms of Russia">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Russia" title="Flag of Russia">Flag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regalia_of_the_Russian_tsars" title="Regalia of the Russian tsars">Russian tsars regalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_opera" title="Russian opera">Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personification_of_Russia" title="Personification of Russia">Personification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_playing_cards" title="Russian playing cards">Playing cards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_philosophers" title="List of Russian philosophers">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_political_jokes" title="Russian political jokes">Political jokes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Russia" title="Public holidays in Russia">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_tea_culture" title="Russian tea culture">tea culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Russia" title="Television in Russia">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_Russia" title="Seven Wonders of Russia">Seven Wonders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Russia" title="Sport in Russia">Sports</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Sports_Classification_System_of_Russia" title="Unified Sports Classification System of Russia">Unified Sports Classification System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Russia" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Russia">World Heritage sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Russia" title="Outline of Russia">Outline</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Russia" title="Category:Russia">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Russia" title="Portal:Russia">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Women_in_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#FFCBDB"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Women_in_Europe" title="Template:Women in Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Women_in_Europe" title="Template talk:Women in Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Women_in_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Women in Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Women_in_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Europe" title="Women in Europe">Women in Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Albania" title="Women in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Andorra" title="Women in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Armenia" title="Women in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Austria" title="Women in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Azerbaijan" title="Women in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Belarus" title="Women in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Belgium" title="Women in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Women in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bulgaria" title="Women in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Croatia" title="Women in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Cyprus" title="Women in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Women in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Denmark" title="Women in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Estonia" title="Women in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Finland" title="Women in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_France" title="Women in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Women in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Germany" title="Women in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Greece" title="Women in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Hungary" title="Women in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iceland" title="Women in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Women in the Republic of Ireland (page does not exist)">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Italy" title="Women in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kazakhstan" title="Women in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Latvia" title="Women in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Liechtenstein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Women in Liechtenstein (page does not exist)">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Lithuania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Women in Lithuania (page does not exist)">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Luxembourg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Women in Luxembourg (page does not exist)">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Malta" title="Women in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Moldova&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Women in Moldova (page does not exist)">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Monaco&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Women in Monaco (page does not exist)">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Montenegro" title="Women in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_North_Macedonia" title="Women in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Poland" title="Women in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Portugal" title="Women in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_San_Marino" title="Women in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Serbia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Women in Serbia (page does not exist)">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Slovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Slovenia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Women in Slovenia (page does not exist)">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Spain" title="Women in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Sweden" title="Women in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Switzerland" title="Women in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Turkey" title="Women in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ukraine" title="Women in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Vatican_City" title="Women in Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Abkhazia" title="Women in Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kosovo" title="Women in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Women in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_South_Ossetia" title="Women in South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Transnistria" title="Women in Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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