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class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>Edit</span> </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <p><b>Russian philosophy</b> is a collective name for the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a> heritage of <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russian</a> thinkers. </p><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NesterovMV_NaRusi206x483GTG.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/NesterovMV_NaRusi206x483GTG.jpg/500px-NesterovMV_NaRusi206x483GTG.jpg" decoding="async" width="500" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/NesterovMV_NaRusi206x483GTG.jpg/750px-NesterovMV_NaRusi206x483GTG.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/NesterovMV_NaRusi206x483GTG.jpg/1000px-NesterovMV_NaRusi206x483GTG.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2998" data-file-height="1250"></a><figcaption>Mikhail Nesterov's <i>In Russia. The Soul of the People</i> depicts philosophers Vladimir Solovyov, Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoevsky.</figcaption></figure> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Historiography"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Historiography</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Main_schools_and_directions"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Main schools and directions</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Origins_of_Russian_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Origins of Russian philosophy</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Philosophical_thought_in_the_Old_Russian_state_(11th%E2%80%9313th_centuries)"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophical thought in the Old Russian state (11th–13th centuries)</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Philosophical_problems_in_the_works_of_Russian_scribes_of_the_14th%E2%80%9317th_centuries"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophical problems in the works of Russian scribes of the 14th–17th centuries</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Joseph_Volotsky_and_Nil_Sorsky"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Joseph Volotsky and Nil Sorsky</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Ostrog_School"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ostrog School</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Rtishchevskaya_School"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Rtishchevskaya School</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Moscow_Slavic%E2%80%93Greek%E2%80%93Latin_Academy"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Moscow Slavic–Greek–Latin Academy</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Philosophy_at_the_Smolensk_Collegium"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy at the Smolensk Collegium</span></a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Russian_philosophy_of_the_18th_century"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Russian philosophy of the 18th century</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Russian_philosophy_of_the_19th_century"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Russian philosophy of the 19th century</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Philosophy_of_all%E2%80%93unity_of_Vladimir_Solovyov"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy of all–unity of Vladimir Solovyov</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Philosophy_of_Leo_Tolstoy"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy of Leo Tolstoy</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Positivism"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Positivism</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Russian_philosophy_of_the_20th_century"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Russian philosophy of the 20th century</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Existentialism_of_Nikolai_Berdyaev"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Existentialism of Nikolai Berdyaev</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Eurasianism"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Eurasianism</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Soviet_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Soviet philosophy</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Post%E2%80%93Soviet_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Post–Soviet philosophy</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#School_of_Georgy_Shchedrovitsky"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">School of Georgy Shchedrovitsky</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a 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.sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1234152309">.mw-parser-output .philosophy-sidebar{max-width:22em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-phi-pre{padding-top:0.8em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-phi-title{font-weight:bold;padding-bottom:0em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-phi-title a{color:black}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-phi-img{padding:0.8em 0.8em 1em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-phi-above{padding:0.5em 1.5em 0.5em;display:block;background-color:#efefef}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-phi button{padding:0 0.2em}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a>, there is no consensus regarding the origins of Russian philosophy, its <a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">periodization</a> and its cultural significance. The historical boundaries of Russian philosophy directly depend on the philosophical content that a specific researcher sees in Russian intellectual history. Traditionally, since the 19th century, the "pre–Petrine" or "Old Russian" and "post–Petrine" or "Enlightenment" stages of the development of Russian philosophy have been distinguished. In modern historiography, a third, "Soviet" period is also distinguished. Starting from religious thought, Archimandrite Gabriel, the first historian of Russian philosophy, saw its origins in the didactic "Teachings" of <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_II_Monomakh" title="Vladimir II Monomakh">Vladimir Monomakh</a>, thereby directly elevating Russian philosophy to traditional ancient Russian scribes. A number of major historians of Russian philosophy, however, tend to view philosophy in stricter boundaries: Russian philosophy is taking shape as an independent phenomenon, thus, in the era of <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a>. </p><p>The reduction of Russian philosophy to the enlightenment paradigm has been repeatedly criticized in view of the reductivization of the Russian philosophical heritage of previous eras. Discussions about the origins and boundaries of Russian philosophy do not subside to this day, although in most modern historical and philosophical essays, Russian philosophy is considered as a phenomenon of Russian intellectual culture rooted in the theological and didactic literature of <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ancient Russia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kliment_Smoliatich" title="Kliment Smoliatich">Kliment Smolyatich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kirik_the_Novgorodian" title="Kirik the Novgorodian">Kirik Novgorodets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kirill_of_Turov" title="Kirill of Turov">Kirill Turovsky</a> and others are among the first Russian philosophers). </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Lossky" title="Nikolay Lossky">Nikolay Lossky</a>, the characteristic features of Russian philosophy are: <a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">cosmism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sophia_(wisdom)" title="Sophia (wisdom)">sophiology (teachings about Sophia)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sobornost" title="Sobornost">sobornost</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, religiosity, intuitionism, <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>, realism (<a href="/wiki/Ontologism" title="Ontologism">ontologism</a>). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Semyon_Frank" title="Semyon Frank">Semyon Frank</a> characterized Russian philosophy by pointing out the inseparability of rational and moral meanings inherent in Russian thinkers, inherent in the word <i>pravda</i>. <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Berdyaev" title="Nikolai Berdyaev">Nikolai Berdyaev</a> also pointed out the striving characteristic of Russian thought "to develop for oneself a totalitarian, holistic world outlook, in which <i>pravda–truth</i> will be combined with <i>pravda–justice</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Professor Andrei Sukhov, no other philosophy contains so many reflections on the fate of country.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As noted by the researcher Maria Varlamova, in Russia, Plato is a much more significant figure than Aristotle.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Professor Nina Dmitrieva notes that "Russian philosophical thought until the turn of the 19th–20th centuries developed mainly in the mainstream of literary criticism and journalism, with a primary focus on topical socio–political and ethical issues. And in the last decades of the 19th century, mystical and religious thinkers began to set the tone in academic and so–called free philosophy".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As Professor, Doctor of Historical Sciences Natalia Vorobyova notes in her work "History of Russian Spiritual Culture", modern researchers postulate the absence of an original national Slavic–Russian philosophical system, considering the system of Russian philosophy as a phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Modern period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As Academician <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Likhachov" class="mw-redirect" title="Dmitry Likhachov">Dmitry Likhachev</a> writes: "For many centuries Russian philosophy was closely connected with literature and poetry. Therefore, it should be studied in connection with Lomonosov and Derzhavin, Tyutchev and Vladimir Solovyov, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Chernyshevsky...".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Main_schools_and_directions">Main schools and directions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Main schools and directions" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <p>The main directions of Russian philosophy include: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Westernizer" title="Westernizer">Westernism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Russia" title="Liberalism in Russia">liberalism</a> – mid–19th century;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavophilia" title="Slavophilia">Slavophilism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pochvennichestvo" title="Pochvennichestvo">pochvennichestvo</a> – mid–19th century;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narodniks" title="Narodniks">Narodnichestvo</a> – second half of the 19th century;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_nihilist_movement" title="Russian nihilist movement">Nihilism</a> – second half of the 19th century;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Russia" title="Anarchism in Russia">Anarchism</a> – second half of the 19th century;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Cosmism</a> – late 19th – first half of the 20th century;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolstoyan_movement" title="Tolstoyan movement">Tolstoyism</a> – late 19th – early 20th century;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> – late 19th – early 20th century;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vekhovstvo" title="Vekhovstvo">Vekhovstvo</a> – the beginning of the 20th century;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophiology" title="Sophiology">Sophiology</a> – the beginning of the 20th century;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasianism" title="Eurasianism">Eurasianism</a> – the first half of the 20th century, the beginning of the 21st century;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism–Leninism</a> – 20th century;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intransigence" title="Intransigence">Intransigence</a> – after the establishment of Soviet power in the 20th century;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Etatism</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School (perennialism)">Traditionalism</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalisms_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalisms in Russia">Nationalism</a>.</li></ol> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Origins_of_Russian_philosophy">Origins of Russian philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origins of Russian philosophy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophical_thought_in_the_Old_Russian_state_(11th–13th_centuries)"><span id="Philosophical_thought_in_the_Old_Russian_state_.2811th.E2.80.9313th_centuries.29"></span>Philosophical thought in the Old Russian state (11th–13th centuries)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Philosophical thought in the Old Russian state (11th–13th centuries)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>The existence of ancient Russian philosophy is debatable. Some researchers, like Archpriest Dmitry Leskin, recognized the fact of its existence,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> others denied, claiming only the presence of philosophical ideas and problems in ancient Russian literature.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The philosophical thoughts of the "Hellenic sages" fell into the Old Russian literature from translated sources. Within the framework of the religious worldview, the question of human nature (Svyatoslav's Izbornik,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kirill_of_Turov" title="Kirill of Turov">Kirill Turovsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nilus_of_Sora" title="Nilus of Sora">Nil Sorsky</a>), state power (<a href="/wiki/Joseph_Volotsky" title="Joseph Volotsky">Joseph Volotsky</a>) and universal values («<a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_Law_and_Grace" title="Sermon on Law and Grace">The Word of Law and Grace</a>» by Metropolitan <a href="/wiki/Hilarion_of_Kiev" title="Hilarion of Kiev">Hilarion</a>, who is sometimes called "the first ancient Russian philosopher") was resolved.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ethical ideal is contained in the Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh. In addition to historiosophy (ethnogenesis as a punishment for the Tower of Babel), The Tale of Bygone Years also contains elements of religious philosophy: the concepts of property (hypostasis), flesh (matter), vision (form), desire and dream (imagination) are being developed. Also in the ancient Russian state, translated literature of Byzantine philosophical monuments was widely circulated, the most important of which was the collection of sayings "The Bee" and "Dioptra" by Philip the Hermit. Among the most famous authors who left philosophically significant works are <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_II_Monomakh" title="Vladimir II Monomakh">Vladimir Monomakh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_of_Kiev" title="Theodosius of Kiev">Theodosius Pechersky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kliment_Smoliatich" title="Kliment Smoliatich">Klim Smolyatich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kirik_the_Novgorodian" title="Kirik the Novgorodian">Kirik Novgorodets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kirill_of_Turov" title="Kirill of Turov">Kirill Turovsky</a> and Daniil Zatochnik. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophical_problems_in_the_works_of_Russian_scribes_of_the_14th–17th_centuries"><span id="Philosophical_problems_in_the_works_of_Russian_scribes_of_the_14th.E2.80.9317th_centuries"></span>Philosophical problems in the works of Russian scribes of the 14th–17th centuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Philosophical problems in the works of Russian scribes of the 14th–17th centuries" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Joseph_Volotsky_and_Nil_Sorsky">Joseph Volotsky and Nil Sorsky</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Joseph Volotsky and Nil Sorsky" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Volotsky" title="Joseph Volotsky">Joseph Volotsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nilus_of_Sora" title="Nilus of Sora">Nil Sorsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sect_of_Skhariya_the_Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Sect of Skhariya the Jew">Heresy of the Judaizers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Strigolniki" title="Strigolniki">Strigolniki</a></div> <p>A wide controversy unfolded between the followers of Joseph from Volokolamsk (in the world – Ivan Sanin), nicknamed "Josephites", and Nil Sorsky (in the world – Nikolai Maikov), nicknamed the "Trans–Volga elders", or "non–possessors". The central question that worried the polemicists was related to the role of the church in the state and the significance of its land holdings and decoration. The problem of decorating churches and land was not directly related to philosophy, however, it served as an impetus for considering the problems of church possessions in the plane of biblical and patristic literature (in the polemics, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Sinai" title="Gregory of Sinai">Gregory Sinait</a> and <a href="/wiki/Symeon_the_New_Theologian" title="Symeon the New Theologian">Simeon the New Theologian</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Climacus" title="John Climacus">John Climacus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_of_Nineveh" class="mw-redirect" title="Isaac of Nineveh">Isaac the Syrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Cassian" title="John Cassian">John Cassian the Roman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nilus_of_Sinai" title="Nilus of Sinai">Nil of Sinai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basil_of_Caesarea" title="Basil of Caesarea">Basil the Great</a> and others are cited) and ultimately led to the question of the meaning of the connection between faith and power, which was resolved on Russian soil in the idea of "charisma" of the ruler. This philosophical problem was further developed in the epistolary legacy of Ivan the Terrible and Prince Kurbsky, in "The Lay of Voivode Dracula" by <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Kuritsyn" title="Fyodor Kuritsyn">Fyodor Kuritsyn</a>, as well as in the message of Ivan Peresvetov. In addition, Joseph Volotsky and Nil Sorsky went down in history in the course of the struggle against the heresy of the Judaizers and strigolniki, which spread in the Novgorod land (first of all, in Novgorod itself and in Pskov). With the spread of the heresy of the Judaizers in the Russian intellectual environment, works of pseudo–Aristotle began to appear. The position of the strigolniks in their spirit was close to the Hussites. In this regard, there is a need not only for the arguments of patristic literature, but also for monuments of Latin scholastic scholarship, which Dmitry Gerasimov, also known as Dmitry Scholastic, a member of the Gennadiy circle, began to translate. It is noteworthy that the reaction to heretics on the part of Joseph Volotsky and Nil Sorsky also differed radically: Joseph Volotsky insisted on the destruction of heretics, according to Joseph, it is necessary to "inflict wounds on them, thereby consecrating his hand", while Nil Sorsky and Vassian Patrikeev insisted on the need exhortation, fighting with the word, not with the sword. The controversy between the Josephites and the non–possessors became an important example of the tension between the authorities and free–thinkers in the Russian state, which subsequently reappeared again and again in the history of Russian philosophy, which was repeatedly banned.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ostrog_School">Ostrog School</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ostrog School" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/National_University_Ostroh_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="National University Ostroh Academy">Ostrog School</a></div> <p>An important role in the formation of Russian philosophy was played by the Ostrog School, founded by Prince <a href="/wiki/Konstanty_Wasyl_Ostrogski" title="Konstanty Wasyl Ostrogski">Konstantin Ostrozhsky</a> in his domain in Ostrog in order to strengthen the Orthodox faith and improve the quality of the work of the Orthodox clergy in polemics with the Uniates. In the Ostrog School, much attention was paid to the study of languages: Ancient Greek, Latin and Old Church Slavonic. There was a printing house at the school, in which <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Fyodorov_(printer)" title="Ivan Fyodorov (printer)">Ivan Fedorov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Mstislavets" title="Pyotr Mstislavets">Pyotr Timofeev</a> served. Prince <a href="/wiki/Andrey_Kurbsky" title="Andrey Kurbsky">Andrey Kurbsky</a> also took part in the development of the school. Along with theological literature, scholastic philosophy was studied at the Ostrog School. So Vitaly Dubensky compiled the florilegia "Dioptra, or the Mirror and the Reflection of Human Life in the Next World" in the Univ Monastery. Among the graduates of the academy were: the author of "Grammar" <a href="/wiki/Meletius_Smotrytsky" title="Meletius Smotrytsky">Melety Smotritsky</a> (son of the first rector), archimandrite of the Kiev–Pechersk Lavra, the founder of the Lavra Printing House <a href="/wiki/Yelisey_Pletenetsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Yelisey Pletenetsky">Yelisey Pletenetsky</a>, polemicist writer, philosopher, author of "Apocrisis" Christopher Filalet and many others. The activities of the Ostrog School predetermined the orientation of philosophical and theological courses at the Kiev–Mogila and Moscow Slavic–Greek–Latin academies.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rtishchevskaya_School">Rtishchevskaya School</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Rtishchevskaya School" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>The Rtishchevsky School (also – the Rtishchevsky Brotherhood, the Andreevsky School) was the first educational institution in <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Russia</a>, founded as a court circle during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Alexis_of_Russia" title="Alexis of Russia">Alexei Mikhailovich</a>. Education in the Rtishchevsky Brotherhood was carried out on the model of European institutions of higher education. The school arose on the initiative of <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Rtishchev" title="Fyodor Rtishchev">Fyodor Rtishchev</a>, operated in Moscow since <a href="/wiki/1648" title="1648">1648</a> and was located in the Andreevsky Monastery, built at the expense of Rtishchev at the foot of the Sparrow Hills. </p><p>The Rtischevskaya School was the first in Moscow to officially include courses in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>. The head of the Rtishchevskaya School was appointed a native of the <a href="/wiki/Kiev_Theological_Academy" title="Kiev Theological Academy">Kiev Fraternal School</a>, a participant in book research in Russia, a philosopher, theologian and translator <a href="/wiki/Epiphanius_Slavinetsky" title="Epiphanius Slavinetsky">Epiphany Slavinetsky</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Moscow_Slavic–Greek–Latin_Academy"><span id="Moscow_Slavic.E2.80.93Greek.E2.80.93Latin_Academy"></span>Moscow Slavic–Greek–Latin Academy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Moscow Slavic–Greek–Latin Academy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>The most important figure within the Moscow Slavic–Greek–Latin Academy was <a href="/wiki/Symeon_of_Polotsk" title="Symeon of Polotsk">Simeon of Polotsk</a>. Simeon Polotsky was a figure of Russian culture, spiritual writer, <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theologian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poet" title="Poet">poet</a>, playwright, translator. He was the mentor of the children of the Russian Tsar <a href="/wiki/Alexis_of_Russia" title="Alexis of Russia">Alexei Mikhailovich</a> from <a href="/wiki/Maria_Miloslavskaya" title="Maria Miloslavskaya">Maria Miloslavskaya</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ivan_V_of_Russia" title="Ivan V of Russia">Ivan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sophia_Alekseyevna_of_Russia" title="Sophia Alekseyevna of Russia">Sophia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Feodor_III_of_Russia" title="Feodor III of Russia">Fedor</a>. Founder of the School at the Zaikonospassky Monastery, teacher of Sylvester Medvedev. </p><p>Other important figures include Sylvester Medvedev and the Likhuda Brothers, Feofilakt Lopatinsky, Pallady Rogovsky. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philosophy_at_the_Smolensk_Collegium">Philosophy at the Smolensk Collegium</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Philosophy at the Smolensk Collegium" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>The most important figure in the framework of philosophy at the Smolensk Collegium was Gedeon Vishnevsky. Bishop Gedeon Vishnevsky was the bishop of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</a>, bishop of <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Diocese_of_Smolensk" title="Russian Orthodox Diocese of Smolensk">Smolensk and Dorogobuzh</a>. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Russian_philosophy_of_the_18th_century">Russian philosophy of the 18th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Russian philosophy of the 18th century" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <p>The reforms of Peter I contributed to the limitation of the power of the church and the penetration of Western philosophy into Russia through the emerging system of higher education. The most popular Western innovation was <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">deism</a>, whose adherents were such key thinkers of the Russian Enlightenment as <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Mikhail Lomonosov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Radishchev" title="Alexander Radishchev">Alexander Radishchev</a>. It was at this moment that <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sensualism" title="Sensualism">sensationalism</a> fell on Russian soil. In practice, the ideas of deism were expressed in <a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">anti–clericalism</a> and the substantiation of the subordination of spiritual power to secular ones, for which the learned squad of Peter I advocated. Also, the philosophy of Russian Enlightenment adapted many of the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemasonry</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Novikov" title="Nikolay Novikov">Nikolay Novikov</a>). <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Teplov" title="Grigory Teplov">Grigory Teplov</a> compiled one of the first Russian philosophical dictionaries.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Important Russian philosophers of the 18th century were <a href="/wiki/Theophan_Prokopovich" title="Theophan Prokopovich">Feofan Prokopovich</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Yavorsky" title="Stefan Yavorsky">Stefan Yavorsky</a>, Mikhail Lomonosov, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Skovoroda" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregory Skovoroda">Grigory Skovoroda</a>, Russian Martinists, and "Inner Christians". The central works of Russian philosophers of the 18th century were "A Conversation of Two Friends" by Vasily Tatishchev, "Children's Philosophy" by Andrei Bolotov, "Knowledge Concerning Philosophy in General" by Grigory Teplov and "About Man, His Mortality and Immortality" by Alexander Radishchev. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Russian_philosophy_of_the_19th_century">Russian philosophy of the 19th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Russian philosophy of the 19th century" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Chaadayev" title="Pyotr Chaadayev">Pyotr Chaadaev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavophilia" title="Slavophilia">Slavophilism</a></div> <p>Schellingism appeared in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1823, the <a href="/wiki/Lyubomudry" title="Lyubomudry">Society of Wisdom</a> is created. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Chaadayev" title="Pyotr Chaadayev">Peter Chaadaev</a> – stood at the origins of the original philosophy, asked the question about the meaning of Russia as a separate civilization. For the rest, he repeated the old ideas about the <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">mechanistic</a> structure of the world and the <a href="/wiki/Providentialism" title="Providentialism">providential</a> nature of history;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksey_Khomyakov" title="Aleksey Khomyakov">Aleksey Khomyakov</a> – a <a href="/wiki/Slavophilia" title="Slavophilia">Slavophile</a>, considered the decision about the meaning of Russia unsatisfactory, and defended the idea of <a href="/wiki/Sobornost" title="Sobornost">sobornost</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Kireyevsky" title="Ivan Kireyevsky">Ivan Kireevsky</a> – a <a href="/wiki/Slavophilia" title="Slavophilia">Slavophile</a>, defended the ideal of pre–Petrine patriarchal Russia;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Aksakov" title="Konstantin Aksakov">Konstantin Aksakov</a> – made a distinction between country and state;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Fyodor Dostoevsky</a> declared about the "<a href="/wiki/Russian_Idea" title="Russian Idea">Russian Idea</a>" and the need to restore the connection between the "educated society" and the <a href="/wiki/People" title="People">people</a> on the basis of the national "soil";</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Herzen" title="Alexander Herzen">Herzen</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vissarion_Belinsky" title="Vissarion Belinsky">Belinsky</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Dobrolyubov" title="Nikolay Dobrolyubov">Dobrolyubov</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Chernyshevsky" title="Nikolay Chernyshevsky">Chernyshevsky</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Pisarev" title="Dmitry Pisarev">Pisarev</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_all–unity_of_Vladimir_Solovyov"><span id="Philosophy_of_all.E2.80.93unity_of_Vladimir_Solovyov"></span>Philosophy of all–unity of Vladimir Solovyov</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Philosophy of all–unity of Vladimir Solovyov" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></div> <p>Contemporaries called <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a> (1853–1900) the central figure of Russian philosophy. He criticized the philosophy that existed before him for abstractness and did not accept such extreme manifestations of it as <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>. He put forward the idea of positive total–unity, headed by God. He saw good as a manifestation of will, truth as a manifestation of reason, beauty as a manifestation of feeling. The philosopher saw the entire material world as controlled by Him, while man in his philosophy acted as a connecting link between God and nature, created by Him, but not perfect. A person must bring it to perfection (up to spiritualization), this is the <a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">meaning of his life</a> (movement to the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">Absolute</a>). Since a person occupies an intermediate position between God and nature, his moral activity is manifested in love for another person, for nature and for God.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of <i>all-unity</i> was also used by <a href="/wiki/Semyon_Frank" title="Semyon Frank">Semyon Frank</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lev_Karsavin" title="Lev Karsavin">Lev Karsavin</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_Leo_Tolstoy">Philosophy of Leo Tolstoy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Philosophy of Leo Tolstoy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a></div> <p>One of the central places in Russian philosophy is occupied by <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a> (1828–1910). His philosophy was influenced by the views of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a>. Tolstoy's views were shared by many of his contemporaries ("Tolstoyans") and followers. <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a> himself considered him to be his teacher. </p><p>In his philosophy, Tolstoy recognizes the value of the moral component of religion, but denies all its theological aspects ("true religion"). The goal of <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a> is the search for the <a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">meaning of life</a> by a person.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positivism">Positivism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Positivism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <ul><li>De Roberti;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigory_Vyrubov" title="Grigory Vyrubov">Vyrubov</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lesevich" title="Vladimir Lesevich">Lesevich</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Lavrov" title="Pyotr Lavrov">Lavrov</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Mikhaylovsky" title="Nikolay Mikhaylovsky">Mikhailovsky</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Russian_philosophy_of_the_20th_century">Russian philosophy of the 20th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Russian philosophy of the 20th century" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <p>Well-known philosophers of the early 20th century—the Golden Age of Russian philosophy—include <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Berdyaev" title="Nikolai Berdyaev">Nikolai Berdyaev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semyon_Frank" title="Semyon Frank">Semyon Frank</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Lossky" title="Nikolay Lossky">Nikolay Lossky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Rozanov" title="Vasily Rozanov">Vasily Rozanov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Shpet" title="Gustav Shpet">Gustav Shpet</a>, among others. </p><p>At the beginning of the 20th century, the largest Russian philosophers, under the influence of social and political changes in the country, published three philosophical collections, which received a wide public response and evaluation from various political figures of that time. These compilations: </p> <ul><li>The Problems of Idealism. 1902;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vekhi" title="Vekhi">Milestones. Collection of Articles About the Russian Intelligentsia</a>. 1909;</li> <li>From the Depth. Collection of Articles About the Russian Revolution. 1918.</li></ul> <p>Russian religious philosophy at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries became a kind of synthesis between Slavophilism and Westernism.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following Chaadaev, projects for the construction of the kingdom of God on Earth were preserved, which acquired the features of <a href="/wiki/Sophiology" title="Sophiology">Sophiology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a>) and <i><a href="/wiki/Rose_of_the_World_(1991_book)" title="Rose of the World (1991 book)">Rose of the World</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Daniil_Andreyev" title="Daniil Andreyev">Daniil Andreev</a>). Religion and spiritual and moral regeneration were thought to be an important part of building a just society. In part, the ideas of sophiology are inherited by <a href="/wiki/Bolshevism" title="Bolshevism">Bolshevism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>) and cosmism (<a href="/wiki/Noosphere" title="Noosphere">noosphere</a>). </p><p>In the 20th century, in connection with the dramatic events of Russian history, there is a division of Russian philosophy into <a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Russian Marxism</a> and the philosophy of the Russian diaspora. Some of the philosophers were exiled abroad, but some remained in Soviet Russia: <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a> and his student <a href="/wiki/Aleksei_Losev" title="Aleksei Losev">Alexei Losev</a>. Through the latter, the traditions of Russian philosophy were revived in Soviet Russia, since <a href="/wiki/Sergey_Averintsev" title="Sergey Averintsev">Sergey Averintsev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Bibikhin" title="Vladimir Bibikhin">Vladimir Bibikhin</a> received spiritual succession from him. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Existentialism_of_Nikolai_Berdyaev">Existentialism of Nikolai Berdyaev</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Existentialism of Nikolai Berdyaev" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Berdyaev" title="Nikolai Berdyaev">Nikolay Berdyaev</a></div> <p>The most important place in Russian philosophical thought in the first half of the 20th century is occupied by the work of <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Berdyaev" title="Nikolai Berdyaev">Nikolai Berdyaev</a> (1874–1948), the most prominent representative of Russian <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>. At the beginning of his journey, Berdyaev adhered to Marxist views, participating in anti–government demonstrations and conducting correspondence with one of the leaders of the German Social Democracy, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Karl Kautsky</a>. However, the young philosopher and thinker soon abandoned Marxism, becoming one of the most detailed critics of this doctrine. </p><p>Berdyaev calls the main opposition, which should develop in the philosopher's worldview, the opposition between spirit and nature. Spirit is a subject, life, creativity and freedom, nature is an object, a thing, necessity and immobility. Knowledge of the spirit is achieved through experience. God is spirit. Those of people who have had spiritual experience and experience of creativity do not need rational proof of the existence of God. At its core, the deity is irrational and super–rational. </p><p>Developing in his teaching the theme of creativity and spirituality, Berdyaev pays great attention to the idea of freedom, which reveals the connection between God, the Universe and man. He distinguishes three types of freedom: primary irrational freedom, that is, arbitrariness; rational freedom, that is, the fulfillment of a moral duty; and, finally, freedom imbued with the love of God. He argues that freedom is not created by God, and therefore God cannot be held responsible for the freedom that created evil. Primary freedom conditions the possibility of both good and evil. Thus, even God cannot foresee the actions of a person with free will, he acts as an assistant so that the will of a person becomes good. </p><p>Existential views in Berdyaev's work are manifested in his thoughts on the problem of personality. According to Berdyaev, personality is not a part of the cosmos, on the contrary, the cosmos is a part of the human personality. Personality is not a substance, it is a creative act, it is unchanging in the process of change. A person who manifests creative activity thereby finds a deity in himself. </p><p>Berdyaev is trying to formulate the so–called "Russian Idea", which expresses the character and vocation of the Russian people. "The Russian people are a highly polarized people, they are a combination of opposites", the thinker believes. The Russian people combine cruelty and humanity, individualism and faceless collectivism, the search for God and militant atheism, humility and arrogance, slavery and rebellion. In history, such features of a national character as obedience to power, martyrdom, sacrifice and a tendency to revelry and anarchy were manifested. Speaking about the events of 1917, Berdyaev emphasizes that the liberal–bourgeois revolution in Russia was a utopia. The revolution in Russia could only be socialist. According to the philosopher, the Russian idea is rooted in the idea of the brotherhood of people and peoples, for the Russian people in their spiritual structure is religious, open and communitarian. Nevertheless, Berdyaev reminds, one should not forget about the polarization of the nature of the Russian man, capable of compassion and the possibility of bitterness, striving for freedom, but sometimes prone to slavery. </p><p>Among the main works of Berdyaev "Philosophy of Freedom" (1911), "The Meaning of Creativity. The Experience of Human Justification" (1916), "The Philosophy of Inequality. Letters to Enemies in Social Philosophy" (1923), "The Origins and Meaning of Russian Communism" (1937), "Russian Idea. The Main Problems of Russian Thought in the 19th and 20th Centuries" (1946). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eurasianism">Eurasianism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Eurasianism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p><a href="/wiki/Eurasianism" title="Eurasianism">Eurasianism</a> is a philosophical and political movement advocating the rejection of Russia's European integration in favor of integration with Central Asian countries. The Eurasian movement, which emerged among the Russian emigration in the 1920s and 1930s, gained popularity by the beginning of the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ideas of Eurasianism, practically forgotten by the second half of the 20th century, were largely revived by the historian and geographer Lev Gumilyov and became widespread by the beginning of the 21st century. <a href="/wiki/Lev_Gumilyov" class="mw-redirect" title="Lev Gumilyov">Gumilyov</a> in a number of books – "Ethnogenesis and the Biosphere of the Earth", "Millennium around the Caspian" and "From Rus to Russia" – using the Eurasian concept and supplementing it with his own developments, forms his concept of ethnogenesis, leading him to a number of conclusions, among which the largest the following are important: firstly, any ethnos is a community of people united by a certain stereotype of behavior; secondly, an ethnos and its stereotype of behavior are formed in specific geographic and climatic conditions and remain stable for a long period of time, comparable to the existence of an ethnos; thirdly, superethnic wholes are formed on the basis of a generalized stereotype of behavior shared by representatives of different ethnic groups of a single super–ethnic group; fourthly, the stereotype of the behavior of a superethnic integrity is a certain way of being that meets certain conditions of existence. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Soviet_philosophy">Soviet philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Soviet philosophy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Philosophy in the Soviet Union">Philosophy in the Soviet Union</a></div> <p>Even before the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>, the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> developed in Russia (<a href="/wiki/Georgi_Plekhanov" title="Georgi Plekhanov">Georgy Plekhanov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>). </p><p>The main question in Soviet philosophy was the question of the relationship between matter and consciousness, and the main method was <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectics</a>, in which three laws were distinguished. Structurally, philosophy was divided into dialectical and <a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">historical materialism</a>, that is, the philosophy of nature and the philosophy of history. Nature, interpreted as <a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matter (philosophy)">matter</a> and objective reality, was considered eternal and infinite in space and time. <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a> was interpreted as "a property of highly organized matter". </p><p>The theory of knowledge was dominated by the Leninist theory of reflection. The historical process was perceived through the prism of a subordinate relationship between the <a href="/wiki/Basis_(linear_algebra)" title="Basis (linear algebra)">basis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economy</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">superstructure</a> (<a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>), which passed through successively replacing formations: the <a href="/wiki/Primitive_communism" title="Primitive communism">primitive communal system</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slave system</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> (as the first stage of communism).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Soviet years, discussions about the nature of the ideal gained popularity (only "in the head" or not? David Dubrovsky – <a href="/wiki/Evald_Ilyenkov" title="Evald Ilyenkov">Evald Ilyenkov</a>), disputes about the nature of information. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakhtin" title="Mikhail Bakhtin">Mikhail Bakhtin</a> develops the ideas of polyphony, dialogue and carnivalism. Such philosophers as <a href="/wiki/Aleksei_Losev" title="Aleksei Losev">Aleksey Losev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sergey_Averintsev" title="Sergey Averintsev">Sergey Averintsev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Bibikhin" title="Vladimir Bibikhin">Vladimir Bibikhin</a> enjoyed great popularity in the late Soviet period. In the late Soviet and post–Soviet period, the ideas of the <a href="/wiki/Tartu%E2%80%93Moscow_Semiotic_School" title="Tartu–Moscow Semiotic School">Moscow–Tartu Semiotic School</a> were widely recognized. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Post–Soviet_philosophy"><span id="Post.E2.80.93Soviet_philosophy"></span>Post–Soviet philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Post–Soviet philosophy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <p>After the lifting of <a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">ideological prohibitions</a> due to the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, Russian philosophy found itself in a situation of uncertainty. While maintaining the existing structure of philosophical education, the process of mastering that part of the philosophical heritage, from which Soviet philosophy was artificially isolated, was launched. New disciplines of the philosophical cycle arose and began to develop – <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culturology" title="Culturology">cultural studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">religious studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">philosophical anthropology</a>. </p><p>Attempts were made to resume the interrupted philosophical tradition, return to the legacy of Russian religious philosophy, but these attempts (according to <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Semenov" title="Yuri Semenov">Yuri Semyonov</a>, Daniil Danin, Mikhail Chulaki and many others)<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> proved to be a failure. </p><p>Currently, there are several organizations that declare their continuity to the ideas of the Eurasians. The main ones among them are the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Youth_Union" title="Eurasian Youth Union">Eurasian Youth Union</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Eurasianism" title="Eurasianism">International Eurasian Movement</a> of the main ideologist of neo–Eurasianism, <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Alexander Dugin</a>, and a number of other organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="School_of_Georgy_Shchedrovitsky">School of Georgy Shchedrovitsky</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: School of Georgy Shchedrovitsky" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Shchedrovitsky" title="Georgy Shchedrovitsky">Georgy Shchedrovitsky</a></div> <p>An extremely original and extraordinary<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> contribution to the development of Russian philosophy belongs to <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Shchedrovitsky" title="Georgy Shchedrovitsky">Georgy Shchedrovitsky</a> and the methodological school he created, which was subsequently formulated accordingly ("the third Russian philosophy is actually methodology").<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The philosophical and methodological system, created by Shchedrovitsky and his school (also known as the Moscow Methodological Circle), offers original ways out of the problematic <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">situation of postmodernism</a> ("in the opposition "modernism – postmodernism", the system of thought–activity methodology can be positioned with a number of reservations and conditions").<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is indicative that the initially semi–underground Moscow methodological circle forms, forges and polishes the concepts demanded by contemporary period, at a time when the conceptual apparatus of the so–called "post–non–classical" (post–modernist) philosophy has already exhausted its capabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_philosophers" title="List of Russian philosophers">List of Russian philosophers</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/borba-za-pravdu-berdyaev-kant-i-drugie">Jan Krasicki. Struggle for Truth (Berdyaev, Kant and Others) // Soloviev Studies. 2014. No. 2 (42)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iph.ras.ru/sukhov.htm">"Sukhov Andrey Dmitrievich"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sukhov+Andrey+Dmitrievich&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fiph.ras.ru%2Fsukhov.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dlib.rsl.ru/loader/view/01005533260%3Fget%3Dpdf">Maria Varlamova. Dynamis as the Cause of Movement in Aristotle's Physics. Pages 3–4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.logosjournal.ru/arch/59/art_60.pdf">Nina Dmitrieva. Philosophy as a Science and Worldview: Towards the Question of Pacifism in German and Russian Neo–Kantianism</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Natalia Vorobyova. History of Russian Spiritual Culture. Page 99</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://likhachev.lfond.spb.ru/articl100/Russia/Crest-rus.pdf">Dmitry Likhachev. Baptism of Rus and the State of Rus</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phil63.ru/ontologicheskii-status-imeni-i-slova-v-filosofskoi-kulture-drevnei-rusi">Ontological Status of the Name and Word in the Philosophical Culture of Ancient Russia</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosoffine.ru/study-7-1.html">Philosophically Significant Content of Old Russian Bookishness</a> // History of Russian Philosophy. Edited by Mikhail Maslin – Moscow: University Book House, 2008 – 640 Pages</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lunn.su/index.php/2010-03-18-17-02-13/162-2010-11-26-20-59-56.html">The Influence of Ancient Philosophical Ideas on the Formation of Old Russian Book Literature on the Example of Svyatoslav's Izbornik</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vladimir Lavrinenko, Valentin Ratnikov. Philosophy: a Textbook for Higher Educational Institutions. UNITY–DANA, 2010 – Page 272. ISBN 978-5-238-01378-7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rushist.com/index.php/russia-children/761-nil-sorskij-i-iosif-volotskij">Joseph Volotsky and Nil Sorsky. Russian Historical Library</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://w.histrf.ru/articles/article/show/ostrozhskaia_akadiemiia">Ostrog School. Encyclopedia of World History</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://runivers.ru/philosophy/lib/authors/author103704/">Grigory Teplov. Runivers</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://felicina.ru/nauka/hristianstvo-i-russkaja-ideja-vl-solovjova/">Vladimir Solovyov. Felitsyn Museum</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.socionauki.ru/journal/articles/255270/">Nikita Kozlov. Leo Tolstoy's Intellectual, Philosophical and Social Quest</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pavel Shkurinov. Positivism in Russia in the 19th Century – Moscow: Moscow University Publishing House, 1980 – 416 Pages</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mipt.ru/education/chair/philosophy/textbooks/frolovintro/chapter4_5.php">Russian Religious Philosophy. Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://w.histrf.ru/articles/article/show/ievraziistvo">Eurasianism. Encyclopedia of World History</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science-education.ru/ru/article/view?id=4841">Alisa Gadelshina. Formation Approach as a Methodology for Analyzing Social Development</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scepsis.net/library/id_7.html">On Russian Religious Philosophy of the Late 19th – Early 20th Centuries // Yuri Semyonov</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gefter.ru/archive/25085">Mikhail Nemtsev. "Neo–Eurasianism" of Alexander Dugin and Eurasianism</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Methodologists advise regional and municipal development programs, reorganization and development programs of individual enterprises, business structures, participate in the examination of various kinds of social initiatives, programs and projects, specialize as political strategists and image makers. There are separate experimental platforms in education": Alexey Babaytsev. Systematic Research Methodology // The Latest Philosophical Dictionary: 3rd Edition, Revised – Minsk: Book House. 2003 – 1280 Pages – (World of Encyclopedias)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fondgp.ru/publications/%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F-%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F-%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F-%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BC-%D0%B4-3">The Third Russian Philosophy is Actually a Methodology. Report at the Seminar–Discussion on the Preparation of the 10th Readings in Memory of Georgy Shchedrovitsky. January 27, 2004. Moscow</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alexey Babaytsev. Systematic Research Methodology // The Latest Philosophical Dictionary: 3rd Edition, Revised – Minsk: Book House. 2003 – 1280 Pages – (World of Encyclopedias)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Georgy Shchedrovitsky. We Have a Philosophy // Georgy Shchedrovitsky. Philosophy. The Science. Methodology. Moscow: "School of Cultural Policy", 1997, Pages 1–24</span> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sources" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Vasily Vanchugov. The First Historian of Russian Philosophy: Archimandrite Gabriel and His Time – Moscow: World of Philosophy. 2015 – 752 Pages – (Russian Philosophy). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-9906502-0-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-9906502-0-6">978-5-9906502-0-6</a></li> <li>Archimandrite Gabriel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101129012745/http://www.humanities.edu.ru/db/msg/77643">Russian Philosophy</a> / Preface, Text Preparation, Notes – Doctor of Philosophy Vasily Vanchugov – Moscow – Peoples' Friendship University of Russia Publishing House, 2005</li> <li>Archimandrite Gabriel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://runivers.ru/lib/book3545/18606/">History of Philosophy</a>. Part 6. Kazan, at the University Printing House 1840 – Part 6: Russian Philosophy. (Facsimile Edition on the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://runivers.ru/philosophy/">Runivers</a> Portal)</li> <li>Anatoly Galaktionov, Peter Nikandrov. History of Russian Philosophy – Moscow: Publishing House of Socio–Economic Literature, 1961</li> <li>Anatoly Galaktionov, Peter Nikandrov. Russian Philosophy of the 9th–19th Centuries. 2nd Edition, Revised and Enlarged – Leningrad: Leningrad State University Publishing House, 1989</li> <li>Vasily Zenkovsky. History of Russian Philosophy / Introductory Article, Preparation and Notes by Vyacheslav Serbinenko – Moscow, 2001</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Lossky" title="Nikolay Lossky">Nikolay Lossky</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vehi.net/nlossky/istoriya/">History of Russian Philosophy</a> – Moscow: Academic Project, <a href="/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a> – 560 Pages – ISBN 978-5-8291-0858-8</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://runivers.ru/philosophy/lib/book6242/144998/">Russian Philosophy of the First Half of the 19th Century</a> – Sverdlovsk: <a href="/wiki/Ural_State_University" title="Ural State University">Publishing House of the Ural University</a>, 1967. On the <a href="/wiki/Runivers" title="Runivers">Runivers</a> Website</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iphlib.ru/library/collection/newphilenc/document/HASH017fcfe8fe8ab8c1a9321f7f">Russian Philosophy</a> / Mikhail Gromov // New Philosophical Encyclopedia: In 4 Volumes / Chairman of the Scientific Editorial Council Vyacheslav Stepin – 2nd Edition, Revised and Supplemented – Moscow: Mysl, 2010 – 2816 Pages</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrina_Sizemskaya2006" class="citation journal cs1">Irina Sizemskaya (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zpu-journal.ru/zpu/2006_1/Sizemskaia/19.pdf">"Russian "Philosophy–Poetry" as a Form of Historiosophical World Outlook (Beginning)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (1) (Knowledge. Understanding. Skill ed.): 127–133.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Russian+%22Philosophy%E2%80%93Poetry%22+as+a+Form+of+Historiosophical+World+Outlook+%28Beginning%29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=127-133&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Irina+Sizemskaya&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zpu-journal.ru%2Fzpu%2F2006_1%2FSizemskaia%2F19.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussian+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li>Maja Soboleva. Russische Philosophie im Kontexte der Interkulturalitaet. Traugott Bautz Verlag, <a href="/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a></li> <li>Andrey Sukhov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iphras.ru/uplfile/root/biblio/1995/Sukhov_Rus_phil.pdf">Russian Philosophy: Features, Traditions, Historical Destinies. Moscow, Institute of Philosophy of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 1995</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scepsis.net/library/id_7.html">Yuri Semyonov. On Russian Religious Philosophy of the Late 19th – Early 20th Centuries</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rvb.ru/swassjan/noch_nacht/15.htm">Karen Svasyan. About Three Transformations of Philosophy in Russia</a></li> <li>Galina Grinenko. History of Philosophy – Moscow: Yurayt–Izdat – 2004</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iphlib.ru/library/collection/newphilenc/document/HASH4b33a2dd7a317a045fb64b">Philosophy in the Soviet Union and Post–Soviet Russia</a> / Vladimir Pustarnakov, Alexander Myslivchenko, Vladislav Lektorsky, Alexander Ogurtsov // New Philosophical Encyclopedia: In 4 Volumes / Chairman of the Scientific and Editorial Council Vyacheslav Stepin – 2nd Edition, Revised and Supplemented – Moscow: Mysl, 2010 – 2816 Pages</li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Russian_philosophy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://filosof.historic.ru/books/c0011_1.shtml">Russian Philosophy</a> in the Electronic Library of Philosophy</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rusword.org/articler/filos.php">Russian Philosophy on the Site "World of the Russian Word"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vehi.net/">Library of Russian Religious, Philosophical and Fictional Literature "Vekhi"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110521055528/http://video.yandex.ru/users/brevno1970/collection/2/">A Cycle of Documentary Programs About Russian Philosophy and Literature</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://runivers.ru/philosophy/">Russian Philosophy on the Runivers Portal</a> (Facsimile Library)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isfp.sdf.org/russian_thinkers/">Gallery of Russian Thinkers by Dmitry Olshansky</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://runivers.ru/spec/lection/authors/author103595/">An Introduction to the History of Russian Philosophical Thought. 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