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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Population</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-18th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#18th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>18th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Peter_the_Great_(1682–1725)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peter_the_Great_(1682–1725)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Peter the Great (1682–1725)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peter_the_Great_(1682–1725)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catherine_the_Great_(1762–1796)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catherine_the_Great_(1762–1796)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Catherine the Great (1762–1796)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catherine_the_Great_(1762–1796)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_budget" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_budget"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>State budget</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_budget-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_half_of_the_19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_half_of_the_19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>First half of the 19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_half_of_the_19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Foreign_policy_(1800–1864)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_policy_(1800–1864)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Foreign policy (1800–1864)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_policy_(1800–1864)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_half_of_the_19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_half_of_the_19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Second half of the 19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_half_of_the_19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alexander_III" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alexander_III"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.1</span> <span>Alexander III</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alexander_III-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_policy_(1864–1907)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_policy_(1864–1907)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.2</span> <span>Foreign policy (1864–1907)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_policy_(1864–1907)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Early 20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War,_revolution,_and_collapse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War,_revolution,_and_collapse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>War, revolution, and collapse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War,_revolution,_and_collapse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins_of_causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_of_causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.1</span> <span>Origins of causes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Declaration_of_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Declaration_of_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.2</span> <span>Declaration of War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Declaration_of_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theaters_of_operations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theaters_of_operations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.3</span> <span>Theaters of operations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theaters_of_operations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-German_front" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_front"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.3.1</span> <span>German front</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_front-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Austrian_front" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austrian_front"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.3.2</span> <span>Austrian front</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austrian_front-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turkish_front" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turkish_front"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.3.3</span> <span>Turkish front</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turkish_front-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Problems_in_the_empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Problems_in_the_empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.4</span> <span>Problems in the empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Problems_in_the_empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_imperial_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_imperial_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.5</span> <span>End of imperial rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_imperial_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Territory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Territory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Territory</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Territory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Territory subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Territory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Geography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Territorial_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Territorial_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Territorial development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Territorial_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperial_territories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperial_territories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Imperial territories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperial_territories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_and_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_and_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Government and administration</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government_and_administration-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Government and administration subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Government_and_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emperor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emperor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Emperor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emperor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperial_Council" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperial_Council"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Imperial Council</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperial_Council-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_Duma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_Duma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>State Duma</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_Duma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Council_of_Ministers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Council_of_Ministers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Council of Ministers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Council_of_Ministers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Most_Holy_Synod" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Most_Holy_Synod"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Most Holy Synod</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Most_Holy_Synod-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Senate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Senate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Senate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Senate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administrative_divisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_divisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Administrative divisions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_divisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judicial_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judicial_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Judicial system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judicial_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Local administration</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Local_administration-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Local administration subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Local_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Municipal_dumas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Municipal_dumas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Municipal dumas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Municipal_dumas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Baltic_provinces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baltic_provinces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Baltic provinces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baltic_provinces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Economy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Agriculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mining_and_heavy_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mining_and_heavy_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Mining and heavy industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mining_and_heavy_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infrastructure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infrastructure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Infrastructure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Infrastructure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Infrastructure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Infrastructure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rail" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rail"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Rail</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rail-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religious_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Religious policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anti-semitism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-semitism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>Anti-semitism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-semitism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persecution_of_Muslims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persecution_of_Muslims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.2</span> <span>Persecution of Muslims</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persecution_of_Muslims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Policy_towards_non-Eastern_Orthodox_Christian_sects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policy_towards_non-Eastern_Orthodox_Christian_sects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.3</span> <span>Policy towards non-Eastern Orthodox Christian sects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Policy_towards_non-Eastern_Orthodox_Christian_sects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Demography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Demography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Demography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Imperial_census_of_1897" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperial_census_of_1897"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Imperial census of 1897</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperial_census_of_1897-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian_Central_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_Central_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Russian Central Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian_Central_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Society</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Society subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Estates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Estates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Estates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Serfdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Serfdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Serfdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Serfdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peasants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peasants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Peasants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peasants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Landowners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Landowners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.4</span> <span>Landowners</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Landowners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.5</span> <span>Media</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.6</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surveys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surveys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.1</span> <span>Surveys</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surveys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography,_topical_maps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography,_topical_maps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.2</span> <span>Geography, topical maps</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geography,_topical_maps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1801–1917" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1801–1917"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.3</span> <span>1801–1917</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1801–1917-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_and_foreign_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_and_foreign_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.4</span> <span>Military and foreign relations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_and_foreign_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic,_social,_and_ethnic_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic,_social,_and_ethnic_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.5</span> <span>Economic, social, and ethnic history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic,_social,_and_ethnic_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography_and_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography_and_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.6</span> <span>Historiography and memory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography_and_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.7</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Russian Empire</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 137 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-137" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">137 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiese_Ryk" title="Russiese Ryk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Russiese Ryk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russisches_Kaiserreich" title="Russisches Kaiserreich – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Russisches Kaiserreich" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%88%A9%E1%88%B2%E1%8B%AB_%E1%8C%8D%E1%8B%9B%E1%89%B5" title="የሩሲያ ግዛት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የሩሲያ ግዛት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruo%C5%A1%C3%A2_ki%C3%A4is%C3%A1rkodde" title="Ruošâ kiäisárkodde – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Ruošâ kiäisárkodde" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Anarâškielâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="रूसी साम्राज्य – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="रूसी साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D3%99%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D3%99%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0" title="Урыстәылатәи аимпериа – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Урыстәылатәи аимпериа" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Аԥсшәа</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الإمبراطورية الروسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإمبراطورية الروسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Ruso" title="Imperio Ruso – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Imperio Ruso" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%BD%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ռուսական Կայսրութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Ռուսական Կայսրութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiu_Rusu" title="Imperiu Rusu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Imperiu Rusu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8A%D1%83%D0%BB_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Россиялъул империя – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Россиялъул империя" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusiya_imperiyas%C4%B1" title="Rusiya imperiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Rusiya imperiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%87_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%88" title="روسیه ایمپیراتورلوغو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="روسیه ایمپیراتورلوغو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B6_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="রুশ সাম্রাজ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রুশ সাম্রাজ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C5%8D%CD%98-se-a_T%C3%A8-kok" title="Lō͘-se-a Tè-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Lō͘-se-a Tè-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D3%99%D1%81%D3%99%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Рәсәй империяһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Рәсәй империяһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Расійская імперыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Расійская імперыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Расейская імпэрыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Расейская імпэрыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="रूसी साम्राज्य – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="रूसी साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Руска империя – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Руска империя" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruska_Imperija" title="Ruska Imperija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ruska Imperija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impalaeriezh_Rusia" title="Impalaeriezh Rusia – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Impalaeriezh Rusia" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%8D%D0%B7%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8D_%D0%B3%D2%AF%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Оросой эзэнтэ гүрэн – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Оросой эзэнтэ гүрэн" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_Rus" title="Imperi Rus – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Imperi Rus" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%C3%A7%C3%A7%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%C4%95" title="Раççей империйĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Раççей империйĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyo_sa_Rusya" title="Imperyo sa Rusya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Imperyo sa Rusya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusk%C3%A9_imp%C3%A9rium" title="Ruské impérium – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ruské impérium" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ymerodraeth_Rwsia" title="Ymerodraeth Rwsia – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ymerodraeth Rwsia" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_Russiske_Kejserrige" title="Det Russiske Kejserrige – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Det Russiske Kejserrige" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russisches_Kaiserreich" title="Russisches Kaiserreich – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Russisches Kaiserreich" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venemaa_Keisririik" title="Venemaa Keisririik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Venemaa Keisririik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%91%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ρωσική Αυτοκρατορία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ρωσική Αυτοκρατορία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Россиянь империясь – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Россиянь империясь" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_ruso" title="Imperio ruso – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Imperio ruso" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia_Imperio" title="Rusia Imperio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Rusia Imperio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Errusiako_Inperioa" title="Errusiako Inperioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Errusiako Inperioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%87" title="امپراتوری روسیه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="امپراتوری روسیه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_russe" title="Empire russe – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Empire russe" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keizerryk_Rusl%C3%A2n" title="Keizerryk Ruslân – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Keizerryk Ruslân" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ff mw-list-item"><a href="https://ff.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laamu_Russiya" title="Laamu Russiya – Fula" lang="ff" hreflang="ff" data-title="Laamu Russiya" data-language-autonym="Fulfulde" data-language-local-name="Fula" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fulfulde</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impireacht_na_R%C3%BAise" title="Impireacht na Rúise – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Impireacht na Rúise" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impiraght_y_Roosh" title="Impiraght y Roosh – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Impiraght y Roosh" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Ruso" title="Imperio Ruso – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Imperio Ruso" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Россе импери – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Россе импери" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%9F%AC%EC%8B%9C%EC%95%84_%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD" title="러시아 제국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="러시아 제국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%BD%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ռուսական կայսրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռուսական կայսրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="रूसी साम्राज्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रूसी साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusko_Carstvo" title="Rusko Carstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rusko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusa_imperio" title="Rusa imperio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Rusa imperio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekaisaran_Rusia" title="Kekaisaran Rusia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kekaisaran Rusia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Russe" title="Imperio Russe – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Imperio Russe" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%C3%A6%D1%80%C3%A6%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%8B_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Уæрæсейы импери – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Уæрæсейы импери" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_russo" title="Impero russo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Impero russo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%AA" title="האימפריה הרוסית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האימפריה הרוסית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakaisaran_Ruslan" title="Kakaisaran Ruslan – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kakaisaran Ruslan" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Россия империя – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Россия империя" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Къарачай-малкъар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="რუსეთის იმპერია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რუსეთის იმპერია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Ресей империясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ресей империясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anpi_Ris" title="Anpi Ris – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Anpi Ris" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anpir_ris" title="Anpir ris – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Anpir ris" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Emperatoriya_R%C3%BBs%C3%AE" title="Împeratoriya Rûsî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Împeratoriya Rûsî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mper_Rus" title="Mper Rus – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Mper Rus" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ltg mw-list-item"><a href="https://ltg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C4%ABvejis_Imp%C4%93reja" title="Krīvejis Impēreja – Latgalian" lang="ltg" hreflang="ltg" data-title="Krīvejis Impēreja" data-language-autonym="Latgaļu" data-language-local-name="Latgalian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latgaļu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Russicum" title="Imperium Russicum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Imperium Russicum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krievijas_Imp%C4%93rija" title="Krievijas Impērija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Krievijas Impērija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Урусатдин империя – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Урусатдин империя" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusijos_imperija" title="Rusijos imperija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Rusijos imperija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_Rusce" title="Impero Rusce – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Impero Rusce" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orosz_Birodalom" title="Orosz Birodalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Orosz Birodalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Руска Империја – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Руска Империја" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empira_Rosiana" title="Empira Rosiana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Empira Rosiana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="റഷ്യൻ സാമ്രാജ്യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="റഷ്യൻ സാമ്രാജ്യം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="रशियन साम्राज्य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="रशियन साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="რუსეთიშ იმპერია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="რუსეთიშ იმპერია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%87" title="الامبراطوريه الروسيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الامبراطوريه الروسيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="روسیه امپراتوری – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="روسیه امپراتوری" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empayar_Rusia" title="Empayar Rusia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Empayar Rusia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amp%C3%A9rio_Russo" title="Ampério Russo – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Ampério Russo" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Оросын Хаант Улс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Оросын Хаант Улс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%AB%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC" title="ရုရှားအင်ပါယာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရုရှားအင်ပါယာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keizerrijk_Rusland" title="Keizerrijk Rusland – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Keizerrijk Rusland" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="रुसी साम्राज्य – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="रुसी साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B7%E3%82%A2%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="ロシア帝国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ロシア帝国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%8C%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%88%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Оьрсийн шуре – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Оьрсийн шуре" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_russiske_keiserd%C3%B8mmet" title="Det russiske keiserdømmet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Det russiske keiserdømmet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_russiske_imperiet" title="Det russiske imperiet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Det russiske imperiet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emp%C3%A8ri_Rus" title="Empèri Rus – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Empèri Rus" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossiya_imperiyasi" title="Rossiya imperiyasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Rossiya imperiyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%A4" title="ਰੂਸੀ ਸਲਤਨਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਰੂਸੀ ਸਲਤਨਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="روسی سلطنت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="روسی سلطنت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Rusiano" title="Imperio Rusiano – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Imperio Rusiano" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%8A" title="روسي سترواکي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="روسي سترواکي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roshan_Empaya" title="Roshan Empaya – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Roshan Empaya" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%B8" title="ចក្រភពរុស្ស៊ី – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ចក្រភពរុស្ស៊ី" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Rosyjskie" title="Imperium Rosyjskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Imperium Rosyjskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A9rio_Russo" title="Império Russo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Império Russo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusiye_%C4%B0mperiyas%C4%B1" title="Rusiye İmperiyası – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Rusiye İmperiyası" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiul_Rus" title="Imperiul Rus – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Imperiul Rus" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Російска імперія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Російска імперія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Российская империя – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Российская империя" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%8D" title="Арассыыйа импиэрийэтэ – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Арассыыйа импиэрийэтэ" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A8riu_Russu" title="Impèriu Russu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Impèriu Russu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roushie_Empire" title="Roushie Empire – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Roushie Empire" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perandoria_Ruse" title="Perandoria Ruse – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Perandoria Ruse" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mpiru_russu" title="Mpiru russu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Mpiru russu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%94%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%B0%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%BA" title="රුසියානු අධිරාජ්‍යය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="රුසියානු අධිරාජ්‍යය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Russian Empire" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3" title="سلطنت روس – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سلطنت روس" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusk%C3%A1_r%C3%AD%C5%A1a" title="Ruská ríša – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ruská ríša" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruski_imperij" title="Ruski imperij – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ruski imperij" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruske_Imperyjum" title="Ruske Imperyjum – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Ruske Imperyjum" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%DA%95%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی ڕووسی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی ڕووسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Руска Империја – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Руска Империја" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruska_Imperija" title="Ruska Imperija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ruska Imperija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakaisaran_Rusia" title="Kakaisaran Rusia – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kakaisaran Rusia" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ven%C3%A4j%C3%A4n_keisarikunta" title="Venäjän keisarikunta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Venäjän keisarikunta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kejsard%C3%B6met_Ryssland" title="Kejsardömet Ryssland – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kejsardömet Ryssland" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyong_Ruso" title="Imperyong Ruso – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Imperyong Ruso" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="உருசியப் பேரரசு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உருசியப் பேரரசு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamnekda_tarusit" title="Tamnekda tarusit – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tamnekda tarusit" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D0%B5" title="Россия империясе – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Россия империясе" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="จักรวรรดิรัสเซีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จักรวรรดิรัสเซีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Империяи Русия – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Империяи Русия" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rus_%C4%B0mparatorlu%C4%9Fu" title="Rus İmparatorluğu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Rus İmparatorluğu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Російська імперія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Російська імперія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3" title="سلطنت روس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سلطنت روس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%89%D9%8A%DB%95_%D8%A6%D9%89%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%89%D9%8A%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%89" title="روسىيە ئىمپېرىيىسى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="روسىيە ئىمپېرىيىسى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inpero_ruso" title="Inpero ruso – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Inpero ruso" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%BF_qu%E1%BB%91c_Nga" title="Đế quốc Nga – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đế quốc Nga" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinne_Keisririik" title="Vinne Keisririik – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Vinne Keisririik" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyo_Rinuso" title="Imperyo Rinuso – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Imperyo Rinuso" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E7%BD%97%E6%96%AF%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="俄罗斯帝国 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="俄罗斯帝国" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2" title="רוסלענדישע אימפעריע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="רוסלענדישע אימפעריע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E7%BE%85%E6%96%AF%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="俄羅斯帝國 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="俄羅斯帝國" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0mperatoriya_Rusya" title="İmperatoriya Rusya – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="İmperatoriya Rusya" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ros%C4%97j%C4%97s_imper%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Rosėjės imperėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Rosėjės imperėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E7%BD%97%E6%96%AF%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="俄罗斯帝国 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="俄罗斯帝国" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Empire in Eurasia (1721–1917)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other places with a similar name, see <a href="/wiki/Russia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Russia (disambiguation)">Russia (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive 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.ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Russian Empire</div><div class="ib-country-names"><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Россійская Имперія</span></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>)</span><br /><span title="Russian-language romanization"><i lang="ru-Latn">Rossíyskaya Impériya</i></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1721–1917</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Russia.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Imperial Russia"><img alt="Flag of Imperial Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/125px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/188px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/250px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div><div style="padding: 2px 0px 3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/125px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/188px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Romanov_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Russia" title="Flag of Russia"><b>Top:</b><br />Civil ensign (1696–1917);<br />State flag (1896–1917)</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Black-yellow-white_flag_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Black-yellow-white flag of the Russian Empire"><b>Bottom:</b><br />State flag (1858–1896)</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms (1882–1917) of Imperial Russia"><img alt="Coat of arms (1882–1917) of Imperial Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg/85px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg/128px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg/170px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="568" /></a></span></div> <div><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Russia#1721–1917:_Russian_Empire" title="Coat of arms of Russia">Coat of arms</a></span><br />(1882–1917)</div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><b>Motto: </b><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">С нами Бог!</span></span><br />('God is with us!')</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem"><b>Anthem:</b> <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Боже, Царя храни!</span></span>» (1833–1917)<br />("<a href="/wiki/God_Save_the_Tsar!" title="God Save the Tsar!">God Save the Tsar!</a>")<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="117" data-mwtitle="Bozhe,_tsarya_khrani!.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Bozhe%2C_tsarya_khrani%21.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/bc/Bozhe%2C_tsarya_khrani%21.ogg/Bozhe%2C_tsarya_khrani%21.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABozhe%2C_tsarya_khrani%21.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABozhe%2C_tsarya_khrani%21.ogg&lang=es&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="es" label="español ‪(es)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABozhe%2C_tsarya_khrani%21.ogg&lang=fi&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fi" label="suomi ‪(fi)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABozhe%2C_tsarya_khrani%21.ogg&lang=pl&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pl" label="polski ‪(pl)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABozhe%2C_tsarya_khrani%21.ogg&lang=pt&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt" label="português ‪(pt)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABozhe%2C_tsarya_khrani%21.ogg&lang=ru&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ru" label="русский ‪(ru)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABozhe%2C_tsarya_khrani%21.ogg&lang=rue&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="rue" label="русиньскый ‪(rue)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABozhe%2C_tsarya_khrani%21.ogg&lang=sl&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="sl" label="slovenščina ‪(sl)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABozhe%2C_tsarya_khrani%21.ogg&lang=th&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="th" label="ไทย ‪(th)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABozhe%2C_tsarya_khrani%21.ogg&lang=tr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="tr" label="Türkçe ‪(tr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABozhe%2C_tsarya_khrani%21.ogg&lang=vi&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="vi" label="Tiếng Việt ‪(vi)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABozhe%2C_tsarya_khrani%21.ogg&lang=zh-hans&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hans" label="中文（简体） ‪(zh-hans)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABozhe%2C_tsarya_khrani%21.ogg&lang=zh&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh" label="中文 ‪(zh)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span></div> <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Гром победы, раздавайся!</span></span>» (1791–1816)<br />("<a href="/wiki/Let_the_Thunder_of_Victory_Rumble!_(anthem)" title="Let the Thunder of Victory Rumble! (anthem)">Let the Thunder of Victory Rumble!</a>") <span style="font-size:85%;">(unofficial)</span> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="216" data-mwtitle="Letthe_Thunder_of_Victory_Sound!_Instrumental_Rendition.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Letthe_Thunder_of_Victory_Sound%21_Instrumental_Rendition.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/Letthe_Thunder_of_Victory_Sound%21_Instrumental_Rendition.ogg/Letthe_Thunder_of_Victory_Sound%21_Instrumental_Rendition.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Коль славен наш Господь в Сионе</span></span>» (1794–1816)<br />("<a href="/wiki/How_Glorious_Is_Our_Lord_in_Zion" title="How Glorious Is Our Lord in Zion">How Glorious Is Our Lord in Zion</a>") <span style="font-size:85%;">(unofficial)</span><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="82" data-mwtitle="Kol_Slaven(Instrumental).ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Kol_Slaven%28Instrumental%29.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/bd/Kol_Slaven%28Instrumental%29.ogg/Kol_Slaven%28Instrumental%29.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Молитва русских</span></span>» (1816–1833)<br />("<a href="/wiki/The_Prayer_of_Russians" title="The Prayer of Russians">The Prayer of Russians</a>")<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"> <span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_3" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="127" data-mwtitle="Rufst_du,_mein_Vaterland,_God_Save_the_King,_Íslands_minni,_Kongesangen_and_Oben_am_jungen_Rhein_(1938).oga" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Rufst_du%2C_mein_Vaterland%2C_God_Save_the_King%2C_%C3%8Dslands_minni%2C_Kongesangen_and_Oben_am_jungen_Rhein_%281938%29.oga" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/43/Rufst_du%2C_mein_Vaterland%2C_God_Save_the_King%2C_%C3%8Dslands_minni%2C_Kongesangen_and_Oben_am_jungen_Rhein_%281938%29.oga/Rufst_du%2C_mein_Vaterland%2C_God_Save_the_King%2C_%C3%8Dslands_minni%2C_Kongesangen_and_Oben_am_jungen_Rhein_%281938%29.oga.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="switcher-container"><div><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_Empire_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Russian_Empire_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/220px-Russian_Empire_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Russian_Empire_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/330px-Russian_Empire_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Russian_Empire_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/440px-Russian_Empire_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a></span><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#145a37; color:#145a37;">    </span> Russia in 1914</span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#148237; color:#148237;">    </span> Lost in 1856–1914</span><br /><span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#5faf5f; color:#5faf5f;">    </span> Spheres of influence</span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#00d321; color:#00d321;">    </span> Protectorates<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span><br /><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none" data-switcher-default="">Show globe</span></div><div><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_Empire_(1914).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The Russian Empire on the eve of the First World War" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Russian_Empire_%281914%29.svg/220px-Russian_Empire_%281914%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Russian_Empire_%281914%29.svg/330px-Russian_Empire_%281914%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Russian_Empire_%281914%29.svg/440px-Russian_Empire_%281914%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="456" /></a></span><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Europe</span></div><div><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Russian_Empire-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/The_Russian_Empire-en.svg/250px-The_Russian_Empire-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/The_Russian_Empire-en.svg/375px-The_Russian_Empire-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/The_Russian_Empire-en.svg/500px-The_Russian_Empire-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3121" data-file-height="1586" /></a></span><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show all controlled<br />territories (1866)</span></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><span class="nowrap">(1721–1728; 1730–1917)</span><br /><a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> <br />(1728–1730)<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Largest city</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="ib-country-lang">Recognized languages</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Baltic_provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic provinces">Baltic provinces</a>), <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Dalian" title="Dalian">Dalian</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"> (<a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire_census" title="Russian Empire census">1897</a>)</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li style="white-space;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li>84.2% <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li>69.3% <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox</a> (<a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">official</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>9.2% <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a></li> <li>5.7% Other <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">Christian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></li><li style="white-space;">11.1% <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></li><li style="white-space;">4.2% <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></li><li style="white-space;">0.3% <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li><li style="white-space;">0.2% Others</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russian</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data">Unitary <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a><br />(1721–1906)<br />Unitary <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary">parliamentary</a> <a href="/wiki/Semi-constitutional_monarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-constitutional monarchy">semi-constitutional monarchy</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />(1906–1917)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Russia" title="Emperor of Russia">Emperor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1721–1725 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter I</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1894–1917 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Nicholas II</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Chancellor_(Russia)" title="Chancellor (Russia)">Chancellor</a>/<a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_government_of_Russia#Russian_Empire_(1905–1917)" title="List of heads of government of Russia">Prime Minister</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1810–1812 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Rumyantsev" title="Nikolay Rumyantsev">Nikolai Rumyantsev</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1917 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Golitsyn" title="Nikolai Golitsyn">Nikolai Golitsyn</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Governing_Senate" title="Governing Senate">Governing Senate</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">Upper house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/State_Council_(Russian_Empire)" title="State Council (Russian Empire)">State Council</a><br />(1810–1917)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">Lower house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/State_Duma_(Russian_Empire)" title="State Duma (Russian Empire)">State Duma</a><br />(1905–1917)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nystad" title="Treaty of Nystad">Treaty of Nystad</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">10 September 1721</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Proclaimed </div></th><td class="infobox-data">2 November 1721</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Table_of_Ranks" title="Table of Ranks">Table of Ranks</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">4 February 1722</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Decembrist_revolt" title="Decembrist revolt">Decembrist revolt</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap">26 December 1825</span></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation reform</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">3 March 1861</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Purchase" title="Alaska Purchase">Selling</a> of <a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Alaska</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">18 October 1867</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1905" title="Russian Revolution of 1905">1905 Revolution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">Jan 1905 – Jul 1907</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/October_Manifesto" title="October Manifesto">October Manifesto</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">30 October 1905</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Constitution_of_1906" title="Russian Constitution of 1906">Constitution</a> adopted</span> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">6 May 1906</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">8–16 March 1917</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Proclamation of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Republic</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">14 September 1917</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1895<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="infobox-data">22,800,000 km<sup>2</sup> (8,800,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire_census" title="Russian Empire census">1897</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">125,640,021</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1910<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">161,000,000</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Russian_ruble" title="Russian ruble">Russian ruble</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Flag_of_Oryol_ship_%28variant%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Oryol_ship_%28variant%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Flag_of_Oryol_ship_%28variant%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Oryol_ship_%28variant%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Flag_of_Oryol_ship_%28variant%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Oryol_ship_%28variant%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia"><span class="nowrap">Tsardom of</span><br />Russia</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Provisional Government</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/20px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Russian Republic</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/20px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Russian Empire</b><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a vast <a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">empire</a> that spanned most of northern <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> from its proclamation in November 1721 until the proclamation of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Russian Republic</a> in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about 22,800,000 km<sup>2</sup> (8,800,000 sq mi), roughly one-sixth of the world's landmass, making it the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">third-largest empire in history</a>, behind only the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> empires. It also <a href="/wiki/Russian_colonization_of_North_America" title="Russian colonization of North America">colonized</a> North America between 1799 and 1867. The empire's <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire_census" title="Russian Empire census">1897</a> census, the only one it conducted, found a population of 125.6 million with considerable ethnic, linguistic, religious, and socioeconomic diversity. </p><p>The rise of the Russian Empire coincided with the decline of its rivals: the <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar Iran</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing China</a>. From the 10th to 17th centuries, the Russians had been ruled by a noble class known as the <a href="/wiki/Boyar" title="Boyar">boyars</a>, above whom was an absolute monarch titled the <a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">tsar</a>. The groundwork of the Russian Empire was laid by <a href="/wiki/Ivan_III_of_Russia" title="Ivan III of Russia">Ivan III</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1462–1505</span>), who greatly expanded his domain, established a centralized Russian <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">national state</a>, and secured independence against the <a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tatars</a>. His grandson, <a href="/wiki/Ivan_the_Terrible" title="Ivan the Terrible">Ivan IV</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1533–1584</span>), became in 1547 the first Russian monarch to be crowned "<a href="/wiki/Tsar_of_all_Russia" title="Tsar of all Russia">tsar of all Russia</a>". Between 1550 and 1700, the Russian state grew by an average of 35,000 km<sup>2</sup> (14,000 sq mi) per year. Major events during this period include the transition from the <a href="/wiki/Rurik_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rurik dynasty">Rurik</a> to the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Romanov" title="House of Romanov">Romanov</a> dynasties, the <a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Siberia" title="Russian conquest of Siberia">conquest of Siberia</a>, and the reign of <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1682–1725</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPipes197483_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes197483-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter</a> transformed the tsardom into an empire, and fought numerous wars that turned a vast realm into a major European power. He moved the Russian capital from <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> to the new model city of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>, which marked the birth of the imperial era, and led a cultural revolution that introduced a modern, scientific, rationalist, and Western-oriented system. <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1762–1796</span>) presided over further expansion of the Russian state by conquest, <a href="/wiki/Russian_colonization_of_North_America" title="Russian colonization of North America">colonization</a>, and diplomacy, while continuing Peter's policy of modernization towards a Western model. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Alexander I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1801–1825</span>) helped defeat the militaristic ambitions of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> and subsequently constituted the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Alliance" title="Holy Alliance">Holy Alliance</a>, which aimed to restrain the rise of secularism and liberalism across Europe. Russia further expanded to the west, south, and east, strengthening its position as a European power. Its victories in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russo-Turkish_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Russo-Turkish wars">Russo-Turkish Wars</a> were later checked by defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> (1853–1856), leading to a period of reform and <a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Central_Asia" title="Russian conquest of Central Asia">intensified expansion into Central Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1855–1881</span>) initiated <a href="/wiki/Government_reforms_of_Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Government reforms of Alexander II of Russia">numerous reforms</a>, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">1861 emancipation</a> of all 23 million serfs. </p><p>From 1721 until 1762, the Russian Empire was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Romanov" title="House of Romanov">House of Romanov</a>; its matrilineal branch of patrilineal <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">German</a> descent, the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov">House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov</a>, ruled from 1762 until 1917. By the start of the 19th century, Russian territory extended from the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a> in the north to the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> in the south, and from the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> in the west to <a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Alaska, Hawaii, and California</a> in the east. By the end of the 19th century, Russia had expanded its control over <a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_the_Caucasus" title="Russian conquest of the Caucasus">the Caucasus</a>, most of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia" title="Northeast Asia">Northeast Asia</a>. Notwithstanding its extensive territorial gains and great power status, the empire entered the 20th century in a perilous state. A devastating <a href="/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1891%E2%80%931892" title="Russian famine of 1891–1892">famine in 1891–1892</a> killed hundreds of thousands and led to popular discontent. As the last remaining <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a> in Europe, the empire saw rapid political radicalization and the growing popularity of revolutionary ideas such as <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/1905_Russian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1905 Russian Revolution">1905 revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Nicholas II</a> authorized the creation of a national parliament, the <a href="/wiki/State_Duma_(Russian_Empire)" title="State Duma (Russian Empire)">State Duma</a>, although he still retained absolute political power. </p><p>When Russia entered the First World War on the side of the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies</a>, it suffered a series of defeats that further galvanized the population against the emperor. In 1917, mass unrest among the population and mutinies in the army culminated in the <a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a>, which led to the abdication of Nicholas II, the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Russian Provisional Government</a>, and the proclamation of the first <a href="/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Russian Republic</a>. Political dysfunction, continued involvement in the widely unpopular war, and widespread food shortages resulted in <a href="/wiki/July_Days" title="July Days">mass demonstrations against the government in July</a>. The republic was overthrown in the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a>, who proclaimed the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic</a> and whose <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a> ended Russia's involvement in the war, but who nevertheless were opposed by various factions known collectively as the <a href="/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">Whites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-geoffreyswain_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geoffreyswain-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-alexanderrabinowitch_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alexanderrabinowitch-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the resulting <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a>, the Bolsheviks conducted the <a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a>. After emerging victorious, they established the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> across most of the Russian territory; it would be one of four continental empires to collapse <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I" title="Aftermath of World War I">as a result of World War I</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria%E2%80%93Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Austria–Hungary">Austria–Hungary</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">History of Russia</a></div> <p>The foundations of a Russian national state were laid in the late 15th century during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ivan_III_of_Russia" title="Ivan III of Russia">Ivan III</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early 16th century, all of the semi-independent and petty princedoms in Russia had been unified with Moscow.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ivan_the_Terrible" title="Ivan the Terrible">Ivan IV</a>, the khanates of <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Kazan" title="Khanate of Kazan">Kazan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Astrakhan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khanate of Astrakhan">Astrakhan</a> were conquered by Russia in the mid-16th century, leading to the development of an increasingly multinational state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoss2003131_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoss2003131-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population">Population</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Population"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Much of Russia's expansion occurred in the 17th century, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Siberia" title="History of Siberia">first Russian colonization of the Pacific</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Polish_War_(1654%E2%80%931667)" title="Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)">Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)</a> which led to the incorporation of <a href="/wiki/Left-bank_Ukraine" title="Left-bank Ukraine">left-bank Ukraine</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Siberia" title="Russian conquest of Siberia">Russian conquest of Siberia</a>. Poland was partitioned by its rivals in 1772–1815;most of its land and population being taken under Russian rule. Most of the empire's growth in the 19th century came from gaining territory in central and eastern Asia south of Siberia.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1795, after the <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a>, Russia became the most populous state in Europe, ahead of <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th width="60">Year </th> <th width="240pt">Population of Russia (millions)<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th width="300pt">Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>1720 </td> <td>15.5 </td> <td>includes new <a href="/wiki/Baltic_states" title="Baltic states">Baltic</a> & <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish</a> territories </td></tr> <tr> <td>1795 </td> <td>37.6 </td> <td>includes part of Poland </td></tr> <tr> <td>1812 </td> <td>42.8 </td> <td>includes <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland" title="Grand Duchy of Finland">Grand Duchy of Finland</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1816 </td> <td>73.0 </td> <td>includes <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bessarabia" title="Bessarabia">Bessarabia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1897 </td> <td>125.6 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire_census" title="Russian Empire census">Russian Empire census</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> excludes Grand Duchy of Finland </td></tr> <tr> <td>1914 </td> <td>164.0 </td> <td>includes new Asian territories </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Government_reform_of_Peter_the_Great" title="Government reform of Peter the Great">Government reform of Peter the Great</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Narva_1700.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Narva_1700.png/220px-Narva_1700.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Narva_1700.png/330px-Narva_1700.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Narva_1700.png/440px-Narva_1700.png 2x" data-file-width="673" data-file-height="568" /></a><figcaption>A painting depicting the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Narva_(1700)" title="Battle of Narva (1700)">Battle of Narva (1700)</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%27The_Victory_at_Poltava%27_by_Alexander_Evstafyevich_Kotzebue,_1862,_Hermitage.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/%27The_Victory_at_Poltava%27_by_Alexander_Evstafyevich_Kotzebue%2C_1862%2C_Hermitage.JPG/220px-%27The_Victory_at_Poltava%27_by_Alexander_Evstafyevich_Kotzebue%2C_1862%2C_Hermitage.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/%27The_Victory_at_Poltava%27_by_Alexander_Evstafyevich_Kotzebue%2C_1862%2C_Hermitage.JPG/330px-%27The_Victory_at_Poltava%27_by_Alexander_Evstafyevich_Kotzebue%2C_1862%2C_Hermitage.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/%27The_Victory_at_Poltava%27_by_Alexander_Evstafyevich_Kotzebue%2C_1862%2C_Hermitage.JPG/440px-%27The_Victory_at_Poltava%27_by_Alexander_Evstafyevich_Kotzebue%2C_1862%2C_Hermitage.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1289" /></a><figcaption><i>The Victory <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Poltava" title="Battle of Poltava">at Poltava</a></i>, painted by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Kotzebue" title="Alexander von Kotzebue">Alexander von Kotzebue</a> in 1862</figcaption></figure> <p>The foundations of the Russian Empire were laid during <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter I</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Government_reform_of_Peter_the_Great" title="Government reform of Peter the Great">reforms</a>, which significantly altered Russia's political and social structure,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</a> which strengthened Russia's standing on the world stage.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Internal transformations and military victories contributed to the transformation of Russia into a great power, playing a major role in European politics.<sup id="cite_ref-Osipov_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osipov-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 2 November [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 22 October] 1721, the day of the announcement of the Treaty of Nystad, the <a href="/wiki/Governing_Senate" title="Governing Senate">Governing Senate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Most_Holy_Synod" title="Most Holy Synod">Synod</a> invested the tsar with the titles of Peter the Great,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Pater_Patriae" title="Pater Patriae">Pater Patriae</a></i> (father of the fatherland),<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_all_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor of all Russia"><i>Imperator</i> of all Russia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeldbrugge2017152_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeldbrugge2017152-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adoption of the title of <i>imperator</i> by Peter I is usually seen as the beginning of the "imperial" period of Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>j<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the reforms, the governance of Russia by an <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarch</a> was enshrined. The Military Regulations made a note of the <a href="/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy" title="Tsarist autocracy">autocratic nature</a> of the regime. <sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the reign of Peter I, the last vestiges of the independence of the <a href="/wiki/Boyar" title="Boyar">boyars</a> were lost. He transformed them into the new <a href="/wiki/Russian_nobility" title="Russian nobility">nobility</a>, who were obedient nobles that served the state for the rest of their lives. He also introduced the <a href="/wiki/Table_of_Ranks" title="Table of Ranks">Table of Ranks</a> and equated the <i><a href="/wiki/Votchina" title="Votchina">votchina</a></i> with an <a href="/wiki/Estate_(land)" title="Estate (land)">estate</a>. Russia's <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Navy" title="Imperial Russian Navy">modern fleet</a> was built by Peter the Great, along with an <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army" title="Imperial Russian Army">army</a> that was reformed in the manner of European style and educational institutions (the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences</a>). Civil lettering was adopted during Peter I's reign, and the first Russian newspaper, <i><a href="/wiki/Sankt-Peterburgskie_Vedomosti" title="Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti">Vedomosti</a></i>, was published. Peter I promoted the advancement of science, particularly <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, trade, and industry,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including shipbuilding, as well as the growth of the Russian educational system. Every tenth Russian acquired an education during Peter I's reign, when there were 15 million people in the country.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The city of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>, which was built in 1703 on territory along the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic coast</a> that had been conquered during the Great Northern War, served as the state's capital. </p><p>This concept of the triune Russian people, composed of the <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Great Russians</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Little_Russians" class="mw-redirect" title="Little Russians">Little Russians</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Belarusians" title="Belarusians">White Russians</a>, was introduced during the reign of Peter I, and it was associated with the name of Archimandrite <a href="/wiki/Zacharias_Kopystensky" title="Zacharias Kopystensky">Zacharias Kopystensky</a> (1621), the Archimandrite of the <a href="/wiki/Kiev_Pechersk_Lavra" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev Pechersk Lavra">Kiev Pechersk Lavra</a> and expanded upon in the writings of an associate of Peter I, Archbishop Professor <a href="/wiki/Theophan_Prokopovich" title="Theophan Prokopovich">Theophan Prokopovich</a>. Several of Peter I's associates are well-known, including <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Le_Fort_(admiral)" title="François Le Fort (admiral)">François Le Fort</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boris_Sheremetev" title="Boris Sheremetev">Boris Sheremetev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Danilovich_Menshikov" title="Alexander Danilovich Menshikov">Alexander Menshikov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bruce" title="Jacob Bruce">Jacob Bruce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Mikhailovich_Golitsyn_(Field_Marshal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikhail Mikhailovich Golitsyn (Field Marshal)">Mikhail Golitsyn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anikita_Repnin" title="Anikita Repnin">Anikita Repnin</a>, and Alexey Kelin. During Peter's reign, the obligation of the nobility to serve was reinforced, and serf labor played a significant role in the growth of the industry, reinforcing traditional socioeconomic structures. The volume of the country's international trade turnover increased as a result of Peter I's industrial reforms. However, imports of goods overtook exports, strengthening the role of foreigners in Russian trade, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">British</a> domination.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="18th_century">18th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 18th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1721%E2%80%931796)" title="History of Russia (1721–1796)">History of Russia (1721–1796)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Peter_the_Great_(1682–1725)"><span id="Peter_the_Great_.281682.E2.80.931725.29"></span>Peter the Great (1682–1725)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Peter the Great (1682–1725)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Peter I (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1682–1725</span>), also known as Peter the Great, played a major role in introducing the European state system into Russia. While the empire's vast lands had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those in the West.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPipes1974[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrussiaunderoldre00pipepage9_9–10]Chapter_1:_The_Environment_and_its_Consequences_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1974[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrussiaunderoldre00pipepage9_9–10]Chapter_1:_The_Environment_and_its_Consequences-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nearly the entire population was devoted to agriculture, with only a small percentage living in towns. The class of <i><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">kholops</a></i>, whose status was close to that of <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slaves</a>, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter converted household kholops into house <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">serfs</a>, thus counting them for poll taxation. Russian agricultural kholops had been formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679. They were largely tied to the land, in a feudal sense, until the late 19th century. </p><p>Peter's first military efforts were directed against the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. His attention then turned to the north. Russia lacked a secure northern seaport, except at <a href="/wiki/Arkhangelsk" title="Arkhangelsk">Arkhangelsk</a> on the <a href="/wiki/White_Sea" title="White Sea">White Sea</a>, where the harbor was frozen for nine months a year. Access to the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> was blocked by Sweden, whose territory enclosed it on three sides. Peter's ambitions for a "window to the sea" led him, in 1699, to make a secret alliance with <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony" title="Electorate of Saxony">Saxony</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Denmark-Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Denmark-Norway">Denmark-Norway</a> against <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Sweden</a>; they conducted the <a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</a>, which ended in 1721 when an exhausted Sweden asked for peace with Russia. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:J.-M._Nattier_(d%27apr%C3%A8s)_-_Portrait_de_Pierre_Ier_(mus%C3%A9e_de_l%E2%80%99Ermitage).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/J.-M._Nattier_%28d%27apr%C3%A8s%29_-_Portrait_de_Pierre_Ier_%28mus%C3%A9e_de_l%E2%80%99Ermitage%29.jpg/220px-J.-M._Nattier_%28d%27apr%C3%A8s%29_-_Portrait_de_Pierre_Ier_%28mus%C3%A9e_de_l%E2%80%99Ermitage%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/J.-M._Nattier_%28d%27apr%C3%A8s%29_-_Portrait_de_Pierre_Ier_%28mus%C3%A9e_de_l%E2%80%99Ermitage%29.jpg/330px-J.-M._Nattier_%28d%27apr%C3%A8s%29_-_Portrait_de_Pierre_Ier_%28mus%C3%A9e_de_l%E2%80%99Ermitage%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/J.-M._Nattier_%28d%27apr%C3%A8s%29_-_Portrait_de_Pierre_Ier_%28mus%C3%A9e_de_l%E2%80%99Ermitage%29.jpg/440px-J.-M._Nattier_%28d%27apr%C3%A8s%29_-_Portrait_de_Pierre_Ier_%28mus%C3%A9e_de_l%E2%80%99Ermitage%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1537" data-file-height="1999" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a> officially proclaimed the Russian Empire in 1721 and became its first emperor. He instituted <a href="/wiki/Government_reform_of_Peter_the_Great" title="Government reform of Peter the Great">sweeping reforms</a> and oversaw the transformation of Russia into a major European power. Painting by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Marc_Nattier" title="Jean-Marc Nattier">Jean-Marc Nattier</a>, 1717.</figcaption></figure> <p>As a result, Peter acquired four provinces situated south and east of the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Finland" title="Gulf of Finland">Gulf of Finland</a>, securing access to the sea. There he built Russia's new capital, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Neva" title="Neva">Neva</a> river, to replace Moscow, which had long been Russia's cultural center. This relocation expressed his intent to adopt European elements for his empire. Many of the government and other major buildings were designed under <a href="/wiki/Italianate_architecture" title="Italianate architecture">Italianate</a> influence. In 1722, he turned his aspirations toward increasing Russian influence in the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> at the expense of the weakened <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid Persians</a>. He made <a href="/wiki/Astrakhan" title="Astrakhan">Astrakhan</a> the base of military efforts against Persia, and waged the first full-scale war <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1722%E2%80%931723)" title="Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)">against them in 1722–23</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peter the Great <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1723)" title="Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1723)">temporarily annexed</a> several areas of Iran to Russia, which after the death of Peter were returned in the 1732 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Resht" title="Treaty of Resht">Treaty of Resht</a> and 1735 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Ganja" title="Treaty of Ganja">Treaty of Ganja</a> as a deal to oppose the Ottomans.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peter <a href="/wiki/Government_reform_of_Peter_the_Great" title="Government reform of Peter the Great">reorganized his government</a> based on the latest political models of the time, molding Russia into an <a href="/wiki/Absolutism_(European_history)" title="Absolutism (European history)">absolutist</a> state. He replaced the old <a href="/wiki/Boyar_Duma" class="mw-redirect" title="Boyar Duma">Boyar Duma</a> (council of nobles) with a nine-member <a href="/wiki/Governing_Senate" title="Governing Senate">Senate</a>, in effect a supreme council of state. The countryside was divided into new <a href="/wiki/Governorate_(Russia)" title="Governorate (Russia)">provinces and districts</a>. Peter told the Senate that its mission was to collect taxes, and tax revenues tripled over the course of his reign. Meanwhile, all vestiges of local self-government were removed. Peter continued and intensified his predecessors' requirement of state service from all nobles, in the <a href="/wiki/Table_of_Ranks" title="Table of Ranks">Table of Ranks</a>. </p><p>As part of Peter's reorganization, he also enacted a <a href="/wiki/Church_reform_of_Peter_the_Great" title="Church reform of Peter the Great">church reform</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</a> was partially incorporated into the country's administrative structure, in effect making it a tool of the state. Peter abolished the <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Moscow_and_all_Rus%27" title="Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus'">patriarchate</a> and replaced it with a collective body, the <a href="/wiki/Most_Holy_Synod" title="Most Holy Synod">Most Holy Synod</a>, which was led by a <a href="/wiki/Procurator_(Russia)" title="Procurator (Russia)">government official</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHughes1998_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughes1998-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peter died in 1725, leaving an unsettled succession. After a short reign by his widow, <a href="/wiki/Catherine_I_of_Russia" title="Catherine I of Russia">Catherine I</a>, the crown passed to Empress <a href="/wiki/Anna_of_Russia" title="Anna of Russia">Anna</a>. She slowed the reforms and led a successful <a href="/wiki/Austro-Russian%E2%80%93Turkish_War_(1735%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–39)">war against the Ottoman Empire</a>. This resulted in a significant weakening of the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khanate</a>, an Ottoman vassal and long-term Russian adversary. </p><p>The discontent over the dominant positions of <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Germans" title="Baltic Germans">Baltic Germans</a> in Russian politics resulted in Peter I's daughter <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_Russia" title="Elizabeth of Russia">Elizabeth</a> being put on the Russian throne. Elizabeth supported the arts, architecture, and the sciences (for example, the founding of <a href="/wiki/Moscow_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow University">Moscow University</a>). But she did not carry out significant structural reforms. Her reign, which lasted nearly 20 years, is also known for Russia's involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a>, where it was successful militarily, but gained little politically.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Catherine_the_Great_(1762–1796)"><span id="Catherine_the_Great_.281762.E2.80.931796.29"></span>Catherine the Great (1762–1796)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Catherine the Great (1762–1796)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Russia_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War#Russian_Diplomacy_during_the_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Russia in the American Revolutionary War">Russia in the American Revolutionary War § Russian Diplomacy during the War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catherine_II_after_Roslin,_Rokotov_(1780s,_Kunsthistorisches_Museum).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Catherine_II_after_Roslin%2C_Rokotov_%281780s%2C_Kunsthistorisches_Museum%29.jpg/220px-Catherine_II_after_Roslin%2C_Rokotov_%281780s%2C_Kunsthistorisches_Museum%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Catherine_II_after_Roslin%2C_Rokotov_%281780s%2C_Kunsthistorisches_Museum%29.jpg/330px-Catherine_II_after_Roslin%2C_Rokotov_%281780s%2C_Kunsthistorisches_Museum%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Catherine_II_after_Roslin%2C_Rokotov_%281780s%2C_Kunsthistorisches_Museum%29.jpg/440px-Catherine_II_after_Roslin%2C_Rokotov_%281780s%2C_Kunsthistorisches_Museum%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1132" data-file-height="1350" /></a><figcaption>Empress <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a>, who reigned from 1762 to 1796, continued the empire's expansion and modernization. Considering herself an <a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutist" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightened absolutist">enlightened absolutist</a>, she played a key role in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russian Enlightenment</a> (painted in the 1780s).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rouble_-_Catherine_II_%D0%9C%D0%9C%D0%94.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Rouble_-_Catherine_II_%D0%9C%D0%9C%D0%94.jpg/220px-Rouble_-_Catherine_II_%D0%9C%D0%9C%D0%94.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Rouble_-_Catherine_II_%D0%9C%D0%9C%D0%94.jpg/330px-Rouble_-_Catherine_II_%D0%9C%D0%9C%D0%94.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Rouble_-_Catherine_II_%D0%9C%D0%9C%D0%94.jpg/440px-Rouble_-_Catherine_II_%D0%9C%D0%9C%D0%94.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4579" data-file-height="2296" /></a><figcaption>1764, Ruble Catherine II ММД, Krasny Mint</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D1%88%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D1%88%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BC.jpg/220px-%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D1%88%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D1%88%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BC.jpg/330px-%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D1%88%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D1%88%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BC.jpg/440px-%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D1%88%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="420" /></a><figcaption><i>The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Izmail" title="Siege of Izmail">Storming of Izmail</a> on December 22, 1790</i>, by Russian troops under the command of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Suvorov" title="Alexander Suvorov">Alexander Suvorov</a>. Suvorov's victory was immortalized with the empire's newfound national anthem: "<a href="/wiki/Let_the_Thunder_of_Victory_Rumble!_(anthem)" title="Let the Thunder of Victory Rumble! (anthem)">Let the Thunder of Victory Rumble!</a>".</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a> was a German princess who married <a href="/wiki/Peter_III_of_Russia" title="Peter III of Russia">Peter III</a>, the German heir to the Russian crown. After the death of Empress Elizabeth, Catherine came to power after she effected a coup d'état against her very unpopular husband. She contributed to the resurgence of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_nobility" title="Russian nobility">Russian nobility</a> that began after the death of Peter the Great, abolishing State service and granting them control of most state functions in the provinces. She also removed the <a href="/wiki/Beard_tax" title="Beard tax">Beard tax</a> instituted by Peter the Great.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Catherine extended Russian political control over the lands of the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, supporting the <a href="/wiki/Targowica_Confederation" title="Targowica Confederation">Targowica Confederation</a>. However, the cost of these campaigns further burdened the already oppressive social system, under which serfs were required to spend almost all of their time laboring on their owners' land. A major peasant uprising took place in 1773, after Catherine legalized the selling of serfs separate from land. Inspired by a <a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossack</a> named <a href="/wiki/Yemelyan_Pugachev" title="Yemelyan Pugachev">Yemelyan Pugachev</a> and proclaiming "Hang all the landlords!", the rebels threatened to take Moscow before they were ruthlessly suppressed. Instead of imposing the traditional punishment of drawing and quartering, Catherine issued secret instructions that the executioners should execute death sentences quickly and with minimal suffering, as part of her effort to introduce compassion into the law.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>She furthered these efforts by ordering the public trial of <a href="/wiki/Darya_Nikolayevna_Saltykova" title="Darya Nikolayevna Saltykova">Darya Nikolayevna Saltykova</a>, a high-ranking noblewoman, on charges of torturing and murdering serfs. Whilst these gestures garnered Catherine much positive attention from Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, the specter of revolution and disorder continued to haunt her and her successors. Indeed, her son <a href="/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia" title="Paul I of Russia">Paul</a> <a href="/wiki/Personality_and_reputation_of_Paul_I_of_Russia" title="Personality and reputation of Paul I of Russia">introduced a number of increasingly erratic decrees</a> in his short reign aimed directly against the spread of French culture in response to <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">their revolution</a>. </p><p>In order to ensure the continued support of the nobility, which was essential to her reign, Catherine was obliged to strengthen their authority and power at the expense of the serfs and other lower classes. Nevertheless, Catherine realized that serfdom must eventually be ended, going so far in her <i><a href="/wiki/Nakaz" title="Nakaz">Nakaz</a></i> ("Instruction") to say that serfs were "just as good as we are" – a comment received with disgust by the nobility. Catherine advanced Russia's southern and western frontiers, <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Turkish Wars">successfully waging war</a> against the Ottoman Empire for territory near the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>, and incorporating territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth during the <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a>, alongside <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Austria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>. As part of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Georgievsk" title="Treaty of Georgievsk">Treaty of Georgievsk</a>, signed with the Georgian <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli-Kakheti" title="Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti">Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti</a>, and her own political aspirations, Catherine waged a new war <a href="/wiki/Persian_Expedition_of_1796" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Expedition of 1796">against Persia</a> in 1796 after they had invaded <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Georgia_(country)" title="Eastern Georgia (country)">eastern Georgia</a>. Upon achieving victory, she established Russian rule over it and expelled the newly established Persian garrisons in the Caucasus. </p><p>Catherine's expansionist policy caused Russia to develop into a major European power,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as did the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Enlightenment era</a> and the Golden age in Russia. But after Catherine died in 1796, she was succeeded by her son, <a href="/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia" title="Paul I of Russia">Paul</a>. He brought Russia into a <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">major coalition war</a> against the new-revolutionary <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French Republic</a> in 1798. Russian commander Field Marshal <a href="/wiki/Suvorov" class="mw-redirect" title="Suvorov">Suvorov</a> led the <a href="/wiki/Italian_and_Swiss_expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian and Swiss expedition">Italian and Swiss expedition</a>,—he inflicted a series of defeats on the French; in particular, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Trebbia_(1799)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Trebbia (1799)">Battle of the Trebbia</a> in 1799. </p><p><b>Nicholas II</b> </p><p>Nicholas II, also known as Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov, was the final Emperor of Russia, King of Congress Poland, and <a href="/wiki/Grand_duke" title="Grand duke">Grand duke</a> of Finland. His reign started on 1 November 1894 and ended with his abdication on 15 March 1917. Born on 18 May 1868 at <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Palace" title="Alexander Palace">Alexander Palace</a>, Tsarskoye Selo, Russian Empire, he was the eldest son and successor of Aleksandr Aleksandrovich<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (later known as <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia" title="Alexander III of Russia">Alexander III of Russia</a>) and his wife Maria Fyodorovna (formerly Dagmar of <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicholas_II_of_Russia_in_his_coronation_robe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Nicholas_II_of_Russia_in_his_coronation_robe.jpg/220px-Nicholas_II_of_Russia_in_his_coronation_robe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Nicholas_II_of_Russia_in_his_coronation_robe.jpg/330px-Nicholas_II_of_Russia_in_his_coronation_robe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Nicholas_II_of_Russia_in_his_coronation_robe.jpg/440px-Nicholas_II_of_Russia_in_his_coronation_robe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1698" /></a><figcaption>Tsar Nicholas II depicted in a royal cloak.</figcaption></figure> <p>During his rule, Nicholas II supported the economic and political reforms proposed by his prime ministers, Sergei Witte and <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Stolypin" title="Pyotr Stolypin">Pyotr Stolypin</a>. He favored modernization through foreign loans and strong ties with France, but was reluctant to give significant roles to the new parliament (the Duma).<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>He signed the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 to counter Germany's influence in the Middle East, ending the <a href="/wiki/Great_Game" title="Great Game">Great Game</a> between Russia and the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>. </p><p>However, his reign was marked by criticism for the government's suppression of political dissent and perceived failures or inaction during events like the <a href="/wiki/Khodynka_Tragedy" title="Khodynka Tragedy">Khodynka Tragedy</a>, anti-Jewish pogroms, <a href="/wiki/Bloody_Sunday_(1905)" title="Bloody Sunday (1905)">Bloody Sunday (1905)</a>, and the violent suppression of the 1905 Russian Revolution. The <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a>, which resulted in the destruction of the Russian Baltic Fleet at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tsushima" title="Battle of Tsushima">Battle of Tsushima</a>, further eroded his popularity. By March 1917, public support for Nicholas II had dwindled, leading to his forced abdication and the end of the 304-year rule of the <a href="/wiki/Romanov_(dynasty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanov (dynasty)">Romanov (dynasty)</a> in Russia (1613–1917).<sup id="cite_ref-geoffreyswain_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geoffreyswain-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nicholas II was deeply devoted to his wife, Alexandra, whom he married on 26 November 1894. They had five children: Grand Duchesses Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia, and Tsesarevich Alexei. The Russian Imperial Romanov family was executed by who were believed to be drunken <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolshevik</a> revolutionaries under Yakov Yurovsky, as ordered by the Ural Regional Soviet in Yekaterinburg on the night of 16–17 July 1918. This marked the end of the Russian Empire and Imperial Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="State_budget">State budget</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: State budget"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russia_1771_Sestroretsk_Rouble.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Russia_1771_Sestroretsk_Rouble.jpg/300px-Russia_1771_Sestroretsk_Rouble.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Russia_1771_Sestroretsk_Rouble.jpg/450px-Russia_1771_Sestroretsk_Rouble.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Russia_1771_Sestroretsk_Rouble.jpg/600px-Russia_1771_Sestroretsk_Rouble.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4355" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>Catherine II Sestroretsk Ruble (1771) is made of solid copper measuring <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>77 mm (<span class="frac">3<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">32</span></span> in) (diameter), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">26 mm (<span class="frac">1<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">32</span></span> in) (thickness), and weighs <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1,041 g (2 lb <span class="frac">4<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> oz).<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Russia was in a continuous state of financial crisis. While revenue rose from 9 million rubles in 1724 to 40 million in 1794, expenses grew more rapidly, reaching 49 million in 1794. The budget allocated 46 percent to the military, 20 percent to government economic activities, 12 percent to administration, and nine percent for the Imperial Court in St. Petersburg. The deficit required borrowing, primarily from bankers in <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>; five percent of the budget was allocated to debt payments. Paper money was issued to pay for expensive wars, thus causing inflation. As a result of its spending, Russia developed a large and well-equipped army, a very large and complex bureaucracy, and a court that rivaled those of <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Versailles</a> and <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>. But the government was living far beyond its means, and 18th-century Russia remained "a poor, backward, overwhelmingly agricultural, and illiterate country".<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_half_of_the_19th_century">First half of the 19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: First half of the 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peter_von_Hess_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Peter_von_Hess_002.jpg/240px-Peter_von_Hess_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Peter_von_Hess_002.jpg/360px-Peter_von_Hess_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Peter_von_Hess_002.jpg/480px-Peter_von_Hess_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2776" data-file-height="1764" /></a><figcaption>An 1843 painting imagining Russian general <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Bagration" title="Pyotr Bagration">Pyotr Bagration</a>, giving orders during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borodino" title="Battle of Borodino">Battle of Borodino</a> (1812) while wounded</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1796%E2%80%931855)" title="History of Russia (1796–1855)">History of Russia (1796–1855)</a></div> <p>In 1801, over four years after Paul became the emperor of Russia, he was killed in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Michael%27s_Castle" title="Saint Michael's Castle">Saint Michael's Castle</a> in a coup. Paul was succeeded by his 23-year-old son, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Alexander</a>. Russia was in a <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">state of war</a> with the French Republic under the leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a>-born <a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">First Consul</a> <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a>. After he became the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_the_French" title="Emperor of the French">emperor</a>, Napoleon defeated Russia at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Austerlitz" title="Battle of Austerlitz">Austerlitz</a> in 1805, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eylau" title="Battle of Eylau">Eylau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Friedland" title="Battle of Friedland">Friedland</a> in 1807. After Alexander was defeated in Friedland, he agreed to negotiate and sued for peace with France; the <a href="/wiki/Treaties_of_Tilsit" title="Treaties of Tilsit">Treaties of Tilsit</a> led to the Franco-Russian alliance against the <a href="/wiki/Coalition_forces_of_the_Napoleonic_Wars" title="Coalition forces of the Napoleonic Wars">Coalition</a> and joined the <a href="/wiki/Continental_System" title="Continental System">Continental System</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowling201424_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowling201424-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1812, Russia had occupied many territories in Eastern Europe, holding some of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Galicia" title="Eastern Galicia">Eastern Galicia</a> from <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bessarabia_Governorate" title="Bessarabia Governorate">Bessarabia</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowling2014801_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowling2014801-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from Northern Europe, it had gained <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland" title="Grand Duchy of Finland">Finland</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Finnish_War" title="Finnish War">war</a> against a weakened <a href="/wiki/Gustavian_era" title="Gustavian era">Sweden</a>; it also gained some territory in the Caucasus. </p><p>Following a dispute with Emperor Alexander I, in 1812, Napoleon launched an <a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia" title="French invasion of Russia">invasion of Russia</a>. It was catastrophic for France, whose army was decimated during the <a href="/wiki/Russian_winter" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian winter">Russian winter</a>. Although Napoleon's <a href="/wiki/Grande_Arm%C3%A9e" title="Grande Armée">Grande Armée</a> reached Moscow, the Russians' <a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">scorched earth</a> strategy prevented the invaders from living off the country. In the harsh and bitter winter, thousands of French troops were ambushed and killed by peasant <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla">guerrilla</a> fighters.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russian troops then pursued Napoleon's troops to the gates of Paris, presiding over the redrawing of the map of Europe at the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> (1815), which ultimately made Alexander the monarch of <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "<a href="/wiki/Holy_Alliance" title="Holy Alliance">Holy Alliance</a>" was proclaimed, linking the monarchist great powers of Austria, Prussia, and Russia. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fire_of_Moscow_1812.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Fire_of_Moscow_1812.jpg/220px-Fire_of_Moscow_1812.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Fire_of_Moscow_1812.jpg/330px-Fire_of_Moscow_1812.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Fire_of_Moscow_1812.jpg/440px-Fire_of_Moscow_1812.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1369" data-file-height="976" /></a><figcaption>An 1813 painting depicting the <a href="/wiki/Fire_of_Moscow_(1812)" title="Fire of Moscow (1812)">Fire of Moscow</a>, Russia had burned the city just before Napoleon could reach and occupy it.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although the Russian Empire played a leading political role in the next century, thanks to its role in defeating Napoleonic France, its retention of serfdom precluded economic progress to any significant degree. As Western European economic growth accelerated during the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, Russia began to lag ever farther behind, creating new weaknesses for the empire seeking to play a role as a great power. Russia's status as a great power concealed the inefficiency of its government, the isolation of its people, and its economic and social backwardness. Following the defeat of Napoleon, Alexander I had been ready to discuss constitutional reforms, but though <a href="/wiki/Government_reform_of_Alexander_I" title="Government reform of Alexander I">a few were introduced</a>, no major changes were attempted.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Livebridge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Livebridge.jpg/220px-Livebridge.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Livebridge.jpg/330px-Livebridge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Livebridge.jpg/440px-Livebridge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2146" data-file-height="1288" /></a><figcaption>This 1892 painting imagines a scene of Russian troops forming a bridge with their bodies, moving equipment to prepare for invading Persian forces during the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1804%E2%80%931813)" title="Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)">Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)</a>, which occurred contemporaneously with the <a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia" title="French invasion of Russia">French invasion of Russia</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The liberal Alexander I was replaced by his younger brother <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I</a> (1825–1855), who at the beginning of his reign was confronted with an uprising. The background of this revolt lay in the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, when a number of well-educated Russian officers travelled in Europe in the course of military campaigns, where their exposure to the <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a> of Western Europe encouraged them to seek change on their return to <a href="/wiki/Autocratic_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Autocratic Russia">autocratic Russia</a>. The result was the <a href="/wiki/Decembrist_revolt" title="Decembrist revolt">Decembrist revolt</a> (December 1825), which was the work of a small circle of liberal nobles and army officers who wanted to install Nicholas' brother <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duke_Konstantin_Pavlovich_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich of Russia">Constantine</a> as a constitutional monarch. The revolt was easily crushed, but it caused Nicholas to turn away from the modernization program begun by Peter the Great and champion the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy,_Autocracy,_and_Nationality" title="Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality">Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In order to repress further revolts, censorship was intensified, including the constant surveillance of schools and universities. Textbooks were strictly regulated by the government. Police spies were planted everywhere. Under Nicholas I, would-be revolutionaries were sent off to Siberia, with hundreds of thousands sent to <a href="/wiki/Katorga" title="Katorga">katorga</a> camps.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The retaliation for the revolt made "December Fourteenth" a day long remembered by later revolutionary movements.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The question of Russia's direction had been gaining attention ever since Peter the Great's program of modernization. Some favored imitating Western Europe while others were against this and called for a return to the traditions of the past. The latter path was advocated by <a href="/wiki/Slavophilia" title="Slavophilia">Slavophiles</a>, who held the "decadent" West in contempt. The Slavophiles were opponents of bureaucracy, who preferred the <a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">collectivism</a> of the medieval Russian <i><a href="/wiki/Obshchina" title="Obshchina">obshchina</a></i> or <i>mir</i> over the <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a> of the West.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein1976_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein1976-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More extreme social doctrines were elaborated by such Russian radicals on the left, such as <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Herzen" title="Alexander Herzen">Alexander Herzen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Mikhail Bakunin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Peter Kropotkin</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foreign_policy_(1800–1864)"><span id="Foreign_policy_.281800.E2.80.931864.29"></span>Foreign policy (1800–1864)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Foreign policy (1800–1864)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Foreign policy of the Russian Empire">Foreign policy of the Russian Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siege_of_Erivan_Fortress_on_1_October_1827.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Siege_of_Erivan_Fortress_on_1_October_1827.jpg/220px-Siege_of_Erivan_Fortress_on_1_October_1827.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Siege_of_Erivan_Fortress_on_1_October_1827.jpg/330px-Siege_of_Erivan_Fortress_on_1_October_1827.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Siege_of_Erivan_Fortress_on_1_October_1827.jpg/440px-Siege_of_Erivan_Fortress_on_1_October_1827.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1372" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Franz_Roubaud" title="Franz Roubaud">Franz Roubaud</a>'s 1893 painting of the <a href="/wiki/Erivan_Fortress" title="Erivan Fortress">Erivan Fortress</a> <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Erivan" title="Capture of Erivan">siege in 1827</a> by the Russian forces under leadership of <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Paskevich" title="Ivan Paskevich">Ivan Paskevich</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1826%E2%80%931828)" title="Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)">Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aivazovsky,_Brig_Mercury_Attacked_by_Two_Turkish_Ships_1892.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Aivazovsky%2C_Brig_Mercury_Attacked_by_Two_Turkish_Ships_1892.jpg/220px-Aivazovsky%2C_Brig_Mercury_Attacked_by_Two_Turkish_Ships_1892.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Aivazovsky%2C_Brig_Mercury_Attacked_by_Two_Turkish_Ships_1892.jpg/330px-Aivazovsky%2C_Brig_Mercury_Attacked_by_Two_Turkish_Ships_1892.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Aivazovsky%2C_Brig_Mercury_Attacked_by_Two_Turkish_Ships_1892.jpg/440px-Aivazovsky%2C_Brig_Mercury_Attacked_by_Two_Turkish_Ships_1892.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2220" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption>1892 painting depicting <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Navy" title="Imperial Russian Navy">Imperial Russian Navy</a> <a href="/wiki/Brig_%22Mercury%22_Attacked_by_Two_Turkish_Ships" title="Brig "Mercury" Attacked by Two Turkish Ships">Brig "Mercury" Attacked by Two Turkish Ships</a> in a scene from the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1828%E2%80%931829)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)">Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Aivazovsky" title="Ivan Aivazovsky">Ivan Aivazovsky</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After Russian armies liberated the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli-Kakheti" title="Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti">Eastern Georgian Kingdom</a> (allied since the 1783 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Georgievsk" title="Treaty of Georgievsk">Treaty of Georgievsk</a>) from the <a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajar dynasty</a>'s occupation of 1802,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> during the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1804%E2%80%931813)" title="Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)">Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)</a>, they clashed with Persia over control and consolidation of Georgia, and also became involved in the <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_War" title="Caucasian War">Caucasian War</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Imamate" title="Caucasian Imamate">Caucasian Imamate</a>. At the conclusion of the war, Persia irrevocably ceded what is now <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>, eastern Georgia, and most of <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> to Russia, under the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Gulistan" title="Treaty of Gulistan">Treaty of Gulistan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowling2014728_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowling2014728-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russia attempted to expand to the southwest, at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, using recently acquired Georgia at its base for its Caucasus and Anatolian front. The late 1820s were successful years militarily. Despite losing almost all recently consolidated territories in the first year of the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1826%E2%80%931828)" title="Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)">Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828</a>, Russia managed to favorably bring an end to the war with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Turkmenchay" title="Treaty of Turkmenchay">Treaty of Turkmenchay</a>, including the formal acquisition of what are now <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, Azerbaijan, and <a href="/wiki/I%C4%9Fd%C4%B1r_Province" title="Iğdır Province">Iğdır Province</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowling2014729_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowling2014729-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russo-Turkish_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Russo-Turkish wars">1828–1829 Russo-Turkish War</a>, Russia invaded northeastern <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and occupied the strategic Ottoman towns of <a href="/wiki/Erzurum" title="Erzurum">Karin</a> and <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCm%C3%BC%C5%9Fhane" title="Gümüşhane">Gümüşhane</a> (Argiroupoli) and, posing as protector of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox population</a>, received extensive support from the region's <a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greeks" title="Pontic Greeks">Pontic Greeks</a>. Following a brief occupation, the Russian imperial army withdrew back into Georgia.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Russian emperors quelled two uprisings in their newly acquired Polish territories: the <a href="/wiki/November_Uprising" title="November Uprising">November Uprising</a> in 1830 and the <a href="/wiki/January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">January Uprising</a> in 1863. In 1863, the Russian autocracy had given the Polish artisans and <a href="/wiki/Gentry" title="Gentry">gentry</a> reason to rebel, by assailing national core values of language, religion, and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">Britain</a>, and Austria tried to intervene in the crisis but were unable to do so. The Russian press and state <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> used the Polish uprising to justify the need for unity in the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Haynes_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haynes-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The semi-autonomous <a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">polity</a> of Congress Poland subsequently lost its distinctive political and judicial rights, with <a href="/wiki/Russification" title="Russification">Russification</a> being imposed on its schools and courts.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Russification policies in Poland, Finland and among the Germans in the Baltics largely failed and only strengthened political opposition.<sup id="cite_ref-Haynes_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haynes-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:1969px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8F.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A panoramic view of Moscow from the Spasskaya Tower in 1819 (hand-drawn lithograph)"><img alt="Panorama of Moscow in 1819 (hand-drawn lithograph)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8F.jpg/1961px-%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8F.jpg" decoding="async" width="1961" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8F.jpg/2942px-%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8F.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8F.jpg/3922px-%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8F.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8854" data-file-height="790" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8F.jpg" title="File:Круговая панорама Москвы со Спасской башни Кремля.jpg"> </a></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">A <a href="/wiki/Panorama" title="Panorama">panoramic</a> view of <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Spasskaya_Tower" title="Spasskaya Tower">Spasskaya Tower</a> in 1819 (hand-drawn lithograph)</div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_half_of_the_19th_century">Second half of the 19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Second half of the 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931892)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Russia (1855–1892)">History of Russia (1855–1892)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Government_reforms_of_Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Government reforms of Alexander II of Russia">Government reforms of Alexander II of Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Russia–United Kingdom relations">Russia–United Kingdom relations</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Imperial_Standard_of_the_Emperor_of_Russia_(1858%E2%80%931917).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Imperial_Standard_of_the_Emperor_of_Russia_%281858%E2%80%931917%29.svg/220px-Imperial_Standard_of_the_Emperor_of_Russia_%281858%E2%80%931917%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Imperial_Standard_of_the_Emperor_of_Russia_%281858%E2%80%931917%29.svg/330px-Imperial_Standard_of_the_Emperor_of_Russia_%281858%E2%80%931917%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Imperial_Standard_of_the_Emperor_of_Russia_%281858%E2%80%931917%29.svg/440px-Imperial_Standard_of_the_Emperor_of_Russia_%281858%E2%80%931917%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The Imperial Standard of the Tsar between from 1858 to 1917. Previous variations of the black eagle on gold background were used as far back as Peter the Great's time.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siege_of_Sevastopol_by_George_Baxter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Siege_of_Sevastopol_by_George_Baxter.jpg/220px-Siege_of_Sevastopol_by_George_Baxter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Siege_of_Sevastopol_by_George_Baxter.jpg/330px-Siege_of_Sevastopol_by_George_Baxter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Siege_of_Sevastopol_by_George_Baxter.jpg/440px-Siege_of_Sevastopol_by_George_Baxter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="806" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>The eleven-month <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_(1854%E2%80%9355)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Sevastopol (1854–55)">siege</a> of a Russian naval base at <a href="/wiki/Sevastopol" title="Sevastopol">Sevastopol</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karazin_-_Entry_of_Russian_troops_into_Samarkand_1868.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Karazin_-_Entry_of_Russian_troops_into_Samarkand_1868.jpg/220px-Karazin_-_Entry_of_Russian_troops_into_Samarkand_1868.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Karazin_-_Entry_of_Russian_troops_into_Samarkand_1868.jpg/330px-Karazin_-_Entry_of_Russian_troops_into_Samarkand_1868.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Karazin_-_Entry_of_Russian_troops_into_Samarkand_1868.jpg/440px-Karazin_-_Entry_of_Russian_troops_into_Samarkand_1868.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2529" data-file-height="1389" /></a><figcaption>Russian troops taking <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a> (8 June 1868)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russians_entering_khiva_1873_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Russians_entering_khiva_1873_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Russians_entering_khiva_1873_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Russians_entering_khiva_1873_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Russians_entering_khiva_1873_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Russians_entering_khiva_1873_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Russians_entering_khiva_1873_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1471" data-file-height="978" /></a><figcaption>Russian troops entering <a href="/wiki/Khiva" title="Khiva">Khiva</a> in 1873</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zahvat_grivickogo_reduta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Zahvat_grivickogo_reduta.jpg/220px-Zahvat_grivickogo_reduta.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Zahvat_grivickogo_reduta.jpg/330px-Zahvat_grivickogo_reduta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Zahvat_grivickogo_reduta.jpg/440px-Zahvat_grivickogo_reduta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2080" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Capturing of the Ottoman Turkish redoubt during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Plevna" title="Siege of Plevna">Siege of Plevna</a> (1877)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1854–1855, Russia fought <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">France</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>, which Russia lost. The war was fought primarily in the <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimean peninsula</a>, and to a lesser extent in the Baltic during the related <a href="/wiki/%C3%85land_War" title="Åland War">Åland War</a>. Since playing a major role in the defeat of Napoleon, Russia had been regarded as militarily invincible, but against a coalition of the great powers of Europe, the reverses it suffered on land and sea exposed the weakness of Emperor Nicholas I's regime. </p><p>When Emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II</a> ascended the throne in 1855, the desire for reform was widespread. A growing humanitarian movement attacked <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a> as inefficient. In 1859, there were more than 23 million serfs in usually poor living conditions. Alexander II decided to abolish <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a> from above, with ample provision for the landowners, rather than wait for it to be abolished from below by revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Reform_of_1861" class="mw-redirect" title="Emancipation Reform of 1861">Emancipation Reform of 1861</a>, which freed the serfs, was the single most important event in 19th-century Russian history, and the beginning of the end of the landed aristocracy's monopoly on power. The 1860s saw further socioeconomic reforms to clarify the position of the Russian government with regard to property rights.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Emancipation brought a supply of free labor to the cities, stimulating industry, while the middle class grew in number and influence. However, instead of receiving their lands as a gift, the freed peasants had to pay a special lifetime tax to the government, which in turn paid the landlords a generous price for the land that they had lost. In numerous cases the peasants ended up with relatively small amounts of the least productive land. All the property turned over to the peasants was owned collectively by the <i>mir</i>, the village community, which divided the land among the peasants and supervised the various holdings. Although serfdom was abolished, its abolition was achieved on terms unfavorable to peasants; thus, revolutionary tensions remained. Revolutionaries believed that the newly freed serfs were merely being sold into <a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">wage slavery</a> in the onset of the industrial revolution, and that the urban <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a> had effectively replaced the landowners.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Seeking more territories, Russia <a href="/wiki/Amur_Annexation" title="Amur Annexation">obtained</a> Priamurye (<a href="/wiki/Russian_Manchuria_(Russia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Manchuria (Russia)">Russian Manchuria</a>) from the weakened <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Manchu-ruled Qing China</a>, which was occupied fighting against the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a>. In 1858, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aigun" title="Treaty of Aigun">Treaty of Aigun</a> ceded much of the Manchu Homeland, and in 1860, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Peking" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Peking">Treaty of Peking</a> ceded the modern <a href="/wiki/Primorsky_Krai" title="Primorsky Krai">Primorsky Krai</a>, also founded the outpost of future <a href="/wiki/Vladivostok" title="Vladivostok">Vladivostok</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, Russia decided to sell the indefensible <a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Russian America</a> to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931918)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (1865–1918)">United States</a> for 11 million rubles (7.2 million dollars) in 1867.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, many Americans considered this newly gained territory to be a wasteland and useless, and saw the government wasting money,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but later, much gold and petroleum were discovered.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 1870s, Russia and the Ottoman Empire again clashed in the Balkans. From 1875 to 1877, the Balkan crisis intensified, with rebellions against Ottoman rule by various Slavic nationalities,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2002113_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman2002113-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which the Ottoman Turks had dominated since the 15th century. This was seen as a political risk in Russia, which similarly suppressed its Muslims in Central Asia and Caucasia. Russian nationalist opinion became a major domestic factor with its support for liberating Balkan Christians from Ottoman rule and making Bulgaria and <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia" title="Principality of Serbia">Serbia</a> independent. In early 1877, Russia intervened on behalf of Serbian and Russian volunteer forces,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2002114_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman2002114-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading to the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%9378)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)">Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeoffrey2011315_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeoffrey2011315-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within one year, Russian troops were nearing <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> and the Ottomans surrendered. Russia's nationalist diplomats and generals persuaded Alexander II to force the Ottomans to sign the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Stefano" title="Treaty of San Stefano">Treaty of San Stefano</a> in March 1878, creating an enlarged, independent Bulgaria that stretched into the southwestern Balkans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2002114_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman2002114-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Britain threatened to declare war over the terms of the treaty, an exhausted Russia backed down. At the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a> in July 1878, Russia agreed to the creation of a smaller <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Bulgaria" title="Principality of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Rumelia" title="Eastern Rumelia">Eastern Rumelia</a>, as a vassal state and an autonomous principality inside the Ottoman Empire, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeoffrey2011316_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeoffrey2011316-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron1997121_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron1997121-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, <a href="/wiki/Pan-Slavism" title="Pan-Slavism">Pan-Slavists</a> were left with a legacy of bitterness against <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a> for failing to back Russia. Disappointment at the results of the war stimulated revolutionary tensions, and helped Serbia, <a href="/wiki/United_Principalities_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia">Romania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Montenegro" title="Principality of Montenegro">Montenegro</a> gain independence from, and strengthen themselves against, the Ottomans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeton-Watson1967445–460_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeton-Watson1967445–460-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak,_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak%2C_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG/220px-The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak%2C_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak%2C_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG/330px-The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak%2C_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak%2C_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG/440px-The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak%2C_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1134" data-file-height="827" /></a><figcaption>Russian troops fighting against Ottoman troops at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shipka_Pass" title="Battle of Shipka Pass">Battle of Shipka Pass</a> (1877)</figcaption></figure> <p>Another significant result of the war was the acquisition from the Ottomans of the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Batumi" title="Batumi">Batumi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ardahan" title="Ardahan">Ardahan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kars" title="Kars">Kars</a> in <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasia">Transcaucasia</a>, which were transformed into the militarily administered regions of <a href="/wiki/Batum_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Batum Oblast">Batum Oblast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kars_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Kars Oblast">Kars Oblast</a>. To replace Muslim refugees who had fled across the new frontier into Ottoman territory, the Russian authorities settled large numbers of Christians from ethnically diverse communities in Kars Oblast, particularly <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Greeks" title="Caucasus Greeks">Caucasus Greeks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a>, each of whom hoped to achieve protection and advance their own regional ambitions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alexander_III">Alexander III</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Alexander III"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1881, Alexander II was assassinated by the <a href="/wiki/Narodnaya_Volya" title="Narodnaya Volya">Narodnaya Volya</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Nihilist_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Nihilist movement">Nihilist</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_designated_terrorist_groups" title="List of designated terrorist groups">terrorist organization</a>. The throne passed to <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia" title="Alexander III of Russia">Alexander III</a> (1881–1894), a reactionary who revived the maxim of "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality" of Nicholas I. A committed Slavophile, Alexander III believed that Russia could be saved from turmoil only by shutting itself off from the subversive influences of Western Europe. During his reign, Russia formed the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Russian_Alliance" title="Franco-Russian Alliance">Franco-Russian Alliance</a>, to contain the growing power of Germany; completed the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Central_Asia#Russian_expansion_into_Central_Asia_(19th_century)" title="History of Central Asia">conquest of Central Asia</a>; and demanded important territorial and commercial concessions from China. The emperor's most influential adviser was <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Pobedonostsev" title="Konstantin Pobedonostsev">Konstantin Pobedonostsev</a>, tutor to Alexander III and his son Nicholas, and procurator of the Holy Synod from 1880 to 1895. Pobedonostsev taught his imperial pupils to fear freedom of speech and the press, as well as dislike democracy, constitutions, and the parliamentary system. Under Pobedonostsev, revolutionaries were persecuted—by the <a href="/wiki/Okhrana" title="Okhrana">imperial secret police</a>, with thousands being exiled to <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>—and a policy of <a href="/wiki/Russification" title="Russification">Russification</a> was carried out throughout the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foreign_policy_(1864–1907)"><span id="Foreign_policy_.281864.E2.80.931907.29"></span>Foreign policy (1864–1907)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Foreign policy (1864–1907)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Russia had little difficulty expanding to the south, including conquering <a href="/wiki/Turkestan" title="Turkestan">Turkestan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> until Britain became alarmed when Russia threatened <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan" title="Emirate of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, with the implicit threat to <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">India</a>; and decades of diplomatic maneuvering resulted, called the <a href="/wiki/Great_Game" title="Great Game">Great Game</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeton-Watson1967441–444,_679–682_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeton-Watson1967441–444,_679–682-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That rivalry between the two empires has been considered to have included far-flung territories such as <a href="/wiki/Outer_Mongolia" title="Outer Mongolia">Outer Mongolia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Qing_rule" title="Tibet under Qing rule">Tibet</a>. The maneuvering largely ended with the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention" title="Anglo-Russian Convention">Anglo-Russian Convention</a> of 1907.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Expansion into the vast stretches of Siberia was slow and expensive, but finally became possible with the building of the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway" title="Trans-Siberian Railway">Trans-Siberian Railway</a>, 1890 to 1904. This opened up <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>; and Russian interests focused on Mongolia, <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korea</a>. China was too weak to resist, and was pulled increasingly into the Russian sphere. Russia obtained treaty ports such as <a href="/wiki/Russian_Dalian" title="Russian Dalian">Dalian</a>/<a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCshunkou_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Lüshunkou District">Port Arthur</a>. In 1900, the Russian Empire <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Russian invasion of Manchuria">invaded Manchuria</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a>'s intervention against the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a>. <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a> strongly opposed Russian expansion, and defeated Russia in the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> of 1904–1905. Japan took over Korea, and Manchuria remained a contested area.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a>, looking for allies against Germany after 1871, formed a <a href="/wiki/Franco-Russian_Alliance" title="Franco-Russian Alliance">military alliance</a> in 1894, with large-scale loans to Russia, sales of arms, and warships, as well as diplomatic support. Once Afghanistan was informally partitioned by the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention" title="Anglo-Russian Convention">Anglo-Russian Convention</a> in 1907, Britain, France, and Russia came increasingly close together in opposition to Germany and Austria-Hungary. The three would later comprise the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Triple Entente</a> alliance in the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_20th_century">Early 20th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Early 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1892%E2%80%931917)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Russia (1892–1917)">History of Russia (1892–1917)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Repin_17October.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Repin_17October.jpg/220px-Repin_17October.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Repin_17October.jpg/330px-Repin_17October.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Repin_17October.jpg/440px-Repin_17October.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8197" data-file-height="4440" /></a><figcaption>A scene from the <a href="/wiki/Revolution_of_1905" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolution of 1905">First Russian Revolution</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Repin" title="Ilya Repin">Ilya Repin</a><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_4" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Moscow_clad_in_snow_-_Moscou_sur_la_neige_-_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5_-_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%83_%281908%29%2C_noaudio.ogv/220px-seek%3D432-Moscow_clad_in_snow_-_Moscou_sur_la_neige_-_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5_-_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%83_%281908%29%2C_noaudio.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="450" data-mwtitle="Moscow_clad_in_snow_-_Moscou_sur_la_neige_-_Москва_в_снежном_убранстве_-_Москва_в_снегу_(1908),_noaudio.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Moscow_clad_in_snow_-_Moscou_sur_la_neige_-_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5_-_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%83_(1908),_noaudio.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Moscow_clad_in_snow_-_Moscou_sur_la_neige_-_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5_-_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%83_%281908%29%2C_noaudio.ogv" type="video/ogg; 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codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AMoscow_clad_in_snow_-_Moscou_sur_la_neige_-_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5_-_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%83_%281908%29%2C_noaudio.ogv&lang=fr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fr" label="français ‪(fr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span><figcaption>View of <a href="/wiki/Moscow_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow River">Moscow River</a> from the Kremlin, 1908</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1894, Alexander III was succeeded by his son, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Nicholas II</a>, who was committed to retaining the autocracy that his father had left him. Nicholas II proved as an ineffective ruler, and in the end his dynasty was overthrown by the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> began to show significant influence in Russia, but the country remained rural and poor. </p><p>Economic conditions steadily improved after 1890, thanks to new crops such as sugar beets, and new access to railway transportation. Total grain production increased, as well as exports, even with rising domestic demand from population growth. As a result, there was a slow improvement in the living standards of Russian peasants in the empire's last two decades before 1914. Recent research into the physical stature of Army recruits shows they were bigger and stronger. There were regional variations, with more poverty in the heavily populated <a href="/wiki/Central_Black_Earth_Region" title="Central Black Earth Region">central black earth region</a>; and there were temporary downturns in 1891–93 and 1905–1908.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieven2006391_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven2006391-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of the 19th century, the Russian Empire dominated its territorial extent, covering a surface area of 22,800,000 km<sup>2</sup>, making it become the world's third-largest empire. </p><p>On the political right, the reactionary elements of the aristocracy strongly favored the large landholders, who, however, were slowly selling their land to the peasants through the <a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_Land_Bank" title="Peasants' Land Bank">Peasants' Land Bank</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Union_of_October_17" title="Union of October 17">Octobrist</a> party was a conservative force, with a base of landowners and businessmen. They accepted land reform but insisted that property owners be fully paid. They favored far-reaching reforms, and hoped the landlord class would fade away, while agreeing they should be paid for their land. Liberal elements among industrial capitalists and nobility, who believed in peaceful social reform and a constitutional monarchy, formed the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Democratic_Party" title="Constitutional Democratic Party">Constitutional Democratic Party</a> or <i>Kadets</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreeze2002234–268_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreeze2002234–268-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the left, the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Revolutionary_Party" title="Socialist Revolutionary Party">Socialist Revolutionaries</a> (SRs) and the Marxist <a href="/wiki/Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">Social Democrats</a> wanted to expropriate the land, without payment, but debated whether to distribute the land among the peasants (the <a href="/wiki/Narodniks" title="Narodniks">Narodnik</a> solution), or to put it into collective local ownership.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Socialist Revolutionaries also differed from the Social Democrats in that the SRs believed a revolution must rely on urban workers, not the peasantry.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1903, at the <a href="/wiki/2nd_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party</a>, in London, the party split into two wings: the gradualist <a href="/wiki/Mensheviks" title="Mensheviks">Mensheviks</a> and the more radical <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a>. The Mensheviks believed that the Russian working class was insufficiently developed and that socialism could be achieved only after a period of bourgeois democratic rule. They thus tended to ally themselves with the forces of bourgeois liberalism. The Bolsheviks, under <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, supported the idea of forming a small elite of professional revolutionists, subject to strong party discipline, to act as the vanguard of the proletariat, in order to seize power by force.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5.jpg/220px-%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5.jpg/330px-%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5.jpg/440px-%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5850" data-file-height="4512" /></a><figcaption>Russian soldiers in combat against Japanese <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mukden" title="Battle of Mukden">at Mukden</a> (inside China), during the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> (1904–1905)</figcaption></figure> <p>Defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> (1904–1905) was a major blow to the tsarist regime and further increased the potential for unrest. In January 1905, an incident known as "<a href="/wiki/Bloody_Sunday_(1905)" title="Bloody Sunday (1905)">Bloody Sunday</a>" occurred when Father <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Gapon" title="Georgy Gapon">Georgy Gapon</a> led an enormous crowd to the <a href="/wiki/Winter_Palace" title="Winter Palace">Winter Palace</a> in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a> to present a petition to the emperor. When the procession reached the palace, soldiers opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. The Russian masses were so furious over the massacre that a general strike was declared, which demanded a democratic republic. This marked the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Revolution_of_1905" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolution of 1905">Revolution of 1905</a>. <a href="/wiki/Soviet_(council)" title="Soviet (council)">Soviets</a> (councils of workers) appeared in most cities to direct revolutionary activity. Russia was paralyzed, and the government was desperate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAscher2004160–186_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAscher2004160–186-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In October 1905, Nicholas reluctantly issued the <a href="/wiki/October_Manifesto" title="October Manifesto">October Manifesto</a>, which conceded the creation of a national <a href="/wiki/State_Duma_(Russian_Empire)" title="State Duma (Russian Empire)">Duma</a> (legislature) to be called without delay. The right to vote was extended and no law was to become final without confirmation by the Duma. The moderate groups were satisfied, but the socialists rejected the concessions as insufficient and tried to organise new strikes. By the end of 1905, there was disunity among the reformers, and the emperor's position was strengthened, allowing him to roll back some of the concessions with the new <a href="/wiki/Russian_Constitution_of_1906" title="Russian Constitution of 1906">Russian Constitution of 1906</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War,_revolution,_and_collapse"><span id="War.2C_revolution.2C_and_collapse"></span>War, revolution, and collapse</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: War, revolution, and collapse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Russian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolution of the Russian Empire">Dissolution of the Russian Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Eastern Front (World War I)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_by_country" title="Eastern Orthodoxy by country">Eastern Orthodoxy by country</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Origins_of_causes">Origins of causes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Origins of causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_I" title="Causes of World War I">Causes of World War I</a></div> <p>Russia, along with <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">Britain</a>, was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Entente</a> in antecedent to <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>; these three powers were formed up in response to <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a>'s rival<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a>, comprising itself, <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a>. Previously, Saint Petersburg and Paris, along with London, were belligerents in the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>. The relations with Britain were in disquietude from the <a href="/wiki/Great_Game" title="Great Game">Great Game</a> in Central Asia until the 1907 <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention" title="Anglo-Russian Convention">Anglo-Russian Convention</a>, when both agreed to settle their differences and joined to oppose the new rising power of Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russia and France's relations remained isolated before the 1890s when both sides agreed to <a href="/wiki/Franco-Russian_Alliance" title="Franco-Russian Alliance">ally</a> when peace was threatened.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieven201582_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven201582-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> France also granted loans for building infrastructure, especially <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Russia" title="Rail transport in Russia">rail</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The relations between Russia and the Triple Alliance, especially Germany and Austria, were like those of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_the_Three_Emperors" title="League of the Three Emperors">League of the Three Emperors</a>. <a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Germany–Russia relations">Russia's relations with Germany</a> were deteriorating,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron1997132_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron1997132-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and tensions over the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_question" title="Eastern question">Eastern question</a> had reached a breaking point with <a href="/wiki/Austria%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Austria–Russia relations">Austria-Hungary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1908 <a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Crisis" title="Bosnian Crisis">Bosnian Crisis</a> had nearly led to war and in 1912–13 relations between Saint Petersburg and Vienna were tense during the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_Wars" title="Balkan Wars">Balkan Wars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieven2015241_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven2015241-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand" title="Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand">assassination</a> of the Austro-Hungarian heir, <a href="/wiki/Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand_of_Austria" title="Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria">Archduke Franz Ferdinand</a>, raised Europe's tensions, which led to the confrontation between Austria and Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieven20152_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven20152-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia" title="Kingdom of Serbia">Serbia</a> rejected an <a href="/wiki/July_Crisis" title="July Crisis">Austrian ultimatum</a> that demanded an obligation for the heir's death, and Austria-Hungary cut all diplomatic ties and declared war on 28 July 1914. Russia supported Serbia because it was a fellow Slavic state, and two days later, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Nicholas II</a> ordered a mobilization to attempt to force Austria-Hungary to back down.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcMeekin201188_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMeekin201188-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Declaration_of_War">Declaration of War</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Declaration of War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Russian entry into World War I">Russian entry into World War I</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicholas_II_declaring_war_on_Germany_from_the_balcony_of_the_Winter_Palace.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Nicholas_II_declaring_war_on_Germany_from_the_balcony_of_the_Winter_Palace.jpeg/220px-Nicholas_II_declaring_war_on_Germany_from_the_balcony_of_the_Winter_Palace.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Nicholas_II_declaring_war_on_Germany_from_the_balcony_of_the_Winter_Palace.jpeg/330px-Nicholas_II_declaring_war_on_Germany_from_the_balcony_of_the_Winter_Palace.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Nicholas_II_declaring_war_on_Germany_from_the_balcony_of_the_Winter_Palace.jpeg/440px-Nicholas_II_declaring_war_on_Germany_from_the_balcony_of_the_Winter_Palace.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="3310" data-file-height="2104" /></a><figcaption>The Russian Emperor Nicholas II declared war on <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a>, on the balcony of the <a href="/wiki/Winter_Palace" title="Winter Palace">Winter Palace</a>, on 2 August 1914.</figcaption></figure> <p>As a result of <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Vienna</a>'s declaration of war on Serbia, Nicholas II ordered the mobilization of 4.9 million men. <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a>, Austria-Hungary's ally, saw the call to arms as a threat; when Russia mustered its troops, Germany affirmed the state of "imminent danger of War",<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by the declaration of war on 1 August 1914.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieven2015338_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven2015338-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Russians were imbued with patriotic earnestness and <a href="/wiki/Anti-German_sentiment" title="Anti-German sentiment">Germanophobic sentiment</a>, including the name of the capital, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>, which sounded too <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> for the sake of words <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Sankt#German" class="extiw" title="wikt:Sankt">Sankt-</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Burg#German" class="extiw" title="wikt:Burg">-burg</a>; and was renamed Petrograd.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Russian entry into the First World War was followed by <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a>, which both had been allied with Russia since 1892, fearing the rise of Germany as the new power.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/German_General_Staff" title="German General Staff">German General Staff</a> had therefore devised the <a href="/wiki/Schlieffen_Plan" title="Schlieffen Plan">Schlieffen Plan</a>, which first eliminated France via nonaligned <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> before moving east to attack Russia, whose massive army was much slower to mobilise.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Theaters_of_operations">Theaters of operations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Theaters of operations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="German_front">German front</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: German front"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_East_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian invasion of East Prussia">Russian invasion of East Prussia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Retreat_(Russian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Retreat (Russian)">Great Retreat</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Bug_offensive" title="Vistula–Bug offensive">Vistula–Bug offensive</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_prisoners_tannenberg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Russian_prisoners_tannenberg.jpg/220px-Russian_prisoners_tannenberg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Russian_prisoners_tannenberg.jpg/330px-Russian_prisoners_tannenberg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Russian_prisoners_tannenberg.jpg/440px-Russian_prisoners_tannenberg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="474" /></a><figcaption>Russian POWs and equipments which were captured by Germany after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg" title="Battle of Tannenberg">Battle of Tannenberg</a>, a major disaster for Russia</figcaption></figure> <p>By August 1914, Russia had <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_East_Prussia_(1914)" title="Russian invasion of East Prussia (1914)">invaded</a> with unexpected speed the German province of <a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a>, ending with a humiliating defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg" title="Battle of Tannenberg">Tannenberg</a>, owing to a message sent without wiring and <a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">coding</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> causing the destruction of the entire <a href="/wiki/2nd_Army_(Russian_Empire)" title="2nd Army (Russian Empire)">second army</a>. Russia suffered a massive defeat at the Masurian Lakes twice, the <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Masurian_Lakes" title="First Battle of the Masurian Lakes">first</a> ending with a hundred thousand casualties;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker20141048_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker20141048-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Masurian_Lakes" title="Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes">second</a> suffering 200,000.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By October, the <a href="/wiki/9th_Army_(German_Empire)" title="9th Army (German Empire)">German Ninth Army</a> was near <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>, and the newly-formed <a href="/wiki/10th_Army_(Russian_Empire)" title="10th Army (Russian Empire)">Tenth Army</a> had retreated from the frontier in East Prussia. <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duke_Nicholas_Nikolaevich_of_Russia_(1856%E2%80%931929)" title="Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich of Russia (1856–1929)">Grand Duke Nicholas</a>, the Russian commander-in-chief, now had the order to invade <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Silesia" title="Province of Silesia">Silesia</a> with his <a href="/wiki/5th_Army_(Russian_Empire)" title="5th Army (Russian Empire)">Fifth</a>, <a href="/wiki/4th_Army_(Russian_Empire)" title="4th Army (Russian Empire)">Fourth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/9th_Army_(Russian_Empire)" title="9th Army (Russian Empire)">Ninth armies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker2019468_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2019468-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ninth Army, led by <a href="/wiki/August_von_Mackensen" title="August von Mackensen">Mackensen</a>, retreated from the frontline in <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)">Galicia</a> and concentrated between the cities of <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Posen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toru%C5%84" title="Toruń">Thorn</a>. The advance <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_(1914)" title="Battle of Łódź (1914)">took place</a> on 11 November against the main army's right flank and rear; the <a href="/wiki/1st_Army_(Russian_Empire)" title="1st Army (Russian Empire)">First</a> and Second armies were severely mauled, and the Second army was nearly surrounded in <a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA" title="Łódź">Łódź</a> on 17 November. </p><p>Exhausted Russian troops began to <a href="/wiki/Great_Retreat_(Russian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Retreat (Russian)">withdraw</a> from <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Russian-held Poland</a>, allowing the Germans to capture many cities, including the kingdom's capital <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> on 5 August 1915.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same month, the emperor dismissed Grand Duke Nicholas and took personal command;<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this was a turning point for the Russian army and the beginning of the worst disaster.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Germans continued <a href="/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Bug_offensive" title="Vistula–Bug offensive">pushing</a> the front until they were halted in the line from <a href="/wiki/Riga" title="Riga">Riga</a> to <a href="/wiki/Ternopil" title="Ternopil">Tarnopol</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russia lost the entire territory of Poland and Lithuania,<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> part of the <a href="/wiki/Courland_Governorate" title="Courland Governorate">Baltic states</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grodno_Governorate" title="Grodno Governorate">Grodno</a>, and partly of <a href="/wiki/Volhynian_Governorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Volhynian Governorate">Volhynia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Podolia_Governorate" title="Podolia Governorate">Podolia</a> in Ukraine; thereafter the front with Germany was stable until 1917. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Austrian_front">Austrian front</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Austrian front"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Galicia" title="Battle of Galicia">Battle of Galicia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gorlice%E2%80%93Tarn%C3%B3w_offensive" title="Gorlice–Tarnów offensive">Gorlice–Tarnów offensive</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brusilov_offensive" title="Brusilov offensive">Brusilov offensive</a></div> <p>Austria-Hungary went to war with Russia on 6 August. The Russians started to invade <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia_and_Lodomeria" title="Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria">Galicia</a>, held by Austrian <a href="/wiki/Cisleithania" title="Cisleithania">Cisleithania</a> on 20 August, and annihilated the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Army" title="Austro-Hungarian Army">Austro-Hungarian Army</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Galicia" title="Battle of Galicia">Lemberg</a>, leading to the occupation of <a href="/wiki/General_Government_of_Galicia_and_Bukovina" title="General Government of Galicia and Bukovina">Galicia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanborn201430_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanborn201430-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the <a href="/wiki/Przemy%C5%9Bl_Fortress" title="Przemyśl Fortress">fortress of Premissel</a> was <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Przemy%C5%9Bl" title="Siege of Przemyśl">besieged</a>, the first attempt to capture the fortress failed, but the second attempt seized the redoubt in March 1915.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanborn201466_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanborn201466-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 2 May, the Russian army was <a href="/wiki/Gorlice%E2%80%93Tarn%C3%B3w_offensive" title="Gorlice–Tarnów offensive">broken through</a> by joint Austro-German forces, retreating from the <a href="/wiki/Gorlice" title="Gorlice">Gorlice</a> to <a href="/wiki/Tarn%C3%B3w" title="Tarnów">Tarnów</a> line and losing <a href="/wiki/Przemy%C5%9Bl" title="Przemyśl">Premissel</a>. </p><p>On 4 June 1916, General <a href="/wiki/Aleksei_Brusilov" title="Aleksei Brusilov">Aleksei Brusilov</a> carried out an <a href="/wiki/Brusilov_offensive" title="Brusilov offensive">offensive</a> by targeting <a href="/wiki/Kovel" title="Kovel">Kovel</a>. His offensive was a great success, taking 76,000 prisoners from the main attack and 1,500 from the Austrian bridgehead. But the offensive was halted by inadequate ammunition and a lack of supplies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanborn2014125–126_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanborn2014125–126-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The eponymous offensive was the most successful allied strike of World War I,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker2014514_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2014514-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> practically destroying the Austro-Hungarian army as an independent force, but the slaughter of many casualties (approximately one million men) forced the Russian forces not to rebuild or launch any further attacks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Turkish_front">Turkish front</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Turkish front"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_campaign" title="Caucasus campaign">Caucasus campaign</a></div> <p>On 29 October 1914, a prelude to the Russo-Turkish front, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Navy" title="Ottoman Navy">Turkish fleet</a>, with German support, began to <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_raid" title="Black Sea raid">raid Russian coastal cities</a> in <a href="/wiki/Odesa" title="Odesa">Odessa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sevastopol" title="Sevastopol">Sevastopol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Novorossiysk" title="Novorossiysk">Novorossiysk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feodosia" title="Feodosia">Feodosia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerch" title="Kerch">Kerch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yalta" title="Yalta">Yalta</a> <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcMeekin2011111–112_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMeekin2011111–112-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led Russia to declare war on the Ottoman Empire on 2 November.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcMeekin2011114_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMeekin2011114-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout the war the Russian General Staff saw the Caucasus as a secondary theater and prioritized troops for other regions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994238_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994238-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Russians, led by Baltic German General <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Bergmann" title="Georgy Bergmann">Georgy Bergmann</a>, opened the front by <a href="/wiki/Bergmann_Offensive" title="Bergmann Offensive">crossing</a> the frontier but failed to capture <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCk%C3%B6y" title="Köprüköy">Köprüköy</a>. In December 1914, Russia obtained success at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sarikamish" title="Battle of Sarikamish">Sarikamish</a>, where the Russian General <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Yudenich" title="Nikolai Yudenich">Nikolai Yudenich</a> routed <a href="/wiki/Enver_Pasha" title="Enver Pasha">Enver Pasha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker2019524_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2019524-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yudenich <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Koprukoy" title="Battle of Koprukoy">captured Köprüköy</a> in January 1916 and <a href="/wiki/Erzurum_offensive" title="Erzurum offensive">captured Erzurum</a> about one month later in February.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994238_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994238-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Russian Navy's <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_Fleet" title="Black Sea Fleet">Black Sea Fleet</a> was on the defensive in 1914, but this changed in the spring of 1915, when the <a href="/wiki/Stavka_of_the_Supreme_Commander" title="Stavka of the Supreme Commander">high command</a> ordered the fleet to attack the Turkish coast to assist the <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign" title="Gallipoli campaign">Western Entente landings in Gallipoli</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994223–230_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994223–230-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Russian naval raids did make any difference for the Gallipoli campaign, but they were very successful in disrupting coal shipments to Constantinople from other parts of Anatolia. The coal shortage caused by Russian submarine and destroyer attacks threatened the Ottoman Empire's continued participation in the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994232–233_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994232–233-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Bulgaria entered the war and <a href="/wiki/Serbian_campaign" title="Serbian campaign">Serbia fell</a>, this shortage was partly made up for by overland coal shipments from Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994236–237_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994236–237-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1916 the fleet focused on assisting ground operations in the Caucasus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994238_127-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994238-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Problems_in_the_empire">Problems in the empire</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Problems in the empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tikhon_mitropolit_and_russian_soldiers_1917_in_Moskow_Krasnaja_square.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Tikhon_mitropolit_and_russian_soldiers_1917_in_Moskow_Krasnaja_square.jpg/220px-Tikhon_mitropolit_and_russian_soldiers_1917_in_Moskow_Krasnaja_square.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Tikhon_mitropolit_and_russian_soldiers_1917_in_Moskow_Krasnaja_square.jpg/330px-Tikhon_mitropolit_and_russian_soldiers_1917_in_Moskow_Krasnaja_square.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Tikhon_mitropolit_and_russian_soldiers_1917_in_Moskow_Krasnaja_square.jpg/440px-Tikhon_mitropolit_and_russian_soldiers_1917_in_Moskow_Krasnaja_square.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Patriarch_Tikhon_of_Moscow" title="Patriarch Tikhon of Moscow">Patriarch Tikhon of Moscow</a> in 1917</figcaption></figure> <p>By the middle of 1915, the impact of the war was demoralizing. Food and fuel were in short supply, casualties were increasing, and inflation was mounting. Strikes rose among low-paid factory workers, and there were reports that peasants, who wanted reforms of land ownership, were restless. The emperor eventually decided to take personal command of the army and moved to the front, leaving his wife, the Empress <a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Feodorovna_(Alix_of_Hesse)" title="Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse)">Alexandra</a>, in charge in the capital. She fell under the spell of a monk, <a href="/wiki/Grigori_Rasputin" title="Grigori Rasputin">Grigori Rasputin</a> (1869–1916). His assassination in late 1916 by a clique of nobles could not restore the emperor's lost prestige.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="End_of_imperial_rule">End of imperial rule</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: End of imperial rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a></div> <p>On 3 March 1917, <a href="/wiki/International_Women%27s_Day" title="International Women's Day">International Women's Day</a>, a strike was organized at a factory in the capital, followed by thousands of people took to the streets in Petrograd to protest food shortages. A day later, protesters rose to two hundred thousand, demanding that Russia withdraw from the war and the emperor be deposed. Eighty thousand Russian troops, half of the men sent to restore order, had gone on strike and refused the senior officers' orders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPipes201177–78_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes201177–78-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Any imperial symbols were destroyed and burned. The capital was out of control and gripped by protest and strife.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPipes201179_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes201179-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the city of <a href="/wiki/Pskov" title="Pskov">Pskov</a>, 262 km (163 mi) southwest from the capital, many generals and politicians advised the Emperor to abdicate in favor of the <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Nikolaevich,_Tsarevich_of_Russia" title="Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia">Tsarevich</a>; Nicholas <a href="/wiki/Abdication_of_Nicholas_II" title="Abdication of Nicholas II">accepted</a>, but he bequeathed the throne to <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duke_Michael_Alexandrovich_of_Russia" title="Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich of Russia">Grand Duke Michael</a> as his legitimate successor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPipes201190–91_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes201190–91-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Michael stated that he would only accept the throne if it would be offered by a <a href="/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly" title="Russian Constituent Assembly">constituent assembly</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDukes1998212_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDukes1998212-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The form of political organization that emerged has been described as "<a href="/wiki/Dual_power" title="Dual power">dual power</a>", with the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Russian Provisional Government</a> co-existing with the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_(council)" title="Soviet (council)">soviets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDukes1998212_136-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDukes1998212-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The constitutional framework of Russia remained in limbo until <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kerensky" title="Alexander Kerensky">Alexander Kerensky</a> finally confirmed Russia's status as <a href="/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">a republic</a> on 1 September.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDukes1998212_136-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDukes1998212-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 1918, following the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_the_Romanov_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Execution of the Romanov family">Romanov family was executed</a> by the Bolsheviks in <a href="/wiki/Yekaterinburg" title="Yekaterinburg">Yekaterinburg</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Territory">Territory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Territory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_Empire_Map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Russian_Empire_Map.jpg/220px-Russian_Empire_Map.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Russian_Empire_Map.jpg/330px-Russian_Empire_Map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Russian_Empire_Map.jpg/440px-Russian_Empire_Map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8397" data-file-height="6048" /></a><figcaption>Topographic map of the Russian Empire in 1912</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_Empire_1745_General_Map_(Latin,_HQ).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Russian_Empire_1745_General_Map_%28Latin%2C_HQ%29.jpg/220px-Russian_Empire_1745_General_Map_%28Latin%2C_HQ%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Russian_Empire_1745_General_Map_%28Latin%2C_HQ%29.jpg/330px-Russian_Empire_1745_General_Map_%28Latin%2C_HQ%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Russian_Empire_1745_General_Map_%28Latin%2C_HQ%29.jpg/440px-Russian_Empire_1745_General_Map_%28Latin%2C_HQ%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12944" data-file-height="7463" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Russian Empire in 1745</figcaption></figure> <p>By the end of the 19th century the area of the empire was about 22,400,000 square kilometers (8,600,000 sq mi), or almost one-sixth of the Earth's landmass; its only rival in size at the time was the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>. The majority of the population lived in European Russia. More than 100 different <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic groups</a> lived in the Russian Empire, with ethnic <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russians</a> composing about 45% of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geography">Geography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Russia" title="Geography of Russia">Geography of Russia</a></div> <p>The administrative boundaries of <a href="/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a>, apart from Finland and its portion of Poland, coincided approximately with the natural limits of the East-European plains. To the north was the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a>. <a href="/wiki/Novaya_Zemlya" title="Novaya Zemlya">Novaya Zemlya</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kolguyev_Island" title="Kolguyev Island">Kolguyev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vaygach_Island" title="Vaygach Island">Vaygach Islands</a> were considered part of European Russia, but the <a href="/wiki/Kara_Sea" title="Kara Sea">Kara Sea</a> was part of <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>. To the east were the Asiatic territories of the empire: Siberia and the <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_people" title="Kyrgyz people">Kyrgyz</a> steppes, from both of which it was separated by the <a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ural_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ural River">Ural River</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> — the administrative boundary, however, partly extended into Asia on the Siberian slope of the Urals. To the south, were the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, being separated from the latter by the <a href="/wiki/Manych_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Manych River">Manych River</a> depression, which in post-<a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a> times connected the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Azov" title="Sea of Azov">Sea of Azov</a> with the Caspian. The western boundary was purely arbitrary: it crossed the <a href="/wiki/Kola_Peninsula" title="Kola Peninsula">Kola Peninsula</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Varangerfjord" title="Varangerfjord">Varangerfjord</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Bothnia" title="Gulf of Bothnia">Gulf of Bothnia</a>. It then ran to the <a href="/wiki/Curonian_Lagoon" title="Curonian Lagoon">Curonian Lagoon</a> in the southern <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>, and then to the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>, taking a great circular sweep to the west to embrace east-central Poland, and separating Russia from <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia_and_Lodomeria" title="Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria">Austrian Galicia</a>, and Romania. </p><p>An important feature of Russia is its few free outlets to the open sea, outside the ice-bound shores of the Arctic Ocean. The deep indentations of the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Bothnia" title="Gulf of Bothnia">Gulfs of Bothnia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Finland" title="Gulf of Finland">Finland</a> were surrounded by what is <a href="/wiki/Finns" title="Finns">ethnically Finnish</a> territory, and it is only at the very head of the latter gulf that the Russians had taken firm foothold by erecting their capital at the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Neva" title="Neva">Neva</a> river. The <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Riga" title="Gulf of Riga">Gulf of Riga</a> and the Baltic belong also to territory that was not inhabited by Slavs, but by Baltic and <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Finnic_peoples" title="Baltic Finnic peoples">Finnic peoples</a>, and by <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a>. The east coast of the Black Sea belonged to <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasia">Transcaucasia</a>, a great chain of mountains separating it from Russia. But even this sheet of water is an inland sea, the only outlet of which, the <a href="/wiki/Bosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosphorus">Bosphorus</a>, was in foreign hands, while the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>, an immense shallow lake, mostly bordered by deserts, possessed more importance as a link between Russia and its Asiatic settlements than as a channel for intercourse with other countries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Territorial_development">Territorial development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Territorial development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 1860 to 1905, the Russian Empire occupied all territories of the present-day Russian Federation, with the exception of the present-day <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad_Oblast" title="Kaliningrad Oblast">Kaliningrad Oblast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kuril_Islands" title="Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuva" title="Tuva">Tuva</a>. In 1905 Russia lost <a href="/wiki/Karafuto_Prefecture" title="Karafuto Prefecture">southern Sakhalin</a> to <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a>, but gained Tuva as a protectorate in 1914. Prior to 1917 the Russian Empire included most of <a href="/wiki/Dnieper_Ukraine" title="Dnieper Ukraine">Dnieper Ukraine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bessarabia" title="Bessarabia">Bessarabia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland" title="Grand Duchy of Finland">Grand Duchy of Finland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, the Central Asian states of <a href="/wiki/Russian_Turkestan" title="Russian Turkestan">Russian Turkestan</a>, most of the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_governorates" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic governorates">Baltic governorates</a>, a significant part of <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>, and the former Ottoman provinces of <a href="/wiki/Ardahan_Province" title="Ardahan Province">Ardahan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artvin_Province" title="Artvin Province">Artvin</a>, <a href="/wiki/I%C4%9Fd%C4%B1r_Province" title="Iğdır Province">Iğdır</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kars_Province" title="Kars Province">Kars</a>, and the northeastern part of <a href="/wiki/Erzurum_Province" title="Erzurum Province">Erzurum Province</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a> noted that the methodological procedure how the Russian Empire started to expand their territory was in comparable to that of how the United States had done the same. Russian statesman <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Gorchakov" title="Alexander Gorchakov">Alexander Gorchakov</a> justified the Russian expansion in consonance of the <a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a> of the United States; thereafter, the Russian territorial expansion only encountered nomadic or feudal societies which is strikingly similar to the Westward Expansion of the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 1742 and 1867, the <a href="/wiki/Russian-American_Company" title="Russian-American Company">Russian-American Company</a> administered <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Colony" title="Colony">colony</a>. The company also established settlements in <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Kingdom" title="Hawaiian Kingdom">Hawaii</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Russian_Fort_Elizabeth" title="Russian Fort Elizabeth">Fort Elizabeth</a> (1817), and as far south in North America as <a href="/wiki/Fort_Ross,_California" title="Fort Ross, California">Fort Ross Colony</a> (established in 1812) in <a href="/wiki/Sonoma_County,_California" title="Sonoma County, California">Sonoma County, California</a> just north of <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>. Both Fort Ross and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_River_(California)" title="Russian River (California)">Russian River</a> in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> got their names from Russian settlers, who had staked claims in a region claimed until 1821 by the Spanish as part of <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a>. </p><p>Following the Swedish defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Finnish_War" title="Finnish War">Finnish War</a> of 1808–1809 and the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fredrikshamn" title="Treaty of Fredrikshamn">Treaty of Fredrikshamn</a> on 17 September 1809, the eastern half of Sweden, the area that then became Finland, was incorporated into the Russian Empire as an <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_division" title="Autonomous administrative division">autonomous</a> <a href="/wiki/Grand_duchy" title="Grand duchy">grand duchy</a>. The emperor eventually ended up ruling <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland" title="Grand Duchy of Finland">Finland</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">semi-constitutional monarch</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_Finland" title="Governor-General of Finland">Governor-General of Finland</a> and a native <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Finland" title="Senate of Finland">Senate</a> appointed by him. The emperor never explicitly recognized Finland as a constitutional state in its own right, although his Finnish subjects came to consider the grand duchy as such. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evropayskye_gubernii_Rossii_1910.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Evropayskye_gubernii_Rossii_1910.png/220px-Evropayskye_gubernii_Rossii_1910.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Evropayskye_gubernii_Rossii_1910.png/330px-Evropayskye_gubernii_Rossii_1910.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Evropayskye_gubernii_Rossii_1910.png/440px-Evropayskye_gubernii_Rossii_1910.png 2x" data-file-width="2042" data-file-height="2003" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/List_of_governorates_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="List of governorates of the Russian Empire">governorates</a> of the western Russian Empire in 1910</figcaption></figure> <p>In the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1806%E2%80%931812)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)">Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)</a>, and the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1812)" title="Treaty of Bucharest (1812)">Treaty of Bucharest (1812)</a>, the eastern parts of the <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Principality of Moldavia</a>, an Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Vassal_state" title="Vassal state">vassal state</a>, along with some areas formerly under direct Ottoman rule, came under the rule of the empire. This area (<a href="/wiki/Bessarabia" title="Bessarabia">Bessarabia</a>) was among the Russian Empire's last territorial acquisitions in Europe. At the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> (1815), Russia gained sovereignty over <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a>, which on paper was an autonomous kingdom in <a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">personal union</a> with Russia. However, this autonomy was eroded after the <a href="/wiki/November_Uprising" title="November Uprising">November Uprising</a> in 1831, and was finally abolished in 1867. </p><p>Saint Petersburg gradually extended and consolidated its control over the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> in the course of the 19th century, at the expense of <a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Persia</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1804%E2%80%9313)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Persian War (1804–13)">Russo-Persian War (1804–13)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1826%E2%80%9328)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Persian War (1826–28)">Russo-Persian War (1826–28)</a> and the respectively ensuing treaties of <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Gulistan" title="Treaty of Gulistan">Gulistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Turkmenchay" title="Treaty of Turkmenchay">Turkmenchay</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowling2014728–730_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowling2014728–730-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as through the <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_War" title="Caucasian War">Caucasian War</a> (1817–1864). </p><p>The Russian Empire expanded its influence and possessions in Central Asia, especially in the later 19th century, conquering much of <a href="/wiki/Russian_Turkestan" title="Russian Turkestan">Russian Turkestan</a> in 1865 and continuing to add territory as late as 1885. </p><p>Newly discovered Arctic islands became part of the Russian Empire: the <a href="/wiki/New_Siberian_Islands" title="New Siberian Islands">New Siberian Islands</a> from the early 18th century; <a href="/wiki/Severnaya_Zemlya" title="Severnaya Zemlya">Severnaya Zemlya</a> ("Emperor Nicholas II Land") first mapped and claimed as late as 1913. </p><p>During World War I, Russia briefly occupied a small part of <a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a>, then a part of Germany; a significant portion of Austrian Galicia; and significant portions of Ottoman Armenia. While the modern Russian Federation currently controls the <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad_Oblast" title="Kaliningrad Oblast">Kaliningrad Oblast</a>, which comprised the northern part of East Prussia, this differs from the area captured by the empire in 1914, though there was some overlap: <a href="/wiki/Gusev,_Kaliningrad_Oblast" title="Gusev, Kaliningrad Oblast">Gusev</a> (<i>Gumbinnen</i> in German) was the site of the initial <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gumbinnen" title="Battle of Gumbinnen">Russian victory</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imperial_territories">Imperial territories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Imperial territories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Russian_colonization_of_North_America" title="Russian colonization of North America">Russian colonization of North America</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_Russian_circumnavigation" title="First Russian circumnavigation">First Russian circumnavigation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_Sloop-of-War_Neva.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Russian_Sloop-of-War_Neva.jpg/220px-Russian_Sloop-of-War_Neva.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Russian_Sloop-of-War_Neva.jpg/330px-Russian_Sloop-of-War_Neva.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Russian_Sloop-of-War_Neva.jpg/440px-Russian_Sloop-of-War_Neva.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1374" /></a><figcaption>1814 artwork depicting the Russian warship <i><a href="/wiki/Neva_(1802_Russian_ship)" title="Neva (1802 Russian ship)">Neva</a></i> and the Russian settlement of St. Paul's Harbor (present-day <a href="/wiki/Kodiak,_Alaska" title="Kodiak, Alaska">Kodiak town</a>), <a href="/wiki/Kodiak_Island" title="Kodiak Island">Kodiak Island</a></figcaption></figure> <p>According to the 1st article of the <a href="/wiki/Organic_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic Law">Organic Law</a>, the Russian Empire was one indivisible state. In addition, the 26th article stated that "With the Imperial Russian throne are indivisible the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Principality of Finland". Relations with the Grand Principality of Finland were also regulated by the 2nd article, "The Grand Principality of Finland, constituted an indivisible part of the Russian state, in its internal affairs governed by special regulations at the base of special laws", and by the law of 10 June 1910. </p><p>Between 1744 and 1867, the empire also controlled <a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Russian America</a>. With the exception of this territory – modern-day <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> – the Russian Empire was a contiguous mass of land spanning Europe and Asia. In this it differed from contemporary colonial-style empires. The result of this was that, while the British and <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a> empires declined in the 20th century, a large portion of the Russian Empire's territory remained together, first within the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, and after 1991 in the smaller <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian Federation</a>. </p><p>Furthermore, the empire at times controlled concession territories, notably the <a href="/wiki/Kwantung_Leased_Territory" title="Kwantung Leased Territory">Kwantung Leased Territory</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Eastern_Railway" title="Chinese Eastern Railway">Chinese Eastern Railway</a>, both conceded by Qing China, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Russian_concession_of_Tianjin" title="Russian concession of Tianjin">Russian concession of Tianjin</a>. </p><p>In 1815, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Anton_Sch%C3%A4ffer" title="Georg Anton Schäffer">Georg Anton Schäffer</a>, a Russian entrepreneur, went to <a href="/wiki/Kauai" title="Kauai">Kauai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%A4ffer_affair" title="Schäffer affair">negotiated a treaty of protection</a> with the island's governor <a href="/wiki/Kaumualii" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaumualii">Kaumualii</a>, vassal of King <a href="/wiki/Kamehameha_I" title="Kamehameha I">Kamehameha I</a> of Hawaii, but the Russian emperor refused to ratify the treaty. See also <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Church_in_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthodox Church in Hawaii">Orthodox Church in Hawaii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Fort_Elizabeth" title="Russian Fort Elizabeth">Russian Fort Elizabeth</a>. </p><p>In 1889, a Russian adventurer, <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Ivanovitch_Achinov" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolay Ivanovitch Achinov">Nikolay Ivanovitch Achinov</a>, tried to establish a Russian colony in Africa, <a href="/wiki/Sagallo" title="Sagallo">Sagallo</a>, situated on the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Tadjoura" title="Gulf of Tadjoura">Gulf of Tadjoura</a> in present-day <a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a>. However this attempt angered the French, who dispatched two <a href="/wiki/Gunboat" title="Gunboat">gunboats</a> against the colony. After a brief resistance, the colony surrendered and the Russian settlers were deported to <a href="/wiki/Odessa" class="mw-redirect" title="Odessa">Odessa</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government_and_administration">Government and administration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Government and administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy" title="Tsarist autocracy">Tsarist autocracy</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Russia" title="Category:History of Russia">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">History of <span class="fn org label">Russia</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg/80px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg/120px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg/160px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="437" data-file-height="517" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Periods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia#Prehistory" title="History of Russia">Prehistory</a>  •  <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia#Antiquity" title="History of Russia">Antiquity</a>  •  <a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Early Slavs</a></span> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_people" title="Rus' people">Rus' people</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> pre-9th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_Khaganate" title="Rus' Khaganate">Rus' Khaganate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/Arthania" title="Arthania">Arthania</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/Gar%C3%B0ar%C3%ADki" title="Garðaríki">Garðaríki</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>879–1240: <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ancient Rus'</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Rurik" title="Rurik">Rurik</a> • <a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Rus%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptism of Rus'">Baptism of Rus'</a> • <i><a href="/wiki/Russkaya_Pravda" title="Russkaya Pravda">Russkaya Pravda</a></i><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul> </div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Land" title="Novgorod Land">Novgorod Land</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 882–1136</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Polotsk" title="Principality of Polotsk">Principality of Polotsk</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 987–1397</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Chernigov" title="Principality of Chernigov">Principality of Chernigov</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 988–1402</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rostov-Suzdal" class="mw-redirect" title="Rostov-Suzdal">Rostov-Suzdal</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1093–1157</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_tribes_and_states_in_Belarus,_Russia_and_Ukraine#Early_Middle_Ages_(c._500_–_1097)" title="List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine">full list...</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>1240–1480: <a href="/wiki/List_of_tribes_and_states_in_Belarus,_Russia_and_Ukraine#Council_of_Liubech_and_after_(1097–1237)" title="List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine">Feudal Rus'</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Liubech" title="Council of Liubech">Council of Liubech</a> • <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Uvetichi" title="Council of Uvetichi">Council of Uvetichi</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Mongol conquest</a> • <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kulikovo" title="Battle of Kulikovo">Battle of Kulikovo</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul> </div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1136–1478</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir-Suzdal</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1157–1331</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Principality of Moscow</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1263–1547</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_tribes_and_states_in_Belarus,_Russia_and_Ukraine#Council_of_Liubech_and_after_(1097–1237)" title="List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine">full list...</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>1480–1917: <a href="/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy" title="Tsarist autocracy">Tsarist Russia</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Great_Stand_on_the_Ugra_River" title="Great Stand on the Ugra River">Great Stand on the Ugra River</a> • <a href="/wiki/Time_of_Troubles" title="Time of Troubles">Time of<br />Troubles</a> • <a href="/wiki/Zemsky_Sobor" title="Zemsky Sobor">Zemsky Sobor</a> • <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nystad" title="Treaty of Nystad">Treaty of Nystad</a> • <a href="/wiki/Government_reform_of_Peter_the_Great" title="Government reform of Peter the Great">Petrovian reforms</a> • <a href="/wiki/1812_Patriotic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="1812 Patriotic War">1812 Patriotic War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Decembrist_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Decembrist Revolt">Decembrist Revolt</a> • <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation reform</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1905" title="Russian Revolution of 1905">1905 Revolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/October_Manifesto" title="October Manifesto">October Manifesto</a> • <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Second Patriotic War</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul> </div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1547–1721</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1721–1917</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Russian America</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1799–1867</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland" title="Grand Duchy of Finland">Grand Duchy of Finland</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1809–1917</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1867–1915</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Russian_Manchuria_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Manchuria (China)">Russian Manchuria</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1900–1905</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Uryankhay_Krai" title="Uryankhay Krai">Uryankhay Krai</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1914–1921</td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>1917–1923: <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Provisional Government</a> • <a href="/wiki/Dual_power" title="Dual power"><i>Dvoyevlastiye</i></a> • <a href="/wiki/July_Days" title="July Days">July Days</a> • <a href="/wiki/Kornilov_affair" title="Kornilov affair">Kornilov affair</a> • <a href="/wiki/Directorate_(Russia)" title="Directorate (Russia)">Directorate</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly" title="Russian Constituent Assembly">Constituent Assembly</a> (<a href="/wiki/1917_Russian_Constituent_Assembly_election" title="1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election">election</a>) • <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik_Coup" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik Coup">Bolshevik Coup</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Civil War</a> • <a href="/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White Guard</a> • <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> • <a href="/wiki/Soviet-Polish_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet-Polish War">Soviet-Polish War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Priamurye_Government" title="Provisional Priamurye Government">Priamurye<br />Govt.</a> • <a href="/wiki/War_Communism" class="mw-redirect" title="War Communism">War Communism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics">USSR</a> • <a href="/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9" title="White émigré">Emigrants</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul> </div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Russian Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1917–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/General_Secretariat_of_Ukraine" title="General Secretariat of Ukraine">General Secretariat of Ukraine</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1917–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR#Early_years_(1917–1920)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1917–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian SSR">Ukrainian SSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1919–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Byelorussian SSR">Byelorussian SSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1920–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasian SFSR">Transcaucasian SFSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1922–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_State_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Russian State (1918–1920)">Russian State</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1918–1920</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Priamurye_Government" title="Provisional Priamurye Government">Provisional Priamurye Govt.</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1921–1923</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <b><a href="/wiki/Leaders_of_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Leaders of the Russian Civil War">full list...</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>1923–1991: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">Soviet Era</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">NEP</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Revolution in the Soviet Union">Cultural revolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/Korenization" class="mw-redirect" title="Korenization">Korenization</a> • <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Collectivization" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivization">Collectivization</a> • <a href="/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Industrialization in the Soviet Union">Industrialization</a> • <a href="/wiki/GULAG" class="mw-redirect" title="GULAG">GULAG</a> • <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a> • <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(WWII)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Front (WWII)">Great Patriotic War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> • <a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a> • <a href="/wiki/1954_transfer_of_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="1954 transfer of Crimea">Crimea<br />transfer</a> • <a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a> • <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Afghan War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a> • <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> • <a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">Karabakh<br />War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Parade_of_sovereignties" title="Parade of sovereignties">Parade of sovereignties</a> (<a href="/wiki/War_of_Laws" title="War of Laws">War of Laws</a>)<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul> </div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1922–1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1922–1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Karelo-Finnish_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Karelo-Finnish SSR">Karelo-Finnish SSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1940–1956</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">         <b><a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">full list...</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tuvan_People%27s_Republic" title="Tuvan People's Republic">Tannu Tuva</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1921–1944</td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>since 1991: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1991%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Russia (1991–present)">Modern Russia</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/1991_August_Coup" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 August Coup">August Coup</a> • <a href="/wiki/Belavezha_Accords" class="mw-redirect" title="Belavezha Accords">Belavezha Accords</a> • <a href="/wiki/Alma-Ata_Protocol" title="Alma-Ata Protocol">Alma-Ata<br />Protocol</a> • <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">USSR dissolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">CIS</a> • "<a href="/wiki/Near_abroad" title="Near abroad">Near<br />abroad</a>" • <a href="/wiki/1993_Russian_constitutional_crisis" title="1993 Russian constitutional crisis">Constitutional crisis</a> • <a href="/wiki/Privatization_in_Russia" title="Privatization in Russia">Privatization</a> • <a href="/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization" title="Collective Security Treaty Organization">CSTO</a> • <a href="/wiki/Chechen%E2%80%93Russian_conflict#Post-Soviet_era" title="Chechen–Russian conflict">Chechen wars</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Chechen_War" title="First Chechen War">1st</a> • <a href="/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">2nd</a>) • <a href="/wiki/Loans_for_shares_scheme" title="Loans for shares scheme">Oligarchy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Putinism" title="Putinism">Putinism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russo-Georgian_War" title="Russo-Georgian War">Five-Days War</a> • <a href="/wiki/2008_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_Russia" title="2008 amendments to the Constitution of Russia">Presidential terms<br />amendments</a> • <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Union" title="Eurasian Economic Union">Eurasian Economic Union</a> • <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">Annexation of Crimea</a> • <a href="/wiki/War_in_Donbas" title="War in Donbas">War in Donbas</a> • <a href="/wiki/2020_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_Russia" title="2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia">2020 amendments</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Invasion of Ukraine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prelude_to_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Prelude to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">Prelude</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_emigration_following_the_invasion_of_Ukraine_(2022%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian emigration following the invasion of Ukraine (2022–present)">Mass emigration</a> • <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_debt_default" title="2022 Russian debt default">Debt default</a> • <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="International sanctions during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">Sanctions</a> • <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_mobilization" title="2022 Russian mobilization">Mobilization</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022 annexation</a>)<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul> </div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Federation">Russian Federation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1991–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Tatarstan" title="Tatarstan">Republic of Tatarstan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <a href="/wiki/Tatarstan#Present-day" title="Tatarstan">1994</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Chechnya" title="Chechnya">Chechen Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">2000</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <i><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Crimea_(Russia)" title="Republic of Crimea (Russia)">Republic of Crimea</a></i><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_alpha"><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a></sup></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">2014</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <i><a href="/wiki/Donetsk_People%27s_Republic" title="Donetsk People's Republic">Donetsk People's Republic</a></i><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_alpha"><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a></sup><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_beta"><a href="#endnote_beta">B</a></sup></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <i><a href="/wiki/Luhansk_People%27s_Republic" title="Luhansk People's Republic">Luhansk People's Republic</a></i><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_alpha"><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a></sup><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_beta"><a href="#endnote_beta">B</a></sup></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <i><a href="/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Kherson_Oblast" title="Russian occupation of Kherson Oblast">Kherson Oblast</a></i><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_alpha"><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a></sup><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_beta"><a href="#endnote_beta">B</a></sup></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <i><a href="/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Zaporizhzhia_Oblast" title="Russian occupation of Zaporizhzhia Oblast">Zaporizhzhia Oblast</a></i><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_alpha"><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a></sup><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_beta"><a href="#endnote_beta">B</a></sup></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022</a>–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">         <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_federal_subjects" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Russian federal subjects">full list...</a></b> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <span class="nowrap"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_alpha"><b><a href="#ref_alpha">^A</a></b> <i>Not internationally recognized.</i></span> </span><br /><span class="nowrap"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_beta"><b><a href="#ref_beta">^B</a></b> <i>Not fully controlled.</i></span> </span></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-top:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Timeline</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_history" title="Timeline of Russian history">860–1721</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1721%E2%80%931796)" title="History of Russia (1721–1796)">1721–1796</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1796%E2%80%931855)" title="History of Russia (1796–1855)">1796–1855</a><br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)" title="History of Russia (1855–1894)">1855–1894</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1894%E2%80%931917)" title="History of Russia (1894–1917)">1894–1917</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Soviet_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union_(1917%E2%80%931927)" title="History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)">1917–1927</a><br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1927%E2%80%931953)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)">1927–1953</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1953%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)">1953–1964</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1964%E2%80%931982)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)">1964–1982</a><br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1982%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)">1982–1991</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1991%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Russia (1991–present)">1991–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/16px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/24px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Russia" title="Portal:Russia">Russia portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Russia" title="Template:History of Russia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Russia" title="Template talk:History of Russia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Russia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Russia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>From its initial creation until the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1905" title="Russian Revolution of 1905">1905 Revolution</a>, the Russian Empire was led by the emperor (also referred to as <i>tsar</i>) who ruled as an absolute monarch. After the Revolution of 1905, Russia developed a new type of government, which became difficult to categorize. In the <a href="/wiki/Almanach_de_Gotha" title="Almanach de Gotha">Almanach de Gotha</a> for 1910, Russia was described as "a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a> under an <a href="/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy" title="Tsarist autocracy">autocratic Tsar</a>". This contradiction in terms demonstrated the difficulty of precisely defining the system, transitional and <i><a href="/wiki/Sui_generis" title="Sui generis">sui generis</a></i>, established in the Russian Empire after October 1905. Before this date, the fundamental laws of Russia described the power of the emperor as "autocratic and <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">unlimited</a>". After October 1905, while the imperial style was still "Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias", the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Constitution_of_1906" title="Russian Constitution of 1906">fundamental laws were changed</a> by removing the word <i>unlimited</i>. While the emperor retained many of his old prerogatives, including an absolute veto over all legislation, he equally agreed to the establishment of an elected parliament, without whose consent no laws were to be enacted in Russia. Not that the regime in Russia had become in any true sense constitutional, far less parliamentary. But the "unlimited autocracy" had given way to a "self-limited autocracy". Whether this autocracy was to be permanently limited by the new changes, or only at the continuing discretion of the autocrat, became a subject of heated <a href="/wiki/Coup_of_June_1907" title="Coup of June 1907">controversy</a> between conflicting parties in the state. Provisionally, then, the Russian governmental system may perhaps be best defined as "a <a href="/wiki/Limited_monarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Limited monarchy">limited monarchy</a> under an autocratic emperor". </p><p>Conservatism was the ideology of most of the Russian leadership, albeit with some reformist activities from time to time. The structure of conservative thought was based upon anti-rationalism of the intellectuals, religiosity rooted in the Russian Orthodox Church, traditionalism rooted in the landed estates worked by serfs, and militarism rooted in the army officer corps.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regarding irrationality, Russia avoided the full force of the European Enlightenment, which gave priority to rationalism, preferring the romanticism of an idealized nation state that reflected the beliefs, values, and behavior of the distinctive people.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distinctly liberal notion of "progress" was replaced by a conservative notion of modernization based on the incorporation of modern technology to serve the established system. The promise of modernization in the service of autocracy frightened the socialist intellectual <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Herzen" title="Alexander Herzen">Alexander Herzen</a>, who warned of a Russia governed by "<a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> with a telegraph".<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emperor">Emperor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Emperor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Russia" title="Emperor of Russia">Emperor of Russia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9_II.jpg/220px-%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9_II.jpg/330px-%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9_II.jpg/440px-%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1556" data-file-height="2222" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Nicholas II</a> was the last emperor of Russia, reigning from 1894 to 1917.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a> changed his title from <a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">tsar</a> to <a href="/wiki/Emperor" title="Emperor">emperor</a> in order to secure Russia's position in the European states system.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While later rulers did not discard the new title, the Russian monarch was commonly known as the tsar or tsaritsa until the imperial system was abolished during the <a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a> of 1917. Prior to the issuance of the October Manifesto, the emperor ruled as an absolute monarch, subject to only two limitations on his authority, both of which were intended to protect the existing system: the emperor and his consort must both belong to the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</a>, and he must obey the <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Laws" title="Pauline Laws">Pauline Laws</a> of succession established by <a href="/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia" title="Paul I of Russia">Paul I</a>. Beyond this, the power of the Russian autocrat was virtually limitless. </p><p>On 17 October 1905, the situation changed: the ruler voluntarily limited his legislative power by decreeing that no measure was to become law without the consent of the <a href="/wiki/State_Duma_(Russian_Empire)" title="State Duma (Russian Empire)">Imperial Duma</a>, a freely elected national assembly established by the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Constitution_of_1906" title="Russian Constitution of 1906">Organic Law</a> issued on 28 April 1906. However, he retained the right to disband the newly established Duma, and he exercised this right more than once. He also retained an absolute veto over all legislation, and only he could initiate any changes to the Organic Law itself. His ministers were responsible solely to him, and not to the Duma or any other authority, which could question but not remove them. Thus, while the emperor's personal powers were limited in scope after 28 April 1906, they remained formidable. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imperial_Council">Imperial Council</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Imperial Council"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/State_Council_(Russian_Empire)" title="State Council (Russian Empire)">State Council (Russian Empire)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sadovnikov_1258.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sadovnikov_1258.jpg/220px-Sadovnikov_1258.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sadovnikov_1258.jpg/330px-Sadovnikov_1258.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sadovnikov_1258.jpg/440px-Sadovnikov_1258.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1476" data-file-height="1123" /></a><figcaption>This painting from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1847</span> depicts the <a href="/wiki/General_Staff_Building_(Saint_Petersburg)" title="General Staff Building (Saint Petersburg)">General Staff Building</a> opposite the <a href="/wiki/Winter_Palace" title="Winter Palace">Winter Palace</a>, which was the headquarters of the Army General Staff. Today, it houses the headquarters of the Western Military District/Joint Strategic Command West.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catherine_Palace_%26_Cameron_Gallery_(Premazzi).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Catherine_Palace_%26_Cameron_Gallery_%28Premazzi%29.jpg/220px-Catherine_Palace_%26_Cameron_Gallery_%28Premazzi%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Catherine_Palace_%26_Cameron_Gallery_%28Premazzi%29.jpg/330px-Catherine_Palace_%26_Cameron_Gallery_%28Premazzi%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Catherine_Palace_%26_Cameron_Gallery_%28Premazzi%29.jpg/440px-Catherine_Palace_%26_Cameron_Gallery_%28Premazzi%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1476" data-file-height="1017" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Palace" title="Catherine Palace">Catherine Palace</a>, located at <a href="/wiki/Tsarskoe_Selo" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsarskoe Selo">Tsarskoe Selo</a>, was the summer residence of the imperial family. It is named after Empress <a href="/wiki/Catherine_I_of_Russia" title="Catherine I of Russia">Catherine I</a>, who reigned from 1725 to 1727 (watercolor painting from the 19th century).</figcaption></figure> <p>Under Russia's revised Fundamental Law of 20 February 1906, the State Council was associated with the Duma as a legislative <a href="/wiki/Upper_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper House">Upper House</a>; from this time the legislative power was exercised normally by the emperor only in concert with the two chambers.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Council of the Empire, or Imperial Council, as reconstituted for this purpose, consisted of 196 members, of whom 98 were nominated by the emperor, while 98 were elective. The ministers, also nominated, were <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_officio" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex officio">ex officio</a></i> members. Of the elected members, 3 were returned by the "black" clergy (the monks), 3 by the "white" clergy (secular), 18 by the corporations of nobles, 6 by the academy of sciences and the universities, 6 by the chambers of commerce, 6 by the industrial councils, 34 by local governmental <a href="/wiki/Zemstvo" title="Zemstvo">zemstvos</a>, 16 by local governments having no zemstvos, and 6 by Poland. As a legislative body the powers of the council were coordinate with those of the Duma; in practice, however, it has seldom if ever initiated legislation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_Duma">State Duma</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: State Duma"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/State_Duma_(Russian_Empire)" title="State Duma (Russian Empire)">State Duma (Russian Empire)</a></div> <p>The Duma of the Empire or Imperial Duma (<i>Gosudarstvennaya Duma</i>), which formed the <a href="/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">lower house</a> of the Russian parliament, consisted (since the <i><a href="/wiki/Ukaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukaz">ukaz</a></i> of 2 June 1907) of 442 members, elected by an exceedingly complicated process. The membership was manipulated as to secure an overwhelming majority of the wealthy (especially the landed classes) and also for the representatives of the Russian peoples at the expense of the subject nations. Each province of the empire, except Central Asia, returned a certain number of members; added to which were those returned by several large cities. The members of the Duma were chosen by electoral colleges and these, in their turn, were elected by assemblies of the three classes: landed proprietors, citizens, and peasants. In these assemblies the wealthiest proprietors sat in person while the lesser proprietors were represented by delegates. The urban population was divided into two categories according to taxable wealth and elected delegates directly to the college of the <a href="/wiki/Guberniya" class="mw-redirect" title="Guberniya">governorates</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Peasants" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasants">peasants</a> were represented by delegates selected by the regional subdivisions called <a href="/wiki/Volost" title="Volost">volosts</a>. Workmen were treated in a special manner, with every industrial concern employing fifty hands electing one or more delegates to the electoral college. </p><p>In the college itself, the voting for the Duma was by secret ballot and a simple majority carried the day. Since the majority consisted of conservative elements (the <a href="/wiki/Landowner" class="mw-redirect" title="Landowner">landowners</a> and urban delegates), the progressives had little chance of representation at all, save for the curious provision that one member at least in each government was to be chosen from each of the five classes represented in the college. That the Duma had any radical elements was mainly due to the peculiar franchise enjoyed by the seven largest towns — <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odessa" class="mw-redirect" title="Odessa">Odessa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Riga" title="Riga">Riga</a>, and the Polish cities of <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA" title="Łódź">Łódź</a>. These elected their delegates to the Duma directly, and though their votes were divided (on the basis of taxable property) in such a way as to give the advantage to wealth, each returned the same number of delegates. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Council_of_Ministers">Council of Ministers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Council of Ministers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Council of Ministers of the Russian Empire">Council of Ministers of the Russian Empire</a></div> <p>In 1905, a Council of Ministers (<i>Sovyet Ministrov</i>) was created, under a <i>minister president</i>, the first appearance of a prime minister in Russia. This council consisted of all the ministers and of the heads of other principal departments. The ministries were as follows: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Imperial_Court" title="Ministry of the Imperial Court">Ministry of the Imperial Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire">Ministry of Foreign Affairs</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_War_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Ministry of War of the Russian Empire">Ministry of War</a>;</li> <li>Ministry of the Navy;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Ministry of Finance of the Russian Empire">Ministry of Finance</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Commerce_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Ministry of Commerce of the Russian Empire">Ministry of Commerce and Industry</a> (created in 1905);</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Empire">Ministry of Internal Affairs</a> (including police, health, censorship and press, posts and telegraphs, foreign religions, statistics);</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_(Russia)" title="Ministry of Agriculture (Russia)">Ministry of Agriculture and State Assets</a>;</li> <li>Ministry of Ways of Communications;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Ministry of Justice of the Russian Empire">Ministry of Justice</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Education_(Russian_Empire)" title="Ministry of National Education (Russian Empire)">Ministry of National Education</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Most_Holy_Synod">Most Holy Synod</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Most Holy Synod"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Most_Holy_Synod" title="Most Holy Synod">Most Holy Synod</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B4,_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B4%2C_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3.jpg/220px-%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B4%2C_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B4%2C_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3.jpg/330px-%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B4%2C_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B4%2C_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3.jpg/440px-%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B4%2C_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>The Senate and Synod headquarters – today the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation on <a href="/wiki/Senate_Square_(Saint_Petersburg)" title="Senate Square (Saint Petersburg)">Senate Square</a> in Saint Petersburg</figcaption></figure> <p>The Most Holy Synod (established in 1721) was the supreme organ of government of the Orthodox Church in Russia. It was presided over by a lay <a href="/wiki/Procurator_(Russia)" title="Procurator (Russia)">Procurator</a>, representing the emperor, and consisted of the three metropolitans of Moscow, Saint Petersburg, and Kiev, the Archbishop of <a href="/wiki/Georgian_Orthodox_Church" title="Georgian Orthodox Church">Georgia</a>, and a number of bishops sitting in rotation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Senate">Senate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Senate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Governing_Senate" title="Governing Senate">Governing Senate</a></div> <p>The Senate (<i>Pravitelstvuyushchi Senat</i>, i.e. directing or governing senate), originally established during the <a href="/wiki/Government_reform_of_Peter_the_Great" title="Government reform of Peter the Great">Government reform of Peter the Great</a>, consisted of members nominated by the emperor. Its wide variety of functions were carried out by the different departments into which it was divided. It was the supreme <a href="/wiki/Court_of_cassation" title="Court of cassation">court of cassation</a>; an audit office; a high court of justice for all political offences; and one of its departments fulfilled the functions of a heralds' college. It also had supreme jurisdiction in all disputes arising out of the administration of the empire, notably in differences between representatives of the central power and the elected organs of local self-government. Lastly, it promulgated new laws, a function which theoretically gave it a power akin to that of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a>, of rejecting measures not in accordance with fundamental laws. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_divisions">Administrative divisions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Administrative divisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_administrative_division_of_Russia" title="History of the administrative division of Russia">History of the administrative division of Russia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Subdivisions_of_the_Russian_Empire_in_1914.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Subdivisions_of_the_Russian_Empire_in_1914.svg/220px-Subdivisions_of_the_Russian_Empire_in_1914.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Subdivisions_of_the_Russian_Empire_in_1914.svg/330px-Subdivisions_of_the_Russian_Empire_in_1914.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Subdivisions_of_the_Russian_Empire_in_1914.svg/440px-Subdivisions_of_the_Russian_Empire_in_1914.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="581" data-file-height="343" /></a><figcaption>Map showing subdivisions of the Russian Empire in 1914</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tverskaya13_Moscow_06-2015.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tverskaya13_Moscow_06-2015.jpg/220px-Tverskaya13_Moscow_06-2015.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tverskaya13_Moscow_06-2015.jpg/330px-Tverskaya13_Moscow_06-2015.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tverskaya13_Moscow_06-2015.jpg/440px-Tverskaya13_Moscow_06-2015.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3417" data-file-height="2734" /></a><figcaption>Residence of the governor of Moscow (1778–82) as seen in 2015</figcaption></figure> <p>As of 1914, Russia was divided into 81 governorates (<i><a href="/wiki/Guberniya" class="mw-redirect" title="Guberniya">guberniyas</a></i>), 20 <i><a href="/wiki/Oblast" title="Oblast">oblasts</a></i>, and 1 <i><a href="/wiki/Okrug" title="Okrug">okrug</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Vassals" class="mw-redirect" title="Vassals">Vassals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protectorates" class="mw-redirect" title="Protectorates">protectorates</a> of the Russian Empire included the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Bukhara" title="Emirate of Bukhara">Emirate of Bukhara</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Khiva" title="Khanate of Khiva">Khanate of Khiva</a>, and, after 1914, <a href="/wiki/Tuva" title="Tuva">Tuva</a> (Uriankhai). Of these, 11 Governorates, 17 oblasts, and 1 okrug (<a href="/wiki/Sakhalin" title="Sakhalin">Sakhalin</a>) belonged to Asian Russia. Of the rest, 8 Governorates were in Finland and 10 in Congress Poland. European Russia thus embraced 59 governorates and 1 oblast (that of the Don). The Don Oblast was under the direct jurisdiction of the ministry of war; the rest each had a governor and deputy-governor, the latter presiding over the administrative council. In addition, there were governors-general, generally placed over several governorates and armed with more extensive powers, usually including the command of the troops within the limits of their jurisdiction. In 1906, there were governors-general in Finland, Warsaw, <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilna</a>, Kiev, Moscow, and Riga. The larger cities (Saint Petersburg, Moscow, <a href="/wiki/Odessa" class="mw-redirect" title="Odessa">Odessa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sevastopol" title="Sevastopol">Sevastopol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerch" title="Kerch">Kerch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mykolaiv" title="Mykolaiv">Nikolayev</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rostov-on-Don" title="Rostov-on-Don">Rostov</a>) had administrative systems of their own, independent of the governorates; in these the <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_police" title="Chief of police">chief of police</a> acted as governor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Judicial_system">Judicial system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Judicial system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Judicial_system_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Judicial system of the Russian Empire">Judicial system of the Russian Empire</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judicial system</a> of the Russian Empire was established by the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_reform_of_Alexander_II" title="Judicial reform of Alexander II">statute of 20 November 1864</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II</a>. This system – based partly on <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Law_of_France" title="Law of France">French</a> law – was predicated on the separation of judicial and administrative functions, the independence of the judges and courts, public trials and oral procedure, and the equality of all classes before the law. Moreover, a democratic element was introduced by the adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Jury_trial" title="Jury trial">jury system</a> and the election of judges. This system was disliked by the <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a>, due to its putting the administration of justice outside of the executive sphere. During the latter years of Alexander II and the reign of Alexander III, power that had been given was gradually taken back, and that take back was fully reversed by the third Duma after the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1905" title="Russian Revolution of 1905">1905 Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>k<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The system established by the law of 1864 had two wholly separate <a href="/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">tribunals</a>, each having their own <a href="/wiki/Court_of_appeal" class="mw-redirect" title="Court of appeal">courts of appeal</a> and coming in contact with each other only in the Senate, which acted as the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_court" title="Supreme court">supreme court</a> of cassation. The first tribunal, based on the English model, were the courts of the elected <a href="/wiki/Justices_of_the_peace_(Russia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Justices of the peace (Russia)">justices of the peace</a>, with jurisdiction over petty causes, whether civil or criminal; the second, based on the French model, were the ordinary tribunals of nominated judges, sitting with or without a jury to hear important cases. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Local_administration">Local administration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Local administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Alongside the local organs of the central government in Russia there are three classes of local elected bodies charged with administrative functions: </p> <ul><li>the peasant assemblies in the <i><a href="/wiki/Mir_(social)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mir (social)">mirs</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Volost" title="Volost">volosts</a></i>;</li> <li>the <i><a href="/wiki/Zemstvo" title="Zemstvo">zemstvos</a></i> in the 34 governorates of Russia;</li> <li>the <i><a href="/wiki/Duma#Municipal_dumas" title="Duma">municipal dumas</a></i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Municipal_dumas">Municipal dumas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Municipal dumas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_city_duma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Old_city_duma.jpg/220px-Old_city_duma.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Old_city_duma.jpg/330px-Old_city_duma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Old_city_duma.jpg/440px-Old_city_duma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1233" data-file-height="797" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Moscow_City_Duma" title="Moscow City Duma">Moscow City Duma</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1900</span> (colorized photograph)</figcaption></figure> <p>Since 1870, the municipalities in European Russia had institutions like those of the <a href="/wiki/Zemstvo" title="Zemstvo">zemstvos</a>. All owners of houses, tax-paying merchants, artisans, and workmen were enrolled on lists, in descending order according to their assessed wealth. The total valuation was then divided into three equal parts, representing three groups of electors very unequal in number, each of which would elect an equal number of delegates to the municipal duma. The executive was in the hands of an elected mayor and an <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/uprava" class="extiw" title="wikt:uprava">uprava</a></i>, which consisted of several members elected by the municipal duma. Under <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia" title="Alexander III of Russia">Alexander III</a>, however, <a href="/wiki/Bylaw" class="mw-redirect" title="Bylaw">bylaws</a> promulgated in 1892 and 1894, the municipal dumas were subordinated to the governors in the same way as the zemstvos. In 1894, municipal institutions, with still more restricted powers, were granted to several towns in Siberia, and in 1895 to some in the Caucasus. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baltic_provinces">Baltic provinces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Baltic provinces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Baltic_governorates" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic governorates">Baltic governorates</a></div> <p>The formerly Swedish-controlled Baltic provinces of <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Livonia" title="Swedish Livonia">Livonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Estonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Swedish Estonia">Estonia</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Courland" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Courland">Duchy of Courland</a>, a vassal of <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, were incorporated into the Russian Empire after the defeat of Sweden in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</a>. Under the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nystad" title="Treaty of Nystad">Treaty of Nystad</a> of 1721, the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic German">Baltic German</a> nobility retained considerable powers of self-government and numerous privileges in matters affecting education, police, and the local administration of justice. After 167 years of German language administration and education, in 1888 and 1889 laws were passed transferring administration of the police and <a href="/wiki/Manorial" class="mw-redirect" title="Manorial">manorial</a> justice from Baltic German control to officials of the central government. About the same time, a process of <a href="/wiki/Russification" title="Russification">Russification</a> was being carried out in the same provinces, in all departments of administration, in the higher schools, and in the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_University_of_Dorpat" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial University of Dorpat">Imperial University of Dorpat</a>, the name of which was altered to <a href="/wiki/Tartu" title="Tartu">Yuriev</a>. In 1893, district committees for the management of the peasants' affairs, similar to those in purely Russian governments, were introduced into this part of the empire. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Economy of the Russian Empire">Economy of the Russian Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA,_%D0%A1%D0%9F%D0%B1,_~1905.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%2C_%D0%A1%D0%9F%D0%B1%2C_~1905.jpg/220px-%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%2C_%D0%A1%D0%9F%D0%B1%2C_~1905.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%2C_%D0%A1%D0%9F%D0%B1%2C_~1905.jpg/330px-%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%2C_%D0%A1%D0%9F%D0%B1%2C_~1905.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%2C_%D0%A1%D0%9F%D0%B1%2C_~1905.jpg/440px-%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%2C_%D0%A1%D0%9F%D0%B1%2C_~1905.jpg 2x" data-file-width="849" data-file-height="635" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/State_Bank_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="State Bank of the Russian Empire">State Bank of the Russian Empire</a> was founded in 1860 as a central bank structure (headquarters in Saint Petersburg, photographed in 1905).</figcaption></figure> <p>Before the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">liberation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">serfs</a> in 1861, Russia's economy mainly depended on agriculture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman20023_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman20023-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire_census" title="Russian Empire census">census</a> of 1897, 95% of the Russian population lived in the countryside.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman20025_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman20025-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I</a> attempted to modernise his country, and have it not been so dependent on a single economic sector.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman200249_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman200249-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia" title="Alexander III of Russia">Alexander III</a>, many reforms occurred. The <a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_Land_Bank" title="Peasants' Land Bank">Peasants' Land Bank</a> was founded in 1883 to provide loans for Russian peasants, both as individuals and in communes. The <a href="/wiki/Nobles%27_Land_Bank" title="Nobles' Land Bank">Nobles' Land Bank</a>, in 1885, made loans at nominal interest rates to the landed nobility. The <a href="/wiki/Poll_tax" title="Poll tax">poll tax</a> was abolished in 1886.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2002129_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman2002129-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Vyshnegradsky" title="Ivan Vyshnegradsky">Ivan Vyshnegradsky</a> was appointed as the new minister of finance in 1886, he increased the pressure on peasants by increasing taxes on land and prescribing how they harvested grain. These policies led to the severe <a href="/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1891%E2%80%931892" title="Russian famine of 1891–1892">Russian famine of 1891–1892</a> that lasted from 1891 to 1892, with four hundred thousand perishing from starvation. Vyshnegradsky was succeeded by Count <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Witte" title="Sergei Witte">Sergei Witte</a> in 1892. Witte began by raising revenues through a monopoly on alcohol, which brought in 300 million rubles 1894. These reforms returned the peasants to essentially being serfs again.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2002130_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman2002130-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1900, a wealthy peasant class (<a href="/wiki/Kulaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Kulaks">kulaks</a>) had emerged, representing less than 20% of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2002131_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman2002131-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An <a href="/wiki/Income_tax" title="Income tax">income tax</a> was introduced in 1916. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Agriculture in the Russian Empire">Agriculture in the Russian Empire</a></div> <p>Russia had a longstanding economic bargain on fundamental <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Agriculture in the Russian Empire">agriculture</a> on large <a href="/wiki/Estate_(land)" title="Estate (land)">estates</a> worked by Russian <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a> (also known as <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">serfs</a>), who did not get any rights from slave masters under the system of "<a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">barshchina</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>l<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another system was called <i>obrok</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>m<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which serfs worked in exchange for cash or goods from the master, allowing them to work outside the estate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman20024_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman20024-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These systems were based on a legal code called the <a href="/wiki/Sobornoye_Ulozheniye" title="Sobornoye Ulozheniye">Sobornoye Ulozheniye</a>, which was introduced by <a href="/wiki/Alexis_of_Russia" title="Alexis of Russia">Alexis I</a> in 1649. </p><p>From 1891 to 1892, peasants were faced with new policies carried out by Ivan Vyshnegradsky, causing a famine and disease that took the lives of four hundred thousand people,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron199727_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199727-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> especially in the <a href="/wiki/Volga_region" title="Volga region">Volga region</a>, eliciting the greatest decline in grain production.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron199755–56_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199755–56-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mining_and_heavy_industry">Mining and heavy industry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Mining and heavy industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Industrialization in the Russian Empire">Industrialization in the Russian Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:100_roubles_%C3%A9dit%C3%A9s_durant_le_r%C3%A9gime_tzariste,_1910.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/100_roubles_%C3%A9dit%C3%A9s_durant_le_r%C3%A9gime_tzariste%2C_1910.jpg/220px-100_roubles_%C3%A9dit%C3%A9s_durant_le_r%C3%A9gime_tzariste%2C_1910.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/100_roubles_%C3%A9dit%C3%A9s_durant_le_r%C3%A9gime_tzariste%2C_1910.jpg/330px-100_roubles_%C3%A9dit%C3%A9s_durant_le_r%C3%A9gime_tzariste%2C_1910.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/100_roubles_%C3%A9dit%C3%A9s_durant_le_r%C3%A9gime_tzariste%2C_1910.jpg/440px-100_roubles_%C3%A9dit%C3%A9s_durant_le_r%C3%A9gime_tzariste%2C_1910.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="569" /></a><figcaption>100 ruble banknote (1910)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_and_US_equities_1865_to_1917.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Russian_and_US_equities_1865_to_1917.jpg/220px-Russian_and_US_equities_1865_to_1917.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Russian_and_US_equities_1865_to_1917.jpg/330px-Russian_and_US_equities_1865_to_1917.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Russian_and_US_equities_1865_to_1917.jpg/440px-Russian_and_US_equities_1865_to_1917.jpg 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>Russian and US equities, 1865 to 1917</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:200px; height:200px;"> <caption>Output in 1912 of mining and heavy industries of the Russian Empire, as a percentage of national output, by region. </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Ural Region </th> <th>Southern Region </th> <th>Caucasus </th> <th>Siberia </th> <th>Kingdom of Poland </th></tr> <tr> <th>Gold </th> <td>21% </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>88.2% </td></tr> <tr> <th>Platinum </th> <td>100% </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <th>Silver </th> <td>36% </td> <td>– </td> <td>24.3% </td> <td>29.3% </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <th>Lead </th> <td>5.8% </td> <td>– </td> <td>92% </td> <td>– </td> <td>0.9% </td></tr> <tr> <th>Zinc </th> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>25.2% </td> <td>– </td> <td>74.8% </td></tr> <tr> <th>Copper </th> <td>54.9% </td> <td>– </td> <td>30.2% </td> <td>14.9% </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <th>Pig Iron </th> <td>19.4% </td> <td>67.7% </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>9.3% </td></tr> <tr> <th>Iron and Steel </th> <td>17.3% </td> <td>36.2% </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>10.8% </td></tr> <tr> <th>Manganese </th> <td>0.3% </td> <td>29.2% </td> <td>70.3% </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <th>Coal </th> <td>3.4% </td> <td>67.3% </td> <td>– </td> <td>5.8% </td> <td>22.3% </td></tr> <tr> <th>Petroleum </th> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>96% </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Infrastructure">Infrastructure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Infrastructure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rail">Rail</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Rail"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tzarskoselskaya_Railway_-_Watercolour.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Tzarskoselskaya_Railway_-_Watercolour.jpg/220px-Tzarskoselskaya_Railway_-_Watercolour.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Tzarskoselskaya_Railway_-_Watercolour.jpg/330px-Tzarskoselskaya_Railway_-_Watercolour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Tzarskoselskaya_Railway_-_Watercolour.jpg/440px-Tzarskoselskaya_Railway_-_Watercolour.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1250" /></a><figcaption>Watercolor-tinted lithgraph, from the 1840s, depicting the arrival of the first <a href="/wiki/Tsarskoye_Selo_Railway" title="Tsarskoye Selo Railway">Tsarskoye Selo Railway</a> train at <a href="/wiki/Tsarskoye_Selo" title="Tsarskoye Selo">Tsarskoye Selo</a> from St. Petersburg on 30 October 1837</figcaption></figure> <p>After 1860, the expansion of Russian rail had far-reaching effects on the economy, culture, and ordinary life of Russia. The central authorities and the imperial elite made most of the key decisions, but local elites made demands for rail linkages. Local nobles, merchants, and entrepreneurs imagined a future of promoting their regional interests, from "locality" to "empire". Often, they had to compete with other cities. By envisioning their own role in a rail network they came to understand how important they were to the empire's economy.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1880s, the Russian army built two major rail lines in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasus_Railway" title="Transcaucasus Railway">Transcaucasus Railway</a> connected the city of <a href="/wiki/Batum" class="mw-redirect" title="Batum">Batum</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> and the oil center of <a href="/wiki/Baku" title="Baku">Baku</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Trans-Caspian_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-Caspian Railway">Trans-Caspian Railway</a> began at <a href="/wiki/Krasnovodsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Krasnovodsk">Krasnovodsk</a> on the Caspian Sea and reached <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tashkent" title="Tashkent">Tashkent</a>. Both lines served the commercial and strategic needs of the empire and facilitated migration.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Russia" title="Christianity in Russia">Christianity in Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Russia" title="Islam in Russia">Islam in Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Russia" title="Catholic Church in Russia">Catholic Church in Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Buddhism in Russia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">History of the Jews in Russia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Entry_Processin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Entry_Processin.jpg/220px-Entry_Processin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Entry_Processin.jpg/330px-Entry_Processin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Entry_Processin.jpg/440px-Entry_Processin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1157" /></a><figcaption>Contemporary painting of the procession of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II</a> into <a href="/wiki/Dormition_Cathedral,_Moscow" title="Dormition Cathedral, Moscow">Dormition Cathedral</a> in Moscow during his <a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_the_Russian_monarch" title="Coronation of the Russian monarch">coronation</a> in 1856</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Subdivisions_of_the_Russian_Empire_by_largest_ethnolinguistic_group_(1897).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Subdivisions_of_the_Russian_Empire_by_largest_ethnolinguistic_group_%281897%29.svg/220px-Subdivisions_of_the_Russian_Empire_by_largest_ethnolinguistic_group_%281897%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Subdivisions_of_the_Russian_Empire_by_largest_ethnolinguistic_group_%281897%29.svg/330px-Subdivisions_of_the_Russian_Empire_by_largest_ethnolinguistic_group_%281897%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Subdivisions_of_the_Russian_Empire_by_largest_ethnolinguistic_group_%281897%29.svg/440px-Subdivisions_of_the_Russian_Empire_by_largest_ethnolinguistic_group_%281897%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="4648" data-file-height="2744" /></a><figcaption>Map of subdivisions of the Russian Empire by largest ethnolinguistic group (1897)</figcaption></figure> <p>The Russian Empire's <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a> was <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox Christianity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emperor was not allowed to "profess any faith other than the Orthodox" (Article 62 of the 1906 <a href="/wiki/Russian_Constitution_of_1906" title="Russian Constitution of 1906">Fundamental Laws</a>) and was deemed "the Supreme Defender and Guardian of the dogmas of the predominant Faith and is the Keeper of the purity of the Faith and all good order within the Holy Church" (Article 64 <i>ex supra</i>). Although he made and annulled all senior ecclesiastical appointments, he did not settle questions of dogma or church teaching. The principal ecclesiastical authority of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Church</a>—which extended its jurisdiction over the entire territory of the empire, including the ex-<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli-Kakheti" title="Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti">Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti</a>—was the <a href="/wiki/Most_Holy_Synod" title="Most Holy Synod">Most Holy Synod</a>, the civilian Over <a href="/wiki/Procurator_(Russia)" title="Procurator (Russia)">Procurator</a> of the Holy Synod being one of the council of ministers with wide <i>de facto</i> powers in ecclesiastical matters. </p><p>The ecclesiastical heads of the national Russian Orthodox Church consisted of three <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" title="Metropolitan bishop">metropolitans</a> (Saint Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev), fourteen <a href="/wiki/Archbishop" title="Archbishop">archbishops</a> and fifty bishops, all drawn from the ranks of the monastic (celibate) clergy. The <a href="/wiki/Parochialism" title="Parochialism">parochial</a> clergy had to be married when appointed, but if left widowers were not allowed to marry again; this rule continues to apply today. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_policy">Religious policy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Religious policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All non-Orthodox religions were formally forbidden from <a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">proselytizing</a> within the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a policy influenced by Catherine II but solidified in the 19th century, Tsarist Russia exhibited increasing "<a href="/wiki/Confessionalization" title="Confessionalization">confessionalization</a>", pursuing top-down reorganization of the empire's faiths,<sup id="cite_ref-:6_161-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Confessional_state" title="Confessional state">confessional state</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-:7_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tsarist administration sought to arrange "orthodoxies" within <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Russia" title="Islam in Russia">Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Buddhism</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_Russia" title="Protestantism in Russia">Protestant</a> faiths, which was performed by creating spiritual assemblies (in the case of Islam, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Judaism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a>), banning and declaring <a href="/wiki/Diocese" title="Diocese">bishoprics</a> (in the case of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a>), and arbitrating doctrinal disputes.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_161-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the state lacked resources to provide a secular bureaucracy across its entire territory, guided 'reformation' of faiths provided elements of social control.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_161-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:7_162-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anti-semitism">Anti-semitism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Anti-semitism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Antisemitism in the Russian Empire">Antisemitism in the Russian Empire</a></div> <p>After Catherine II annexed eastern Poland in the <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Polish Partitions</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there were restrictions placed against Jews known as the <a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement" title="Pale of Settlement">Pale of Settlement</a>, an area of Tsarist Russia inside which Jews were authorized to settle, and outside of which were deprived of various rights such as freedom of movement or commerce.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Particularly repressive was <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Emperor Nicholas I</a>, who sought the forced assimilation of Jews,<sup id="cite_ref-:8_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from 1827 conscripted Jewish children as <a href="/wiki/Cantonist" title="Cantonist">Cantonists</a> in military institutions in the east aiming to compel them to convert to Christianity,<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> attempted to stratify Jews into "useful" and "not useful" based on wealth<sup id="cite_ref-:8_165-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and further restricted religious and commercial rights within the Pale of Settlement.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_164-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Emperor Alexander II</a> ceased this harsh treatment and pursued a more bureaucratic type of assimilation,<sup id="cite_ref-:8_165-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as compensating the Cantonists for their previous military service, including those who remained Jewish,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_164-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although certain military ranks were still limited to Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_165-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia" title="Alexander III of Russia">Alexander III</a> resumed an atmosphere of oppression, including the <a href="/wiki/May_Laws" title="May Laws">May Laws</a>, which further restricted Jewish settlements and rights to own property, as well as limiting the types of professions available,<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_164-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the expulsion of Jews from Kiev in 1886 and Moscow in 1891. The overall <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Antisemitism in the Russian Empire">anti-Jewish policy of the Russian Empire</a> led to significant sustained emigration.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_164-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Persecution_of_Muslims">Persecution of Muslims</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Persecution of Muslims"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims#Russian_Empire" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution of Muslims § Russian Empire</a></div> <p>Islam had a "sheltered but precarious" place in the Russian Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, sporadic <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">forced conversions</a> were demanded against Muslims in the early Russian Empire. In the 18th century, Catherine II issued an edict of toleration that gave legal status to Islam and allowed Muslims to fulfill religious obligations.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Catherine also established the <a href="/wiki/Orenburg_Muslim_Spiritual_Assembly" title="Orenburg Muslim Spiritual Assembly">Orenburg Muslim Spiritual Assembly</a>, which had a degree of imperial jurisdiction over the organization of Islamic practice in the country.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the Russian Empire expanded, tsarist administrators found it expedient to draw on existing Islamic religious institutions that were already in place.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_171-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%8B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%8B.jpg/280px-%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%8B.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%8B.jpg/420px-%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%8B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%8B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="381" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Muslim Circassian tribes fleeing from persecution after the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Circassian_War#End_of_the_war" title="Russo-Circassian War">Russian conquest of Circassia</a> during the 1860s. Summing up the imperial policy of <a href="/wiki/Circassian_genocide" title="Circassian genocide">Circassian genocide</a>, Russian military historian Rostislav Fadeyev wrote: "The state needed the <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a>' land, but had absolutely no need of them."<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In the 19th century, the restrictive policies became much more oppressive during the Russo-Turkish Wars, and the Russian Empire perpetrated persecutions such as the <a href="/wiki/Circassian_genocide" title="Circassian genocide">Circassian genocide</a> during the 1860s.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_170-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following its <a href="/wiki/Russo-Circassian_War" title="Russo-Circassian War">conquest of Circassia</a>, around 1 to 1.5 million Circassians – almost half of the total population – were killed or forcibly deported.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of those who fled persecution also died en route to other countries. Today, the vast majority of Circassians live in <a href="/wiki/Circassian_diaspora" title="Circassian diaspora">diaspora communities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout the late 19th century, the term "Circassian" became a common adage for "highwayman" across the Balkan and Anatolian regions, due to the prevalence of homeless Circassian refugees.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many groups of Muslims such as <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a> were forced to emigrate to the Ottoman Empire following the Russian defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the latter portion of the 19th century, the status of Islam in the Russian Empire became associated with the tsarist regime's ideological principles of <a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy,_Autocracy,_and_Nationality" title="Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality">Official Nationality</a> requiring Russian Orthodoxy.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_172-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, in certain areas Islamic institutions were allowed to operate, such as the <a href="/wiki/Orenburg_Muslim_Spiritual_Assembly" title="Orenburg Muslim Spiritual Assembly">Orenburg Assembly</a>, but were designated with a lower status.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_171-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Policy_towards_non-Eastern_Orthodox_Christian_sects">Policy towards non-Eastern Orthodox Christian sects</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Policy towards non-Eastern Orthodox Christian sects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pogrom_de_Bialostok.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pogrom_de_Bialostok.jpg/220px-Pogrom_de_Bialostok.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pogrom_de_Bialostok.jpg/330px-Pogrom_de_Bialostok.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pogrom_de_Bialostok.jpg/440px-Pogrom_de_Bialostok.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="508" /></a><figcaption>Corpses of Jewish victims collected for burial in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_pogrom" title="Białystok pogrom">Białystok pogrom</a> (1906)</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite the predominance of Orthodoxy, several Christian denominations were professed.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutherans</a> were particularly tolerated with the invited settlement of <a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans" title="Volga Germans">Volga Germans</a> and the presence of <a href="/wiki/Baltic_German_nobility" title="Baltic German nobility">Baltic German nobility</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the reign of Catherine II, the <a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_the_Society_of_Jesus" title="Suppression of the Society of Jesus">Jesuit suppression</a> was not promulgated, so Jesuits survived in Russian Empire, and this "Russian Society" played a role in re-establishing the Jesuits in the west.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a> was strictly controlled during Catherine II's reign, which was considered an epoch of relative tolerance for Catholicism.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_161-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Catholics were distrusted by the Russian Empire as elements of <a href="/wiki/Polish_nationalism" title="Polish nationalism">Polish nationalism</a>, a perception which especially increased following the <a href="/wiki/January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">January Uprising</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After this <a href="/wiki/Russification_of_Poles_during_the_Partitions" title="Russification of Poles during the Partitions">Russification</a> policies intensified and Orthodox churches such as <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Nevsky_Cathedral,_Warsaw" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Warsaw">Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Warsaw</a> were built across Congress Poland, but no forced conversion was attempted. </p><p>Tsarist religious policy was focused on punishing Orthodox dissenters, such as <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">uniates</a> and sectarians.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_161-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Old_Believers" title="Old Believers">Old Believers</a> were seen as dangerous elements and persecuted heavily.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various minor sects such as <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Christianity" title="Spiritual Christianity">Spiritual Christians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molokan" class="mw-redirect" title="Molokan">Molokan</a> were banished in internal exile to Transcaucasia and Central Asia, with some further emigrating to the Americas.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Doukhobors" title="Doukhobors">Doukhobors</a> came to settle primarily in Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1905, Emperor Nicholas II issued a religious <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_toleration" title="Edict of toleration">toleration edict</a> that gave legal status to non-Orthodox religions.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This created a "Golden Age of Old Faith" for the previously persecuted Old Believers until the emergence of the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 20th century, some of the restrictions of the Pale of Settlement were reversed, though were not formally abolished until the February Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_164-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some historians evaluate Tsar Nicholas II as having given tacit approval to the antisemitic <a href="/wiki/Pogroms_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Pogroms in the Russian Empire">pogroms</a> that resulted from reactionary riots.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Radzinsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Radzinsky">Edward Radzinsky</a> suggested that many pogroms were incited by authorities and supported by the <a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">Tsarist</a> Russian <a href="/wiki/Secret_police" title="Secret police">secret police</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Okhrana" title="Okhrana">Okhrana</a>, even if some happened spontaneously.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Radzinsky, <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Witte" title="Sergei Witte">Sergei Witte</a> (appointed Prime Minister in 1905) remarked in his <i>Memoirs</i> that he found that some proclamations inciting pogroms were printed and distributed by imperial <a href="/wiki/Police_Department_of_Russia" title="Police Department of Russia">Police</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_189-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 69">: 69 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demography">Demography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Demography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Demographics_of_pre-WW1_Europe.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Demographics_of_pre-WW1_Europe.png/260px-Demographics_of_pre-WW1_Europe.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Demographics_of_pre-WW1_Europe.png/390px-Demographics_of_pre-WW1_Europe.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Demographics_of_pre-WW1_Europe.png/520px-Demographics_of_pre-WW1_Europe.png 2x" data-file-width="2111" data-file-height="1145" /></a><figcaption>Demographics of pre-WW1 European countries</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dr_Heinrich_Berghaus%27_physikalischer_Atlas_1852_(135750003).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Dr_Heinrich_Berghaus%27_physikalischer_Atlas_1852_%28135750003%29.jpg/260px-Dr_Heinrich_Berghaus%27_physikalischer_Atlas_1852_%28135750003%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Dr_Heinrich_Berghaus%27_physikalischer_Atlas_1852_%28135750003%29.jpg/390px-Dr_Heinrich_Berghaus%27_physikalischer_Atlas_1852_%28135750003%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Dr_Heinrich_Berghaus%27_physikalischer_Atlas_1852_%28135750003%29.jpg/520px-Dr_Heinrich_Berghaus%27_physikalischer_Atlas_1852_%28135750003%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10947" data-file-height="8878" /></a><figcaption>Ethnographic Map of the Russian Empire by <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Berghaus" title="Heinrich Berghaus">Heinrich Berghaus</a> 1852</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0.png/260px-%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0.png/390px-%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0.png/520px-%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0.png 2x" data-file-width="7059" data-file-height="4170" /></a><figcaption>Ethnographic Map of the Russian Empire by Pauli Gustav-Fedor Khristianovich 1862</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imperial_census_of_1897">Imperial census of 1897</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Imperial census of 1897"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to returns published in 1905, based on the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire_census" title="Russian Empire census">Russian Empire census</a> of 1897, adherents of the different religious communities in the empire numbered approximately as follows. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Religion </th> <th>Count of believers<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>% </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox</a> </td> <td align="right">87,123,604 </td> <td align="right">69.3% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Muslims</a> </td> <td align="right">13,906,972 </td> <td align="right">11.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Roman Catholics</a> </td> <td align="right">11,467,994 </td> <td align="right">9.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Jews</a> </td> <td align="right">5,215,805 </td> <td align="right">4.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutherans</a><sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">3,572,653 </td> <td align="right">2.8% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Old_Believers" title="Old Believers">Old Believers</a> </td> <td align="right">2,204,596 </td> <td align="right">1.8% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church" title="Armenian Apostolic Church">Armenian Apostolics</a> </td> <td align="right">1,179,241 </td> <td align="right">0.9% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhists</a> (Minor) and <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Lamaists</a> (Minor) </td> <td align="right">433,863 </td> <td align="right">0.4% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other non-Christian religions </td> <td align="right">285,321 </td> <td align="right">0.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Reformed</a> </td> <td align="right">85,400 </td> <td align="right">0.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a> </td> <td align="right">66,564 </td> <td align="right">0.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Catholic_Church" title="Armenian Catholic Church">Armenian Catholics</a> </td> <td align="right">38,840 </td> <td align="right">0.0% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> </td> <td align="right">38,139 </td> <td align="right">0.0% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite Jews</a> </td> <td align="right">12,894 </td> <td align="right">0.0% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicans</a> </td> <td align="right">4,183 </td> <td align="right">0.0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other Christian religions </td> <td align="right">3,952 </td> <td align="right">0.0% </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russian_Central_Asia">Russian Central Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Russian Central Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Russian Central Asia was also called <a href="/wiki/Turkestan" title="Turkestan">Turkestan</a>. As of the 1897 census, Russian Central Asia's five oblasts contained 5,260,300 inhabitants, 13.9 percent of them urban. The largest towns were <a href="/wiki/Tashkent" title="Tashkent">Tashkent</a> (156,400), <a href="/wiki/Kokand" title="Kokand">Kokand</a> (82,100), <a href="/wiki/Namangan" title="Namangan">Namangan</a> (61,900), and <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a> (54,900). By 1911, 17 percent of <a href="/wiki/Semirechye_Oblast" title="Semirechye Oblast">Semireche</a>'s population and half of its urban residents were Russians, four-fifths of them agricultural colonists. In the other four oblasts in the same year, Russians constituted only 4 percent of the population, and the overwhelming majority lived in European-style settlements alongside the native quarters in the major towns.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Military history of the Russian Empire">Military history of the Russian Empire</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Russo-Swedish_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Swedish Wars">Russo-Swedish Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Turkish Wars">Russo-Turkish Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_Wars" title="Russo-Persian Wars">Russo-Persian Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russo-Polish_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Polish Wars">Russo-Polish Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Russo-Circassian_War" title="Russo-Circassian War">Russo-Circassian War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Suvorov_Trebbia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Suvorov_Trebbia.jpg/220px-Suvorov_Trebbia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Suvorov_Trebbia.jpg/330px-Suvorov_Trebbia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Suvorov_Trebbia.jpg/440px-Suvorov_Trebbia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1919" data-file-height="1209" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Trebbia_(1799)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Trebbia (1799)">Battle of the Trebbia (1799)</a> by Alexander von Kotzebue</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vasily_Surikov_-_Suvorov_Crossing_the_Alps_in_1799_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Vasily_Surikov_-_Suvorov_Crossing_the_Alps_in_1799_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Vasily_Surikov_-_Suvorov_Crossing_the_Alps_in_1799_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Vasily_Surikov_-_Suvorov_Crossing_the_Alps_in_1799_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Vasily_Surikov_-_Suvorov_Crossing_the_Alps_in_1799_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Vasily_Surikov_-_Suvorov_Crossing_the_Alps_in_1799_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Vasily_Surikov_-_Suvorov_Crossing_the_Alps_in_1799_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4616" data-file-height="6197" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Suvorov%27s_Swiss_campaign" title="Suvorov's Swiss campaign">Suvorov Crossing the Alps</a> in 1799</i>. By <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Surikov" title="Vasily Surikov">Vasily Surikov</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The armed forces of the Russian Empire consisted of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army" title="Imperial Russian Army">Imperial Russian Army</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Navy" title="Imperial Russian Navy">Imperial Russian Navy</a>. The Emperor of Russia was the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and implemented out his military policies through the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_War_(Russian_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of War (Russian Empire)">Ministry of War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Navy_(Russia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of the Navy (Russia)">Ministry of the Navy</a>, which were tasked with administering their respective branches. There was no joint staff, but joint commissions were formed to work on specific tasks that involved both services.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeneral_Staff,_War_Office191418–19_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeneral_Staff,_War_Office191418–19-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapastratigakis201140_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapastratigakis201140-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Main Staff of the War Ministry administered the Army's organization, training, and mobilization, as well as coordinating the different branches of the Army, while the <a href="/wiki/General_Staff_of_the_Russian_Armed_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="General Staff of the Russian Armed Forces">General Staff</a> was tasked with operational planning. This structure developed in the 1860s after the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMayzel1975297–299_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayzel1975297–299-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Navy Ministry had a similar structure, including a Main Staff tasked with administration and a Naval Technological Committee, and after the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> a <a href="/wiki/Russian_Naval_General_Staff" title="Russian Naval General Staff">Naval General Staff</a> was added for operational planning and war preparation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVinogradov1998269_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVinogradov1998269-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestwood199412_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestwood199412-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peter the Great transformed Russia's mix of irregular, feudal, and modernized forces into a standing army and navy to meet the demands posed by the <a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</a> against Sweden and the conflicts with the Ottoman Empire. His reign also accelerated changes that had already started earlier. Peter issued a decree in 1699 that formed the basis for army recruitment,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson199591–96_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson199591–96-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> founded an artillery school in 1701 and an engineer school in 1709, put together military regulations for the organization of the army in 1716,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson199597–98_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson199597–98-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> created administrative organs to oversee the land and naval forces in 1718 (the <a href="/wiki/College_of_War" title="College of War">College of War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_Board_(Russian_Empire)" title="Admiralty Board (Russian Empire)">Admiralty</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson199591–96_198-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson199591–96-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and oversaw the building of a new navy from scratch.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson199591–96_198-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson199591–96-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These reforms were done with the help of foreign experts, though before the end of Peter's reign these experts were being increasingly replaced by Russian officers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson199591–96_198-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson199591–96-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the enlisted soldiers and sailors were peasant conscripts, though by the late 19th century Imperial Navy preferred to draft members of the urban working class to fill its more technical roles. Both the army and navy had a shortage of <a href="/wiki/Non-commissioned_officer" title="Non-commissioned officer">non-commissioned officers</a>, who were promoted from the enlisted ranks and tended to leave the military at the end of their mandatory service.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapastratigakis201153–54_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapastratigakis201153–54-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReese201998–104_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReese201998–104-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Except for a few special units,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeneral_Staff,_War_Office19147–12_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeneral_Staff,_War_Office19147–12-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> almost no one voluntarily joined the military without the intention of becoming an officer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReese2019128_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReese2019128-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the post-Crimean War reforms, there were three main commissioning sources of army officers: the <a href="/wiki/Page_Corps" title="Page Corps">Page Corps</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cadet_Corps_(Russia)" title="Cadet Corps (Russia)">cadet corps</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Junker_(Russia)" title="Junker (Russia)">junker</a> or military schools.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeneral_Staff,_War_Office191415–17_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeneral_Staff,_War_Office191415–17-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cadet corps, among which the Page Corps was considered the most elite,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReese201937–40_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReese201937–40-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> provided a military boarding school education to the sons of the high nobility as teenagers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReese201944–45_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReese201944–45-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The junker schools provided the largest number of officers, and had a two-year education program for older enlisted soldiers that served for at least one year, and these were most often either lesser nobility or commoners.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReese201941–44_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReese201941–44-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of army officers were nobles, though this changed by the end of the 19th century, with non-nobles being almost half of the officer corps in the 1890s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReese201927–28_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReese201927–28-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The source of naval officers was the <a href="/wiki/Naval_Cadet_Corps_(Russia)" title="Naval Cadet Corps (Russia)">Naval Cadet Corps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of naval officers were also from the nobility, and many of them were descended from Baltic German or Swedish families with a history of naval service.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapastratigakis201153_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapastratigakis201153-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Russian military budget declined in the late 19th century as the government prioritized spending for civilian purposes, paying interest on foreign loans, and building railways.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapastratigakis201153_210-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapastratigakis201153-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russia maintained a large peacetime standing army of over one million men in the decades after the Napoleonic Wars,<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and at the outbreak of World War I it was the largest in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone202133_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone202133-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the war the Russian Army was unable to match the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_German_Army" title="Imperial German Army">German Army</a> in tactical and operational proficiency, but its performance against the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Army" title="Austro-Hungarian Army">Austro-Hungarian Army</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Army_(1861%E2%80%931922)" title="Ottoman Army (1861–1922)">Ottoman Army</a> was credible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone20214_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone20214-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Russo-Japanese War took Russia from having the third largest navy in the world to the sixth largest.<sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A reconstruction program approved by the State Duma in 1912, but it was not completed before World War I.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalpern199417–18_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalpern199417–18-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russia's <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Fleet" title="Baltic Fleet">Baltic Fleet</a> stayed on the defensive against the German <a href="/wiki/High_Seas_Fleet" title="High Seas Fleet">High Seas Fleet</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994179_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994179-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but its <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_Fleet" title="Black Sea Fleet">Black Sea Fleet</a> had success in raiding Ottoman merchant shipping and threatened the ability of the Ottoman Empire to continue the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994232–233_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994232–233-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Russia" title="Culture of Russia">Culture of Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_literature" title="Russian literature">Russian literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_opera" title="Russian opera">Russian opera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Technology_in_the_Russian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Technology in the Russian Empire">Technology in the Russian Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Cinema of the Russian Empire">Cinema of the Russian Empire</a></div> <p>The Russian Empire was predominantly a rural society spread over vast spaces. In 1913, 80% of the people were peasants. Soviet historiography proclaimed that the Russian Empire of the 19th century was characterized by systemic crisis, which impoverished the workers and peasants and culminated in the revolutions of the early 20th century. Recent research by Russian scholars disputes this interpretation. <a href="/wiki/Boris_Mironov_(historian)" title="Boris Mironov (historian)">Mironov</a> assesses the effects of the reforms of latter 19th-century, especially in terms of the 1861 emancipation of the serfs, agricultural output trends, various <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standard of living</a> indicators, and taxation of peasants. He argues that those reforms brought about measurable improvements in social welfare. More generally, he finds that the well-being of the Russian people declined during most of the 18th century but increased slowly from the end of the 18th century to 1914.<sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Estates">Estates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Estates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_estates_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Social estates in the Russian Empire">Social estates in the Russian Empire</a></div> <p>Subjects of the Russian Empire were segregated into <i><a href="/wiki/Sosloviye" class="mw-redirect" title="Sosloviye">sosloviyes</a></i>, or social estates (classes) such as <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Dvoryanstvo" class="mw-redirect" title="Dvoryanstvo">dvoryanstvo</a></i>), clergy, merchants, <a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">cossacks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peasants" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasants">peasants</a>. Native people of the Caucasus, non-ethnic Russian areas such as <a href="/wiki/History_of_Tatarstan" title="History of Tatarstan">Tatarstan</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Bashkortostan" title="History of Bashkortostan">Bashkortostan</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Siberia" title="History of Siberia">Siberia</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Central_Asia" title="History of Central Asia">Central Asia</a> were officially registered as a category called <i><a href="/wiki/Inorodtsy" title="Inorodtsy">inorodtsy</a></i> ('non-Slavic', <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">people of another origin</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>). </p><p>A majority of the population, 81.6%, belonged to the peasant order. The other classes were the nobility, 0.6%; clergy, 0.1%; the burghers and merchants, 9.3%; and military, 6.1%. More than 88 million Russians were peasants, some of whom were former serfs (10,447,149 males in 1858) – the remainder being "state peasants" (9,194,891 males in 1858, exclusive of the Archangel governorate) and "domain peasants" (842,740 males the same year). </p> <dl><dt>Other status</dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Intelligentsia" title="Intelligentsia">Intelligentsia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Raznochintsy" title="Raznochintsy">Raznochintsy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zemlyachestvo" title="Zemlyachestvo">Zemlyachestvo</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Serfdom">Serfdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Serfdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">Serfdom in Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation reform of 1861</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Announcement_of_the_Coronation.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Announcement_of_the_Coronation.JPG/220px-Announcement_of_the_Coronation.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Announcement_of_the_Coronation.JPG/330px-Announcement_of_the_Coronation.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Announcement_of_the_Coronation.JPG/440px-Announcement_of_the_Coronation.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3945" data-file-height="2989" /></a><figcaption>1856 painting imagining the announcement of the coronation of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II</a> that year</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maslenitsa_kustodiev.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Maslenitsa_kustodiev.jpg/220px-Maslenitsa_kustodiev.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Maslenitsa_kustodiev.jpg/330px-Maslenitsa_kustodiev.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Maslenitsa_kustodiev.jpg/440px-Maslenitsa_kustodiev.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1452" /></a><figcaption>The 1916 painting <i><a href="/wiki/Maslenitsa" title="Maslenitsa">Maslenitsa</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Boris_Kustodiev" title="Boris Kustodiev">Boris Kustodiev</a>, depicting a Russian city in winter</figcaption></figure> <p>The serfdom that had developed in Russia in the 16th century, and had become enshrined in law in 1649, was <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">abolished in 1861</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jeromeblum_219-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jeromeblum-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Household servants or dependents attached to personal service were merely set free, while the landed peasants received their houses and orchards, and allotments of arable land. These allotments were given over to the rural commune, the <i><a href="/wiki/Mir_(social)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mir (social)">mir</a></i>, which was responsible for the payment of taxes for the allotments. For these allotments the peasants had to pay a fixed rent, which could be fulfilled by personal labor. The allotments could be redeemed by peasants with the help of the Crown, and then they were freed from all obligations to the landlord. The Crown paid the landlord and the peasants had to repay the Crown, for forty-nine years at 6% interest. The financial redemption to the landlord was not calculated on the value of the allotments but was considered as compensation for the loss of the compulsory serf labor. Many proprietors contrived to curtail the allotments that the peasants had occupied under serfdom, and frequently deprived them of precisely that land of which they were most in need: pasture lands around their houses. The result was to compel the peasants to rent land from their former masters.<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-David_Moon_1999_221-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-David_Moon_1999-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Serfs lived in deplorable conditions, working in the fields for nearly seven days a week and being exiled to the harsh land of <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> or sent to military service. Owners had the right to sell slaves, depending on whether they were targeting land or accused (i.e., had escaped from working). Children of serfs received less <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Russia" title="Education in Russia">education</a>. These serfs were heavily taxed, making them the poorest of any Russians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman20024_154-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman20024-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1861, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II</a> saw serfs as a problem that held back Russia's development, so he <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">liberated</a> 23 million serfs to become free,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman20029_222-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman20029-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but they remained indigent throughout the former enslaved population despite their rights. The <a href="/wiki/Zemstvo" title="Zemstvo">zemstvo</a> system was introduced in 1865 as a rural assembly with administrative authority over the local population, including education and welfare, which ex-serfs were unable to acquire. </p> <dl><dt>Exceptional status</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Free_agriculturalist" title="Free agriculturalist">Free agriculturalist</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/State_serf" title="State serf">State serf</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peasants">Peasants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Peasants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Obshchina" title="Obshchina">Obshchina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Repartition" title="Repartition">Repartition</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg/220px-Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg/330px-Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg/440px-Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3320" data-file-height="2873" /></a><figcaption>Young Russian peasant women in front of a traditional wooden house (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1909 to 1915</span>), photograph taken by Prokudin-Gorskii</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gorskii_04422u.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Gorskii_04422u.jpg/220px-Gorskii_04422u.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Gorskii_04422u.jpg/330px-Gorskii_04422u.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Gorskii_04422u.jpg/440px-Gorskii_04422u.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3309" data-file-height="2852" /></a><figcaption>Peasants in Russia (photograph taken by <a href="/wiki/Sergey_Prokudin-Gorsky" title="Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky">Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky</a> in 1909)</figcaption></figure> <p>The former serfs became peasants, joining the millions of farmers who already had peasant status.<sup id="cite_ref-David_Moon_1999_221-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-David_Moon_1999-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jeromeblum_219-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jeromeblum-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most peasants lived in tens of thousands of small villages under a highly patriarchal system. Hundreds of thousands moved to cities to work in factories, but they typically retained their village connections.<sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Emancipation reform, one-quarter of peasants received allotments of only 1.2 hectares (2.9 acres) per male, and one-half received less than 3.4 to 4.6 hectares (8.5 to 11.4 acres); the normal size of the allotment necessary for the subsistence of a family under the three-fields system is estimated at 11 to 17 hectares (28 to 42 acres). This land was of necessity rented from the landlords. The aggregate value of the redemption and land taxes often reached 185 to 275% of the normal rental value of the allotments, not to speak of taxes for recruiting purposes, the church, roads, local administration, and so on, chiefly levied on the peasants. This burden increased every year; consequently, one-fifth of the inhabitants left their houses and cattle disappeared. Every year more than half the adult males (in some districts three-quarters of the men and one-third of the women) quit their homes and wandered throughout Russia in search of work. In the governments of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Earth_Area" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Earth Area">Black Earth Area</a> the state of matters was hardly better. Many peasants took "gratuitous allotments", whose amount was about one-eighth of the normal allotments.<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The average allotment in <a href="/wiki/Kherson" title="Kherson">Kherson</a> was only 0.36 hectares (0.90 acres), and for allotments from 1.2 to 2.3 hectares (2.9 to 5.8 acres) the peasants paid 5 to 10 rubles in redemption tax. The state peasants were better off; but they, too, were emigrating in masses. It was only in the <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppe</a> that the situation was more hopeful. In Ukraine, where the allotments were personal (the mir existing only among state peasants), the state of affairs was not better, on account of high redemption taxes. In the western provinces, where the land was more cheaply valued and the allotments somewhat increased after the <a href="/wiki/January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">Polish insurrection</a>, the situation was better. Finally, in the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic provinces">Baltic provinces</a> nearly all the land belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Germans" title="Baltic Germans">German landlords</a>, who either farmed the land themselves, with hired laborers, or let it in small farms. Only one-quarter of the peasants were farmers; the remainder were mere laborers.<sup id="cite_ref-Christine_D._Worobec_1991_225-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christine_D._Worobec_1991-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Landowners">Landowners</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Landowners"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The situation of the former serf-proprietors was also unsatisfactory. Accustomed to the use of compulsory labor, they failed to adapt to the new conditions. The millions of rubles of redemption money received from the crown was spent without any real or lasting agricultural improvements having been effected. The forests were sold, and the only prosperous landlords were those who exacted <a href="/wiki/Rack-rent" title="Rack-rent">rack-rents</a> for the land allotted to peasants. There was an increase of wealth among the few, but along with this a general impoverishment of the mass of the people. Added to this, the peculiar institution of the mir—framed on the principle of community ownership and occupation of the land—the overall effect was not encouraging of individual effort. </p><p>During the years 1861 to 1892 the land owned by the nobles decreased 30%, or from 850,000 to 610,000 km<sup>2</sup> (210,000,000 to 150,000,000 acres); during the following four years an additional 8,577 km<sup>2</sup> (2,119,500 acres) were sold; and since then the sales went on at an accelerated rate, until in 1903 alone close to 8,000 km<sup>2</sup> (2,000,000 acres) passed out of their hands. On the other hand, since 1861, and more especially since 1882, when the <a href="/wiki/Peasant_Land_Bank" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasant Land Bank">Peasant Land Bank</a> was founded for making advances to peasants who were desirous of purchasing land, the former serfs, or rather their descendants, had between 1883 and 1904 bought about 78,900 km<sup>2</sup> (19,500,000 acres) from their former masters. </p><p>In November 1906, however, Emperor Nicholas II promulgated a provisional order permitting the peasants to become freeholders of allotments made at the time of emancipation, all redemption dues being remitted. This measure, which was endorsed by the third Duma in an act passed on 21 December 1908, was calculated to have far-reaching and profound effects on the rural economy of Russia. Thirteen years previously the government had endeavored to secure greater fixity and permanence of tenure by providing that at least twelve years must elapse between every two redistributions of the land belonging to a mir amongst those entitled to share in it. The order of November 1906 provided that the <a href="/wiki/Open_field_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Open field system">various strips of land</a> held by each peasant should be merged into a single holding; the Duma, however, on the advice of the government, left its implementation to the future, regarding it as an ideal that could only gradually be realized.<sup id="cite_ref-Christine_D._Worobec_1991_225-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christine_D._Worobec_1991-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Media">Media</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Media"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_journalism#Russia" title="History of journalism">History of journalism § Russia</a></div> <p>Censorship was heavy-handed until the reign of Alexander II, but it never went away.<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Newspapers were strictly limited in what they could publish, and intellectuals favored literary magazines for their publishing outlets. <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoyevsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Fyodor Dostoyevsky">Fyodor Dostoyevsky</a>, for example, ridiculed the St. Petersburg newspapers, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Golos_(newspaper)" title="Golos (newspaper)">Golos</a></i> and <i>Peterburgskii Listok</i>, accusing them of publishing trifles and distracting readers from the pressing social concerns of contemporary Russia through their obsession with spectacle and European popular culture.<sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saint_Petersburg_University.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Saint_Petersburg_University.jpg/220px-Saint_Petersburg_University.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Saint_Petersburg_University.jpg/330px-Saint_Petersburg_University.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Saint_Petersburg_University.jpg/440px-Saint_Petersburg_University.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="987" /></a><figcaption>Saint Petersburg Imperial University</figcaption></figure> <p>Educational standards were very low in the Russian Empire, though they slowly increased in its last century of existence. By 1800, the level of literacy among male peasants ranged from 1 to 12 percent and from 20 to 25 percent for urban men. Literacy among women was very low. Literacy rates were highest for the nobility (84 to 87 percent), followed by merchants (over 75 percent), and then the workers and peasants. Serfs were the least literate. In every group, women were far less literate than men. By contrast, in Western Europe, urban men had about a 50 percent literacy rate. The Orthodox hierarchy was suspicious of education, seeing no religious need for literacy whatsoever. Peasants did not need to be literate, and those who did — such as artisans, businessmen, and professionals — were few in number. As late as 1851, only 8% of Russians lived in cities.<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The accession in 1801 of Alexander I (1801–1825) was widely welcomed as an opening to fresh liberal ideas from the European Enlightenment. Many reforms were promised, but few were implemented before 1820, when the emperor shifted his focus to foreign affairs and personal religious matters, neglecting issues of reform. In sharp contrast to Western Europe, the entire empire had a very small bureaucracy – about 17,000 public officials, most of whom lived in two of the largest cities, Moscow and Saint Petersburg. Modernization of government required much larger numbers; but that, in turn, required an educational system that could provide suitable training. Russia lacked that, and for university education, young men went to Western Europe. The army and the church had their own training programs, narrowly focused on their particular needs. The most important successful reform under Alexander I was the creation of a national system of education.<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zemskaya_shkola.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Zemskaya_shkola.jpg/220px-Zemskaya_shkola.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Zemskaya_shkola.jpg/330px-Zemskaya_shkola.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Zemskaya_shkola.jpg/440px-Zemskaya_shkola.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="775" /></a><figcaption>Russian primary school in the 1900s</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Education_(Russian_Empire)" title="Ministry of National Education (Russian Empire)">Ministry of Education</a> was established in 1802, and the country was divided into six educational regions. The long-term plan was for a university in every region, a secondary school in every major city, upgraded primary schools, and – serving the largest number of students – a parish school for every two parishes. By 1825, the national government operated six universities, forty-eight secondary state schools, and 337 improved primary schools. Highly qualified teachers arrived from France, fleeing the revolution there. Exiled Jesuits set up elite boarding schools until their order was expelled in 1815. At the highest level, universities were based on the German model—in <a href="/wiki/Kazan_Federal_University" title="Kazan Federal University">Kazan</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_University_of_Kharkiv" title="National University of Kharkiv">Kharkov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Imperial_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Petersburg Imperial University">St. Petersburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vilnius_University" title="Vilnius University">Vilna</a> (refounded as the Imperial University in 1803) and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Tartu" title="University of Tartu">Dorpat</a>—while the relatively young <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Moscow_University" title="Imperial Moscow University">Imperial Moscow University</a> was expanded. The higher forms of education were reserved for a very small elite, with only a few hundred students at the universities by 1825 and 5500 in the secondary schools. There were no schools open to girls. Most rich families still depended on private tutors.<sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Emperor Nicholas I was a reactionary who wanted to neutralize foreign ideas, especially those he ridiculed as "pseudo-knowledge". Nevertheless, his Minister of Education, Sergey Uvarov, promoted greater academic freedom at the university level for faculty members, who were under suspicion by reactionary church officials. Uvarov raised academic standards, improved facilities, and opened the admission doors a bit wider. Nicholas tolerated Uvarov's achievements until 1848, after which he reversed these innovations.<sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the rest of the century, the national government continued to focus on universities, and generally ignored elementary and secondary educational needs. By 1900 there were 17,000 university students, and over 30,000 were enrolled in specialized technical institutes. The students were conspicuous in Moscow and Saint Petersburg as a political force typically at the forefront of demonstrations and disturbances.<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of tertiary institutions in the empire used Russian, while some used other languages but later underwent Russification.<sup id="cite_ref-StraussPT196_233-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StraussPT196-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other educational institutions in the empire included the <a href="/wiki/Nersisian_School" title="Nersisian School">Nersisian School</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tbilisi" title="Tbilisi">Tiflis</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/48px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/64px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Russia" title="Portal:Russia">Russia portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_Russia_(1500%E2%80%931800)" title="Expansion of Russia (1500–1800)">Expansion of Russia (1500–1800)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Russian imperialism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Principalities of <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a> in 1829–1856.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In 1914, the city was renamed <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg#Toponymy" title="Saint Petersburg">Petrograd</a> to reflect anti-German sentiments of Russia during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Ministers_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Committee of Ministers of the Russian Empire">Committee of Ministers</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As Prime Minister.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russian: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Россійская Имперія</span></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>:</small> <span title="Russian-language romanization"><i lang="ru-Latn">Rossíyskaya Impériya</i></span>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ru-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian" title="Help:IPA/Russian">[rɐˈsʲijskəjə<span class="wrap"> </span>ɪmˈpʲerʲɪjə]</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/e\/e2\/Ru-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F.ogg\/Ru-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ru-\u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u044f.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e2/Ru-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F.ogg/Ru-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Ru-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F.ogg" title="File:Ru-Российская империя.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span>; <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Российская Империя</span></span> in <a href="/wiki/Reforms_of_Russian_orthography#The_post-revolution_reform" title="Reforms of Russian orthography">modern Russian spelling</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Historiographically known as <b>Imperial Russia</b>, <b>Tsarist Russia</b>, <b>pre-<a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">revolutionary</a> Russia</b>, or simply <b>Russia</b>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">First and only census carried out in the Russian Empire.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">Отец отечества</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Russian-language romanization"><i lang="ru-Latn">Otets otechestva</i></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ru-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian" title="Help:IPA/Russian">[ɐˈtʲet͡s<span class="wrap"> </span>ɐˈtʲet͡ɕɪstvə]</a></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">Император и Самодержец Всероссийский</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Russian-language romanization"><i lang="ru-Latn">Imperator i Samoderzhets Vserossiyskiy</i></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Originally there was no distinction between the titles <i><a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">tsar</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">imperator</a></i>. However, <i>tsar</i> was also used to refer to other monarchs below the rank of "<a href="/wiki/Emperor" title="Emperor">emperor</a>" (according to the Western European view), and thus Westerners began to translate <i>tsar</i> as <i><a href="/wiki/Rex_(title)" title="Rex (title)">rex</a></i> ("king"). By adopting the title <i>imperator</i>, Peter claimed equality to the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A <i><a href="/wiki/Ukase" title="Ukase">ukaz</a></i> of 1879 gave the governors the right to report secretly on the qualifications of candidates for the office of <a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace_(Russia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Justice of the peace (Russia)">justice of the peace</a>. In 1889, Alexander III abolished the election of justices of the peace, except in certain large towns and some outlying parts of the Empire, and greatly restricted the right of trial by jury. The combining of judicial and administrative functions was introduced again by the appointment of officials as judges. In 1909, the third Duma restored the election of justices of the peace.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russian: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">барщина</span></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ru-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian" title="Help:IPA/Russian">[ˈbarɕːɪnə]</a></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russian: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">оброк</span></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ru-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian" title="Help:IPA/Russian">[ɐˈbrok]</a></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran Church</a> was the dominant faith of the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic Provinces">Baltic Provinces</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Ingria" title="Ingria">Ingria</a>, and of the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland" title="Grand Duchy of Finland">Grand Duchy of Finland</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://forumspb.com/en/o-sankt-peterburge/history">"St. Petersburg through the Ages"</a>. <i>St. Petersburg International Economic Forum</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220806095844/https://forumspb.com/en/o-sankt-peterburge/history">Archived</a> from the original on 6 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=St.+Petersburg+International+Economic+Forum&rft.atitle=St.+Petersburg+through+the+Ages&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforumspb.com%2Fen%2Fo-sankt-peterburge%2Fhistory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rusmania.com/history-of-russia/18th-century">18th Century in the Russian History</a>", Rusmania. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220319083640/https://rusmania.com/history-of-russia/18th-century">Archived</a> 19 March 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColeman2014" class="citation book cs1">Coleman, Heather J. (2014). <i>Orthodox Christianity in Imperial Russia: A Source Book on Lived Religion</i>. Indiana University Press. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2530-1318-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2530-1318-7"><bdi>978-0-2530-1318-7</bdi></a>. <q>After all, Orthodoxy was both the majority faith in the Russian Empire – approximately 70 percent subscribed to this faith in the 1897 census–and the state religion.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Orthodox+Christianity+in+Imperial+Russia%3A+A+Source+Book+on+Lived+Religion&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-2530-1318-7&rft.aulast=Coleman&rft.aufirst=Heather+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1994" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, Beryl (1 December 1994). "The concept of the first Duma: Russia 1905–1906". <i>Parliaments, Estates and Representation</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 149–158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02606755.1994.9525857">10.1080/02606755.1994.9525857</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Parliaments%2C+Estates+and+Representation&rft.atitle=The+concept+of+the+first+Duma%3A+Russia+1905%E2%80%931906&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=149-158&rft.date=1994-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02606755.1994.9525857&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Beryl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Sovereign Emperor exercises legislative power in conjunction with the State Council and State Duma". <a href="/wiki/Russian_Constitution_of_1906" title="Russian Constitution of 1906">Fundamental Laws</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imperialhouse.ru/en/dynastyhistory/dinzak1/441.html">"Chapter One On the Essence of Supreme Sovereign Power Article 7."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190608203053/http://www.imperialhouse.ru/en/dynastyhistory/dinzak1/441.html">Archived</a> 8 June 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaagepera1997" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rein_Taagepera" title="Rein Taagepera">Taagepera, Rein</a> (September 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807">"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/International_Studies_Quarterly" title="International Studies Quarterly">International Studies Quarterly</a></i>. <b>41</b> (3): 475–504. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F0020-8833.00053">10.1111/0020-8833.00053</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2600793">2600793</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181119114740/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Expansion+and+Contraction+Patterns+of+Large+Polities%3A+Context+for+Russia&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=475-504&rft.date=1997-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F0020-8833.00053&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2600793%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Taagepera&rft.aufirst=Rein&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.escholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F3cn68807&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2006" class="citation journal cs1">Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381">"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires"</a>. <i>Journal of World-Systems Research</i>. <b>12</b> (2): 223. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1076-156X">1076-156X</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160917031715/http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381">Archived</a> from the original on 17 September 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World-Systems+Research&rft.atitle=East-West+Orientation+of+Historical+Empires&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=223&rft.date=2006-12&rft.issn=1076-156X&rft.aulast=Turchin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Adams%2C+Jonathan+M.&rft.au=Hall%2C+Thomas+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjwsr.pitt.edu%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Fjwsr%2Farticle%2Fview%2F369%2F381&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/sympo/97summer/mironov.html">"The Price of Expansion: The Nationality Problem in Russia of the Eighteenth-Early Twentieth Centuries"</a>. <i>Slavic Research Center</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230308110647/https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/sympo/97summer/mironov.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Research+Center&rft.atitle=The+Price+of+Expansion%3A+The+Nationality+Problem+in+Russia+of+the+Eighteenth-Early+Twentieth+Centuries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsrc-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp%2Fsympo%2F97summer%2Fmironov.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dmorgan.web.wesleyan.edu/materials/population.htm">"Population of the Major European Countries in the 19th Century"</a>. <i>Wesleyan University</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240228222116/https://dmorgan.web.wesleyan.edu/materials/population.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 28 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wesleyan+University&rft.atitle=Population+of+the+Major+European+Countries+in+the+19th+Century&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdmorgan.web.wesleyan.edu%2Fmaterials%2Fpopulation.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4812467">"Population of Russia and the USSR, 1913 to 1928"</a>. <i>Research Gate</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Research+Gate&rft.atitle=Population+of+Russia+and+the+USSR%2C+1913+to+1928&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F4812467&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes197483-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPipes197483_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPipes1974">Pipes 1974</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:22-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:22_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reviews.history.ac.uk/review/1611">"The Great Game, 1856–1907: Russo-British Relations in Central and East Asia | Reviews in History"</a>. <i>reviews.history.ac.uk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220410163636/https://reviews.history.ac.uk/review/1611">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=reviews.history.ac.uk&rft.atitle=The+Great+Game%2C+1856%E2%80%931907%3A+Russo-British+Relations+in+Central+and+East+Asia+%7C+Reviews+in+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freviews.history.ac.uk%2Freview%2F1611&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Russian-Empire/Russification-policy#ref340502">"Russian Empire"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221225190907/https://www.britannica.com/place/Russian-Empire/Russification-policy#ref340502">Archived</a> from the original on 25 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Russian+Empire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FRussian-Empire%2FRussification-policy%23ref340502&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-geoffreyswain-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-geoffreyswain_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-geoffreyswain_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwain2014" class="citation book cs1">Swain, Geoffrey (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_a3pAgAAQBAJ"><i>Trotsky and the Russian Revolution</i></a>. Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_a3pAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR15">15</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3178-1278-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-3178-1278-4"><bdi>978-1-3178-1278-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL37192398M">37192398M</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150919081708/https://books.google.com/books?id=_a3pAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR15">Archived</a> from the original on 19 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2015</span>. <q>The first government to be formed after the February Revolution of 1917 had, with one exception, been composed of liberals.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trotsky+and+the+Russian+Revolution&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL37192398M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-1-3178-1278-4&rft.aulast=Swain&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_a3pAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-alexanderrabinowitch-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-alexanderrabinowitch_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabinowitch2008" class="citation book cs1">Rabinowitch, Alexander (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BEoBCGJ4VqYC&pg=PA1"><i>The Bolsheviks in Power: The First Year of Soviet Rule in Petrograd</i></a>. Indiana UP. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2532-2042-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2532-2042-4"><bdi>978-0-2532-2042-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150910221609/https://books.google.com/books?id=BEoBCGJ4VqYC&pg=PA1">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bolsheviks+in+Power%3A+The+First+Year+of+Soviet+Rule+in+Petrograd&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Indiana+UP&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-2532-2042-4&rft.aulast=Rabinowitch&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBEoBCGJ4VqYC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlanertRetallack2017" class="citation book cs1">Planert, Ute; Retallack, James, eds. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vZokDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA331"><i>Decades of Reconstruction</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 331. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1071-6574-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1071-6574-8"><bdi>978-1-1071-6574-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230211110511/https://books.google.com/books?id=vZokDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA331">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decades+of+Reconstruction&rft.pages=331&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-1071-6574-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvZokDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA331&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBushkovitch2012" class="citation book cs1">Bushkovitch, Paul (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Le-n7ZYjGWkC"><i>A Concise History of Russia</i></a>. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5215-4323-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5215-4323-1"><bdi>978-0-5215-4323-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423152841/https://books.google.com/books?id=Le-n7ZYjGWkC">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2023</span>. <q>Ivan III in his own time already had the reputation of the builder of the Russian state... The consolidation of Russia as a state was not just a territorial issue, for Ivan also began the development of a state apparatus...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Russia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-5215-4323-1&rft.aulast=Bushkovitch&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLe-n7ZYjGWkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillar2004" class="citation book cs1">Millar, James R. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R-KYwQEACAAJ"><i>Encyclopedia of Russian History</i></a>. New York: Macmillan Reference USA. p. 687. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-0286-5693-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-0286-5693-9"><bdi>978-0-0286-5693-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231026094841/https://books.google.com/books?id=R-KYwQEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 26 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2023</span>. <q>Under Ivan III's reign, the uniting of separate Russian principalities into a centralized state made great and rapid progress.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Russian+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=687&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+USA&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-0286-5693-9&rft.aulast=Millar&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR-KYwQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoss2003" class="citation book cs1">Moss, Walter G. (2003). <i>A History of Russia Volume 1: To 1917</i>. Anthem Press. p. 88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8572-8752-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8572-8752-6"><bdi>978-0-8572-8752-6</bdi></a>. <q>Ivan III (1462–1505) and his son, Vasili III (1505–1533), completed Moscow's quest to dominate Great Russia. Of the two rulers, Ivan III (the Great) accomplished the most, and Russian historians have called him 'the gatherer of the Russian lands'.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Russia+Volume+1%3A+To+1917&rft.pages=88&rft.pub=Anthem+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8572-8752-6&rft.aulast=Moss&rft.aufirst=Walter+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoss2003131-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoss2003131_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoss2003">Moss 2003</a>, p. 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCatchpole1974">Catchpole 1974</a>, pp. 8–31; Gilbert, Martin. <i>Atlas of Russian history</i> (1993) pp 33–74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCatchpole1974">Catchpole 1974</a>, p. 25; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php">"Первая всеобщая перепись населения Российской Империи 1897 г."</a> [First general census of the population of the Russian Empire in 1897]. <i>Demoscope Weekly</i> (in Russian). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120204034344/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php">Archived</a> from the original on 4 February 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Demoscope+Weekly&rft.atitle=%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8+1897+%D0%B3.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdemoscope.ru%2Fweekly%2Fssp%2Frus_lan_97.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnisimov2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Anisimov, Yevgeniya (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220104103730/https://bigenc.ru/domestic_history/text/3826088">"Peter I"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Great_Russian_Encyclopedia" title="Great Russian Encyclopedia">Great Russian Encyclopedia</a> [in electronic source]</i> (in Russian). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bigenc.ru/domestic_history/text/3826088">the original</a> on 4 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Peter+I&rft.btitle=Great+Russian+Encyclopedia+%5Bin+electronic+source%5D&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Anisimov&rft.aufirst=Yevgeniya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbigenc.ru%2Fdomestic_history%2Ftext%2F3826088&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/in-sight/wp/2017/05/26/russian-orthodox-old-believers-keeping-their-faith-and-fighting-fires-in-the-west-siberian-plain">"Perspective | Russian Orthodox Old Believers: Keeping their faith and fighting fires in the West Siberian Plain"</a>. <i>Washington Post</i>. 26 May 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201113061455/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/in-sight/wp/2017/05/26/russian-orthodox-old-believers-keeping-their-faith-and-fighting-fires-in-the-west-siberian-plain">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Perspective+%7C+Russian+Orthodox+Old+Believers%3A+Keeping+their+faith+and+fighting+fires+in+the+West+Siberian+Plain&rft.date=2017-05-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fin-sight%2Fwp%2F2017%2F05%2F26%2Frussian-orthodox-old-believers-keeping-their-faith-and-fighting-fires-in-the-west-siberian-plain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Osipov-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Osipov_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsipov2015" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Osipov, Yuriy, ed. (2015). "The Great Northern War 1700–21". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417123305/https://bigenc.ru/military_science/text/3543492"><i>Romania to Saint-Jean-de-Luz</i></a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Great_Russian_Encyclopedia" title="Great Russian Encyclopedia">Great Russian Encyclopedia</a></i>. 2004–2017 (in Russian). Vol. 29. pp. 617–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-8527-0366-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-8527-0366-8"><bdi>978-5-8527-0366-8</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bigenc.ru/military_science/text/3543492">the original</a> on 17 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Romania+to+Saint-Jean-de-Luz&rft.btitle=Great+Russian+Encyclopedia&rft.series=2004%E2%80%932017&rft.pages=617-20&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-5-8527-0366-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbigenc.ru%2Fmilitary_science%2Ftext%2F3543492&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadariaga2014" class="citation book cs1">Madariaga, Isabel De (17 June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Politics_and_Culture_in_Eighteenth_Centu/omjXAwAAQBAJ"><i>Politics and Culture in Eighteenth-Century Russia: Collected Essays by Isabel de Madariaga</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 15–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-88190-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-88190-2"><bdi>978-1-317-88190-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+and+Culture+in+Eighteenth-Century+Russia%3A+Collected+Essays+by+Isabel+de+Madariaga&rft.pages=15-16&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-06-17&rft.isbn=978-1-317-88190-2&rft.aulast=Madariaga&rft.aufirst=Isabel+De&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fedition%2FPolitics_and_Culture_in_Eighteenth_Centu%2FomjXAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180829070929/http://www.school.edu.ru/collections/collectionitem/11664">"Прошение сенаторов к царю Петру I о принятии им титула "Отца Отечества, императора Всероссийского, Петра Великого"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> [Petition of the senators to Tsar Peter I for the adoption of the title of "Father of the Fatherland, Emperor of all the Russias, Peter the Great"]. <i>Russian educational portal | Historical documents</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.school.edu.ru/collections/collectionitem/11664">the original</a> on 29 August 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Russian+educational+portal+%7C+Historical+documents&rft.atitle=%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%BA+%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8E+%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83+I+%D0%BE+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%B8%D0%BC+%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0+%22%D0%9E%D1%82%D1%86%D0%B0+%D0%9E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0%2C+%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0+%D0%92%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%2C+%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0+%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.school.edu.ru%2Fcollections%2Fcollectionitem%2F11664&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeldbrugge2017152-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeldbrugge2017152_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFeldbrugge2017">Feldbrugge 2017</a>, p. 152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadariaga2014" class="citation book cs1">Madariaga, Isabel De (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=omjXAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40"><i>Politics and Culture in Eighteenth-Century Russi</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 40–42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-88190-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-88190-2"><bdi>978-1-317-88190-2</bdi></a>. <q>This explains much of the difficulty encountered by Peter I when he adopted the title <i>Imperator</i>. The etymological origin of the word <i>tsar</i> had been glossed over and the title had been devalued.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+and+Culture+in+Eighteenth-Century+Russi&rft.pages=40-42&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-317-88190-2&rft.aulast=Madariaga&rft.aufirst=Isabel+De&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DomjXAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgeyeva,_Olga1999" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ageyeva, Olga (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220316061503/http://www.historia.ru/1999/05/ageyeva.htm">"ТИТУЛ "ИМПЕРАТОР" И ПОНЯТИЕ "ИМПЕРИЯ" В РОССИИ В ПЕРВОЙ ЧЕТВЕРТИ XVIII ВЕКА"</a> [The title "emperor" and the concept of "empire" in Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century]. <i>World of History: Russian Electronic Journal</i> (in Russian) (5). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historia.ru/1999/05/ageyeva.htm">the original</a> on 16 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+of+History%3A+Russian+Electronic+Journal&rft.atitle=%D0%A2%D0%98%D0%A2%D0%A3%D0%9B+%22%D0%98%D0%9C%D0%9F%D0%95%D0%A0%D0%90%D0%A2%D0%9E%D0%A0%22+%D0%98+%D0%9F%D0%9E%D0%9D%D0%AF%D0%A2%D0%98%D0%95+%22%D0%98%D0%9C%D0%9F%D0%95%D0%A0%D0%98%D0%AF%22+%D0%92+%D0%A0%D0%9E%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%98%D0%98+%D0%92+%D0%9F%D0%95%D0%A0%D0%92%D0%9E%D0%99+%D0%A7%D0%95%D0%A2%D0%92%D0%95%D0%A0%D0%A2%D0%98+XVIII+%D0%92%D0%95%D0%9A%D0%90&rft.issue=5&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Ageyeva%2C+Olga&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historia.ru%2F1999%2F05%2Fageyeva.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolovyov2006" class="citation thesis cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Solovyov, Yevgeny (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dissercat.com/content/petr-i-v-otechestvennoi-istoriografii-kontsa-xviii-nachala-xx-vv"><i>Петр I в Отечественной Историографии: Конца XVIII – Начала XX ВВ</i></a> [<i>Peter I in Russian historiography of the late 18th – early 20th centuries</i>] (Doctor of Historical Sciences thesis) (in Russian). Moscow. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180707094918/http://www.dissercat.com/content/petr-i-v-otechestvennoi-istoriografii-kontsa-xviii-nachala-xx-vv">Archived</a> from the original on 7 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80+I+%D0%B2+%D0%9E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B8%3A+%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B0+XVIII+%E2%80%93+%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0+XX+%D0%92%D0%92&rft.degree=Doctor+of+Historical+Sciences&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Solovyov&rft.aufirst=Yevgeny&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dissercat.com%2Fcontent%2Fpetr-i-v-otechestvennoi-istoriografii-kontsa-xviii-nachala-xx-vv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrozdek2021" class="citation book cs1">Drozdek, Adam (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9ygSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR10"><i>Theological Reflection in Eighteenth-Century Russia</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. x. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7936-4184-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-7936-4184-7"><bdi>978-1-7936-4184-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theological+Reflection+in+Eighteenth-Century+Russia&rft.pages=x&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-7936-4184-7&rft.aulast=Drozdek&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9ygSEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDubakov2004" class="citation thesis cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dubakov, Maxim Valentinovich (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://economy-lib.com/promyshlenno-torgovaya-politika-petra-1"><i>Промышленно-торговая политика Петра 1</i></a> [<i>Industrial and trade policy of Peter I</i>] (Dissertation abstract thesis) (in Russian). Moscow. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180414233833/http://economy-lib.com/promyshlenno-torgovaya-politika-petra-1">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Pyatigorsk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180629211159/http://www.dissercat.com/content/stanovlenie-sistemy-rossiiskogo-obrazovaniya-v-gody-reform-petra-i">Archived</a> from the original on 29 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Bruce</a> (1978). <i>Nicholas I, Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nicholas+I%2C+Emperor+and+Autocrat+of+All+the+Russias&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Lincoln&rft.aufirst=W.+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMazour1961" class="citation book cs1">Mazour, Anatole Gregory (1961). <i>The first Russian revolution, 1825: the Decembrist movement, its origins, development, and significance</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+first+Russian+revolution%2C+1825%3A+the+Decembrist+movement%2C+its+origins%2C+development%2C+and+significance&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Mazour&rft.aufirst=Anatole+Gregory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein1976-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein1976_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStein1976">Stein 1976</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowling2014728-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowling2014728_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDowling2014">Dowling 2014</a>, p. 728.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowling2014729-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowling2014729_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDowling2014">Dowling 2014</a>, p. 729.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLang1957" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Marshall_Lang" title="David Marshall Lang">Lang, David Marshall</a> (1957). <i>The last years of the Georgian monarchy, 1658–1832</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+last+years+of+the+Georgian+monarchy%2C+1658%E2%80%931832&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Lang&rft.aufirst=David+Marshall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurant1985" class="citation journal cs1">Burant, Stephen R. 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"The January Uprising of 1863 in Poland: Sources of Disaffection and the Arenas of Revolt". <i>European History Quarterly</i>. <b>15</b> (2): 131–156. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F026569148501500201">10.1177/026569148501500201</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+History+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+January+Uprising+of+1863+in+Poland%3A+Sources+of+Disaffection+and+the+Arenas+of+Revolt&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=131-156&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F026569148501500201&rft.aulast=Burant&rft.aufirst=Stephen+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haynes-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haynes_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haynes_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaynes2017" class="citation book cs1">Haynes, Margaret (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zs7KDwAAQBAJ&dq=russification+failed+finland+poland&pg=PA23"><i>Tsarist and Communist Russia 1855–1964</i></a>. Oxford: University Press. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1984-2144-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1984-2144-3"><bdi>978-0-1984-2144-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240227152931/https://books.google.com/books?id=zs7KDwAAQBAJ&dq=russification+failed+finland+poland&pg=PA23">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tsarist+and+Communist+Russia+1855%E2%80%931964.&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-1984-2144-3&rft.aulast=Haynes&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dzs7KDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Drussification%2Bfailed%2Bfinland%2Bpoland%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Davies, Norman</a> (1981). <i><a href="/wiki/God%27s_Playground" title="God's Playground">God's Playground: A History of Poland</a></i>. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 315–333, 352–63.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%27s+Playground%3A+A+History+of+Poland&rft.pages=315-333%2C+352-63&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadzinsky2006" class="citation book cs1">Radzinsky, Edvard (2006). <i>Alexander II: The Last Great Tsar</i>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-8426-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-8426-4"><bdi>978-0-7432-8426-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+II%3A+The+Last+Great+Tsar&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-8426-4&rft.aulast=Radzinsky&rft.aufirst=Edvard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaten,_Jörg2016" class="citation book cs1">Baten, Jörg (2016). <i>A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1075-0718-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1075-0718-0"><bdi>978-1-1075-0718-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Global+Economy.+From+1500+to+the+Present.&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-1075-0718-0&rft.au=Baten%2C+J%C3%B6rg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Moon, <i>The abolition of serfdom in Russia 1762–1907</i> (Longman, 2001)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolunovOwenZakharova2015" class="citation book cs1">Polunov, Alexander Y.; Owen, Thomas C.; Zakharova, Larisa G. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q2qmBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA164"><i>Russia in the Nineteenth Century: Autocracy, Reform, and Social Change, 1814–1914</i></a>. Routledge. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3174-6049-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-3174-6049-7"><bdi>978-1-3174-6049-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230121184735/https://books.google.com/books?id=q2qmBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA164">Archived</a> from the original on 21 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+in+the+Nineteenth+Century%3A+Autocracy%2C+Reform%2C+and+Social+Change%2C+1814%E2%80%931914&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-3174-6049-7&rft.aulast=Polunov&rft.aufirst=Alexander+Y.&rft.au=Owen%2C+Thomas+C.&rft.au=Zakharova%2C+Larisa+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq2qmBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkinshaKozlovHochfleid2008" class="citation book cs1">Akinsha, Konstantin; Kozlov, Georgi; Hochfleid, Sylvya (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S8akKpxJqoMC&pg=PA74"><i>The Holy Place: Architecture, Ideology, and History in Russia</i></a>. Yale University Press. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-4497-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-4497-0"><bdi>978-0-3001-4497-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230117183005/https://books.google.com/books?id=S8akKpxJqoMC&pg=PA74">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Holy+Place%3A+Architecture%2C+Ideology%2C+and+History+in+Russia&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-3001-4497-0&rft.aulast=Akinsha&rft.aufirst=Konstantin&rft.au=Kozlov%2C+Georgi&rft.au=Hochfleid%2C+Sylvya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS8akKpxJqoMC%26pg%3DPA74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorrero2009" class="citation book cs1">Borrero, Mauricio (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dhm0cGdrTOIC&pg=PA54"><i>Russia: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7475-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7475-4"><bdi>978-0-8160-7475-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230120173820/https://books.google.com/books?id=dhm0cGdrTOIC&pg=PA54">Archived</a> from the original on 20 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%3A+A+Reference+Guide+from+the+Renaissance+to+the+Present&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-7475-4&rft.aulast=Borrero&rft.aufirst=Mauricio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ddhm0cGdrTOIC%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2017" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Preston (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W5sXAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21"><i>The Fires of Patriotism: Alaskans in the Days of the First World War 1910–1920</i></a>. University of Alaska Press. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-6022-3206-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-6022-3206-8"><bdi>978-1-6022-3206-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fires+of+Patriotism%3A+Alaskans+in+the+Days+of+the+First+World+War+1910%E2%80%931920&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=University+of+Alaska+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-6022-3206-8&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Preston&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW5sXAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrinev2010" class="citation journal cs1">Grinev, Andrei V. (18 February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.openedition.org/ejas/7805">"The Plans for Russian Expansion in the New World and the North Pacific in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries"</a>. <i>European Journal of American Studies</i>. <b>5</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fejas.7805">10.4000/ejas.7805</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1991-9336">1991-9336</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220202064920/https://journals.openedition.org/ejas/7805">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+American+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Plans+for+Russian+Expansion+in+the+New+World+and+the+North+Pacific+in+the+Eighteenth+and+Nineteenth+Centuries&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2010-02-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Fejas.7805&rft.issn=1991-9336&rft.aulast=Grinev&rft.aufirst=Andrei+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Fejas%2F7805&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman2002113-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2002113_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChapman2002">Chapman 2002</a>, p. 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman2002114-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2002114_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2002114_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChapman2002">Chapman 2002</a>, p. 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeoffrey2011315-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeoffrey2011315_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeoffrey2011">Geoffrey 2011</a>, p. 315.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeoffrey2011316-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeoffrey2011316_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeoffrey2011">Geoffrey 2011</a>, p. 316.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron1997121-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron1997121_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaldron1997">Waldron 1997</a>, p. 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeton-Watson1967445–460-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeton-Watson1967445–460_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeton-Watson1967">Seton-Watson 1967</a>, pp. 445–460.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Lowe, <i>Alexander III of Russia</i> (1895) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderiiirus00lowegoog">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170118111426/https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=n9hBAAAAYAAJ">Archived</a> 18 January 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByrnes1968" class="citation book cs1">Byrnes, Robert F. (1968). <i>Pobedonostsev: His Life and Thought</i>. Indiana University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pobedonostsev%3A+His+Life+and+Thought&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Byrnes&rft.aufirst=Robert+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchimmelpenninck_Van_Der_Oye" class="citation book cs1">Schimmelpenninck Van Der Oye, David. <i>Russian foreign policy, 1815–1917</i>. pp. 554–574.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+foreign+policy%2C+1815%E2%80%931917&rft.pages=554-574&rft.aulast=Schimmelpenninck+Van+Der+Oye&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFLieven2006">Lieven 2006</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeton-Watson1967441–444,_679–682-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeton-Watson1967441–444,_679–682_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeton-Watson1967">Seton-Watson 1967</a>, pp. 441–444, 679–682.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:42-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:42_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndreev2003" class="citation book cs1">Andreev, A. I. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MqXnOBX4dREC"><i>Soviet Russia and Tibet: the debacle of secret diplomacy, 1918-1930s</i></a>. Leiden: Brill. pp. 13–15, 37, 67, 96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9-0041-2952-9" title="Special:BookSources/9-0041-2952-9"><bdi>9-0041-2952-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51330174">51330174</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230124202721/https://books.google.com/books?id=MqXnOBX4dREC">Archived</a> from the original on 24 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 March</span> 2023</span>. <q>In the days of the Great Game, Mongolia was an object of imperialist encroachment by Russia, as Tibet was for the British.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+Russia+and+Tibet%3A+the+debacle+of+secret+diplomacy%2C+1918-1930s&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=13-15%2C+37%2C+67%2C+96&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51330174&rft.isbn=9-0041-2952-9&rft.aulast=Andreev&rft.aufirst=A.+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMqXnOBX4dREC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConnaughton2002" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Connaughton" title="Richard Connaughton">Connaughton, Richard</a> (January 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historytoday.com/archive/port-arthur-revisited">"Port Arthur Revisited"</a>. <i>HistoryToday.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HistoryToday.com&rft.atitle=Port+Arthur+Revisited&rft.date=2002-01&rft.aulast=Connaughton&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Farchive%2Fport-arthur-revisited&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJelavich1974" class="citation book cs1">Jelavich, Barbara (1974). <i>St. Petersburg and Moscow: Tsarist and Soviet Foreign Policy, 1814–1974</i>. pp. 161–279. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/299007">299007</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL5911156M">5911156M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=St.+Petersburg+and+Moscow%3A+Tsarist+and+Soviet+Foreign+Policy%2C+1814%E2%80%931974&rft.pages=161-279&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F299007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL5911156M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Jelavich&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAscher2004" class="citation book cs1">Ascher, Abraham (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rNRqfGWR4pIC&pg=PA187">"Coup d'État"</a>. <i>The Revolution of 1905: A Short History</i>. Stanford University Press. pp. 187–210. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5028-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5028-8"><bdi>978-0-8047-5028-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL3681754M">3681754M</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Coup+d%27%C3%89tat&rft.btitle=The+Revolution+of+1905%3A+A+Short+History&rft.pages=187-210&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL3681754M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-5028-8&rft.aulast=Ascher&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrNRqfGWR4pIC%26pg%3DPA187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarcave1964" class="citation book cs1">Harcave, Sidney (1964). "The "Two Russias"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>First blood: the Russian Revolution of 1905</i>. Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/405923">405923</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL5918954M">5918954M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+%22Two+Russias%22&rft.btitle=First+blood%3A+the+Russian+Revolution+of+1905&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F405923&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL5918954M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Harcave&rft.aufirst=Sidney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarth1997" class="citation book cs1">Warth, Robert D. (1997). <i>Nicholas II: the life and reign of Russia's last monarch</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nicholas+II%3A+the+life+and+reign+of+Russia%27s+last+monarch&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Warth&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven2006391-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieven2006391_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLieven2006">Lieven 2006</a>, p. 391.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreeze2002234–268-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreeze2002234–268_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFreeze2002">Freeze 2002</a>, pp. 234–268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeton-Watson1952" class="citation book cs1">Seton-Watson, Hugh (1952). <i>The Decline of Imperial Russia, 1855–1914</i>. pp. 277–280.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decline+of+Imperial+Russia%2C+1855%E2%80%931914&rft.pages=277-280&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Seton-Watson&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadkey1953" class="citation journal cs1">Radkey, Oliver H. (1953). "An Alternative to Bolshevism: The Program of Russian Social Revolutionism". <i>Journal of Modern History</i>. <b>25</b> (1): 25–39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F237562">10.1086/237562</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=An+Alternative+to+Bolshevism%3A+The+Program+of+Russian+Social+Revolutionism&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=25-39&rft.date=1953&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F237562&rft.aulast=Radkey&rft.aufirst=Oliver+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCavendish2003" class="citation journal cs1">Cavendish, Richard (2003). "The Bolshevik-Menshevik split November 16th, 1903". <i>History Today</i>. <b>53</b> (11): 64ff.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=The+Bolshevik-Menshevik+split+November+16th%2C+1903&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=64ff&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Cavendish&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAscher2004160–186-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAscher2004160–186_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAscher2004">Ascher 2004</a>, pp. 160–186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarver2015" class="citation book cs1">Garver, John W. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xvuuCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA764"><i>China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic of China</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 764. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1908-8435-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1908-8435-2"><bdi>978-0-1908-8435-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228171639/https://books.google.com/books?id=xvuuCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA764">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Quest%3A+The+History+of+the+Foreign+Relations+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China&rft.pages=764&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-1908-8435-2&rft.aulast=Garver&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxvuuCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA764&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFromkin2010" class="citation book cs1">Fromkin, David (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OV0i1mJdNSwC&pg=PA208"><i>A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East</i></a>. Henry Holt and Company. p. 208. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4299-8852-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4299-8852-0"><bdi>978-1-4299-8852-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221229193129/https://books.google.com/books?id=OV0i1mJdNSwC&pg=PA208">Archived</a> from the original on 29 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Peace+to+End+All+Peace%3A+The+Fall+of+the+Ottoman+Empire+and+the+Creation+of+the+Modern+Middle+East&rft.pages=208&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Company&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4299-8852-0&rft.aulast=Fromkin&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOV0i1mJdNSwC%26pg%3DPA208&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven201582-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieven201582_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLieven2015">Lieven 2015</a>, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFortescue2017" class="citation book cs1">Fortescue, William (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4CMxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA109"><i>The Third Republic in France, 1870–1940: Conflicts and Continuities</i></a>. Routledge. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3515-4000-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-3515-4000-1"><bdi>978-1-3515-4000-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221229193135/https://books.google.com/books?id=4CMxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA109">Archived</a> from the original on 29 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Third+Republic+in+France%2C+1870%E2%80%931940%3A+Conflicts+and+Continuities&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-3515-4000-1&rft.aulast=Fortescue&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4CMxDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron1997132-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron1997132_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaldron1997">Waldron 1997</a>, p. 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYorulmaz2014" class="citation book cs1">Yorulmaz, Naci (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2-eKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40"><i>Arming the Sultan: German Arms Trade and Personal Diplomacy in the Ottoman Empire Before World War I</i></a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8577-2518-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8577-2518-9"><bdi>978-0-8577-2518-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221229183449/https://books.google.com/books?id=2-eKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40">Archived</a> from the original on 29 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arming+the+Sultan%3A+German+Arms+Trade+and+Personal+Diplomacy+in+the+Ottoman+Empire+Before+World+War+I&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-8577-2518-9&rft.aulast=Yorulmaz&rft.aufirst=Naci&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2-eKDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven2015241-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieven2015241_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLieven2015">Lieven 2015</a>, p. 241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven20152-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieven20152_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLieven2015">Lieven 2015</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMeekin201188-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcMeekin201188_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcMeekin2011">McMeekin 2011</a>, p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamiltonHerwig2003" class="citation book cs1">Hamilton, Richard F.; Herwig, Holger, eds. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2EyJY8uE4WYC&pg=PA180"><i>The Origins of World War I</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-1735-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-1735-6"><bdi>978-0-5218-1735-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221227194005/https://books.google.com/books?id=2EyJY8uE4WYC&pg=PA180">Archived</a> from the original on 27 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+World+War+I&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-5218-1735-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2EyJY8uE4WYC%26pg%3DPA180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven2015338-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieven2015338_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLieven2015">Lieven 2015</a>, p. 338.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuthchild2010" class="citation book cs1">Ruthchild, Rochelle (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ymzJHyguvigC&pg=PA255"><i>Equality and Revolution</i></a>. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 255. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-7375-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-7375-1"><bdi>978-0-8229-7375-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221227194008/https://books.google.com/books?id=ymzJHyguvigC&pg=PA255">Archived</a> from the original on 27 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Equality+and+Revolution&rft.pages=255&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8229-7375-1&rft.aulast=Ruthchild&rft.aufirst=Rochelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DymzJHyguvigC%26pg%3DPA255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldman2011" class="citation book cs1">Goldman, Emily (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AbtHRsAAPIkC&pg=PA40"><i>Power in Uncertain Times: Strategy in the Fog of Peace</i></a>. Stanford University Press. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-7433-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-7433-8"><bdi>978-0-8047-7433-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221227194007/https://books.google.com/books?id=AbtHRsAAPIkC&pg=PA40">Archived</a> from the original on 27 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+in+Uncertain+Times%3A+Strategy+in+the+Fog+of+Peace&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-7433-8&rft.aulast=Goldman&rft.aufirst=Emily&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAbtHRsAAPIkC%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZabecki2014" class="citation book cs1">Zabecki, David T. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rCWMBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA371"><i>Germany at War: 400 Years of Military History</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 371. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5988-4981-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5988-4981-3"><bdi>978-1-5988-4981-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230104160047/https://books.google.com/books?id=rCWMBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA371">Archived</a> from the original on 4 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany+at+War%3A+400+Years+of+Military+History&rft.pages=371&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-5988-4981-3&rft.aulast=Zabecki&rft.aufirst=David+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrCWMBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA371&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNally2022" class="citation book cs1">McNally, Michael (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YpeEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61"><i>Tannenberg 1914: Destruction of the Russian Second Army</i></a>. Bloomsbury. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4728-5020-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4728-5020-1"><bdi>978-1-4728-5020-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221226194512/https://books.google.com/books?id=YpeEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61">Archived</a> from the original on 26 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tannenberg+1914%3A+Destruction+of+the+Russian+Second+Army&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-4728-5020-1&rft.aulast=McNally&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYpeEEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker20141048-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker20141048_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTucker2014">Tucker 2014</a>, p. 1048.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuckerRoberts2005" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla M., eds. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2YqjfHLyyj8C&pg=PA380"><i>World War I: Encyclopedia</i></a>. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 380. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8510-9420-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8510-9420-2"><bdi>978-1-8510-9420-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221226194508/https://books.google.com/books?id=2YqjfHLyyj8C&pg=PA380">Archived</a> from the original on 26 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+War+I%3A+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=380&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-8510-9420-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2YqjfHLyyj8C%26pg%3DPA380&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2019468-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker2019468_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTucker2019">Tucker 2019</a>, p. 468.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSondhaus2020" class="citation book cs1">Sondhaus, Lawrence (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9in-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA114"><i>World War One</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 114. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1084-9619-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1084-9619-3"><bdi>978-1-1084-9619-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221227173555/https://books.google.com/books?id=9in-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA114">Archived</a> from the original on 27 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+War+One&rft.pages=114&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-1084-9619-3&rft.aulast=Sondhaus&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9in-DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalicBrown2017" class="citation book cs1">Kalic, Sean N.; Brown, Gates M. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0YI2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA180"><i>Russian Revolution of 1917: The Essential Reference Guide</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-5093-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-5093-6"><bdi>978-1-4408-5093-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228162636/https://books.google.com/books?id=0YI2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA180">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+Revolution+of+1917%3A+The+Essential+Reference+Guide&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4408-5093-6&rft.aulast=Kalic&rft.aufirst=Sean+N.&rft.au=Brown%2C+Gates+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0YI2DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2014a" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Spencer C., ed. (2014a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SZHgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA556"><i>500 Great Military Leaders</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 556. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5988-4758-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5988-4758-1"><bdi>978-1-5988-4758-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221228162637/https://books.google.com/books?id=SZHgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA556">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=500+Great+Military+Leaders&rft.pages=556&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-5988-4758-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSZHgBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA556&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJahn1998" class="citation book cs1">Jahn, Hubertus (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9Xx499_1GDoC&pg=PA9"><i>Patriotic Culture in Russia During World War I</i></a>. Cornell University Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8571-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8571-8"><bdi>978-0-8014-8571-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221227194005/https://books.google.com/books?id=9Xx499_1GDoC&pg=PA9">Archived</a> from the original on 27 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patriotic+Culture+in+Russia+During+World+War+I&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-8571-8&rft.aulast=Jahn&rft.aufirst=Hubertus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9Xx499_1GDoC%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorne2012" class="citation book cs1">Horne, John (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EjZHLXRKjtEC&pg=PA449"><i>A Companion to World War I</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 449. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1199-6870-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1199-6870-2"><bdi>978-1-1199-6870-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221227173552/https://books.google.com/books?id=EjZHLXRKjtEC&pg=PA449">Archived</a> from the original on 27 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+World+War+I&rft.pages=449&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-1199-6870-2&rft.aulast=Horne&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEjZHLXRKjtEC%26pg%3DPA449&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESanborn201430-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanborn201430_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSanborn2014">Sanborn 2014</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESanborn201466-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanborn201466_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSanborn2014">Sanborn 2014</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESanborn2014125–126-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanborn2014125–126_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSanborn2014">Sanborn 2014</a>, p. 125–126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2014514-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker2014514_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTucker2014">Tucker 2014</a>, p. 514.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMeekin2011111–112-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcMeekin2011111–112_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcMeekin2011">McMeekin 2011</a>, p. 111–112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMeekin2011114-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcMeekin2011114_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcMeekin2011">McMeekin 2011</a>, p. 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994238-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994238_127-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994238_127-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994238_127-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHalpern1994">Halpern 1994</a>, p. 238.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2019524-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker2019524_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTucker2019">Tucker 2019</a>, p. 524.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994223–230-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994223–230_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHalpern1994">Halpern 1994</a>, pp. 223–230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994232–233-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994232–233_130-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994232–233_130-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHalpern1994">Halpern 1994</a>, pp. 232–233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994236–237-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994236–237_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHalpern1994">Halpern 1994</a>, pp. 236–237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew Cook, <i>To kill Rasputin: the life and death of Grigori Rasputin</i> (2011).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes201177–78-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPipes201177–78_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPipes2011">Pipes 2011</a>, p. 77–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes201179-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPipes201179_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPipes2011">Pipes 2011</a>, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes201190–91-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPipes201190–91_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPipes2011">Pipes 2011</a>, p. 90–91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDukes1998212-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDukes1998212_136-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDukes1998212_136-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDukes1998212_136-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDukes1998">Dukes 1998</a>, p. 212.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Gilbert, <i>Routledge Atlas of Russian History</i> (4th ed. 2007) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert2007" class="citation book cs1">Gilbert, Martin (2007). <i>The Routledge Atlas of Russian History</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415394840" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415394840"><bdi>978-0415394840</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Atlas+of+Russian+History&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0415394840&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKissinger1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Kissinger, Henry</a> (1994). <i>Diplomacy</i>. Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. p. 142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6716-5991-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6716-5991-2"><bdi>978-0-6716-5991-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/29428792">29428792</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL1432465M">1432465M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diplomacy&rft.pages=142&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster+Paperbacks&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F29428792&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL1432465M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-6716-5991-2&rft.aulast=Kissinger&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowling2014728–730-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowling2014728–730_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDowling2014">Dowling 2014</a>, p. 728–730.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStepanov2009" class="citation journal cs1">Stepanov, Valerii L. (2009). "Revisiting Russian Conservatism". <i>Russian Studies in History</i>. <b>48</b> (2): 3–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2753%2FRSH1061-1983480200">10.2753/RSH1061-1983480200</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Studies+in+History&rft.atitle=Revisiting+Russian+Conservatism&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=3-7&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2753%2FRSH1061-1983480200&rft.aulast=Stepanov&rft.aufirst=Valerii+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1997" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Alexander M. (1997). <i>Romantics, Reformers, Reactionaries: Russian Conservative Thought and Politics in the Reign of Alexander I</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Romantics%2C+Reformers%2C+Reactionaries%3A+Russian+Conservative+Thought+and+Politics+in+the+Reign+of+Alexander+I&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Alexander+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfe2018" class="citation book cs1">Wolfe, Bertram D. (2018). <i>Revolution and Reality</i>. University of North Carolina Press Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AV5gDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT349">349</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-5020-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-5020-3"><bdi>978-1-4696-5020-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+and+Reality&rft.pages=349&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press+Books&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-4696-5020-3&rft.aulast=Wolfe&rft.aufirst=Bertram+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlokhy2010" class="citation book cs1">Plokhy, Serhii (2010). <i>The origins of the Slavic nations: premodern identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus</i> (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 285. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5211-5511-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5211-5511-3"><bdi>978-0-5211-5511-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+origins+of+the+Slavic+nations%3A+premodern+identities+in+Russia%2C+Ukraine%2C+and+Belarus&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=285&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-5211-5511-3&rft.aulast=Plokhy&rft.aufirst=Serhii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170331030754/http://www.imperialhouse.ru/en/dynastyhistory/dinzak1.html">"Fundamental Laws of the Russian Empire"</a>. chapter1, article 7. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imperialhouse.ru/en/dynastyhistory/dinzak1.html">the original</a> on 31 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fundamental+Laws+of+the+Russian+Empire&rft.pages=chapter1%2C+article+7&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.imperialhouse.ru%2Fen%2Fdynastyhistory%2Fdinzak1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman20023-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman20023_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChapman2002">Chapman 2002</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman20025-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman20025_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChapman2002">Chapman 2002</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman200249-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman200249_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChapman2002">Chapman 2002</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman2002129-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2002129_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChapman2002">Chapman 2002</a>, p. 129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman2002130-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2002130_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChapman2002">Chapman 2002</a>, p. 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman2002131-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2002131_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChapman2002">Chapman 2002</a>, p. 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman20024-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman20024_154-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman20024_154-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChapman2002">Chapman 2002</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199727-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron199727_155-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaldron1997">Waldron 1997</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZiegler2009" class="citation book cs1">Ziegler, Charles E. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7moY9FF4raQC&pg=PA58"><i>The History of Russia</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3133-6307-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3133-6307-8"><bdi>978-0-3133-6307-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230116174112/https://books.google.com/books?id=7moY9FF4raQC&pg=PA58">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Russia&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-3133-6307-8&rft.aulast=Ziegler&rft.aufirst=Charles+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7moY9FF4raQC%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199755–56-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron199755–56_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaldron1997">Waldron 1997</a>, p. 55–56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter Sperling, "Building a Railway, Creating Imperial Space: 'Locality,' 'Region,' 'Russia,' 'Empire' as Political Arguments in Post-Reform Russia", <i>Ab Imperio</i> (2006) Issue 2, pp. 101–134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sarah Searight, "Russian railway penetration of Central Asia", <i>Asian Affairs</i> (June 1992) 23#2 pp. 171–180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Article 62 of the 1906 <a href="/wiki/Russian_Constitution_of_1906" title="Russian Constitution of 1906">Fundamental Laws</a> (previously, Article 40): "The primary and predominant Faith in the Russian Empire is the Christian Orthodox Catholic Faith of the Eastern Confession."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_161-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_161-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_161-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_161-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_161-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_161-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKollmann2017" class="citation book cs1">Kollmann, Nancy Shields (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/969962873"><i>The Russian Empire 1450–1801</i></a> (1st ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. pp. 404, 407–408. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-8051-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-8051-3"><bdi>978-0-1992-8051-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/969962873">969962873</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240227152937/https://search.worldcat.org/title/969962873">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Empire+1450%E2%80%931801&rft.place=Oxford%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pages=404%2C+407-408&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F969962873&rft.isbn=978-0-1992-8051-3&rft.aulast=Kollmann&rft.aufirst=Nancy+Shields&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F969962873&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_162-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_162-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaviesWesselBrenner2015" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Franziska; Wessel, Martin Schulze; Brenner, Michael (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/930490047"><i>Jews and Muslims in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union</i></a>. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 47–52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-6473-1028-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-6473-1028-2"><bdi>978-3-6473-1028-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/930490047">930490047</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240227152932/https://search.worldcat.org/title/930490047">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+and+Muslims+in+the+Russian+Empire+and+the+Soviet+Union&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.pages=47-52&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+%26+Ruprecht&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F930490047&rft.isbn=978-3-6473-1028-2&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Franziska&rft.au=Wessel%2C+Martin+Schulze&rft.au=Brenner%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F930490047&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/.premium-1791-russian-jews-told-where-to-live-1.5302808">"1791: Catherine the Great Tells Jews Where They Can Live"</a>. <i>Haaretz</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211017084540/https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/.premium-1791-russian-jews-told-where-to-live-1.5302808">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=1791%3A+Catherine+the+Great+Tells+Jews+Where+They+Can+Live&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fjewish%2F.premium-1791-russian-jews-told-where-to-live-1.5302808&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_164-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_164-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_164-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_164-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_164-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_164-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-pale-of-settlement">"The Pale of Settlement"</a>. <i>www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191015030302/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-pale-of-settlement">Archived</a> from the original on 15 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org&rft.atitle=The+Pale+of+Settlement&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fthe-pale-of-settlement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_165-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_165-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_165-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_165-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/russia-virtual-jewish-history-tour">"Russia Virtual Jewish History Tour"</a>. <i>www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200423132203/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/russia-virtual-jewish-history-tour">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org&rft.atitle=Russia+Virtual+Jewish+History+Tour&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Frussia-virtual-jewish-history-tour&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/cantonists">"Cantonists"</a>. <i>www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220202061853/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/cantonists">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org&rft.atitle=Cantonists&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fcantonists&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/nicholas-x00b0-2">"Nicholas"</a>. <i>www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220202064529/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/nicholas-x00b0-2">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org&rft.atitle=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fnicholas-x00b0-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/.premium-this-day-may-laws-punish-russia-s-jews-1.5248288">"This Day in Jewish History May Laws Punish Russia's Jews"</a>. <i>Haaretz</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211028175015/https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/.premium-this-day-may-laws-punish-russia-s-jews-1.5248288">Archived</a> from the original on 28 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=This+Day+in+Jewish+History+May+Laws+Punish+Russia%27s+Jews&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fjewish%2F.premium-this-day-may-laws-punish-russia-s-jews-1.5248288&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrower1996" class="citation journal cs1">Brower, Daniel (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2502001">"Russian Roads to Mecca: Religious Tolerance and Muslim Pilgrimage in the Russian Empire"</a>. <i>Slavic Review</i>. <b>55</b> (3): 567–584. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2502001">10.2307/2502001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0037-6779">0037-6779</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2502001">2502001</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163469315">163469315</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211029205711/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2502001">Archived</a> from the original on 29 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=Russian+Roads+to+Mecca%3A+Religious+Tolerance+and+Muslim+Pilgrimage+in+the+Russian+Empire&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=567-584&rft.date=1996&rft.issn=0037-6779&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163469315%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2502001%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2502001&rft.aulast=Brower&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2502001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_170-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_170-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2015" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Elena I. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fM5uBgAAQBAJ"><i>The Muslim question and Russian imperial governance</i></a>. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 1–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2530-1454-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2530-1454-2"><bdi>978-0-2530-1454-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/902954232">902954232</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164800/https://books.google.com/books?id=fM5uBgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Muslim+question+and+Russian+imperial+governance&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pages=1-25&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F902954232&rft.isbn=978-0-2530-1454-2&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Elena+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfM5uBgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_171-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_171-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_171-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2021" class="citation book cs1">Allen, Frank (2021). <i>Muslim Religious Institutions in Imperial Russia: The Islamic World of Novouzensk District and the Kazakh Inner Horde, 1780–1910</i>. Brill. pp. 1–3, 100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-0044-9232-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-0044-9232-5"><bdi>978-9-0044-9232-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslim+Religious+Institutions+in+Imperial+Russia%3A+The+Islamic+World+of+Novouzensk+District+and+the+Kazakh+Inner+Horde%2C+1780%E2%80%931910&rft.pages=1-3%2C+100&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-9-0044-9232-5&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_172-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_172-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrews2006" class="citation book cs1">Crews, Robert D. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R40_QY77IPUC"><i>For prophet and tsar : Islam and empire in Russia and Central Asia</i></a>. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp. 293–294. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-6740-2164-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-6740-2164-9"><bdi>0-6740-2164-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/62282613">62282613</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164800/https://books.google.com/books?id=R40_QY77IPUC">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+prophet+and+tsar+%3A+Islam+and+empire+in+Russia+and+Central+Asia&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pages=293-294&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F62282613&rft.isbn=0-6740-2164-9&rft.aulast=Crews&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR40_QY77IPUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichmond2013" class="citation book cs1">Richmond, Walter (2013). "4: 1864". <i>The Circassian Genocide</i>. New Brunswick, New Jersey, US: Rutgers University Press. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-6068-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-6068-7"><bdi>978-0-8135-6068-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4%3A+1864&rft.btitle=The+Circassian+Genocide&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+New+Jersey%2C+US&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-6068-7&rft.aulast=Richmond&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichmond2013" class="citation book cs1">Richmond, Walter (2013). <i>The Circassian Genocide</i>. New Brunswick, New Jersey, US: Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-6068-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-6068-7"><bdi>978-0-8135-6068-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Circassian+Genocide&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+New+Jersey%2C+US&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-6068-7&rft.aulast=Richmond&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeveneRoberts1999" class="citation book cs1">Levene, Mark; Roberts, Penny (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PjPCmnzztfkC&pg=PA149">"7: The Circassians: A Forgotten Genocide?"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Mark_Levene" title="Mark Levene">Shenfield, Stephen D.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PjPCmnzztfkC&q=Circassian+genocide&pg=PA149"><i>The Massacre in History</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Berghahn_Books" title="Berghahn Books">Berghahn Books</a>. pp. 149–162. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-5718-1935-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-5718-1935-5"><bdi>1-5718-1935-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216000738/https://books.google.com/books?id=PjPCmnzztfkC&q=Circassian+genocide&pg=PA149#v=snippet&q=Circassian%20genocide&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 16 December 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2023</span>. <q>The number who died in the Circassian catastrophe of the 1860s could hardly, therefore, have been fewer than one million, and may well have been closer to one-and-a-half million</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=7%3A+The+Circassians%3A+A+Forgotten+Genocide%3F&rft.btitle=The+Massacre+in+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=149-162&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-5718-1935-5&rft.aulast=Levene&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Penny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPjPCmnzztfkC%26pg%3DPA149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmed2013" class="citation book cs1">Ahmed, Akbar (2013). <i>The Thistle and the Drone</i>. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. p. 357. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8157-2378-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8157-2378-3"><bdi>978-0-8157-2378-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thistle+and+the+Drone&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=357&rft.pub=Brookings+Institution+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8157-2378-3&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Akbar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichmond2013" class="citation book cs1">Richmond, Walter (2013). "4: 1864". <i>The Circassian Genocide</i>. New Brunswick, New Jersey, US: Rutgers University Press. pp. 88–93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-6068-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-6068-7"><bdi>978-0-8135-6068-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4%3A+1864&rft.btitle=The+Circassian+Genocide&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+New+Jersey%2C+US&rft.pages=88-93&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-6068-7&rft.aulast=Richmond&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCataliotti2023" class="citation web cs1">Cataliotti, Joseph (22 October 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://study.com/learn/lesson/circassian-genocide-overview-facts.html">"Circassian Genocide: Overview & History"</a>. <i>Study.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230320101348/https://study.com/learn/lesson/circassian-genocide-overview-facts.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Study.com&rft.atitle=Circassian+Genocide%3A+Overview+%26+History&rft.date=2023-10-22&rft.aulast=Cataliotti&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstudy.com%2Flearn%2Flesson%2Fcircassian-genocide-overview-facts.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230822133010/https://ihd.org.tr/en/circassian-genocide-on-its-159th-anniversary-genocide-is-a-crime-against-humanity">"Circassian Genocide on its 159th Anniversary – Genocide is a Crime against Humanity!"</a>. <i>Human Rights Association</i>. 21 May 2023. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ihd.org.tr/en/circassian-genocide-on-its-159th-anniversary-genocide-is-a-crime-against-humanity">the original</a> on 22 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Human+Rights+Association&rft.atitle=Circassian+Genocide+on+its+159th+Anniversary+%E2%80%93+Genocide+is+a+Crime+against+Humanity%21&rft.date=2023-05-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fihd.org.tr%2Fen%2Fcircassian-genocide-on-its-159th-anniversary-genocide-is-a-crime-against-humanity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichmond2013" class="citation book cs1">Richmond, Walter (2013). <i>The Circassian Genocide</i>. New Brunswick, New Jersey, US: Rutgers University Press. pp. 91, 92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-6068-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-6068-7"><bdi>978-0-8135-6068-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Circassian+Genocide&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+New+Jersey%2C+US&rft.pages=91%2C+92&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-6068-7&rft.aulast=Richmond&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeach2010" class="citation news cs1">Peach, Gary (10 November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201025092153/https://www.politico.eu/article/forgotten-genocides-of-the-caucasus">"Forgotten genocides of the Caucasus"</a>. <i>Politico</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politico.eu/article/forgotten-genocides-of-the-caucasus">the original</a> on 25 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Politico&rft.atitle=Forgotten+genocides+of+the+Caucasus&rft.date=2010-11-10&rft.aulast=Peach&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.politico.eu%2Farticle%2Fforgotten-genocides-of-the-caucasus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShenfield1999" class="citation book cs1">Shenfield, Stephen D. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PjPCmnzztfkC&pg=PA149">"7: The Circassians: A Forgotten Genocide?"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Mark_Levene" title="Mark Levene">Levene, Mark</a>; Roberts, Penny (eds.). <i>The Massacre in History</i>. New York, NY, US: <a href="/wiki/Berghahn_Books" title="Berghahn Books">Berghahn Books</a>. pp. 149–162. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-5718-1935-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-5718-1935-5"><bdi>1-5718-1935-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240227153429/https://books.google.com/books?id=PjPCmnzztfkC&pg=PA149#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=7%3A+The+Circassians%3A+A+Forgotten+Genocide%3F&rft.btitle=The+Massacre+in+History&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY%2C+US&rft.pages=149-162&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-5718-1935-5&rft.aulast=Shenfield&rft.aufirst=Stephen+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPjPCmnzztfkC%26pg%3DPA149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2008" class="citation book cs1">King, Charles (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mv0RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96">"2: Rule and Resistance"</a>. <i>A History of the Caucasus</i>. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 96–98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1951-7775-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1951-7775-6"><bdi>978-0-1951-7775-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240227153520/https://books.google.com/books?id=mv0RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2%3A+Rule+and+Resistance&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Caucasus&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=96-98&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-1951-7775-6&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmv0RDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2008" class="citation book cs1">King, Charles (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mv0RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98">"2: Rule and Resistance"</a>. <i>A History of the Caucasus</i>. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1951-7775-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1951-7775-6"><bdi>978-0-1951-7775-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240227153438/https://books.google.com/books?id=mv0RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2%3A+Rule+and+Resistance&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Caucasus&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-1951-7775-6&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmv0RDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2000" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, Brian Glyn (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fmonderusse.39">"Hijra and Forced Migration from Nineteenth-Century Russia to the Ottoman Empire. A Critical Analysis of the Great Crimean Tatar Emigration of 1860–1861"</a>. <i>Cahiers du Monde russe</i>. <b>41</b> (1): 79–108. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fmonderusse.39">10.4000/monderusse.39</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1252-6576">1252-6576</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20171169">20171169</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36114349">36114349</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cahiers+du+Monde+russe&rft.atitle=Hijra+and+Forced+Migration+from+Nineteenth-Century+Russia+to+the+Ottoman+Empire.+A+Critical+Analysis+of+the+Great+Crimean+Tatar+Emigration+of+1860%E2%80%931861&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=79-108&rft.date=2000&rft.issn=1252-6576&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36114349%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20171169%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Fmonderusse.39&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Brian+Glyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4000%252Fmonderusse.39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:2_179-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaert2017" class="citation journal cs1">Paert, Irina (1 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ehr/cew383">"The Tsar's Foreign Faiths: Toleration and the Fate of Religious Freedom in Imperial Russia by Paul W. Werth"</a>. <i>The English Historical Review</i>. <b>132</b> (554): 175–177. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2Fcew383">10.1093/ehr/cew383</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-8266">0013-8266</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240227153510/https://academic.oup.com/ehr/article-abstract/132/554/175/3748210?redirectedFrom=fulltext">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yearbook+of+the+Association+of+Pacific+Coast+Geographers&rft.atitle=Religion+and+Migration%3A+The+Molokan+Experience&rft.volume=55&rft.pages=127-141&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24040086%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0066-9628&rft.aulast=Hardwick&rft.aufirst=Susan+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24040086&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSainsbury" class="citation web cs1">Sainsbury, Brendan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20210623-canadas-little-known-russian-sect">"Canada's little-known Russian sect"</a>. <i>www.bbc.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211017084540/https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20210623-canadas-little-known-russian-sect">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bbc.com&rft.atitle=Canada%27s+little-known+Russian+sect&rft.aulast=Sainsbury&rft.aufirst=Brendan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Ftravel%2Farticle%2F20210623-canadas-little-known-russian-sect&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/04/30/on-this-day-nicholas-ii-signs-decree-for-tolerance-development-a65437">"On This Day: Nicholas II Signs Decree for "Tolerance Development"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The Moscow Times</i>. 30 April 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211029174901/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/04/30/on-this-day-nicholas-ii-signs-decree-for-tolerance-development-a65437">Archived</a> from the original on 29 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Moscow+Times&rft.atitle=On+This+Day%3A+Nicholas+II+Signs+Decree+for+%22Tolerance+Development%22&rft.date=2019-04-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.themoscowtimes.com%2F2019%2F04%2F30%2Fon-this-day-nicholas-ii-signs-decree-for-tolerance-development-a65437&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSperber2013" class="citation book cs1">Sperber, Jonathan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=892sAgAAQBAJ"><i>Europe 1850–1914 : progress, participation and apprehension</i></a>. Oxon, England: Routledge. p. 325. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3158-3501-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-3158-3501-3"><bdi>978-1-3158-3501-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/874151263">874151263</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164759/https://books.google.com/books?id=892sAgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe+1850%E2%80%931914+%3A+progress%2C+participation+and+apprehension&rft.place=Oxon%2C+England&rft.pages=325&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F874151263&rft.isbn=978-1-3158-3501-3&rft.aulast=Sperber&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D892sAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/nicholas-x00b0-2">"Nicholas"</a>. <i>www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220202064529/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/nicholas-x00b0-2">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org&rft.atitle=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fnicholas-x00b0-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasis" class="citation web cs1">Masis, Julie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/in-the-former-soviet-union-statues-and-hero-worship-for-leaders-of-pogroms">"In the former Soviet Union, statues and hero worship for leaders of pogroms"</a>. <i>www.timesofisrael.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220427051624/https://www.timesofisrael.com/in-the-former-soviet-union-statues-and-hero-worship-for-leaders-of-pogroms">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.timesofisrael.com&rft.atitle=In+the+former+Soviet+Union%2C+statues+and+hero+worship+for+leaders+of+pogroms&rft.aulast=Masis&rft.aufirst=Julie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.timesofisrael.com%2Fin-the-former-soviet-union-statues-and-hero-worship-for-leaders-of-pogroms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_189-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_189-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadzinsky2011" class="citation book cs1">Radzinsky, Edvard (30 March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L3VS4Kqa_nAC"><i>The Last Tsar: The Life and Death of Nicholas II</i></a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 69, 77, 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3077-5462-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3077-5462-2"><bdi>978-0-3077-5462-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240227153447/https://books.google.com/books?id=L3VS4Kqa_nAC">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2022</span>. <q>To the tsar, the pogroms organized by the police seemed like a holy outburst of popular indignation against the revolutionaries</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Tsar%3A+The+Life+and+Death+of+Nicholas+II&rft.pages=69%2C+77%2C+79&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2011-03-30&rft.isbn=978-0-3077-5462-2&rft.aulast=Radzinsky&rft.aufirst=Edvard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL3VS4Kqa_nAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121024115547/http://www.archipelag.ru/ru_mir/religio/statistics/said/statistics-imp"><bdi lang="ru">Первая всеобщая перепись населения Российской Империи 1897 г. Распределение населения по вероисповеданиям и регионам</bdi></a> [First general census of the population of the Russian Empire in 1897. Distribution of the population by faiths and regions] (in Russian). archipelag.ru. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archipelag.ru/ru_mir/religio/statistics/said/statistics-imp">the original</a> on 24 October 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8+1897+%D0%B3.+%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%BE+%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BC+%D0%B8+%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC&rft.pub=archipelag.ru&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.archipelag.ru%2Fru_mir%2Freligio%2Fstatistics%2Fsaid%2Fstatistics-imp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Encyclopaedia of russian history, by James R. Miller, "Turkestan" entry</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeneral_Staff,_War_Office191418–19-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeneral_Staff,_War_Office191418–19_193-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeneral_Staff,_War_Office1914">General Staff, War Office 1914</a>, pp. 18–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapastratigakis201140-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapastratigakis201140_194-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPapastratigakis2011">Papastratigakis 2011</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayzel1975297–299-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMayzel1975297–299_195-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMayzel1975">Mayzel 1975</a>, pp. 297–299.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVinogradov1998269-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVinogradov1998269_196-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVinogradov1998">Vinogradov 1998</a>, p. 269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestwood199412-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestwood199412_197-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWestwood1994">Westwood 1994</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson199591–96-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson199591–96_198-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson199591–96_198-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson199591–96_198-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson199591–96_198-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson1995">Anderson 1995</a>, pp. 91–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson199597–98-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson199597–98_199-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson1995">Anderson 1995</a>, pp. 97–98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapastratigakis201153–54-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapastratigakis201153–54_200-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPapastratigakis2011">Papastratigakis 2011</a>, pp. 53–54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReese201998–104-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReese201998–104_201-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReese2019">Reese 2019</a>, pp. 98–104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeneral_Staff,_War_Office19147–12-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeneral_Staff,_War_Office19147–12_202-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeneral_Staff,_War_Office1914">General Staff, War Office 1914</a>, pp. 7–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReese2019128-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReese2019128_203-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReese2019">Reese 2019</a>, p. 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeneral_Staff,_War_Office191415–17-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeneral_Staff,_War_Office191415–17_204-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeneral_Staff,_War_Office1914">General Staff, War Office 1914</a>, pp. 15–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReese201937–40-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReese201937–40_205-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReese2019">Reese 2019</a>, pp. 37–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReese201944–45-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReese201944–45_206-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReese2019">Reese 2019</a>, pp. 44–45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReese201941–44-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReese201941–44_207-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReese2019">Reese 2019</a>, pp. 41–44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReese201927–28-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReese201927–28_208-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReese2019">Reese 2019</a>, pp. 27–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikaberidze2005" class="citation book cs1">Mikaberidze, Alexander (2005). <i>The Russian Officer Corps of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, 1795-1815</i>. 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"Reform in the Russian Army, 1856-1861". <i>Slavic Review</i>. <b>43</b> (1): 64. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2498735">2498735</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=Reform+in+the+Russian+Army%2C+1856-1861&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=64&rft.date=1984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2498735%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Brooks&rft.aufirst=E.+Willis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone202133-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone202133_212-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStone2021">Stone 2021</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone20214-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone20214_213-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStone2021">Stone 2021</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBudzbon1986" class="citation book cs1">Budzbon, Prezemyslav (1986). "Russia". In Gardiner, Robert & Gray, Randal (eds.). <i>Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1906–1921</i>. London: Conway Maritime Press. p. 291. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85177-245-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-85177-245-5"><bdi>0-85177-245-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Russia&rft.btitle=Conway%27s+All+the+World%27s+Fighting+Ships+1906%E2%80%931921&rft.place=London&rft.pages=291&rft.pub=Conway+Maritime+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-85177-245-5&rft.aulast=Budzbon&rft.aufirst=Prezemyslav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalpern199417–18-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalpern199417–18_215-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHalpern1994">Halpern 1994</a>, pp. 17–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994179-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalpern1994179_216-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHalpern1994">Halpern 1994</a>, p. 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Boris_Mironov_(historian)" title="Boris Mironov (historian)">Boris N. Mironov</a>, "The Myth of a Systemic Crisis in Russia after the Great Reforms of the 1860s–1870s", <i>Russian Social Science Review</i> (July/Aug 2009) 50#4 pp 36–48.; Boris N. Mironov, <i>The Standard of Living and Revolutions in Imperial Russia, 1700–1917</i> (2012) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMironov2012" class="citation book cs1">Mironov, Boris Nikolaevich (2012). <i>The Standard of Living and Revolutions in Russia, 1700-1917</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415608541" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415608541"><bdi>978-0415608541</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Standard+of+Living+and+Revolutions+in+Russia%2C+1700-1917&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0415608541&rft.aulast=Mironov&rft.aufirst=Boris+Nikolaevich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elise Kimerling Wirtschafter, <i>Russia's age of serfdom 1649–1861</i> (2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jeromeblum-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jeromeblum_219-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jeromeblum_219-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Blum" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerome Blum">Jerome Blum</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Lord_and_Peasant_in_Russia_from_the_Ninth_to_the_Nineteenth_Century" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century">Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century</a></i> (1961)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven L. Hoch, <i>Serfdom and social control in Russia: Petrovskoe, a village in Tambov</i> (1989)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-David_Moon_1999-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-David_Moon_1999_221-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_Moon_1999_221-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">David Moon, <i>The Russian Peasantry 1600–1930: The World the Peasants Made</i> (1999)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman20029-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman20029_222-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChapman2002">Chapman 2002</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Orlando Figes, "The Peasantry" in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVladimir_IUrevich_Cherniaev1997" class="citation book cs1">Vladimir IUrevich Cherniaev, ed. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NAZm2EdxKqkC&pg=PA543"><i>Critical Companion to the Russian Revolution, 1914–1921</i></a>. Indiana UP. pp. 543–53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-2533-3333-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-2533-3333-4"><bdi>0-2533-3333-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240227153451/https://books.google.com/books?id=NAZm2EdxKqkC&pg=PA543#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+Companion+to+the+Russian+Revolution%2C+1914%E2%80%931921&rft.pages=543-53&rft.pub=Indiana+UP&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-2533-3333-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNAZm2EdxKqkC%26pg%3DPA543&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Hoch, "Did Russia's Emancipated Serfs Really Pay Too Much for Too Little Land? Statistical Anomalies and Long-Tailed Distributions". <i>Slavic Review</i> (2004) 63#2 pp. 247–274.; Steven Nafziger, "Serfdom, emancipation, and economic development in Tsarist Russia" (Working paper, Williams College, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ehs.org.uk/dotAsset/60e0d541-627e-4028-bca1-5fb981169cc2.doc">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140429045548/http://www.ehs.org.uk/dotAsset/60e0d541-627e-4028-bca1-5fb981169cc2.doc">Archived</a> 29 April 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Christine_D._Worobec_1991-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Christine_D._Worobec_1991_225-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Christine_D._Worobec_1991_225-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Christine_D._Worobec" class="mw-redirect" title="Christine D. Worobec">Christine D. Worobec</a>, <i>Peasant Russia: family and community in the post-emancipation period</i> (1991).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Louise McReynolds, <i>News under Russia's Old Regime: The Development of a Mass-Circulation Press</i> (1991).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDianina2003" class="citation journal cs1">Dianina, Katia (2003). "Passage to Europe: Dostoevskii in the St. Petersburg Arcade". <i>Slavic Review</i>. <b>62</b> (2): 237–257. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3185576">10.2307/3185576</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3185576">3185576</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163868977">163868977</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=Passage+to+Europe%3A+Dostoevskii+in+the+St.+Petersburg+Arcade&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=237-257&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163868977%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3185576%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3185576&rft.aulast=Dianina&rft.aufirst=Katia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMironov1991" class="citation journal cs1">Mironov, Boris N. (1991). "The Development of Literacy in Russia and the USSR from the Tenth to the Twentieth Centuries". <i>History of Education Quarterly</i>. <b>31</b> (2): 229–252. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F368437">10.2307/368437</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/368437">368437</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144460404">144460404</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Education+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Development+of+Literacy+in+Russia+and+the+USSR+from+the+Tenth+to+the+Twentieth+Centuries&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=229-252&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144460404%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F368437%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F368437&rft.aulast=Mironov&rft.aufirst=Boris+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> esp p. 234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Franklin A. Walker, "Enlightenment and religion in Russian education in the reign of Tsar Alexander I." <i>History of Education Quarterly</i> 32.3 (1992): 343–360.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, <i>Russian Identities: A Historical Survey</i> (2005) pp 112–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen Woodburn, "Reaction Reconsidered: Education and the State in Russia, 1825–1848." <i>Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750–1850: Selected Papers 2000</i> pp 423–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hans Rogger, <i>Russia in the Age of Modernisation and Revolution 1881 – 1917 </i> (1983) p 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-StraussPT196-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-StraussPT196_233-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). <i>Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule</i> (Volume 18 of Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies). Routledge, 7 July 2016. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-3171-1844-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-3171-1844-8">1-3171-1844-8</a>, 9781317118442. <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT196">PT196</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221226183253/https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT196">Archived</a> 26 December 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1995" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, M. S. (1995) [1978]. <i>Peter the Great</i>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-43746-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-43746-3"><bdi>978-0-582-43746-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peter+the+Great&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-582-43746-3&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=M.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatchpole1974" class="citation book cs1">Catchpole, Brian (1974). <i>A Map History of Russia</i>. Heinemann Educational Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Map+History+of+Russia&rft.pub=Heinemann+Educational+Publishers&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Catchpole&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapman2002" class="citation book cs1">Chapman, Tim (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-Q_qdriEP_UC"><i>Imperial Russia, 1801-1905</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1345-7970-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1345-7970-9"><bdi>978-1-1345-7970-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240227154100/https://books.google.co.ve/books?id=-Q_qdriEP_UC&redir_esc=y">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+Russia%2C+1801-1905&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-1345-7970-9&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-Q_qdriEP_UC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowling2014" class="citation book cs1">Dowling, Timothy C. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA728"><i>Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond [2 volumes]</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5988-4948-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5988-4948-6"><bdi>978-1-5988-4948-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230112225054/https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA728">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+at+War%3A+From+the+Mongol+Conquest+to+Afghanistan%2C+Chechnya%2C+and+Beyond+%26%2391%3B2+volumes%26%2393%3B&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-5988-4948-6&rft.aulast=Dowling&rft.aufirst=Timothy+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKTq2BQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA728&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDukes1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dukes_(historian)" title="Paul Dukes (historian)">Dukes, Paul</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/-K56QgAACAAJ?hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjh3ZKYqOqJAxXeWkEAHS04PVcQ7"><i>A History of Russia: Medieval, Modern, Contemporary, C. 882-1996</i></a>. Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-2096-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-2096-8"><bdi>978-0-8223-2096-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Russia%3A+Medieval%2C+Modern%2C+Contemporary%2C+C.+882-1996&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-2096-8&rft.aulast=Dukes&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fedition%2F_%2F-K56QgAACAAJ%3Fhl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ved%3D2ahUKEwjh3ZKYqOqJAxXeWkEAHS04PVcQ7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeldbrugge2017" class="citation book cs1">Feldbrugge, Ferdinand J. M. (2 October 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TDI9DwAAQBAJ"><i>A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649</i></a>. BRILL. p. 306. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-35214-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-35214-8"><bdi>978-90-04-35214-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Russian+Law%3A+From+Ancient+Times+to+the+Council+Code+%28Ulozhenie%29+of+Tsar+Aleksei+Mikhailovich+of+1649&rft.pages=306&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2017-10-02&rft.isbn=978-90-04-35214-8&rft.aulast=Feldbrugge&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand+J.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTDI9DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeze2002" class="citation book cs1">Freeze, George (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Russia-A-History-ebook/dp/B00A7LNOQY"><i>Russia: A History</i></a> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 556. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1986-0511-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1986-0511-9"><bdi>978-0-1986-0511-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326035510/https://www.amazon.com/Russia-A-History-ebook/dp/B00A7LNOQY">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%3A+A+History&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=556&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-1986-0511-9&rft.aulast=Freeze&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2FRussia-A-History-ebook%2Fdp%2FB00A7LNOQY&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeneral_Staff,_War_Office1914" class="citation book cs1">General Staff, War Office (1914). <i>Handbook of the Russian Army</i>. London: Imperial War Museum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89839-250-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-89839-250-0"><bdi>0-89839-250-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+the+Russian+Army&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Imperial+War+Museum&rft.date=1914&rft.isbn=0-89839-250-0&rft.au=General+Staff%2C+War+Office&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeoffrey2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Hosking" title="Geoffrey Hosking">Geoffrey, Hosking</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oh-5AAmboMUC"><i>Russia and the Russians: A History</i></a> (2nd ed.). Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6740-6195-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6740-6195-8"><bdi>978-0-6740-6195-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230120183051/https://books.google.com/books?id=oh-5AAmboMUC">Archived</a> from the original on 20 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+and+the+Russians%3A+A+History&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-6740-6195-8&rft.aulast=Geoffrey&rft.aufirst=Hosking&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Doh-5AAmboMUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalpern1994" class="citation book cs1">Halpern, Paul G. (1994). <i>A Naval History of World War I</i>. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61251-172-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61251-172-6"><bdi>978-1-61251-172-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Naval+History+of+World+War+I&rft.place=Annapolis&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-61251-172-6&rft.aulast=Halpern&rft.aufirst=Paul+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lindsey_Hughes" title="Lindsey Hughes">Hughes, Lindsey</a> (1998). <i>Russia in the Age of Peter the Great</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. p. 640. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-8266-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-8266-1"><bdi>978-0-3000-8266-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL358704M">358704M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+in+the+Age+of+Peter+the+Great&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pages=640&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL358704M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-3000-8266-1&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Lindsey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLieven2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Dominic_Lieven" title="Dominic Lieven">Lieven, Dominic C. B.</a>, ed. (2006). <i>The Cambridge History of Russia</i>. Vol. II, Imperial Russia, 1689–1917. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Russia&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLieven2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dominic_Lieven" title="Dominic Lieven">Lieven, Dominic C. B.</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2AkbBQAAQBAJ"><i>The End of Tsarist Russia: The March to World War I and Revolution</i></a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1431-0955-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1431-0955-6"><bdi>978-0-1431-0955-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240227154045/https://books.google.com/books?id=2AkbBQAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+Tsarist+Russia%3A+The+March+to+World+War+I+and+Revolution&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-1431-0955-6&rft.aulast=Lieven&rft.aufirst=Dominic+C.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2AkbBQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayzel1975" class="citation journal cs1">Mayzel, Matitiahu (1975). "The Formation of the Russian General Staff. 1880-1917. A Social Study". <i>Cahiers Du Monde Russe et Soviétique</i>. <b>16</b> (3/4): 297–321. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20169731">20169731</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cahiers+Du+Monde+Russe+et+Sovi%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=The+Formation+of+the+Russian+General+Staff.+1880-1917.+A+Social+Study&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=297-321&rft.date=1975&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20169731%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mayzel&rft.aufirst=Matitiahu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMeekin2011" class="citation book cs1">McMeekin, Sean (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5u6buAAACAAJ"><i>The Russian Origins of the First World War</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6740-6210-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6740-6210-8"><bdi>978-0-6740-6210-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230107194801/https://books.google.com/books?id=5u6buAAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 7 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Origins+of+the+First+World+War&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-6740-6210-8&rft.aulast=McMeekin&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5u6buAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPapastratigakis2011" class="citation book cs1">Papastratigakis, Nicholas (2011). <i>Russian Imperialism and Naval Power: Military Strategy and the Build-Up to the Russo-Japanese War</i>. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8488-5691-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8488-5691-2"><bdi>978-1-8488-5691-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+Imperialism+and+Naval+Power%3A+Military+Strategy+and+the+Build-Up+to+the+Russo-Japanese+War&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-8488-5691-2&rft.aulast=Papastratigakis&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPipes1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Pipes" title="Richard Pipes">Pipes, Richard</a> (1974). <i>Russia under the Old Regime</i>. New York: Scribner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6841-4041-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6841-4041-4"><bdi>978-0-6841-4041-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+under+the+Old+Regime&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-6841-4041-4&rft.aulast=Pipes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPipes2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Pipes" title="Richard Pipes">Pipes, Richard</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5mSkxsos488C"><i>A Concise History of the Russian Revolution</i></a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3077-8858-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3077-8858-0"><bdi>978-0-3077-8858-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230112181721/https://books.google.com/books?id=5mSkxsos488C">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+the+Russian+Revolution&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-3077-8858-0&rft.aulast=Pipes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5mSkxsos488C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReese2019" class="citation book cs1">Reese, Roger R. (2019). <i>The Imperial Russian Army in Peace, War, and Revolution, 1856-1917</i>. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-2860-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-2860-5"><bdi>978-0-7006-2860-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Imperial+Russian+Army+in+Peace%2C+War%2C+and+Revolution%2C+1856-1917&rft.place=Lawrence&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-2860-5&rft.aulast=Reese&rft.aufirst=Roger+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanborn2014" class="citation book cs1">Sanborn, Joshua A. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UBENBAAAQBAJ"><i>Imperial Apocalypse: The Great War and the Destruction of the Russian Empire</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1996-4205-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1996-4205-2"><bdi>978-0-1996-4205-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230110183105/https://books.google.com/books?id=UBENBAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+Apocalypse%3A+The+Great+War+and+the+Destruction+of+the+Russian+Empire&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-1996-4205-2&rft.aulast=Sanborn&rft.aufirst=Joshua+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUBENBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeton-Watson1967" class="citation book cs1">Seton-Watson, Hugh (1967). <i>The Russian empire 1801–1917</i>. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1982-2103-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-1982-2103-7"><bdi>0-1982-2103-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL18540198M">18540198M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+empire+1801%E2%80%931917&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1967&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL18540198M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=0-1982-2103-7&rft.aulast=Seton-Watson&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStein1976" class="citation journal cs1">Stein, Howard F. (December 1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Feth.1976.4.4.02a00010">"Russian Nationalism and the Divided Soul of the Westernizers and Slavophiles"</a>. <i>Ethos</i>. <b>4</b> (4): 403–438. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Feth.1976.4.4.02a00010">10.1525/eth.1976.4.4.02a00010</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethos&rft.atitle=Russian+Nationalism+and+the+Divided+Soul+of+the+Westernizers+and+Slavophiles&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=403-438&rft.date=1976-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Feth.1976.4.4.02a00010&rft.aulast=Stein&rft.aufirst=Howard+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Feth.1976.4.4.02a00010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2014" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Spencer C., ed. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DBwTBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1048"><i>World War I: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection [5 volumes]: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8510-9965-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8510-9965-8"><bdi>978-1-8510-9965-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221226194501/https://books.google.com/books?id=DBwTBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1048">Archived</a> from the original on 26 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+War+I%3A+The+Definitive+Encyclopedia+and+Document+Collection+%5B5+volumes%5D%3A+The+Definitive+Encyclopedia+and+Document+Collection&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-8510-9965-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDBwTBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1048&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2019" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Spencer C., ed. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H3iSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA468"><i>World War I: A Country-by-Country Guide</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-6369-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-6369-1"><bdi>978-1-4408-6369-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221226195336/https://books.google.com/books?id=H3iSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA468">Archived</a> from the original on 26 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+War+I%3A+A+Country-by-Country+Guide&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-4408-6369-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH3iSDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA468&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone2021" class="citation book cs1">Stone, David R. (2021). <i>The Russian Army in the Great War: The Eastern Front, 1914–1917</i>. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-3308-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-3308-1"><bdi>978-0-7006-3308-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Army+in+the+Great+War%3A+The+Eastern+Front%2C+1914%E2%80%931917&rft.place=Lawrence&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-3308-1&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVinogradov1998" class="citation journal cs1">Vinogradov, Sergei E. (1998). "Battleship Development in Russia from 1905 to 1917". <i>Warship International</i>. <b>35</b> (3): 267–90. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44892563">44892563</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Warship+International&rft.atitle=Battleship+Development+in+Russia+from+1905+to+1917&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=267-90&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44892563%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Vinogradov&rft.aufirst=Sergei+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldron1997" class="citation journal cs1">Waldron, Peter (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-25483-5">"The End of Imperial Russia, 1855–1917"</a>. <i>European History in Perspective</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-25483-5">10.1007/978-1-349-25483-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-60168-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-60168-6"><bdi>978-0-333-60168-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+History+in+Perspective&rft.atitle=The+End+of+Imperial+Russia%2C+1855%E2%80%931917&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-349-25483-5&rft.isbn=978-0-333-60168-6&rft.aulast=Waldron&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-1-349-25483-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestwood1994" class="citation book cs1">Westwood, J. N. (1994). <i>Russian Naval Construction, 1905–45</i>. London: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-12458-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-12458-9"><bdi>978-1-349-12458-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+Naval+Construction%2C+1905%E2%80%9345&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-349-12458-9&rft.aulast=Westwood&rft.aufirst=J.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Russian_history_(1613%E2%80%931917)" title="Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)">Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surveys">Surveys</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Surveys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Ascher, Abraham. <i>Russia: A Short History</i> (2011)</li> <li>Kamenskii, Aleksandr B. <i>The Russian Empire in the Eighteenth Century: Searching for a Place in the World</i> (1997) . xii. 307 pp. A synthesis of much Western and Russian scholarship.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominic_Lieven" title="Dominic Lieven">Lieven, Dominic C. B.</a> <i>Empire; The Russian Empire and Its Rivals</i> (Yale University Press, 2001)</li> <li>Lincoln, W. Bruce. <i>The Romanovs: Autocrats of All the Russias</i> (1983), narrative history</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLongley2000" class="citation book cs1">Longley, David (2000). <i>The Longman Companion to Imperial Russia, 1689–1917</i>. New York: Longman Publishing Group. p. 496. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5823-1990-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5823-1990-5"><bdi>978-0-5823-1990-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Longman+Companion+to+Imperial+Russia%2C+1689%E2%80%931917&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=496&rft.pub=Longman+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-5823-1990-5&rft.aulast=Longley&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>McKenzie, David & Michael W. Curran. <i>A History of Russia, the Soviet Union, and Beyond</i>. 6th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-5345-8698-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-5345-8698-8">0-5345-8698-8</a>.</li> <li>Pares, Bernard. <i>A history of Russia</i> (1947) pp 221–537, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia00pare">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerrie2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Perrie, Maureen, ed. (2006). <i>The Cambridge History of Russia</i>. Vol. I, From Early Rus' to 1689. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Russia&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. and Mark D. Steinberg. <i>A History of Russia</i>. 7th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia00rias">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuny2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Suny, Ronald Grigor, ed. (2006). <i>The Cambridge History of Russia</i>. Vol. III, The Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Russia&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ziegler; Charles E. <i>The History of Russia</i> (Greenwood Press, 1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090330121926/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=23391126">online edition</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geography,_topical_maps"><span id="Geography.2C_topical_maps"></span>Geography, topical maps</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Geography, topical maps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Barnes, Ian. <i>Restless Empire: A Historical Atlas of Russia</i> (2015), copies of historic maps</li> <li>Channon, John, and Robert Hudson. <i>The Penguin historical atlas of Russia</i> (Viking, 1995), new topical maps.</li> <li>Chew, Allen F. <i>An atlas of Russian history: eleven centuries of changing borders</i> (Yale University Press, 1970), new topical maps.</li> <li>Gilbert, Martin. <i>Atlas of Russian history</i> (Oxford University Press, 1993), new topical maps.</li> <li>Parker, William Henry. <i>An historical geography of Russia</i> (Aldine, 1968).</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1801–1917"><span id="1801.E2.80.931917"></span>1801–1917</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: 1801–1917"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManning1982" class="citation book cs1">Manning, Roberta Thompson (1982). <i>The Crisis of the Old Order in Russia: Gentry and Government</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-6910-5349-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-6910-5349-9"><bdi>0-6910-5349-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL3785581M">3785581M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Crisis+of+the+Old+Order+in+Russia%3A+Gentry+and+Government&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL3785581M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=0-6910-5349-9&rft.aulast=Manning&rft.aufirst=Roberta+Thompson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPares1939" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Pares" title="Bernard Pares">Pares, Bernard</a> (1939). <i>The Fall of the Russian Monarchy</i>. Phoenix. pp. 94–143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-8421-2114-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-8421-2114-6"><bdi>1-8421-2114-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45990840">45990840</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL3532000M">3532000M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+the+Russian+Monarchy&rft.pages=94-143&rft.pub=Phoenix&rft.date=1939&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45990840&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL3532000M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=1-8421-2114-6&rft.aulast=Pares&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestwood2002" class="citation book cs1">Westwood, J. N. (2002). <i>Endurance and Endeavour: Russian History 1812–2001</i> (5th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/enduranceendeavo00west/page/656">656</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-4617-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-4617-5"><bdi>978-0-1992-4617-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL3569059M">3569059M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Endurance+and+Endeavour%3A+Russian+History+1812%E2%80%932001&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=656&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL3569059M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-1992-4617-5&rft.aulast=Westwood&rft.aufirst=J.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_and_foreign_relations">Military and foreign relations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Military and foreign relations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Adams, Michael. <i>Napoleon and Russia</i> (2006).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnglund2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Englund" title="Peter Englund">Englund, Peter</a> (2002). <i>The Battle That Shook Europe: Poltava and the Birth of the Russian Empire</i>. New York: I. B. Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8606-4847-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8606-4847-2"><bdi>978-1-8606-4847-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Battle+That+Shook+Europe%3A+Poltava+and+the+Birth+of+the+Russian+Empire&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-8606-4847-2&rft.aulast=Englund&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>, 288 pp.</li> <li>Fuller, William C. <i>Strategy and Power in Russia 1600–1914</i> (1998); military strategy</li> <li>Gatrell, Peter. "Tsarist Russia at War: The View from Above, 1914 – February 1917." <i>Journal of Modern History</i> 87#3 (2015): 668–700.</li> <li>Lieven, Dominic C.B. <i>Russia and the Origins of the First World War</i> (1983).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLieven2011" class="citation cs2">——— (2011), <i>Russia Against Napoleon: The True Story of the Campaigns of War and Peace</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+Against+Napoleon%3A+The+True+Story+of+the+Campaigns+of+War+and+Peace&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Lieven&rft.aufirst=Dominic+C.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>LeDonne, John P. <i>The Russian empire and the world, 1700–1917: The geopolitics of expansion and containment</i> (1997).</li> <li>Neumann, Iver B. "Russia as a great power, 1815–2007." <i>Journal of International Relations and Development</i> 11#2 (2008): 128–51. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.694.5006&rep=rep1&type=pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170118110733/http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.694.5006&rep=rep1&type=pdf">Archived</a> 18 January 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Saul, Norman E. <i>Historical Dictionary of Russian and Soviet Foreign Policy</i> (2014)</li> <li>Stone, David. <i>A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya</i></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic,_social,_and_ethnic_history"><span id="Economic.2C_social.2C_and_ethnic_history"></span>Economic, social, and ethnic history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Economic, social, and ethnic history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Christian, David. <i>A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia</i>. Vol. 1: <i>Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire</i>. (Blackwell, 1998). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-6312-0814-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-6312-0814-3">0-6312-0814-3</a>.</li> <li>De Madariaga, Isabel. <i>Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great</i> (2002), comprehensive topical survey</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixon1999" class="citation book cs1">Dixon, Simon (1999). <i>The Modernisation of Russia, 1676–1825</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 288. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5213-7100-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5213-7100-1"><bdi>978-0-5213-7100-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Modernisation+of+Russia%2C+1676%E2%80%931825&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=288&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-5213-7100-1&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Etkind, Alexander. <i>Internal Colonization: Russia's Imperial Experience</i> (Polity Press, 2011); discussion of serfdom, the peasant commune, etc.</li> <li>Franklin, Simon, and Bowers, Katherine (eds). <i>Information and Empire: Mechanisms of Communication in Russia, 1600–1850</i> (Open Book Publishers, 2017) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/636">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171205194804/https://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/636">Archived</a> 5 December 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Freeze, Gregory L. <i>From Supplication to Revolution: A Documentary Social History of Imperial Russia</i> (1988)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKappeler2001" class="citation book cs1">Kappeler, Andreas (2001). <i>The Russian Empire: A Multi-Ethnic History</i>. New York: Longman. p. 480. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5822-3415-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5822-3415-4"><bdi>978-0-5822-3415-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Empire%3A+A+Multi-Ethnic+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=480&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-5822-3415-4&rft.aulast=Kappeler&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. <i>The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850–1914</i> (1977) pp. 365–425</li> <li>Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. <i>The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780–1870</i> (2nd ed. 1979), 552 pp</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMironovEklof2000" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Boris_Mironov_(historian)" title="Boris Mironov (historian)">Mironov, Boris N.</a>; Eklof, Ben (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080929091826/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=89764491"><i>The Social History of Imperial Russia, 1700–1917</i></a>, Westview Press, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=89764491">the original</a> on 29 September 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2014</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Social+History+of+Imperial+Russia%2C+1700%E2%80%931917&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Mironov&rft.aufirst=Boris+N.&rft.au=Eklof%2C+Ben&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D89764491&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080929083153/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100513328"><i>The Social History of Imperial Russia, 1700–1917</i></a>, vol. 2: Patterns of State Building, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100513328">the original</a> on 29 September 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2014</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Social+History+of+Imperial+Russia%2C+1700%E2%80%931917&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D100513328&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMironov2012" class="citation cs2">——— (2012), <i>The Standard of Living and Revolutions in Imperial Russia, 1700–1917</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Standard+of+Living+and+Revolutions+in+Imperial+Russia%2C+1700%E2%80%931917&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Mironov&rft.aufirst=Boris+N&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Mironov, Boris N. (2010) "Wages and Prices in Imperial Russia, 1703–1913", <i>Russian Review</i> (Jan 2010) 69#1 pp. 47–72, with 13 tables and 3 charts <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?sid=e380f9ff-36a4-426e-88fd-b587d8fe61e9%40sessionmgr12&vid=1&hid=25&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoon1999" class="citation book cs1">Moon, David (1999). <i>The Russian Peasantry 1600–1930: The World the Peasants Made</i>. Boston: Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5820-9508-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5820-9508-3"><bdi>978-0-5820-9508-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Peasantry+1600%E2%80%931930%3A+The+World+the+Peasants+Made&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-5820-9508-3&rft.aulast=Moon&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> 396 pp.</li> <li>Stolberg, Eva-Maria. (2004) "The Siberian Frontier and Russia's Position in World History", <i>Review: A Journal of the Fernand Braudel Center</i> 27#3 pp. 243–67</li> <li>Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling. <i>Russia's age of serfdom 1649–1861</i> (2008).</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography_and_memory">Historiography and memory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Historiography and memory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Burbank, Jane, and David L. Ransel, eds. <i>Imperial Russia: new histories for the Empire</i> (Indiana University Press, 1998)</li> <li>Cracraft, James. ed. <i>Major Problems in the History of Imperial Russia</i> (1993)</li> <li>Hellie, Richard. "The structure of modern Russian history: Toward a dynamic model." <i>Russian History</i> 4.1 (1977): 1–22. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24649558">Online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190705044623/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24649558">Archived</a> 5 July 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Lieven, Dominic C.B. <i>Empire: The Russian empire and its rivals</i> (Yale University Press, 2002), compares Russian with British, Habsburg & Ottoman empires.</li> <li>Kuzio, Taras. "Historiography and national identity among the Eastern Slavs: towards a new framework." <i>National Identities</i> (2001) 3#2 pp. 109–32.</li> <li>Olson, Gust, and Aleksei I. Miller. "Between Local and Inter-Imperial: Russian Imperial History in Search of Scope and Paradigm." <i>Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History</i> (2004) 5#1 pp. 7–26.</li> <li>Sanders, Thomas, ed. <i>Historiography of imperial Russia: The profession and writing of history in a multinational state</i> (ME Sharpe, 1999)</li> <li>Smith, Steve. "Writing the History of the Russian Revolution after the Fall of Communism." <i>Europe‐Asia Studies</i> (1994) 46#4 pp. 563–78.</li> <li>Suny, Ronald Grigor. "Rehabilitating Tsarism: The Imperial Russian State and Its Historians. A Review Article" <i>Comparative Studies in Society and History</i> 31#1 (1989) pp. 168–79 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/178799">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190728221710/https://www.jstor.org/stable/178799">Archived</a> 28 July 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuny2001" class="citation cs2">——— (2001), "The empire strikes out: Imperial Russia, 'national' identity, and theories of empire", in Holquist, Peter; Suny, Ronald Grigor; Martin, Terry (eds.), <i>A state of nations: Empire and nation-making in the age of Lenin and Stalin</i>, pp. 23–66</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+empire+strikes+out%3A+Imperial+Russia%2C+%27national%27+identity%2C+and+theories+of+empire&rft.btitle=A+state+of+nations%3A+Empire+and+nation-making+in+the+age+of+Lenin+and+Stalin&rft.pages=23-66&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Suny&rft.aufirst=Ronald+Grigor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Golder, Frank Alfred. <i>Documents Of Russian History 1914–1917</i> (1927), 680pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.88417/page/n2">online</a></li> <li>Kennard, Howard Percy, and Netta Peacock, eds. <i>The Russian Year-book: Volume 2 1912</i> (London, 1912) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=lfbTAAAAMAAJ&rdid=book-lfbTAAAAMAAJ&rdot=1">full text in English</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_Empire&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Russian_Empire" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/16px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/24px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/32px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></a></span> <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Russian_Empire#Q34266" class="extiw" title="voy:Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> travel guide from Wikivoyage</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EPgbIK002us"><span class="plainlinks">Film «Moscow clad in snow», 00:07:22, 1908</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/empire">The Empire that was Russia</a>: color photographs from <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Russia_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Russia_topics" title="Template:Russia topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Russia_topics" title="Template talk:Russia topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Russia_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Russia topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Russia_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_history" title="Timeline of Russian history">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Early Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Slavs" title="East Slavs">East Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li>Feudal Rus' <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Moscow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_Russia_(1500%E2%80%931800)" title="Expansion of Russia (1500–1800)">Expansion (1500–1800)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Army of the Tsardom of Russia">Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Russian Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Civil war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian state">Russian state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Great Patriotic War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1991%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Russia (1991–present)">Russian Federation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_State" title="Union State">Union State</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Economic history of the Russian Federation">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russian_journalism" title="History of Russian journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet_in_Russia" title="History of the Internet in Russia">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_system_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Judicial system of the Russian Empire">Judicial system of the Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in Russia">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Russia" title="Military history of Russia">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Russia" title="Outline of Russia">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Russia" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Russia">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_city_of_Russia" title="Historical city of Russia">Historical cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Russia" title="Geography of Russia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_Russia" title="Borders of Russia">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Russia" title="List of cities and towns in Russia">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Russia" title="Climate of Russia">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Russia" title="List of earthquakes in Russia">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_Russia" title="Environment of Russia">Environment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Russia" title="Environmental issues in Russia">Environmental issues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Extreme points of Russia">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Russian_Upland" title="Central Russian Upland">Central Russian Upland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Russia" title="Northwest Russia">Northwest Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meshchera_Lowlands" title="Meshchera Lowlands">Meshchera Lowlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oka%E2%80%93Don_Lowland" title="Oka–Don Lowland">Oka–Don Lowland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smolensk_Upland" title="Smolensk Upland">Smolensk Upland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fjords_of_Russia" title="List of fjords of Russia">Fjords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Russia" title="Geology of Russia">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_glaciers_in_Russia" title="List of glaciers in Russia">Glaciers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Russian_Regions" title="Great Russian Regions">Great Russian Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_highest_points_of_Russian_federal_subjects" title="List of highest points of Russian federal subjects">Highest points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Russia" title="List of islands of Russia">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Russia" title="List of lakes of Russia">Lakes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of mountains of Russia">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains" title="Caucasus Mountains">Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Urals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Russia" title="List of volcanoes in Russia">Volcanoes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">North Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Siberian_Plain" title="West Siberian Plain">West Siberian Plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Far_East" title="Russian Far East">Russian Far East</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Russia" title="List of rivers of Russia">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Russia" title="Protected areas of Russia">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Russia" title="Wildlife of Russia">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far_North_(Russia)" title="Far North (Russia)">Far North</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Russia" title="Politics of Russia">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Russia" title="Anarchism in Russia">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Russia" title="Capital punishment in Russia">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Civil Service of the Russian Federation">Civil Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classified_information_in_Russia" title="Classified information in Russia">Classified information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Russia" title="Conscription in Russia">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Russia" title="Constitution of Russia">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_Code_of_Russia" title="Criminal Code of Russia">Criminal code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Russia" title="Elections in Russia">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics_in_Russia" title="Far-right politics in Russia">Far-right politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_budget_of_Russia" title="Federal budget of Russia">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Russia" title="Foreign relations of Russia">Foreign relations</a> (<a href="/wiki/Foreign_Relations_of_Russia_since_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Relations of Russia since the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Foreign Relations of Russia since the Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly_in_Russia" title="Freedom of assembly in Russia">Freedom of assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Russia" title="Government of Russia">Government</a> (<a href="/wiki/Apparatus_of_the_Government_of_Russia" title="Apparatus of the Government of Russia">Apparatus</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Russia" title="Judiciary of Russia">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Russia" title="Law of Russia">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Russia" title="Law enforcement in Russia">Law enforcement</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_Russia" title="Prisons in Russia">Prisons</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_Russia" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in Russia">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_divisions_of_Russia" title="Political divisions of Russia">Political divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Propaganda in Russia">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Russia" title="Liberalism in Russia">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Conservatism in Russia">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_irredentism" title="Russian irredentism">Irredentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_nationalism" title="Russian nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Russia" title="Martial law in Russia">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_Russia" title="Monarchism in Russia">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_freedom_in_Russia" title="Media freedom in Russia">Media freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism_in_Russia" title="Neo-Nazism in Russia">Neo-Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Armed_Forces" title="Russian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_agencies_of_Russia" title="Intelligence agencies of Russia">Intelligence agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_opposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian opposition">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Political parties in Russia">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Russia" title="President of Russia">President of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Russia" title="Prime Minister of Russia">Prime Minister of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">Commonwealth of Independent States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization" title="Collective Security Treaty Organization">Collective Security Treaty Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency_in_Russia" title="State of emergency in Russia">State of emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense_in_Russia" title="Civil defense in Russia">Civil defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_and_rescue_in_Russia" title="Search and rescue in Russia">Search and rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Russia" title="Urban planning in Russia">Urban planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_surveillance_in_Russia" title="Mass surveillance in Russia">Mass surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism_in_Russia" title="Separatism in Russia">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Term_limits_in_Russia" title="Term limits in Russia">Term limits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Russia" title="Terrorism in Russia">Terrorism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Russia" title="Economy of Russia">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Russia" title="Agriculture in Russia">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_industry_of_Russia" title="Aircraft industry of Russia">Aircraft industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Russia" title="Banking in Russia">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droughts_and_famines_in_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union">Droughts and famines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Russia" title="Automotive industry in Russia">Car industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Russia" title="Central Bank of Russia">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_industry_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense industry of Russia">Defence industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_regions_of_Russia" title="Economic regions of Russia">Economic regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Russia" title="Energy in Russia">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Russia" title="Fishing industry in Russia">Fishing industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Russia" title="Forestry in Russia">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Financial_districts_in_Russia" title="Category:Financial districts in Russia">Financial districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_Russia" title="Gambling in Russia">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Russia" title="Homelessness in Russia">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_industry_of_Russia" title="Mining industry of Russia">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Russia" title="Petroleum industry in Russia">Petroleum industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal_codes_in_Russia" title="Postal codes in Russia">Postal codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_oligarchs" title="Russian oligarchs">Russian oligarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_ruble" title="Russian ruble">Ruble <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Russia" title="Science and technology in Russia">Science and technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Academy of Sciences</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding_in_Russia" title="Shipbuilding in Russia">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_security_system_in_Russia" title="Social security system in Russia">Social security system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_industry_of_Russia" title="Space industry of Russia">Space industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Russia" title="Taxation in Russia">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Russia" title="Telecommunications in Russia">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Russia" title="Tourism in Russia">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_Russia" title="List of trade unions in Russia">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Russia" title="Transport in Russia">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Russia" title="Waste management in Russia">Waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Russia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Russia">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Russia" title="Category:Society of Russia">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Russia" title="Abortion in Russia">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_in_Russia" title="Alcohol in Russia">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-American_sentiment_in_Russia" title="Anti-American sentiment in Russia">Anti-American sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Russia" title="Cannabis in Russia">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Censorship in the Russian Federation">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizenship of Russia">Citizens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Russia" title="Corruption in Russia">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Russia" title="Crime in Russia">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deafness_in_Russia" title="Deafness in Russia">Deafness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Russia" title="Demographics of Russia">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Russia" title="Domestic violence in Russia">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doping_in_Russia" title="Doping in Russia">Doping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Russia" title="Education in Russia">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Russia" title="Ethnic groups in Russia">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Russia" title="Feminism in Russia">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_public_apologies_in_Russia" title="Forced public apologies in Russia">Forced public apologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funerals_in_Russia" title="Funerals in Russia">Funerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_control_in_Russia" title="Gun control in Russia">Gun control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Russia" title="Health in Russia">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Russia" title="Healthcare in Russia">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Russia" title="HIV/AIDS in Russia">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health_in_Russia" title="Mental health in Russia">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Russia" title="Human rights in Russia">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_in_Russia" title="LGBTQ rights in Russia">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Russia" title="Immigration to Russia">Immigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_Russia" title="Illegal immigration to Russia">Illegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migrant_workers_in_Russia" title="Migrant workers in Russia">Labour</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Russia" title="Languages of Russia">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_subjects_of_Russia_by_life_expectancy" title="List of federal subjects of Russia by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_access_in_Russia" title="Open access in Russia">Open access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphans_in_Russia" title="Orphans in Russia">Orphans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygamy_in_Russia" title="Polygamy in Russia">Polygamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Russia" title="Prostitution in Russia">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Russia" title="Racism in Russia">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Russia" title="Religion in Russia">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scouting_in_Russia" title="Scouting in Russia">Scouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_entrepreneurship_in_Russia" title="Social entrepreneurship in Russia">Social entrepreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_in_Russia" title="Sociology in Russia">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Russia" title="Smoking in Russia">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_in_Russia" title="Suicide in Russia">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_wedding_traditions" title="Russian wedding traditions">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Russia" title="Witch trials in Russia">Witch trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Russia" title="Women in Russia">Women</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Russian_and_Soviet_military" title="Women in the Russian and Soviet military">in army</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Russia" title="Culture of Russia">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Russia" title="Architecture of Russia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armorial_of_Russia" title="Armorial of Russia">Armorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Russian_Armed_Forces" title="Culture of the Russian Armed Forces">Army culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honorary_weapons_of_Russia" title="Honorary weapons of Russia">Honorary weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_artists" title="List of Russian artists">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_ballet" title="Russian ballet">Ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Russia" title="Cinema of Russia">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cuisine" title="Russian cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_wine" title="Russian wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_fashion" title="Russian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_fairy_tale" title="Russian fairy tale">Fairy tales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_fashion" title="Russian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Festivals_in_Russia" title="Category:Festivals in Russia">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Folklore of Russia">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_traditions_and_superstitions" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian traditions and superstitions">Traditions and superstitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_forms_of_addressing" title="Russian forms of addressing">Forms of addressing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graffiti_in_Russia" title="Graffiti in Russia">Graffiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_heraldry" title="Russian heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Russia" title="Internet in Russia">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation" title="Timeline of Russian innovation">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_literature" title="Russian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_martial_arts" title="Russian martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Russia" title="Mass media in Russia">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Russia" title="Music of Russia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_Rus%CA%B9,_Russia_and_Ruthenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Names of Rusʹ, Russia and Ruthenia">Names of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_given_name" title="Russian given name">Russian given name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_nobility" title="Russian nobility">Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Russia" title="National symbols of Russia">National symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_anthem_of_Russia" title="National anthem of Russia">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Russia" title="Coat of arms of Russia">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Russia" title="Flag of Russia">Flag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regalia_of_the_Russian_tsars" title="Regalia of the Russian tsars">Russian tsars regalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_opera" title="Russian opera">Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personification_of_Russia" title="Personification of Russia">Personification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_playing_cards" title="Russian playing cards">Playing cards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_philosophers" title="List of Russian philosophers">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_political_jokes" title="Russian political jokes">Political jokes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Russia" title="Public holidays in Russia">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_tea_culture" title="Russian tea culture">tea culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Russia" title="Television in Russia">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_Russia" title="Seven Wonders of Russia">Seven Wonders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Russia" title="Sport in Russia">Sports</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Sports_Classification_System_of_Russia" title="Unified Sports Classification System of Russia">Unified Sports Classification System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Russia" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Russia">World Heritage sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Russia" title="Outline of Russia">Outline</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Russia" title="Category:Russia">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Russia" title="Portal:Russia">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Monarchies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Monarchies" title="Template:Monarchies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Monarchies" title="Template talk:Monarchies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Monarchies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Monarchies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Monarchies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarch" title="Monarch">Monarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial,_royal_and_noble_ranks" title="Imperial, royal and noble ranks">Imperial, royal and noble ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_monarchs_of_sovereign_states" title="List of current monarchs of sovereign states">List of current sovereign monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_non-sovereign_monarchs" title="List of current non-sovereign monarchs">List of current non-sovereign monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchy_referendums" title="List of monarchy referendums">List of monarchy referendums</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Type</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diarchy" title="Diarchy">Diarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elective_monarchy" title="Elective monarchy">Elective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_monarchy" title="Federal monarchy">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy" title="Hereditary monarchy">Hereditary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-sovereign_monarchy" title="Non-sovereign monarchy">Non-sovereign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">Personal union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">Regency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdication" title="Abdication">Abdication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_monarchy" title="Abolition of monarchy">Abolition of monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy_(class)" title="Aristocracy (class)">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_monarchy" title="Criticism of monarchy">Criticism of monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">Head of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy (political)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_succession" title="Order of succession">Order of succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-proclaimed_monarchy" title="Self-proclaimed monarchy">Self-proclaimed monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Titles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chhatrapati" title="Chhatrapati">Chhatrapati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor" title="Emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King" title="King">King</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_regnant" title="Queen regnant">Queen regnant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_regnant" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince regnant">Prince regnant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raja" title="Raja">Raja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">Tsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">Shah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Africa" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarchies_in_Africa" title="Monarchies in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ngwenyama" title="Ngwenyama">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Lesotho" title="List of monarchs of Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Morocco" title="King of Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_constituent_African_monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="List of current constituent African monarchs">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarchies_in_Asia" title="Monarchies in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Bahrain" title="King of Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Bhutan" title="King of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sultans_of_Brunei" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Sultans of Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Cambodia" title="Monarchy of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Japan" title="Emperor of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Jordan" title="List of kings of Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emir_of_Kuwait" title="Emir of Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong" class="mw-redirect" title="Yang di-Pertuan Agong">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Oman" title="List of rulers of Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emir_of_Qatar" title="Emir of Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="King of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Thailand" title="Monarchy of Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="President of the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_non-sovereign_Asian_monarchs" title="List of current non-sovereign Asian monarchs">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarchies_in_Europe" title="Monarchies in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Co-Princes_of_Andorra" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-Princes of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Belgium" title="Monarchy of Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Denmark" title="Monarchy of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Liechtenstein" title="Monarchy of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Luxembourg" title="Monarchy of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Monaco" title="Monarchy of Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Monarchy of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Norway" title="Monarchy of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Spain" title="Monarchy of Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Sweden" title="Monarchy of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereigns_of_Vatican_City_State" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sovereigns of Vatican City State">Vatican City (Holy See)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarchies_in_Oceania" title="Monarchies in Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Tonga" title="List of monarchs of Tonga">Tonga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_realm" title="Commonwealth realm">Commonwealth realms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Monarchy of Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Australia" title="Monarchy of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_Bahamas" title="Monarchy of the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Belize" title="Monarchy of Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Canada" title="Monarchy of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Grenada" title="Monarchy of Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Jamaica" title="Monarchy of Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_New_Zealand" title="Monarchy of New Zealand">New Zealand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Monarchy in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Niuean_monarchs" title="List of Niuean monarchs">Niue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Monarchy of Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Monarchy of Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Saint_Lucia" title="Monarchy of Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Monarchy of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Solomon_Islands" title="Monarchy of Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Tuvalu" title="Monarchy of Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_monarchy" title="Abolition of monarchy">Former</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adamawa_Emirate" title="Adamawa Emirate">Adamawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ankole" title="Ankole">Ankole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Aussa" title="Sultanate of Aussa">Aussa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barotseland" title="Barotseland">Barotseland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Bagirmi" title="Sultanate of Bagirmi">Bagirmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Burundi" title="Kingdom of Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Kingdom of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gomma" title="Kingdom of Gomma">Gomma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gumma" title="Kingdom of Gumma">Gumma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kaffa" title="Kingdom of Kaffa">Kaffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Libya" title="Kingdom of Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Luba" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Luba">Luba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merina_Kingdom" title="Merina Kingdom">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayotte#History" title="Mayotte">Maore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maravi" title="Maravi">Maravi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moh%C3%A9li#History" title="Mohéli">Mwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anjouan#Early_and_colonial_history" title="Anjouan">Ndzuwani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grande_Comore#History" title="Grande Comore">Ngazidja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rwanda" title="Kingdom of Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shilluk_Kingdom" title="Shilluk Kingdom">Shilluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islands_of_Refreshment" title="Islands of Refreshment">Islands of Refreshment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tunisia" title="Kingdom of Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wituland" title="Wituland">Wituland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wassoulou_Empire" title="Wassoulou Empire">Wassoulou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeke_Kingdom" title="Yeke Kingdom">Yeke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Zanzibar" title="Sultanate of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Zimbabwe" title="Kingdom of Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_pre-colonial_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa">and other</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Araucan%C3%ADa_and_Patagonia" title="Kingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia">Araucanía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito_Coast" title="Mosquito Coast">Miskito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriname_(Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands)" title="Suriname (Kingdom of the Netherlands)">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Talamanca" title="Kingdom of Talamanca">Talamanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Trinidad" title="Principality of Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_Emirate_of_Asir" title="Idrisid Emirate of Asir">Asir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Sultanate" title="Bengal Sultanate">Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Bukhara" title="Emirate of Bukhara">Bukhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cebu_(historical_polity)" title="Cebu (historical polity)">Cebu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihab_dynasty" title="Shihab dynasty">Chehab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_China" title="Monarchy of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dapitan_Kingdom" title="Dapitan Kingdom">Dapitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hejaz" title="Kingdom of Hejaz">Hejaz</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indonesian_monarchies" title="List of Indonesian monarchies">Indonesia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Iran</a> (<a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Jabal_Shammar" title="Emirate of Jabal Shammar">Jabal Shammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathiri" title="Kathiri">Kathiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Khiva" title="Khanate of Khiva">Khiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumul_Khanate" title="Kumul Khanate">Kumul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kurdistan" title="Kingdom of Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Laos" title="Kingdom of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Maguindanao" title="Sultanate of Maguindanao">Maguindanao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahra_Sultanate" title="Mahra Sultanate">Mahra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Maldivian_monarchs" title="List of Maldivian monarchs">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Najran" title="Principality of Najran">Najran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nepal" title="Kingdom of Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qu%27aiti" title="Qu'aiti">Qu'aiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Kingdom" title="Ryukyu Kingdom">Ryukyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raj_of_Sarawak" title="Raj of Sarawak">Sarawak</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shan_States" title="Shan States">Shan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sikkim" title="Kingdom of Sikkim">Sikkim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_monarchy" title="Sinhalese monarchy">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sip_Song_Chau_Tai" title="Sip Song Chau Tai">Sip Song Chau Tai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sulu" title="Sultanate of Sulu">Sulu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Kingdom_of_Syria" title="Arab Kingdom of Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheikdom_of_Upper_Asir" title="Sheikdom of Upper Asir">Upper Asir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Yafa" title="Upper Yafa">Upper Yafa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Vietnam" title="List of monarchs of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutawakkilite_Kingdom_of_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirates_of_South_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirates of South Arabia">Emirates of South Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_South_Arabia" title="Federation of South Arabia">South Arabia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_Kingdom_(1928%E2%80%931939)" title="Albanian Kingdom (1928–1939)">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Asturias" title="Kingdom of Asturias">Asturias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Bavaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bosnia" title="Kingdom of Bosnia">Bosnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brittany" title="Duchy of Brittany">Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Corsica_(1736)" title="Kingdom of Corsica (1736)">Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cyprus" title="Kingdom of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Finland_(1918)" title="Kingdom of Finland (1918)">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia" title="Kingdom of Galicia">Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece" title="Kingdom of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hanover" title="Kingdom of Hanover">Hanover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iceland" title="Kingdom of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Imereti" title="Kingdom of Imereti">Imereti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Ireland" title="Monarchy of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli-Kakheti" title="Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti">Kartli-Kakheti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lithuania_(1918)" title="Kingdom of Lithuania (1918)">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Isles" title="Kingdom of the Isles">Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Montenegro" title="Kingdom of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Navarre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Neuch%C3%A2tel#History" title="Canton of Neuchâtel">Neuchâtel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Piedmont-Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Poland–Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Samos" title="Principality of Samos">Samos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony">Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia" title="Kingdom of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tavolara" title="Kingdom of Tavolara">Tavolara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Two Sicilies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Baltic_Duchy" title="United Baltic Duchy">United Baltic Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia" title="Kingdom of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Kingdom of Württemberg">Württemberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abemama" title="Abemama">Abemama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bora_Bora" title="Kingdom of Bora Bora">Bora Bora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Easter_Island" title="King of Easter Island">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Fiji" title="Kingdom of Fiji">Kingdom of Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Kingdom" title="Hawaiian Kingdom">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huahine" title="Huahine">Huahine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangareva" title="Mangareva">Mangareva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niue" title="Niue">Niuē-Fekai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuku_Hiva" title="Nuku Hiva">Nuku Hiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Raiatea" title="List of monarchs of Raiatea">Raiatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Iti" title="Rapa Iti">Rapa Iti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rarotonga" title="Kingdom of Rarotonga">Rarotonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rimatara" title="Rimatara">Rimatara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rurutu" title="Rurutu">Rurutu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahuata" title="Tahuata">Tahuata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tahiti" title="Kingdom of Tahiti">Tahiti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commonwealth realms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Barbados" title="Monarchy of Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Ceylon_(1948%E2%80%931972)" title="Monarchy of Ceylon (1948–1972)">Ceylon</a> (Sri Lanka)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Fiji" title="Monarchy of Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_the_Gambia" title="Queen of the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Ghana" title="Queen of Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Guyana" title="Queen of Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_India" title="Dominion of India">India</a> (<a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_princely_states_of_British_India_(alphabetical)" title="List of princely states of British India (alphabetical)">princely states</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Free_State" title="Irish Free State">Irish Free State</a> / <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Kenya" title="Queen of Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Malawi" title="Queen of Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Malta" title="Queen of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Mauritius" title="Queen of Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen of Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Pakistan" title="Monarchy of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Rhodesia" title="Queen of Rhodesia">Rhodesia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Sierra_Leone" title="Queen of Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_South_Africa" title="Monarchy of South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Tanganyika" title="Queen of Tanganyika">Tanganyika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Queen of Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Uganda" title="Queen of Uganda">Uganda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magadhan_Empire" title="Magadhan Empire">Magadha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir-Suzdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Muscovy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Perm" title="Great Perm">Permian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Kiev" title="Principality of Kiev">Kyivan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_relations_(1814–1919)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Great_Power_diplomacy" title="Template:Great Power diplomacy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Great_Power_diplomacy" title="Template talk:Great Power diplomacy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Great_Power_diplomacy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Great Power diplomacy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="International_relations_(1814–1919)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations (1814–1919)">International relations (1814–1919)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Great powers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alliances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dual_Alliance_(1879)" title="Dual Alliance (1879)">Dual Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Triple Entente</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Russian_Alliance" title="Franco-Russian Alliance">Franco-Russian Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entente_Cordiale" title="Entente Cordiale">Entente Cordiale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention" title="Anglo-Russian Convention">Anglo-Russian Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Japanese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Japanese Alliance">Anglo-Japanese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_the_Three_Emperors" title="League of the Three Emperors">League of the Three Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_League" title="Balkan League">Balkan League</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trends</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_balance_of_power" title="European balance of power">European balance of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman decline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_question" title="Eastern question">Eastern question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire">Spread of nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_public_debt" title="Ottoman public debt">Sovereign debt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French%E2%80%93German_enmity" title="French–German enmity">French–German enmity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revanchism" title="Revanchism">Revanchism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Britannica" title="Pax Britannica">Pax Britannica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Lever" title="Egyptian Lever">Egyptian Lever</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_imperialism_in_Asia" title="Western imperialism in Asia">In Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Game" title="Great Game">Great Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_China" title="Scramble for China">Scramble for China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Door_Policy" title="Open Door Policy">Open Door Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiji_era" title="Meiji era">Meiji era</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Slavism" title="Pan-Slavism">Pan-Slavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Rapprochement" title="Great Rapprochement">Great Rapprochement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">Industrial warfare</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treaties and<br />agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles_(1871)" title="Treaty of Versailles (1871)">Treaty of Versailles (1871)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Frankfurt_(1871)" title="Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)">Treaty of Frankfurt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Berlin_(1878)" title="Treaty of Berlin (1878)">Treaty of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinsurance_Treaty" title="Reinsurance Treaty">Reinsurance Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1898)" title="Treaty of Paris (1898)">Treaty of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bj%C3%B6rk%C3%B6" title="Treaty of Björkö">Treaty of Björkö</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Katsura_agreement" title="Taft–Katsura agreement">Taft–Katsura agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martens_Clause" title="Martens Clause">Martens Clause</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1905" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905">Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1910" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910">Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racconigi_Bargain" title="Racconigi Bargain">Racconigi agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1917_Franco-Russian_agreement" title="1917 Franco-Russian agreement">1917 Franco-Russian agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia">Formation of Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Eastern_Crisis" title="Great Eastern Crisis">Great Eastern Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kronstadt%E2%80%93Toulon_naval_visits" title="Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits">Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Weltpolitik" title="Weltpolitik">Weltpolitik</a></i></li> <li>Naval arms races <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-German_naval_arms_race" title="Anglo-German naval arms race">Anglo-German</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dreadnought" title="Dreadnought">Dreadnought</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Naval_Laws" title="German Naval Laws">German Naval Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Italian_ironclad_arms_race" title="Austro-Italian ironclad arms race">Austro-Italian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashoda_Incident" title="Fashoda Incident">Fashoda Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Hawaii" title="Territory of Hawaii">Annexation of Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_crisis_of_1902%E2%80%931903" title="Venezuelan crisis of 1902–1903">Venezuela Naval Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_boundary_dispute" title="Alaska boundary dispute">Alaska boundary dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Moroccan_Crisis" title="First Moroccan Crisis">First Moroccan Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeciras_Conference" title="Algeciras Conference">Algeciras Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agadir_Crisis" title="Agadir Crisis">Agadir Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fes" title="Treaty of Fes">Treaty of Fes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Crisis" title="Bosnian Crisis">Bosnian Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_Crisis" title="July Crisis">July Crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_War" title="Anglo-Egyptian War">Anglo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banana_Wars" title="Banana Wars">Banana Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">Philippine–American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">Italo-Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_Wars" title="Balkan Wars">Balkan Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Balkan_War" title="First Balkan War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Balkan_War" title="Second Balkan War">Second</a></li> <li>Albanian Revolts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_revolt_of_1910" title="Albanian revolt of 1910">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malissori_uprising" title="Malissori uprising">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_revolt_of_1912" title="Albanian revolt of 1912">Third</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34266#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34266#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34266#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1207312/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/1086796756">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Russia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80001203">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119405184">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119405184">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=497/12957">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007557241205171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058512091006706">Catalonia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA13982734?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" 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