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subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Monday,_May_30_(Memorial_Day)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Encounter_in_the_elevator" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Encounter_in_the_elevator"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Encounter in the elevator </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Encounter_in_the_elevator-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brief_investigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brief_investigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Brief investigation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brief_investigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tuesday,_May_31" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tuesday,_May_31"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Tuesday, May 31 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Tuesday,_May_31-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Tuesday, May 31 subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Tuesday,_May_31-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arrest_of_Rowland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arrest_of_Rowland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Arrest of Rowland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arrest_of_Rowland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Newspaper_coverage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Newspaper_coverage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Newspaper coverage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Newspaper_coverage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stand-off_at_the_courthouse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stand-off_at_the_courthouse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Stand-off at the courthouse </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stand-off_at_the_courthouse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taking_up_arms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taking_up_arms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Taking up arms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taking_up_arms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outbursts_of_violence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outbursts_of_violence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Outbursts of violence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outbursts_of_violence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wednesday,_June_1" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wednesday,_June_1"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Wednesday, June 1 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Wednesday,_June_1-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Wednesday, June 1 subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Wednesday,_June_1-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fires_begin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fires_begin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Fires begin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fires_begin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Daybreak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Daybreak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Daybreak </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Daybreak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attack_by_air" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attack_by_air"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Attack by air </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attack_by_air-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arrival_of_National_Guard_troops" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arrival_of_National_Guard_troops"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Arrival of National Guard troops </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arrival_of_National_Guard_troops-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Aftermath </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Aftermath subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Casualties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Casualties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Casualties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Casualties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Property_losses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Property_losses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Property losses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Property_losses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Identities_of_the_African_American_victims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Identities_of_the_African_American_victims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Identities of the African American victims </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Identities_of_the_African_American_victims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_Safety_Committee" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_Safety_Committee"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Public Safety Committee </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_Safety_Committee-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rebuilding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rebuilding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Rebuilding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rebuilding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tulsa_Union_Depot" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tulsa_Union_Depot"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Tulsa Union Depot </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tulsa_Union_Depot-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1921_grand_jury_investigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1921_grand_jury_investigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 1921 grand jury investigation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1921_grand_jury_investigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Allegations_of_corruption" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allegations_of_corruption"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7.1 Allegations of corruption </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allegations_of_corruption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_A._Gustafson" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_A._Gustafson"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7.2 John A. Gustafson </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_A._Gustafson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breaking_the_silence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breaking_the_silence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 Breaking the silence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breaking_the_silence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Survivors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Survivors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Survivors </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Survivors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Survivors subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Survivors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Olivia_Hooker" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Olivia_Hooker"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Olivia Hooker </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Olivia_Hooker-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eldoris_McCondichie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eldoris_McCondichie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Eldoris McCondichie </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eldoris_McCondichie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-George_Monroe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#George_Monroe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 George Monroe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-George_Monroe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mary_E._Jones_Parrish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mary_E._Jones_Parrish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Mary E. Jones Parrish </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mary_E._Jones_Parrish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lessie_Benningfield_("Mother_Randle")" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lessie_Benningfield_("Mother_Randle")"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Lessie Benningfield ("Mother Randle") </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lessie_Benningfield_("Mother_Randle")-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hal_Singer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hal_Singer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Hal Singer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hal_Singer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Essie_Lee_Johnson_Beck" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Essie_Lee_Johnson_Beck"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Essie Lee Johnson Beck </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Essie_Lee_Johnson_Beck-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vernice_Simms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vernice_Simms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.8 Vernice Simms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vernice_Simms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lena_Eloise_Taylor_Butler" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lena_Eloise_Taylor_Butler"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9 Lena Eloise Taylor Butler </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lena_Eloise_Taylor_Butler-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tulsa_Race_Massacre_Commission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tulsa_Race_Massacre_Commission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Tulsa Race Massacre Commission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tulsa_Race_Massacre_Commission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-commission_actions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-commission_actions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Post-commission actions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Post-commission_actions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Post-commission actions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Post-commission_actions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Search_for_mass_graves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Search_for_mass_graves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Search for mass graves </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Search_for_mass_graves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reconciliation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reconciliation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Reconciliation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reconciliation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Survivors'_lawsuit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Survivors'_lawsuit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Survivors' lawsuit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Survivors'_lawsuit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_Hope_Franklin_Reconciliation_Park" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Hope_Franklin_Reconciliation_Park"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 John Hope Franklin Reconciliation Park </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Hope_Franklin_Reconciliation_Park-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renewed_calls_for_restitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renewed_calls_for_restitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Renewed calls for restitution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renewed_calls_for_restitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-President_Biden's_2021_visit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#President_Biden's_2021_visit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 President Biden's 2021 visit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-President_Biden's_2021_visit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tulsa_Historical_Society_and_Museum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tulsa_Historical_Society_and_Museum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Tulsa Historical Society and Museum </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tulsa_Historical_Society_and_Museum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Present-day_Black_Wall_Street" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Present-day_Black_Wall_Street"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Present-day Black Wall Street </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Present-day_Black_Wall_Street-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 In popular culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle In popular culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Film_and_television" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Film_and_television"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Film and television </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Film_and_television-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music_and_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music_and_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Music and art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music_and_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Tulsa race massacre</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 35 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-35" aria-hidden="true" > 35 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B0%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="مذبحة تولسا العرقية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مذبحة تولسا العرقية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbis_racials_de_Tulsa_de_1921" title="Disturbis racials de Tulsa de 1921 – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Disturbis racials de Tulsa de 1921" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masakr_v_Tulse" title="Masakr v Tulse – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Masakr v Tulse" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raceopt%C3%B8jerne_i_Tulsa_1921" title="Raceoptøjerne i Tulsa 1921 – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Raceoptøjerne i Tulsa 1921" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massaker_von_Tulsa" title="Massaker von Tulsa – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Massaker von Tulsa" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulsa_rassirahutused" title="Tulsa rassirahutused – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tulsa rassirahutused" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%AE_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%A4%CE%AC%CE%BB%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Σφαγή της Τάλσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σφαγή της Τάλσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbios_raciales_de_Tulsa" title="Disturbios raciales de Tulsa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Disturbios raciales de Tulsa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasa_tumulto_de_Tulsa" title="Rasa tumulto de Tulsa – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Rasa tumulto de Tulsa" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulsako_arrazagatiko_sarraskia" title="Tulsako arrazagatiko sarraskia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Tulsako arrazagatiko sarraskia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%84%D9%87_%D9%86%DA%98%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7" title="حمله نژادی تولسا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حمله نژادی تولسا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre_de_Tulsa" title="Massacre de Tulsa – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Massacre de Tulsa" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%84%B8%EC%82%AC_%EC%9D%B8%EC%A2%85_%ED%95%99%EC%82%B4" title="털사 인종 학살 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="털사 인종 학살" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasala_masakro_di_Tulsa" title="Rasala masakro di Tulsa – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Rasala masakro di Tulsa" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembantaian_ras_Tulsa" title="Pembantaian ras Tulsa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pembantaian ras Tulsa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fj%C3%B6ldamor%C3%B0in_%C3%AD_Tulsa" title="Fjöldamorðin í Tulsa – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fjöldamorðin í Tulsa" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacro_di_Tulsa" title="Massacro di Tulsa – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Massacro di Tulsa" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%98%D7%91%D7%97_%D7%91%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%A1%D7%94" title="הטבח בטלסה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הטבח בטלסה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusuhan_kaum_Tulsa" title="Rusuhan kaum Tulsa – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Rusuhan kaum Tulsa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rassenrellen_van_Tulsa" title="Rassenrellen van Tulsa – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Rassenrellen van Tulsa" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%BF%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B5%E4%BA%BA%E7%A8%AE%E8%99%90%E6%AE%BA" title="タルサ人種虐殺 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="タルサ人種虐殺" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulsamassakren" title="Tulsamassakren – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tulsamassakren" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulsadagi_tartibsizliklar" title="Tulsadagi tartibsizliklar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Tulsadagi tartibsizliklar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masakra_w_Tulsie" title="Masakra w Tulsie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Masakra w Tulsie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre_de_Tulsa" title="Massacre de Tulsa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Massacre de Tulsa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B4%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2_%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%B5" title="Расовые беспорядки в Талсе – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Расовые беспорядки в Талсе" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Tulsa race massacre" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulsan_joukkomurha" title="Tulsan joukkomurha – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tulsan joukkomurha" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raskravallerna_i_Tulsa_1921" title="Raskravallerna i Tulsa 1921 – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Raskravallerna i Tulsa 1921" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%9C%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B2" title="การสังหารหมู่คนผิวดำที่ทัลซา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การสังหารหมู่คนผิวดำที่ทัลซา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulsa_Irk%C3%A7%C4%B1_Katliam%C4%B1" title="Tulsa Irkçı Katliamı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tulsa Irkçı Katliamı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC_1921_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%83_%D0%B2_%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%96" title="Погром 1921 року в Талсі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Погром 1921 року в Талсі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BA%A3m_s%C3%A1t_ch%E1%BB%A7ng_t%E1%BB%99c_Tulsa" title="Thảm sát chủng tộc Tulsa – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thảm sát chủng tộc Tulsa" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A1%94%E5%B0%94%E8%90%A8%E7%A7%8D%E6%97%8F%E5%B1%A0%E6%9D%80" title="塔尔萨种族屠杀 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="塔尔萨种族屠杀" 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class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Tulsa_race_massacre&params=36.1594_N_95.9864_W_region:US-OK_type:event">36°09′34″N 95°59′11″W / 36.1594°N 95.9864°W / 36.1594; -95.9864</a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1921 mass violence in Oklahoma, U.S.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Tulsa riot" redirects here. For the November 1917 mob attack, see <a href="/wiki/Tulsa_Outrage" title="Tulsa Outrage">Tulsa Outrage</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Tulsa massacre" redirects here. For the mass shooting that occurred 101 years later, see <a href="/wiki/2022_Tulsa_hospital_shooting" title="2022 Tulsa hospital shooting">2022 Tulsa hospital shooting</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:125%;">Tulsa race massacre</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">Part of <a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African-American history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">mass racial violence in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Terrorism in the United States">terrorism in the United States</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">nadir of American race relations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">racism against African Americans</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Tulsa_Aftermath.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Tulsa_Aftermath.jpg/290px-Tulsa_Aftermath.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Tulsa_Aftermath.jpg/435px-Tulsa_Aftermath.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Tulsa_Aftermath.jpg/580px-Tulsa_Aftermath.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="385" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Homes and businesses burned in Greenwood</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location"><a href="/wiki/Greenwood_District,_Tulsa" title="Greenwood District, Tulsa">Greenwood District</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tulsa,_Oklahoma" title="Tulsa, Oklahoma">Tulsa, Oklahoma</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Tulsa_race_massacre&params=36.1594_N_95.9864_W_region:US-OK_type:event">36°09′34″N 95°59′11″W / 36.1594°N 95.9864°W / 36.1594; -95.9864</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data">May 31 – June 1, 1921</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Target</th><td class="infobox-data">Black residents, their homes, businesses, churches, schools, and municipal buildings over a 40 square block area</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Attack type</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Terrorism in the United States">White supremacist terrorism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Riot" title="Riot">race riots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">lynching</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogrom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arson" title="Arson">arson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass_murder" title="Mass murder">mass murder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Weapons</th><td class="infobox-data">Guns, explosives, fire<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001196-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data">Total dead and displaced unknown: 36 total; 26 black and 10 white dead (1921 records) 150–200 black and 50 white dead (1921 estimate by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">W. F. White</a>)<a href="#cite_note-broadax-2">[2]</a> 39 confirmed dead, 26 black (1 stillborn) and 13 white;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001116-3">[3]</a> 75–100 to 150–300 estimated dead in total (2001 commission)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001124-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Injured</th><td class="infobox-data">800+ 183 serious injuries&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillows1921[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-5">[5]</a> Exact number unknown</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Perpetrators</th><td class="infobox-data">White mob<a href="#cite_note-Cleaver-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gurley-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Luther-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rooney-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin19318,_10-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001193,_196-11">[11]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Motive</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Black_racism" title="Anti-Black racism">Anti-Black racism</a></td></tr></tbody></table> The Tulsa race massacre, also known as the Tulsa race riot or the Black Wall Street massacre,<a href="#cite_note-wwhite-12">[12]</a> was a two-day-long <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacist</a> <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorist</a><a href="#cite_note-Guardian_2021-05-31-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Black_Past_not_bury-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Massacre" title="Massacre">massacre</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> that took place between May 31 and June 1, 1921, when mobs of white residents, some of whom had been appointed as deputies and armed by city government officials,<a href="#cite_note-HBO-Watchmen-16">[16]</a> attacked black residents and destroyed homes and businesses of the <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_District,_Tulsa" title="Greenwood District, Tulsa">Greenwood District</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tulsa,_Oklahoma" title="Tulsa, Oklahoma">Tulsa, Oklahoma</a>. The event is considered one of the worst incidents of <a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">racial violence in American history</a>.<a href="#cite_note-okhist-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The attackers burned and destroyed more than 35 square blocks of the neighborhood—at the time, one of the wealthiest black communities in the United States, colloquially known as "Black <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a>."<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> More than 800 people were admitted to hospitals, and as many as 6,000 black residents of Tulsa were interned in large facilities, many of them for several days.<a href="#cite_note-messerbell-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The Oklahoma Bureau of Vital Statistics officially recorded 36 dead.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> The 2001 <a href="/wiki/Tulsa_Reparations_Coalition" title="Tulsa Reparations Coalition">Tulsa Reparations Coalition</a> examination of events identified 39 dead, 26 black and 13 white, based on contemporary autopsy reports, death certificates, and other records.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001114-23">[23]</a> The commission gave several estimates ranging from 75 to 300 dead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200113,_23-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-wwhite-12">[12]</a> The massacre began during <a href="/wiki/Memorial_Day" title="Memorial Day">Memorial Day</a> weekend after 19-year-old <a href="/wiki/Dick_Rowland" title="Dick Rowland">Dick Rowland</a>, a black <a href="/wiki/Shoeshiner" title="Shoeshiner">shoeshiner</a>, was accused of assaulting Sarah Page, a white 21-year-old <a href="/wiki/Elevator_operator" title="Elevator operator">elevator operator</a> in the nearby Drexel Building.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> He was arrested and rumors that he was to be <a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">lynched</a> were spread throughout the city, where a white man named <a href="/wiki/Roy_Belton" title="Roy Belton">Roy Belton</a> had been lynched the previous year. Upon hearing reports that a mob of hundreds of white men had gathered around the jail where Rowland was being held, a group of 75 black men, some armed, arrived at the jail to protect Rowland. The sheriff persuaded the group to leave the jail, assuring them that he had the situation under control. The most widely reported and corroborated inciting incident occurred as the group of black men left when an elderly white man approached O. B. Mann, a black man, and demanded that he hand over his pistol. Mann refused, and the old man attempted to disarm him. A gunshot went off, and then, according to the sheriff's reports, "all hell broke loose."<a href="#cite_note-MADIGAN-26">[26]</a> The two groups shot at each other until midnight when the group of black men were greatly outnumbered and forced to retreat to Greenwood. At the end of the exchange of gunfire, 12 people were dead, 10 white and 2 black.<a href="#cite_note-wwhite-12">[12]</a> Alternatively, another eyewitness account was that the shooting began "down the street from the Courthouse" when black business owners came to the defense of a lone black man being attacked by a group of around six white men.<a href="#cite_note-Taylor_Account-27">[27]</a> It is possible that the eyewitness did not recognize the fact that this incident was occurring as a part of a rolling gunfight that was already underway. As news of the violence spread throughout the city, mob violence exploded.<a href="#cite_note-broadax-2">[2]</a> White rioters invaded Greenwood that night and the next morning, killing men and burning and <a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">looting</a> stores and homes. Around noon on June 1, the <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_National_Guard" title="Oklahoma National Guard">Oklahoma National Guard</a> imposed <a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_the_United_States" title="Martial law in the United States">martial law</a>, ending the massacre.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> About 10,000 black people were left homeless, and the cost of the property damage amounted to more than $1.5 million in real estate and $750,000 in personal property (equivalent to $38.43 million in 2023). By the end of 1922, most of the residents' homes had been rebuilt, but the city and real estate companies refused to compensate them.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Many survivors left Tulsa, while residents who chose to stay in the city, regardless of race, largely kept silent about the terror, violence, and resulting losses for decades. The massacre was largely omitted from local, state, and national histories for years.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> In 1996, 75 years after the massacre, a bipartisan group in the <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Legislature" title="Oklahoma Legislature">state legislature</a> authorized the formation of the Oklahoma Commission to Study the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921. The commission's final report, published in 2001, states that the city had conspired with the racist mob; it recommended a program of <a href="/wiki/Reparations_(transitional_justice)" title="Reparations (transitional justice)">reparations</a> to survivors and their descendants.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-32">[32]</a> The state passed legislation to establish scholarships for the descendants of survivors, encourage the economic development of Greenwood,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">not verified in body</a>] and develop a park in memory of the victims of the massacre in Tulsa. The park was dedicated in 2010. Schools in Oklahoma have been required to teach students about the massacre since 2002,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> and in 2020, the massacre officially became a part of the Oklahoma school curriculum.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">African Americans in Oklahoma</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">History of Oklahoma</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tulsa_OK_Map_1920.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Tulsa_OK_Map_1920.jpg/250px-Tulsa_OK_Map_1920.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Tulsa_OK_Map_1920.jpg/375px-Tulsa_OK_Map_1920.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Tulsa_OK_Map_1920.jpg/500px-Tulsa_OK_Map_1920.jpg 2x" data-file-width="659" data-file-height="532" /></a><figcaption>A map of Tulsa in 1920. The Greenwood District was in northern Tulsa.</figcaption></figure> In 1921, Oklahoma had a racially, socially, and politically tense atmosphere. The territory of northern Oklahoma had been established for the forced resettlement of <a href="/wiki/Native_American_name_controversy" title="Native American name controversy">Native Americans</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">southeast</a>, some of whom had owned slaves.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The slaves were the first black inhabitants of Indian Territory, having been brought in by their native owners.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Other areas had received many settlers from the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">South</a> whose families had been slaveholders before the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>. Oklahoma was <a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">admitted as a state</a> on November 16, 1907. The newly created state <a href="/wiki/1st_Oklahoma_Legislature" title="1st Oklahoma Legislature">legislature</a>, which had a large Democratic majority, passed <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation</a> laws, commonly known as <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a>, as its first order of business. The 1907 Oklahoma Constitution did not call for strict segregation; delegates feared that U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> would veto the document if they included such restrictions. Still, the first law passed by the new legislature segregated all rail travel, and voter registration rules effectively <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">disenfranchised non-whites</a>. This meant that they were also barred from either serving on juries or serving in local public offices. These laws were enforced until they were ruled unconstitutional after the passage of the federal <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a>. Major cities passed laws that imposed additional restrictions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200236-37">[37]</a> On August 4, 1916, Tulsa passed an ordinance that mandated residential segregation by forbidding members of either race from residing on any block where three-quarters or more of the residents were members of the other <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a>. Although the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">United States Supreme Court</a> <a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">declared such an ordinance unconstitutional</a> the following year, Tulsa and many other cities continued to establish and enforce segregation for the next three decades.<a href="#cite_note-Rothstein-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200241-39">[39]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:20.0em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Racism in the United States">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;;font-size:150%;; padding:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg/232px-Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="232" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg/348px-Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg/464px-Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3129" data-file-height="3605" /></a><div class="sidebar-caption">Violence in the <a href="/wiki/1906_Atlanta_race_massacre" title="1906 Atlanta race massacre">1906 Atlanta race massacre</a> <hr /></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Historical background</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;padding-top:3px;padding-bottom:1px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression_in_the_United_States" title="Voter suppression in the United States">Voter suppression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">Disfranchisement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">Segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convict_leasing" title="Convict leasing">Convict leasing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Practices</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <dl><dt>Common actions</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_expulsions_of_African_Americans" title="List of expulsions of African Americans">Expulsions of African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynchings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_postcard" title="Lynching postcard">Lynching postcards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundown_town" title="Sundown town">Sundown town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitecapping" title="Whitecapping">Whitecapping</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Vigilante groups</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legion_(political_movement)" title="Black Legion (political movement)">Black Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_White_Caps" title="Indiana White Caps">Indiana White Caps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Lynchings</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Andrew_Richards" title="Lynching of Andrew Richards">Andrew Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Michael_Green" title="Lynching of Michael Green">Michael Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Nevlin_Porter_and_Johnson_Spencer" title="Lynching of Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer">Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Eliza_Woods" title="Lynching of Eliza Woods">Eliza Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Amos_Miller" title="Lynching of Amos Miller">Amos Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Meadows" title="Lynching of George Meadows">George Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joseph_Vermillion" title="Lynching of Joseph Vermillion">Joe Vermillion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jim_Taylor" title="Lynching of Jim Taylor">Jim Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joe_Coe" title="Lynching of Joe Coe">Joe Coe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Grocery_lynchings" title="People's Grocery lynchings">People's Grocery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ephraim_Grizzard" title="Lynching of Ephraim Grizzard">Ephraim Grizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Alfred_Blount" title="Lynching of Alfred Blount">Alfred Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Samuel_J._Bush" title="Lynching of Samuel J. Bush">Samuel J. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Stephen_Williams" title="Lynching of Stephen Williams">Stephen Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Frazier_B._Baker_and_Julia_Baker" title="Lynching of Frazier B. Baker and Julia Baker">Frazier B. Baker and Julia Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Henry_James" title="Lynching of John Henry James">John Henry James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Sam_Hose" title="Lynching of Sam Hose">Sam Hose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Ward" title="Lynching of George Ward">George Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_David_Wyatt" title="Lynching of David Wyatt">David Wyatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Marie_Thompson" title="Lynching of Marie Thompson">Marie Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watkinsville_lynching" title="Watkinsville lynching">Watkinsville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ed_Johnson" title="Lynching of Ed Johnson">Ed Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_William_Burns" title="Lynching of William Burns">William Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_the_Walker_family" title="Lynching of the Walker family">Walker family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Laura_and_L._D._Nelson" title="Lynching of Laura and L. D. Nelson">Laura and L. D. Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_King_Johnson" title="Lynching of King Johnson">King Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Evans" title="Lynching of John Evans">John Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jesse_Washington" title="Lynching of Jesse Washington">Jesse Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newberry_Six_lynchings" title="Newberry Six lynchings">Newberry Six</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Anthony_Crawford" title="Lynching of Anthony Crawford">Anthony Crawford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ell_Persons" title="Lynching of Ell Persons">Ell Persons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jim_McIlherron" title="Lynching of Jim McIlherron">Jim McIlherron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Taylor" title="Lynching of George Taylor">George Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hartfield" title="John Hartfield">John Hartfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duluth_lynchings" title="Duluth lynchings">1920 Duluth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_James_Harvey_and_Joe_Jordan" title="Lynching of James Harvey and Joe Jordan">James Harvey and Joe Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Pullen" title="Joe Pullen">Joe Pullen</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Massacres and riots</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opelousas_massacre" title="Opelousas massacre">Opelousas massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Springs_massacre" title="Rock Springs massacre">Rock Springs massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thibodaux_massacre" title="Thibodaux massacre">Thibodaux massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_Valley_Race_Riot_of_1895" title="Spring Valley Race Riot of 1895">Spring Valley Race Riot of 1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenix_election_riot" title="Phoenix election riot">Phoenix election riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_insurrection_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilmington insurrection of 1898">Wilmington insurrection of 1898</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pana_riot" title="Pana riot">Pana riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Charles_riots" title="Robert Charles riots">Robert Charles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evansville_race_riot" title="Evansville race riot">Evansville race riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1906_Atlanta_race_massacre" title="1906 Atlanta race massacre">Atlanta Massacre of 1906</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Springfield_race_riot_of_1908" title="Springfield race riot of 1908">Springfield race riot of 1908</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson%E2%80%93Jeffries_riots" title="Johnson–Jeffries riots">Johnson–Jeffries riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_racial_conflict_in_Forsyth_County,_Georgia" title="1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County, Georgia">1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1917_Chester_race_riot" title="1917 Chester race riot">1917 Chester race riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_St._Louis_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="East St. Louis riots">East St. Louis riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elaine_massacre" title="Elaine massacre">Elaine massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_race_riot_of_1919" title="Chicago race riot of 1919">Chicago race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_race_riot_of_1919" title="Washington race riot of 1919">Washington race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocoee_massacre" title="Ocoee massacre">Ocoee massacre</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perry_race_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Perry race riot">Perry race riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosewood_massacre" title="Rosewood massacre">Rosewood massacre</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Reactions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-lynching_movement" title="Anti-lynching movement">Anti-lynching movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Compromise" title="Atlanta Compromise">Atlanta Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back_to_Africa_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Back to Africa movement">Back to Africa movement</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">Mass racial violence in the United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Template:Nadir of American race relations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Template talk:Nadir of American race relations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nadir of American race relations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Many servicemen returned to Tulsa following the end of the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a> in 1918. As they tried to re-enter the labor force, social tensions and white supremacist sentiment increased in cities where job competition was fierce. An economic slump in Northeastern Oklahoma increased the level of unemployment. The Civil War, which ended in 1865, was still in living memory; <a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">civil rights</a> for <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> were lacking. The <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> was resurgent (influenced by the popular 1915 film <a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation" title="The Birth of a Nation">The Birth of a Nation</a>).<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Since 1915, the Ku Klux Klan had been growing in urban chapters across the country. Its first significant appearance in Oklahoma occurred on August 12, 1921.<a href="#cite_note-Charles-41">[41]</a> By the end of 1921, 3,200 of Tulsa's 72,000 residents were Klan members, according to one estimate.<a href="#cite_note-Charles-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> In the early 20th century, lynchings were common in Oklahoma as part of a continuing effort to assert and maintain <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Charles-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200237,_51-44">[44]</a> By 1921, at least 31 people, mostly men and boys, had been lynched in the newly formed state; 26 were black. At the same time, black veterans pushed to have their civil rights enforced, believing that they had earned full citizenship as the result of their military service. In what became known as the "<a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a>" of 1919, industrial cities across the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwest</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeast</a> experienced severe race riots in which whites attacked black communities, sometimes with the assistance of local authorities. As a booming oil city, Tulsa also supported a large number of affluent, educated, and professional African American residents. Greenwood was a district in Tulsa that was organized in 1906 following <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a>'s 1905 tour of <a href="/wiki/Arkansas" title="Arkansas">Arkansas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a>, and Oklahoma. It was a namesake of the Greenwood District, which Washington had established as his own district in <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee,_Alabama" title="Tuskegee, Alabama">Tuskegee, Alabama</a>, five years earlier. Greenwood became so prosperous that it came to be known as "the Negro Wall Street" (now commonly referred to as "the <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_District,_Tulsa#Black_Wall_Street" title="Greenwood District, Tulsa">Black Wall Street</a>").<a href="#cite_note-jones-45">[45]</a> Most black people lived together in the district. Black Americans had created their own businesses and services in this enclave, including several grocers, two newspapers, two movie theaters, nightclubs, and numerous churches. Black professionals, including doctors, dentists, lawyers, and clergy, served the community. During his trip to Tulsa in 1905, Washington encouraged the cooperation, economic independence, and excellence being demonstrated there. Greenwood residents selected their own leaders and raised capital there to support economic growth. In the surrounding areas of northeastern Oklahoma, they also enjoyed relative prosperity and participated in the oil boom.<a href="#cite_note-jones-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Monday,_May_30_(Memorial_Day)">Monday, May 30 (Memorial Day)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Monday, May 30 (Memorial Day)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Encounter_in_the_elevator">Encounter in the elevator</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Encounter in the elevator">edit</a>]</div> On May 30, 1921, 19-year-old <a href="/wiki/Dick_Rowland" title="Dick Rowland">Dick Rowland</a>, a black shoeshiner who was employed at a Main Street shine parlor, entered the only elevator in the nearby Drexel Building at 319 South Main Street in order to use the top-floor "colored" restroom, which his employer had arranged for use by his black employees. There, he encountered Sarah Page, the 21-year-old white elevator operator who was on duty. Whether—and to what extent—Rowland and Page knew each other has long been a matter of speculation. The two likely knew each other at least by sight because Rowland would have regularly ridden in Page's elevator on his way to and from the restroom. A clerk at Renberg's, a clothing store on the first floor of the Drexel, heard what sounded like a woman's scream and saw a young black man rushing from the building. The clerk went to the elevator and found Page in a distraught state. Thinking that she had been sexually assaulted, he summoned the authorities. Apart from the clerk's interpretation that Rowland had attempted to rape Page, many explanations have been given for the incident, with the most common explanation being that Rowland tripped as he got onto the elevator, and as he tried to catch his fall, he grabbed onto the arm of Page, who then screamed. Others suggested that Rowland and Page had a lover's quarrel.<a href="#cite_note-OK_History_2001-02-28_p56-58-46">[46]</a> The 2001 Oklahoma Commission Final Report notes that it was unusual for both Rowland and Page to be working downtown on Memorial Day when most stores and businesses were closed. But it has been speculated that Rowland was there because the shine parlor where he worked may have been open to draw in some of the parade traffic, while Page had been required to work in order to transport Drexel Building employees and their families to choice parade viewing spots on the building's upper floors.<a href="#cite_note-OK_History_2001-02-28_p56-58-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brief_investigation">Brief investigation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Brief investigation">edit</a>]</div> Although the police questioned Page, no written account of her statement has been found, but apparently, she told the police that Rowland had grabbed her arm and nothing more, and would not press charges.<a href="#cite_note-Story_of_Attack_on_Woman_Denied-47">[47]</a> The police determined that what happened between the two individuals was less than an assault. They conducted a low-key investigation rather than launching a man-hunt for her alleged assailant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200279–80,_82,_86-48">[48]</a> Regardless of whether or not assault had occurred, Rowland had reason to be fearful, as African American men accused of raping white women were often prime targets for lynch mobs. Realizing the gravity of the situation, Rowland fled to his mother's house in the Greenwood neighborhood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200157-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tuesday,_May_31">Tuesday, May 31</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Tuesday, May 31">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arrest_of_Rowland">Arrest of Rowland</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Arrest of Rowland">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nab_Negro_for_Attacking_Girl_in_an_Elevator.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Nab_Negro_for_Attacking_Girl_in_an_Elevator.png/220px-Nab_Negro_for_Attacking_Girl_in_an_Elevator.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="499" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Nab_Negro_for_Attacking_Girl_in_an_Elevator.png/330px-Nab_Negro_for_Attacking_Girl_in_an_Elevator.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Nab_Negro_for_Attacking_Girl_in_an_Elevator.png/440px-Nab_Negro_for_Attacking_Girl_in_an_Elevator.png 2x" data-file-width="475" data-file-height="1077" /></a><figcaption>One of the news articles that contributed to tensions in Tulsa</figcaption></figure> On the morning after the incident, Henry Carmichael, a white detective, and Henry C. Pack, a black patrolman, located Rowland on Greenwood Avenue and detained him. Rowland was initially taken to the Tulsa city jail at the corner of First Street and Main Street. Late that day, Police Commissioner J. M. Adkison said he had received an anonymous telephone call threatening Rowland's life. He ordered Rowland transferred to the more secure jail on the top floor of the Tulsa County Courthouse.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200279–80-51">[51]</a> Rowland was well-known among attorneys and other legal professionals within the city, many of whom knew him through his work as a shoeshiner. Some witnesses later recounted hearing several attorneys defend Rowland in their conversations with one another. One of the men said, "Why, I know that boy, and have known him a good while. That's not in him."<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Newspaper_coverage">Newspaper coverage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Newspaper coverage">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Tulsa_Tribune" title="Tulsa Tribune">Tulsa Tribune</a>, owned, published, and edited by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lloyd_Jones" title="Richard Lloyd Jones">Richard Lloyd Jones</a>, and one of two white-owned papers that were published in Tulsa, broke the story in that afternoon's edition with the headline: "Nab Negro for Attacking Girl In an Elevator", describing the alleged incident. According to some witnesses, the same edition of the Tribune included an editorial warning of a potential lynching of Rowland, titled "To Lynch Negro Tonight".<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The paper was known at the time to have a "<a href="/wiki/Tabloid_journalism" title="Tabloid journalism">sensationalist</a>" style of news writing. Allegedly, all original copies of that issue of the paper have apparently been destroyed, and the relevant page is missing from the <a href="/wiki/Microform" title="Microform">microfilm</a> copy.<a href="#cite_note-Editorial-54">[54]</a> The Tulsa Race Riot Commission in 1997 offered a reward for a copy of the editorial, which went unclaimed.<a href="#cite_note-Editorial-54">[54]</a> A copy of the Tulsa Tribune of 1 June 1921 was found: on the front page was an article headlined "Nab Negro for attacking girl in an Elevator" [right].<a href="#cite_note-Tulsa_Tribune_-_the_massacre-55">[55]</a> The editorial page was also found: it did not have an article headlined "To Lynch A Negro Tonight".<a href="#cite_note-Tulsa_Tribune_-_the_massacre-55">[55]</a> Other newspapers of the time like <a href="/wiki/The_Black_Dispatch" title="The Black Dispatch">The Black Dispatch</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tulsa_World" title="Tulsa World">Tulsa World</a> did not call attention to any such editorial after the event.<a href="#cite_note-Editorial-54">[54]</a> So, the exact content of the column—and whether or not it existed at all—remains in dispute.<a href="#cite_note-Editorial-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllsworth1992[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidu9SlbjZHeHgCpgPA47_47–48]-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200158–59-58">[58]</a> However, Chief of Detectives James Patton attributed the cause of the riots entirely to the newspaper account and stated, "If the facts in the story as told the police had only been printed I do not think there would have been any riot whatsoever."<a href="#cite_note-Story_of_Attack_on_Woman_Denied-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stand-off_at_the_courthouse">Stand-off at the courthouse</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Stand-off at the courthouse">edit</a>]</div> The afternoon edition of the Tribune hit the streets shortly after 3 p.m., and soon, news spread of a potential lynching. By 4 p.m., local authorities were on alert. White residents began congregating at and near the Tulsa County Courthouse. By sunset, around 7:30 p.m., the several hundred white residents assembled outside the courthouse appeared to have the makings of a lynch mob. Willard M. McCullough, the newly elected <a href="/wiki/Sheriffs_in_the_United_States" title="Sheriffs in the United States">sheriff</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tulsa_County,_Oklahoma" title="Tulsa County, Oklahoma">Tulsa County</a>, was determined to avoid events such as the 1920 lynching of white murder suspect <a href="/wiki/Roy_Belton" title="Roy Belton">Roy Belton</a> in Tulsa, which had occurred during the term of his predecessor.<a href="#cite_note-wwhite-12">[12]</a> The sheriff took steps to ensure Rowland's safety. McCullough organized his deputies into a defensive formation around Rowland, who was terrified.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] The Guthrie Daily Leader reported that Rowland had been taken to the county jail before crowds started to gather.<a href="#cite_note-guthrie1-59">[59]</a> The sheriff positioned six of his men, armed with rifles and shotguns, on the roof of the courthouse. He disabled the building's elevator and had his remaining men barricade themselves at the top of the stairs with orders to shoot any intruders in sight. The sheriff went outside and tried to talk the crowd into going home, but to no avail. According to an account by Scott Ellsworth, the sheriff was "hooted down".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200160-60">[60]</a> At about 8:20 p.m., three white men entered the courthouse, demanding that Rowland be turned over to them. Although vastly outnumbered by the growing crowd out on the street, Sheriff McCullough turned the men away.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200281-61">[61]</a> A few blocks away on Greenwood Avenue, members of the black community gathered to discuss the situation at Gurley's Hotel.<a href="#cite_note-Cleaver-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gurley-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Luther-8">[8]</a> Given the recent lynching of Belton, a white man accused of murder, they believed that Rowland was greatly at risk. Many black residents were determined to prevent the crowd from lynching Rowland, but they were divided about tactics. Young <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> veterans prepared for a battle by collecting guns and ammunition. Older, more prosperous men feared a destructive confrontation that likely would cost them dearly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200283-62">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/O._W._Gurley" class="mw-redirect" title="O. W. Gurley">O. W. Gurley</a> stated that he had tried to convince the men that there would be no lynching, but the crowd responded that Sheriff McCullough had personally told them their presence was required.<a href="#cite_note-Gurley-7">[7]</a> At about 9:30 p.m., a group of approximately 50–60 black men, armed with rifles and shotguns, arrived at the jail to support the sheriff and his deputies in defending Rowland from the mob. Corroborated by ten witnesses, attorney James Luther submitted to the grand jury that they were following the orders of Sheriff McCullough, who publicly denied he gave any orders: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">I saw a car full of negroes driving through the streets with guns; I saw Bill McCullough and told him those negroes would cause trouble; McCullough tried to talk to them, and they got out and stood in single file. W. G. Daggs was killed near Boulder and Sixth street. I was under the impression that a man with authority could have stopped and disarmed them. I saw Chief of Police on south side of courthouse on top step, talking; I did not see any officer except the Chief; I walked in the court house and met McCullough in about 15 feet of his door; I told him these negroes were going to make trouble, and he said he had told them to go home; he went out and told the Whites to go home, and one said: "they said you told them to come up here." McCullough said "I did not" and a negro said you did tell us to come.<a href="#cite_note-Gurley-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Luther-8">[8]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taking_up_arms">Taking up arms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Taking up arms">edit</a>]</div> Having seen the armed black men, some of the more than 1,000 whites who had been at the courthouse went home for their own guns. Others headed for the National Guard <a href="/wiki/Arsenal" title="Arsenal">armory</a> at the corner of Sixth Street and Norfolk Avenue, where they planned to arm themselves. The armory contained a supply of small arms and ammunition. Major James Bell of the <a href="/wiki/180th_Cavalry_Regiment" title="180th Cavalry Regiment">180th Infantry Regiment</a> learned of the mounting situation downtown and the possibility of a break-in, and he consequently took measures to prevent it. He called the commanders of the three National Guard units in Tulsa, who ordered all the Guard members to put on their uniforms and report quickly to the armory. When a group of whites arrived and began pulling at the grating over a window, Bell went outside to confront the crowd of 300 to 400 men. Bell told them that the Guard members inside were armed and prepared to shoot anyone who tried to enter. After this show of force, the crowd withdrew from the armory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200287–88-63">[63]</a> At the courthouse, the crowd had swollen to nearly 2,000, many of them now armed. Several local leaders, including <a href="/wiki/Charles_William_Kerr" title="Charles William Kerr">Reverend Charles W. Kerr</a>, pastor of the <a href="/wiki/First_Presbyterian_Church_(Tulsa)" title="First Presbyterian Church (Tulsa)">First Presbyterian Church</a>, tried to dissuade mob action. Chief of Police <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_A._Gustafson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John A. Gustafson (page does not exist)">John A. Gustafson</a> later claimed that he tried to talk the crowd into going home.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200162-64">[64]</a> Anxiety on Greenwood Avenue was rising. Many black residents worried about the safety of Rowland. Small groups of armed black men ventured toward the courthouse in automobiles, partly for surveillance and to demonstrate they were prepared to take necessary action to protect Rowland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200162-64">[64]</a> Many white men interpreted these actions as a "Negro uprising" and became concerned. Eyewitnesses reported gunshots, presumably fired into the air, increasing in frequency during the evening.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200162,_67-65">[65]</a> In Greenwood, rumors began to fly—in particular, a report that whites were storming the courthouse. Shortly after 10 p.m., a second, larger group of approximately 75 armed black men decided to go to the courthouse. They offered their support to the sheriff, who declined their help. There are conflicting reports about the exact time and nature of the incident, or incidents, that immediately precipitated the massacre. According to the 2001 Commission, "As the black men were leaving, a white man attempted to disarm a tall, African American World War I veteran. A struggle ensued, and a shot rang out."<a href="#cite_note-OK_History_2001-02-28_p56-58-46">[46]</a> Then, according to the sheriff, "all hell broke loose."<a href="#cite_note-MADIGAN-26">[26]</a> At the end of the exchange of gunfire, 12 people were dead, 10 white and two black.<a href="#cite_note-wwhite-12">[12]</a> Another firsthand account originates from Eloise Taylor Butler—the daughter of the famed "Peg Leg" Taylor—who was nineteen years old and in Greenwood on that day. According to Eloise's great-granddaughter, who passed on the story that Eloise told her, while "the initial story was that it started at the Courthouse," in fact, "It escalated to the Courthouse. It started like down the street from the Courthouse."<a href="#cite_note-Taylor_Account-27">[27]</a> This key inciting incident reportedly occurred when a group of around six white men approached and beat down a lone black man. Black store owners reportedly then came out of nearby shops to help defend the black man, and "once they started defending him, they ended up having to shoot." The account further notes, "[The black store owners] fought back the best they could. But...[the white mob] started on that end of town, where the black people started fighting, [the white mob] set those initial shops on fire at the very beginning."<a href="#cite_note-Taylor_Account-27">[27]</a> The 2001 Commission itself does note that "African American homes and businesses along Archer were the first targets" of the white mob's arson.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001194-66">[66]</a> These could possibly be the same shops "down the street from the Courthouse" where this inciting incident reportedly took place, and it establishes an immediate motive for those particular shops being targeted first. Of course, it may simply be the case that they were targeted first only out of convenience—Archer being the first street on Greenwood's side of the Frisco Tracks. Moreover, while the Taylor account seems adamant that this incident occurred before the initial gunfight at the Courthouse (and then "escalated to the Courthouse"), it's still possible that the incident Taylor witnessed was itself simply a product of the rolling gunfight that is known to have ensued across the streets of Tulsa following that first widely reported exchange of gunfire. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Outbursts_of_violence">Outbursts of violence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Outbursts of violence">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Smoldering_ruins_of_African_American%27s_homes_following_race_riots_-_Tulsa_Okla_1921.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Smoldering_ruins_of_African_American%27s_homes_following_race_riots_-_Tulsa_Okla_1921.jpg/220px-Smoldering_ruins_of_African_American%27s_homes_following_race_riots_-_Tulsa_Okla_1921.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Smoldering_ruins_of_African_American%27s_homes_following_race_riots_-_Tulsa_Okla_1921.jpg/330px-Smoldering_ruins_of_African_American%27s_homes_following_race_riots_-_Tulsa_Okla_1921.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Smoldering_ruins_of_African_American%27s_homes_following_race_riots_-_Tulsa_Okla_1921.jpg/440px-Smoldering_ruins_of_African_American%27s_homes_following_race_riots_-_Tulsa_Okla_1921.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1501" data-file-height="1188" /></a><figcaption>Smoldering ruins of African American homes following the massacre</figcaption></figure> The gunshots triggered an almost immediate response, with both sides firing on each other. The first "battle" was said to last a few seconds or so, but it took a toll, because ten whites and two black men lay dead or dying in the street.<a href="#cite_note-wwhite-12">[12]</a> The black men who had offered to provide security retreated toward Greenwood. A rolling gunfight ensued. The armed white mob pursued the black contingent toward Greenwood, with many stopping to loot local stores for additional weapons and ammunition. Along the way, bystanders, many of whom were leaving a movie theater after a show, were caught off guard by the mobs and fled. Panic set in as the white mob began firing on any black people in the crowd. The white mob also shot and killed at least one white man in the confusion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200165-67">[67]</a> According to the Oklahoma Historical Society, some in the mob were deputized by a police officer and instructed to "get a gun and get a nigger".<a href="#cite_note-HBO-Watchmen-16">[16]</a> So began a major attack on the African-American community.<a href="#cite_note-Black_Past_not_bury-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Guardian_2021-05-31-13">[13]</a> At around 11 p.m., members of the National Guard unit began to assemble at the armory to organize a plan to subdue the rioters. Several groups were deployed downtown to set up guard at the courthouse, police station, and other public facilities. Members of the local chapter of the <a href="/wiki/American_Legion" title="American Legion">American Legion</a> joined in on patrols of the streets. The forces appeared to have been deployed to protect the white districts adjacent to Greenwood. The National Guard rounded up numerous black people and took them to the Convention Hall on Brady Street for detention.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200166–67-68">[68]</a> At around midnight, a small crowd of whites assembled outside the courthouse. Members of the crowd were heard yelling expletives and calling for Rowland to be lynched, but ultimately did not storm the courthouse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200165-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Wednesday,_June_1">Wednesday, June 1</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Wednesday, June 1">edit</a>]</div> Throughout the early morning hours, groups of armed white and black men squared off in gunfights. The fighting was concentrated along sections of the <a href="/wiki/St._Louis%E2%80%93San_Francisco_Railway" title="St. Louis–San Francisco Railway">Frisco</a> tracks, a dividing line between the black and white commercial districts. A rumor circulated that more black people were coming by train from <a href="/wiki/Muskogee,_Oklahoma" title="Muskogee, Oklahoma">Muskogee</a> to help with an invasion of Tulsa. At one point, passengers on an incoming train were forced to take cover on the floor of the train cars, as they had arrived amid crossfire, with the train taking hits on both sides. Small groups of whites made brief forays by car into Greenwood, indiscriminately firing into businesses and residences. They often received return fire. Meanwhile, white rioters threw lighted oil rags into several buildings along Archer Street, igniting them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200296–97-69">[69]</a> As unrest spread to other parts of the city, many <a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">middle-class</a> white families who employed black people in their homes as live-in cooks and servants were accosted by white rioters. They demanded the families turn over their employees to be taken to detention centers around the city. Many white families complied, but those who refused were subjected to attacks and vandalism in turn.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200180-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fires_begin">Fires begin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Fires begin">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tulsariotpostcard2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Tulsariotpostcard2.jpg/300px-Tulsariotpostcard2.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Tulsariotpostcard2.jpg/450px-Tulsariotpostcard2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Tulsariotpostcard2.jpg/600px-Tulsariotpostcard2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="924" data-file-height="621" /></a><figcaption>Photo postcard showing fires burning along Archer and Greenwood during the massacre</figcaption></figure> At around 1 a.m., the white mob began setting fires, mainly in businesses on commercial Archer Street at the southern edge of the Greenwood district. As news traveled among Greenwood residents in the early morning hours, many began to take up arms in defense of their neighborhood, while others began a mass exodus from the city.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Throughout the night both sides continued fighting, sometimes only sporadically. As crews from the <a href="/wiki/Tulsa_Fire_Department" title="Tulsa Fire Department">Tulsa Fire Department</a> arrived to put out fires, they were turned away at gunpoint.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2002103-72">[72]</a> Scott Elsworth makes the same claim,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200166-73">[73]</a> but his reference makes no mention of firefighters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParrish192219-74">[74]</a> Mary E. Jones Parrish, a survivor of the massacre, gave only praise for the National Guard.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParrish192220-75">[75]</a> Another reference Elsworth gives to support the claim of holding firefighters at gunpoint is only a summary of events in which they suppressed the firing of guns by the rioters and disarmed them of their firearms.<a href="#cite_note-Voorhis_letter-76">[76]</a> Yet another of his references states that they were fired upon by the white mob, "It would mean a fireman's life to turn a stream of water on one of those negro buildings. They shot at us all morning when we were trying to do something but none of my men was hit. There is not a chance in the world to get through that mob into the negro district."<a href="#cite_note-guthrie1-59">[59]</a> By 4 a.m., an estimated two dozen black-owned businesses had been set ablaze. Tulsa co-founder and Ku Klux Klan member <a href="/wiki/W._Tate_Brady" title="W. Tate Brady">W. Tate Brady</a> participated in the riot as a night watchman.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> <a href="/wiki/This_Land_Press" title="This Land Press">This Land Press</a> reported that previously, Brady led the <a href="/wiki/Tulsa_Outrage" title="Tulsa Outrage">Tulsa Outrage</a>, the November 7, 1917, <a href="/wiki/Tarring_and_feathering" title="Tarring and feathering">tarring and feathering</a> of members of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World" title="Industrial Workers of the World">Industrial Workers of the World</a>—an incident understood to be economically and politically, rather than racially, motivated.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Daybreak">Daybreak</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Daybreak">edit</a>]</div> Upon sunrise, around 5 a.m., a train whistle sounded (Hirsch said it was a siren). Some rioters believed this sound to be a signal for the rioters to launch an all-out assault on Greenwood. A white man stepped out from behind the Frisco depot and was fatally shot by a sniper in Greenwood. Crowds of rioters poured from their shelter, on foot, and by car, into the streets of the neighborhood. Five white men in a car led the charge but were killed by a fusillade of gunfire before they had traveled one block.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200298–99-79">[79]</a> Overwhelmed by the sheer number of attackers, black residents retreated north on Greenwood Avenue to the edge of town. Chaos ensued as terrified residents fled. The rioters shot indiscriminately and killed many along the way. Splitting into small groups, they began breaking into houses and buildings, looting. Several residents later testified the rioters broke into occupied homes and ordered the residents out to the street, where they could be driven or forced to walk to detention centers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200297–105,_108-80">[80]</a> A rumor spread among the rioters that the new <a href="/wiki/Mount_Zion_Baptist_Church_(Tulsa)" title="Mount Zion Baptist Church (Tulsa)">Mount Zion Baptist Church</a> was being used as a fortress and armory. Purportedly twenty caskets full of rifles had been delivered to the church, though no evidence was found.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2002107-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attack_by_air">Attack by air</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Attack by air">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TulsaRaceRiot-1921.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/TulsaRaceRiot-1921.png/220px-TulsaRaceRiot-1921.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/TulsaRaceRiot-1921.png/330px-TulsaRaceRiot-1921.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/TulsaRaceRiot-1921.png/440px-TulsaRaceRiot-1921.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Flames across the Greenwood section of Tulsa</figcaption></figure> Numerous eyewitnesses described airplanes carrying white assailants, who fired rifles and dropped firebombs on buildings, homes, and fleeing families. The privately owned aircraft had been dispatched from the nearby <a href="/wiki/Curtiss-Southwest_Field" title="Curtiss-Southwest Field">Curtiss-Southwest Field</a> outside Tulsa.<a href="#cite_note-MADIGAN-26">[26]</a> Law enforcement officials later said that the planes were to provide reconnaissance and protect against a "Negro uprising".<a href="#cite_note-MADIGAN-26">[26]</a> Law enforcement personnel were thought to be aboard at least some flights.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200173–74-82">[82]</a> Eyewitness accounts, such as testimony from the survivors during Commission hearings and a manuscript by eyewitness and attorney <a href="/wiki/Buck_Colbert_Franklin" title="Buck Colbert Franklin">Buck Colbert Franklin</a>, discovered in 2015, said that on the morning of June 1, at least "a dozen or more" planes circled the neighborhood and dropped "burning <a href="/wiki/Turpentine" title="Turpentine">turpentine</a> balls" on an office building, a hotel, a filling (gas) station, and multiple other buildings. Men also fired rifles at black residents, gunning them down in the street.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin1931[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-MADIGAN-26">[26]</a> Richard S. Warner concluded in his submission to The Oklahoma Commission that contrary to later reports by claimed eyewitnesses of seeing explosions, there was no reliable evidence to support such attacks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001107-84">[84]</a> Warner noted that while a number of newspapers targeted at black readers heavily reported the use of <a href="/wiki/Nitroglycerin" title="Nitroglycerin">nitroglycerin</a>, turpentine, and rifles from the planes, many cited anonymous sources or second-hand accounts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001107-84">[84]</a> Beryl Ford, one of the pre-eminent historians of the disaster, concluded from his large collection of photographs that there was no evidence of any building damaged by explosions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001106-85">[85]</a> Danney Goble commended Warner on his efforts and supported his conclusions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission20016-86">[86]</a> State representative Don Ross (born in Tulsa in 1941), however, dissented from the evidence presented in the report concluding that bombs were in fact dropped from planes during the violence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001viiiprologue-87">[87]</a> In 2015, a previously unknown written eyewitness account of the events of May 31, 1921, was discovered and subsequently obtained by the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_African_American_History_and_Culture" title="National Museum of African American History and Culture">National Museum of African American History and Culture</a>. The 10-page typewritten letter was authored by <a href="/wiki/Buck_Colbert_Franklin" title="Buck Colbert Franklin">Buck Colbert Franklin</a>, noted Oklahoma attorney and father of <a href="/wiki/John_Hope_Franklin" title="John Hope Franklin">John Hope Franklin</a>.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin1931[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Notable quotes include: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Lurid flames roared and belched and licked their forked tongues into the air. Smoke ascended the sky in thick, black volumes and amid it all, the planes—now a dozen or more in number—still hummed and darted here and there with the agility of natural birds of the air. Planes circling in midair: They grew in number and hummed, darted, and dipped low. I could hear something like hail falling upon the top of my office building. Down East Archer, I saw the old Mid-Way hotel on fire, burning from its top, and then another and another and another building began to burn from their tops. The sidewalks were literally covered with burning turpentine balls. I knew all too well where they came from, and I knew all too well why every burning building first caught fire from the top. I paused and waited for an opportune time to escape. 'Where oh where is our splendid fire department with its half dozen stations?' I asked myself, 'Is the city in conspiracy with the mob?'</blockquote> Franklin reports seeing multiple machine guns firing at night and hearing "thousands and thousands of guns" being fired simultaneously from all directions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin19314-89">[89]</a> He states that he was arrested by "a thousand boys, it seemed,... firing their guns every step they took."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin19318-90">[90]</a> An account of Franklin's experiences during this event appears in his autobiography, My Life and an Era.<a href="#cite_note-LSUPress-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arrival_of_National_Guard_troops">Arrival of National Guard troops</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Arrival of National Guard troops">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tulsaraceriot1921-wounded-pickedup-fullpicture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Tulsaraceriot1921-wounded-pickedup-fullpicture.jpg/220px-Tulsaraceriot1921-wounded-pickedup-fullpicture.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Tulsaraceriot1921-wounded-pickedup-fullpicture.jpg/330px-Tulsaraceriot1921-wounded-pickedup-fullpicture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Tulsaraceriot1921-wounded-pickedup-fullpicture.jpg/440px-Tulsaraceriot1921-wounded-pickedup-fullpicture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1113" /></a><figcaption>National Guard with the wounded</figcaption></figure> Adjutant General <a href="/wiki/Charles_F._Barrett" title="Charles F. Barrett">Charles F. Barrett</a> of the Oklahoma National Guard arrived by special train at about 9:15 a.m., with 109 troops from Oklahoma City. Ordered in by the governor, he could not legally act until he had contacted all the appropriate local authorities, including Mayor <a href="/wiki/T._D._Evans" title="T. D. Evans">T. D. Evans</a>, the sheriff, and the police chief. Meanwhile, his troops paused to eat breakfast. Barrett summoned reinforcements from several other Oklahoma cities. Barrett declared <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a> at 11:49 a.m.,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2002107-81">[81]</a> and by noon the troops had managed to suppress most of the remaining violence. Thousands of black residents had fled the city; another 4,000 people had been rounded up and detained at various centers. Under martial law, the detainees were required to carry identification cards.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001123–132-92">[92]</a> As many as 6,000 Greenwood residents were interned at three local facilities: Convention Hall (now known as the <a href="/wiki/Tulsa_Theater" title="Tulsa Theater">Tulsa Theater</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Tulsa_State_Fair" title="Tulsa State Fair">Tulsa County Fairgrounds</a> (then located about a mile northeast of Greenwood) and McNulty Park (a baseball stadium at Tenth Street and Elgin Avenue).<a href="#cite_note-messerbell-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-mcnulty-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200183,_177-94">[94]</a> A 1921 letter from an officer of the Service Company, Third Infantry, Oklahoma National Guard, who arrived on May 31, 1921, reported numerous events related to the suppression of the riot: <ul><li>taking about 30–40 black residents into custody;</li> <li>putting a machine gun on a truck and taking it on patrol, although it was not functioning and much less useful than "an ordinary rifle";</li> <li>being fired on by black snipers from the "church" and returning fire;</li> <li>being fired on by white men;</li> <li>turning the prisoners over to deputies to take them to police headquarters;</li> <li>being fired upon again by armed black residents and having two <a href="/wiki/Non-commissioned_officer" title="Non-commissioned officer">NCOs</a> slightly wounded;</li> <li>searching for black snipers and firearms;</li> <li>detailing an NCO to take 170 black residents to the civil authorities; and</li> <li>delivering an additional 150 black residents to the Convention Hall.<a href="#cite_note-Voorhis_letter-76">[76]</a></li></ul> Captain John W. McCune reported that stockpiled ammunition within the burning structures began to explode, which might have further contributed to casualties.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Martial law was withdrawn on June 4, under Field Order No. 7.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Aftermath">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Casualties">Casualties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Casualties">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:542px;max-width:542px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:352px;max-width:352px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:218px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Tulsariotpostcard1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Tulsariotpostcard1.jpg/350px-Tulsariotpostcard1.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Tulsariotpostcard1.jpg/525px-Tulsariotpostcard1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Tulsariotpostcard1.jpg/700px-Tulsariotpostcard1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="640" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Greenwood_District,_Tulsa" title="Greenwood District, Tulsa">Little Africa</a>, apparently taken from the roof of the Hotel Tulsa on 3rd St. between Boston Ave. and Cincinnati Ave. The first row of buildings is along 2nd St. The smoke cloud on the left (Cincinnati Ave. and the Frisco Tracks) is identified in the Tulsa Tribune version of this photo as being where the fire started.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:186px;max-width:186px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:218px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:19210602_Tulsa_Dead_Total_85_-_race_massacre_-_The_Boston_Daily_Globe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/19210602_Tulsa_Dead_Total_85_-_race_massacre_-_The_Boston_Daily_Globe.jpg/184px-19210602_Tulsa_Dead_Total_85_-_race_massacre_-_The_Boston_Daily_Globe.jpg" decoding="async" width="184" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/19210602_Tulsa_Dead_Total_85_-_race_massacre_-_The_Boston_Daily_Globe.jpg/276px-19210602_Tulsa_Dead_Total_85_-_race_massacre_-_The_Boston_Daily_Globe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/19210602_Tulsa_Dead_Total_85_-_race_massacre_-_The_Boston_Daily_Globe.jpg/368px-19210602_Tulsa_Dead_Total_85_-_race_massacre_-_The_Boston_Daily_Globe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1900" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Newspapers nationwide reported the massacre, reporting the growing number of people killed.<a href="#cite_note-BostonGlobe_19210602-97">[97]</a></div></div></div></div></div> The massacre was covered by national newspapers, and the reported number of deaths varies widely. On June 1, 1921, the <a href="/wiki/Tulsa_Tribune" title="Tulsa Tribune">Tulsa Tribune</a> reported that nine white people and 68 black people had died in the riot, but shortly afterwards it changed that number to a total of 176 dead. The next day, the same paper reported the count as nine white people and 21 black people. The <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Express_(newspaper)" title="Los Angeles Express (newspaper)">Los Angeles Express</a> headline said "175 Killed, Many Wounded".<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> said that 77 people had been killed, including 68 black people, but it later lowered the total to 33. The <a href="/wiki/Richmond_Times-Dispatch" title="Richmond Times-Dispatch">Richmond Times Dispatch</a> of Virginia reported that 85 people (including 25 white people) were killed; it also reported that the police chief had reported to Governor Robertson that the total was 75; and that a police major put the figure at 175.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> The Oklahoma Department of Vital Statistics put the number of deaths at 36 (26 black and 10 white).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2002118-100">[100]</a> Very few people, if any, died as a direct result of the fire. Official state records show five deaths by conflagration for the entire state in 1921.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research?</a>] <a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a> of the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> traveled to Tulsa from New York and reported that, although officials and undertakers said that the fatalities numbered 10 white and 21 black, he estimated the number of the dead to be 50 whites and between 150 and 200 blacks;<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> he also reported that 10 white men were killed on Tuesday; six white men drove into the black section and never came out, and 13 whites were killed on Wednesday; he reported that Major O.T. Johnson of the <a href="/wiki/The_Salvation_Army" title="The Salvation Army">Salvation Army</a> in Tulsa, said that 37 blacks were employed as gravediggers to bury 120 blacks in individual graves without coffins on Friday and Saturday.<a href="#cite_note-wwhite-12">[12]</a> The Oklahoma Commission described Johnson's statement being that his crew was over three dozen grave diggers who dug "about" 150 graves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001121-103">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ground-penetrating_radar" title="Ground-penetrating radar">Ground-penetrating radar</a> was used to investigate the sites purported to contain these mass graves. Multiple eyewitness reports and "oral histories" suggested the graves could have been dug at three different cemeteries across the city. The sites were examined, and no evidence of ground disturbance indicative of mass graves was found. However, at one site, the ground disturbance was found in a five-meter square area, but cemetery records indicate that three graves had been dug and bodies buried within this envelope before the riot.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001131-104">[104]</a> Oklahoma's 2001 Commission into the riot provides multiple contradicting estimates. Goble estimates 100–300 deaths,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200113-105">[105]</a> and Franklin and Ellsworth estimate 75–100 deaths and describe some of the higher estimates as dubious as the low estimates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200123-106">[106]</a> C. Snow was able to confirm 39 casualties, all listed as male although four were unidentifiable; 26 were black and 13 were white.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001114-23">[23]</a> The 13 white fatalities were all taken to hospitals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001117-107">[107]</a> Eleven of them had come from outside of Oklahoma, and possibly as many as half were petroleum industry workers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001115–116-108">[108]</a> Only eight of the confirmed 26 black fatalities were brought to hospitals,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001117-107">[107]</a> and as hospitals were segregated, and with the black Frissell Memorial Hospital having burned down, the only place where the injured blacks were treated was at the basement of Morningside Hospital.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001116-3">[3]</a> Several hundred were injured.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001116-3">[3]</a> The <a href="/wiki/American_Red_Cross" title="American Red Cross">Red Cross</a>, in their preliminary overview, mentioned wide-ranging external estimates of 55 to 300 dead; however, because of the hurried nature of undocumented burials, they declined to submit an official estimate, stating, "The number of dead is a matter of conjecture."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillows19213-109">[109]</a> The Red Cross registered 8,624 persons; 183 people were hospitalized, mostly for gunshot wounds or burns (they are differentiated in their records on the basis of <a href="/wiki/Triage" title="Triage">triage</a> category not the type of wound), while a further 531 required first aid or surgical treatment; eight miscarriages were attributed to be a result of the tragedy; 19 died in care between June 1 and December 30, 1921.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillows192120Condensed_Report-110">[110]</a> The nearly 10,000 people in Greenwood who were affected relied, in large part, on the relief efforts of the Red Cross. Important for the future survival of this district, they worked to create "a large-scale plan in order to provide security, food, shelter, job training and placement, health coverage, and legal support for all of them [the survivors]."<a href="#cite_note-Karatzas_2018-111">[111]</a> The Red Cross was working in the aftermath of a tragedy, the victims of which "had all the characteristics of prisoners of war: homeless and helpless, abandoned by their home country, confined in specific areas, denied basic human rights, treated without respect and deprived of their possessions".<a href="#cite_note-Karatzas_2018-111">[111]</a> In less than a year of being in Tulsa, the Red Cross had set up a hospital for black patients, which was the first in Oklahoma's history[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]; performed mass vaccinations for illnesses that could have been easily spread in the camps where survivors found themselves, as well as built infrastructure to provide fresh water, adequate food, and sufficient housing for those who no longer had a place of residence[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panorama_of_the_ruined_area_tulsa_race_riots_(retouched).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Panorama_of_the_ruined_area_tulsa_race_riots_%28retouched%29.jpg/920px-Panorama_of_the_ruined_area_tulsa_race_riots_%28retouched%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="920" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Panorama_of_the_ruined_area_tulsa_race_riots_%28retouched%29.jpg/1380px-Panorama_of_the_ruined_area_tulsa_race_riots_%28retouched%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Panorama_of_the_ruined_area_tulsa_race_riots_%28retouched%29.jpg/1840px-Panorama_of_the_ruined_area_tulsa_race_riots_%28retouched%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2320" data-file-height="448" /></a><figcaption>Taken from the southeast corner of the roof of <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_High_School_(Oklahoma)" title="Booker T. Washington High School (Oklahoma)">Booker T. Washington High School</a>, this panorama shows much of the damage within a day or so. The road running laterally through the center is Greenwood Avenue; the road slanting from the center to the left is Easton, and the road slanting off to the right is Frankfort.</figcaption></figure> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Negro_Slain_in_Tulsa_Riot,_June-1-1921_(14389395391).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title=""Negro Slain in Tulsa Riot" "June-1-1921""><img alt=""Negro Slain in Tulsa Riot" "June-1-1921"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Negro_Slain_in_Tulsa_Riot%2C_June-1-1921_%2814389395391%29.jpg/93px-Negro_Slain_in_Tulsa_Riot%2C_June-1-1921_%2814389395391%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Negro_Slain_in_Tulsa_Riot%2C_June-1-1921_%2814389395391%29.jpg/139px-Negro_Slain_in_Tulsa_Riot%2C_June-1-1921_%2814389395391%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Negro_Slain_in_Tulsa_Riot%2C_June-1-1921_%2814389395391%29.jpg/186px-Negro_Slain_in_Tulsa_Riot%2C_June-1-1921_%2814389395391%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="774" data-file-height="1000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">"Negro Slain in Tulsa Riot" "June-1-1921"</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chared_(sic)_Negro_-_Killed_in_Tulsa_Riot,_6-1-1921_(14391369732).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title=""Charred Negro" "Killed in Tulsa Riot" "6-1-1921""><img alt=""Charred Negro" "Killed in Tulsa Riot" "6-1-1921"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Chared_%28sic%29_Negro_-_Killed_in_Tulsa_Riot%2C_6-1-1921_%2814391369732%29.jpg/92px-Chared_%28sic%29_Negro_-_Killed_in_Tulsa_Riot%2C_6-1-1921_%2814391369732%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="92" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Chared_%28sic%29_Negro_-_Killed_in_Tulsa_Riot%2C_6-1-1921_%2814391369732%29.jpg/138px-Chared_%28sic%29_Negro_-_Killed_in_Tulsa_Riot%2C_6-1-1921_%2814391369732%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Chared_%28sic%29_Negro_-_Killed_in_Tulsa_Riot%2C_6-1-1921_%2814391369732%29.jpg/184px-Chared_%28sic%29_Negro_-_Killed_in_Tulsa_Riot%2C_6-1-1921_%2814391369732%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">"Charred Negro" "Killed in Tulsa Riot" "6-1-1921"</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Truck_Being_Used_to_Gather_up_Colored_Victims_-_During_Tulsa_Race_Riot,_6-1-21_(14206580148).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title=""Truck Being Used to Gather Up Colored Victims – During Tulsa Race Riot – 6-1-21""><img alt=""Truck Being Used to Gather Up Colored Victims – During Tulsa Race Riot – 6-1-21"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Truck_Being_Used_to_Gather_up_Colored_Victims_-_During_Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_6-1-21_%2814206580148%29.jpg/92px-Truck_Being_Used_to_Gather_up_Colored_Victims_-_During_Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_6-1-21_%2814206580148%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="92" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Truck_Being_Used_to_Gather_up_Colored_Victims_-_During_Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_6-1-21_%2814206580148%29.jpg/138px-Truck_Being_Used_to_Gather_up_Colored_Victims_-_During_Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_6-1-21_%2814206580148%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Truck_Being_Used_to_Gather_up_Colored_Victims_-_During_Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_6-1-21_%2814206580148%29.jpg/184px-Truck_Being_Used_to_Gather_up_Colored_Victims_-_During_Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_6-1-21_%2814206580148%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="766" data-file-height="1000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">"Truck Being Used to Gather Up Colored Victims – During Tulsa Race Riot – 6-1-21"</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Captured_Negros_on_Way_to_Convention_Hall_-_During_Tulsa_Race_Riot,_June_1st,_1921_(14412915233).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title=""Captured Negros on Way to Convention Hall – During Tulsa Race Riot June 1st, 1921""><img alt=""Captured Negros on Way to Convention Hall – During Tulsa Race Riot June 1st, 1921"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Captured_Negros_on_Way_to_Convention_Hall_-_During_Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_June_1st%2C_1921_%2814412915233%29.jpg/94px-Captured_Negros_on_Way_to_Convention_Hall_-_During_Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_June_1st%2C_1921_%2814412915233%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="94" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Captured_Negros_on_Way_to_Convention_Hall_-_During_Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_June_1st%2C_1921_%2814412915233%29.jpg/141px-Captured_Negros_on_Way_to_Convention_Hall_-_During_Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_June_1st%2C_1921_%2814412915233%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Captured_Negros_on_Way_to_Convention_Hall_-_During_Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_June_1st%2C_1921_%2814412915233%29.jpg/188px-Captured_Negros_on_Way_to_Convention_Hall_-_During_Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_June_1st%2C_1921_%2814412915233%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="783" data-file-height="1000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">"Captured Negros on Way to Convention Hall – During Tulsa Race Riot June 1st, 1921"</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Tulsa_Race_Riot,_June_1st,_1921,_Scene_at_Convention_Hall_(14206298337).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title=""Scene at Convention Hall – June 1st, 1921""><img alt=""Scene at Convention Hall – June 1st, 1921"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_June_1st%2C_1921%2C_Scene_at_Convention_Hall_%2814206298337%29.jpg/92px-Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_June_1st%2C_1921%2C_Scene_at_Convention_Hall_%2814206298337%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="92" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_June_1st%2C_1921%2C_Scene_at_Convention_Hall_%2814206298337%29.jpg/138px-Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_June_1st%2C_1921%2C_Scene_at_Convention_Hall_%2814206298337%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_June_1st%2C_1921%2C_Scene_at_Convention_Hall_%2814206298337%29.jpg/184px-Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_June_1st%2C_1921%2C_Scene_at_Convention_Hall_%2814206298337%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">"Scene at Convention Hall – June 1st, 1921"</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:All_That_Was_Left_of_His_Home_after_the_Tulsa_Race_Riot,_6-1-21_(Ag2013.0002).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title=""All That Was Left of His Home after Tulsa Race Riot – 6-1-1921""><img alt=""All That Was Left of His Home after Tulsa Race Riot – 6-1-1921"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/All_That_Was_Left_of_His_Home_after_the_Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_6-1-21_%28Ag2013.0002%29.jpg/93px-All_That_Was_Left_of_His_Home_after_the_Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_6-1-21_%28Ag2013.0002%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/All_That_Was_Left_of_His_Home_after_the_Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_6-1-21_%28Ag2013.0002%29.jpg/139px-All_That_Was_Left_of_His_Home_after_the_Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_6-1-21_%28Ag2013.0002%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/All_That_Was_Left_of_His_Home_after_the_Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_6-1-21_%28Ag2013.0002%29.jpg/186px-All_That_Was_Left_of_His_Home_after_the_Tulsa_Race_Riot%2C_6-1-21_%28Ag2013.0002%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2321" data-file-height="3000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">"All That Was Left of His Home after Tulsa Race Riot – 6-1-1921"</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Property_losses">Property losses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Property losses">edit</a>]</div> The commercial section of Greenwood was destroyed. Losses included 191 businesses, a junior high school, several churches, and the only hospital in the district. The Red Cross reported that 1,256 houses were burned and another 215 were looted but not burned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillows19214,_12Condensed_Report-112">[112]</a> The Tulsa Real Estate Exchange estimated property losses amounted to US$1.5 million in real estate and $750,000 in personal property<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001189-113">[113]</a> (equivalent to a total of $38 million in 2023). The Red Cross report in December 1921 estimated that 10,000 people were made homeless by the destruction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillows192166-114">[114]</a> Over the next year, local citizens filed more than US$1.8 million (equivalent to $31 million in 2023) in riot-related claims against the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2002119-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Identities_of_the_African_American_victims">Identities of the African American victims</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Identities of the African American victims">edit</a>]</div> On June 3, the <a href="/wiki/Tulsa_World" title="Tulsa World">Morning Tulsa Daily World</a> reported major points of their interview with Deputy Sheriff Barney Cleaver concerning the events leading up to the Tulsa riot. Cleaver was a deputy sheriff for <a href="/wiki/Okmulgee_County,_Oklahoma" title="Okmulgee County, Oklahoma">Okmulgee County</a> and not under the supervision of the city police department; his duties mainly involved enforcing the law among the "colored people" of Greenwood, but he also operated a business as a private investigator. He had previously been dismissed as a city police investigator for assisting county officers with a drug raid at Gurley's Hotel but not reporting his involvement to his superiors.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> He had considerable land holdings and suffered tremendous financial damages as a result of the riot. Among his holdings were several residential properties and Cleaver Hall, a large community gathering place and function hall. He reported personally evicting a number of armed criminals who had taken to barricading themselves within properties he owned. Upon eviction, they merely moved to Cleaver Hall. Cleaver reported that the majority of violence started at Cleaver Hall along with the rioters barricaded inside. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Page" title="Charles Page">Charles Page</a> offered to build him a new home.<a href="#cite_note-Cleaver-6">[6]</a> The Morning Tulsa Daily World stated, "Cleaver named Will Robinson, a dope peddler and all-around bad negro, as the leader of the armed blacks. He has also the names of three others who were in the armed gang at the courthouse. The rest of the negroes participating in the fight, he says, were former servicemen who had an exaggerated idea of their own importance... They did not belong here, had no regular employment, and were simply a floating element with seemingly no ambition in life but to foment trouble."<a href="#cite_note-Cleaver-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/O.W._Gurley" title="O.W. Gurley">O.W. Gurley</a>, owner of Gurley's Hotel, identified the following men by name as arming themselves and gathering in his hotel: Will Robinson, Peg Leg Taylor, Bud Bassett, Henry Van Dyke, Chester Ross, Jake Mayes, O. B. Mann, John Suplesox, Fatty, Jack Scott, Lee Mable, John Bowman and W. S. Weaver.<a href="#cite_note-Gurley-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_Safety_Committee">Public Safety Committee</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Public Safety Committee">edit</a>]</div> By June 6, the <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a> reported that a citizens' Public Safety Committee had been established, made up of 250 white men who vowed to protect the city and put down any more disturbance. A white man was shot and killed that day after he failed to stop as ordered by a National Guardsman.<a href="#cite_note-AP66-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rebuilding">Rebuilding</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Rebuilding">edit</a>]</div> Governor <a href="/wiki/James_B._A._Robertson" title="James B. A. Robertson">James B. A. Robertson</a> had gone to Tulsa during the riot to ensure order was restored. Before returning to the capital, he ordered an inquiry into events, especially of the City and Sheriff's Office. He called for a <a href="/wiki/Grand_jury" title="Grand jury">Grand Jury</a> to be empaneled, and Judge Valjean Biddison said that its investigation would begin June 8. The jury was selected by June 9. Judge Biddison expected that the <a href="/wiki/Attorney_General_of_Oklahoma" title="Attorney General of Oklahoma">state attorney general</a> would call numerous witnesses, both black and white, given the large scale of the riot.<a href="#cite_note-NYTimes_2021-06-03-118">[118]</a> State Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Sargent_Prentiss_Freeling" title="Sargent Prentiss Freeling">Sargent Prentiss Freeling</a> initiated the investigation, and witnesses were heard over 12 days. In the end, the all-white jury attributed the riot to the black mobs, while noting that law enforcement officials had failed in preventing the riot. A total of 27 cases were brought before the court, and the jury indicted more than 85 individuals. In the end, no one was convicted of charges for the deaths, injuries or property damage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllsworth1992[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidu9SlbjZHeHgCpgPA94_94–96]-119">[119]</a> On June 3, a group of over 1,000 businessmen and civic leaders met, resolving to form a committee to raise funds and aid in rebuilding Greenwood. Judge <a href="/wiki/Loyal_J._Martin" title="Loyal J. Martin">Loyal J. Martin</a>, a former mayor of Tulsa, was chosen as the chairman of the group. He said at the mass meeting: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Tulsa can only redeem herself from the country-wide shame and humiliation into which she is today plunged by complete restitution and rehabilitation of the destroyed black belt. The rest of the United States must know that the real citizenship of Tulsa weeps at this unspeakable crime and will make good the damage, so far as it can be done, to the last penny.<a href="#cite_note-NYTimes_2021-06-03-118">[118]</a></blockquote> Many black families spent the winter of 1921–1922 in tents as they worked to rebuild. Charles Page was commended for his philanthropic efforts in the wake of the riot in the assistance of 'destitute blacks'.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> A group of influential white developers persuaded the city to pass a fire ordinance that would have prohibited many black people from rebuilding in Greenwood. Their intention was to redevelop Greenwood for more business and industrial use and force black people further to the edge of the city for residences. The case was litigated and appealed to the <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Supreme_Court" title="Oklahoma Supreme Court">Oklahoma Supreme Court</a> by <a href="/wiki/Buck_Colbert_Franklin" title="Buck Colbert Franklin">Buck Colbert Franklin</a>, where the ordinance was ruled unconstitutional. Most of the promised funding was never raised for the black residents, and they struggled to rebuild after the violence. Willows, the regional director of the Red Cross, noted this in his report, explaining his slow initial progress to facilitate the rehabilitation of the refugees. The fire code was officially intended to prevent another tragedy by banning wooden frame construction houses in place of previously burnt homes. A concession was granted to allow temporary wooden frame dwellings while a new building, which would meet the more restrictive fire code, was being constructed. This was quickly halted as residents within two weeks had started to erect full-sized wooden frame dwellings in contravention of the agreement. It took a further two-month delay to secure the court decision to reinstate the previous fire code. Willows heavily criticized the Tulsa city officials for interfering with his efforts, for their role in the Public Welfare Committee, which first sought to rezone the "burned area" as industrial, and for constructing a union station in its place with no consideration for the refugees. Then he criticized them again for the dissolution of the Public Welfare Committee in favor of the formation of the Reconstruction Committee, which failed to formulate a single plan, leaving the displaced residents prohibited from beginning reconstruction efforts for several months.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillows192122–25-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tulsa_Union_Depot">Tulsa Union Depot</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Tulsa Union Depot">edit</a>]</div> Despite the Red Cross's best efforts to assist with the reconstruction of Greenwood's residential area, the considerably altered present-day layout of the district and its surrounding neighborhoods, as well as the extensive redevelopment of Greenwood by people unaffiliated with the neighborhood prior to the riot, stand as proof that the Red Cross relief efforts had limited success.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillows192122–23-122">[122]</a> Tulsa's main industries at the time of the riot were banking (<a href="/wiki/BOK_Financial_Corporation" title="BOK Financial Corporation">BOK Financial Corporation</a>), administrative (<a href="/wiki/PennWell" class="mw-redirect" title="PennWell">PennWell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oneok" title="Oneok">Oklahoma Natural Gas Company</a>), and petroleum engineering services (<a href="/wiki/Skelly_Oil" title="Skelly Oil">Skelly Oil</a>), earning Tulsa the title of "<a href="/wiki/Oil_Capital_of_the_World" title="Oil Capital of the World">Oil Capital of the World</a>". Joshua Cosden is also regarded as a founder of the city, having constructed the tallest building in Tulsa, the <a href="/wiki/Mid-Continent_Tower" title="Mid-Continent Tower">Cosden Building</a>. The construction of the Cosden Building and Union Depot was overseen by the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Construction_Company" title="Manhattan Construction Company">Manhattan Construction Company</a>, which was based in Tulsa. <a href="/wiki/Francis_Rooney" title="Francis Rooney">Francis Rooney</a> is the great-grandson and beneficiary of the estate of Laurence H. Rooney, founder of the Manhattan Construction Company. City planners immediately saw the fire that destroyed homes and businesses across Greenwood as a fortunate event for advancing their objectives, meanwhile showing a disregard for the welfare of affected residents. Plans were made to rezone 'The Burned Area' for industrial use.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillows192122–23-122">[122]</a> The Tulsa Daily World reported that the mayor and city commissioners expressed that, "a large industrial section will be found desirable in causing a wider separation between negroes and whites."<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> The reconstruction committee organized a forum to discuss their proposal with community leaders and stakeholders. Naming, among others, O.W. Gurley, Rev. H.T.F. Johnson, and Barney Cleaver as participants in the forum, it was reported that all members were in agreement with the plan to redevelop the burned district as an industrial section and agreed that the proposed union station project was desirable. "... not a note of dissension was expressed." The article states that these community leaders would again meet at the First Baptist Church in the following days.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> The Black Dispatch describes the content of the following meeting at the First Baptist Church. The reconstruction committee had intended to have the black landholders sign over their property to a holding company managed by black representatives on behalf of the city. The properties were then to be turned over to a white appraisal committee, which would pay residents for the residentially zoned land at the lower industrial zoned value in advance of the rezoning. Professor J.W. Hughes addressed the white reconstruction committee members in opposition to their proposition, coining a slogan that would come to galvanize the community, "I'm going to hold what I have until I get What I've lost."<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Construction of the <a href="/wiki/Tulsa_Union_Depot" title="Tulsa Union Depot">Tulsa Union Depot</a>, a large central rail hub connecting three major railroads, began in Greenwood less than two years after the riot. Prior to the riot, construction had already been underway for a smaller rail hub nearby. However, in the aftermath of the riot, land on which homes and businesses had been destroyed by the fires suddenly became available, allowing for a larger train depot near the heart of the city to be built in Greenwood instead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillows192122–23-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200138,_40,_168-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1921_grand_jury_investigation">1921 grand jury investigation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: 1921 grand jury investigation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Allegations_of_corruption">Allegations of corruption</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Allegations of corruption">edit</a>]</div> The Tulsa Police Department, in the words of Chief Chuck Jordan, "did not do their job then, y'know, they just didn't".<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Parrish, an African-American citizen of Tulsa, summarized the lawlessness in Oklahoma as a contributing factor in 1922 as, "if ... it were not for the profitable alliance of politics and vice or professional crime, the tiny spark which is the beginning of all these outrages would be promptly extinguished."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParrish192287-128">[128]</a> Clark, a prominent Oklahoma historian and law professor, completed his doctoral dissertation in law on the subject of lawlessness in Oklahoma specifically on this period of time and how lawlessness had led to the rise of the second KKK, in order to illustrate the need for effective law enforcement and a functional judiciary.<a href="#cite_note-Clark_1976-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="John_A._Gustafson">John A. Gustafson</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: John A. Gustafson">edit</a>]</div> Chief of Police John A. Gustafson was the subject of an investigation. Official proceedings began on June 6, 1921. He was prosecuted on multiple counts: refusing to enforce prohibition, refusing to enforce anti-prostitution laws; operating a stolen automobile-laundering racket and allowing known automobile thieves to escape justice, for the purpose of extorting the citizens of Tulsa for rewards relating to their return; repurposing vehicles for his own use or sale; operating a fake detective agency for the purpose of billing the city of Tulsa for investigative duties he was already being paid for as chief of police; failing to enforce gun laws; and failure to take action during the riots.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> The attorney general of Oklahoma received numerous letters alleging members of the police force had conspired with members of the justice system to threaten witnesses in corruption trials stemming from the Grand Jury investigations. In the letters, various members of the public requested the presence of the state attorney general at the trial.<a href="#cite_note-Seeber-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kinion-132">[132]</a> An assistant of the attorney general replied to one such letter by stating that their budget was too stretched to respond and recommending instead that the citizens of Tulsa simply vote for new officers.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Gustafson was found to have a long history of fraud pre-dating his membership in the Tulsa Police Department. His previous partner in his detective agency, Phil Kirk, had been convicted of blackmail.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Gustafson's fake detective agency ran up high billings on the police account. Investigators noted that many blackmail letters had been sent to members of the community from the agency. One particularly disturbing case involved the frequent rape, by her father, of an 11-year-old girl who had since become pregnant. Instead of prosecuting, they sent a "<a href="/wiki/Black_Hand_(extortion)" title="Black Hand (extortion)">Blackhand</a> letter".<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> On July 30, 1921, out of five counts of an indictment, Gustafson was found guilty of two counts: negligence for failing to stop the riot (which resulted in dismissal from police force), and conspiracy for freeing automobile thieves and collecting rewards (which resulted in a jail sentence).<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Breaking_the_silence">Breaking the silence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Breaking the silence">edit</a>]</div> Three days after the massacre, President <a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a> spoke at the all-black <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_University_(Pennsylvania)" title="Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)">Lincoln University</a> in Pennsylvania. He declared, "Despite the demagogues, the idea of our oneness as Americans has risen superior to every appeal to mere class and group. And so, I wish it might be in this matter of our national problem of races." Speaking directly about the events in Tulsa, he said, "God grant that, in the soberness, the fairness, and the justice of this country, we never see another spectacle like it."<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> There were no convictions for any of the charges related to violence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllsworth1992[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidu9SlbjZHeHgCpgPA94_94–96]-119">[119]</a> There were decades of silence about the terror, violence, and losses of this event. The riot was largely omitted from local, state, and national histories: "The Tulsa race riot of 1921 was rarely mentioned in history books, classrooms, or even in private. Black and white people alike grew into middle age, unaware of what had taken place."<a href="#cite_note-NYT_2011/06/20-138">[138]</a> It was not recognized in the Tulsa Tribune feature of "Fifteen Years Ago Today" or "Twenty-five Years Ago Today".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200126-139">[139]</a> A 2017 report detailing the history of the Tulsa Fire Department from 1897 until the date of publication makes no mention of the 1921 massacre.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Several people tried to document the events, gather photographs, and record the names of the dead and injured. Mary Elizabeth Jones Parrish, a young black teacher and journalist from <a href="/wiki/Rochester,_New_York" title="Rochester, New York">Rochester, New York</a>, was hired by the Inter-racial Commission to write an account of the riot. Parrish was a survivor, and she wrote about her experiences, collected other accounts, gathered photographs and compiled "a partial roster of property losses in the African American community". She published these in Events of the Tulsa Disaster, in 1922.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParrish1922[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-142">[142]</a> It was the first book to be published about the riot.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200128-143">[143]</a> The first academic account was a master's thesis written in 1946 by Loren L. Gill, a veteran of World War II, but the thesis did not circulate beyond the University of Tulsa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200128–29-144">[144]</a> In 1971, a small group of survivors gathered for a memorial service at Mount Zion Baptist Church with black and white people in attendance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200129-145">[145]</a> That same year, the Tulsa Chamber of Commerce decided to commemorate the riot, but when they read the accounts and saw photos gathered by Ed Wheeler, host of a radio history program, detailing the specifics of the riot, they refused to publish them. He then took his information to the two major newspapers in Tulsa, both of which also refused to run his story. His article, "Profile of a Race Riot"<a href="#cite_note-Wheeler-146">[146]</a> was published in Impact Magazine, a publication aimed at black audiences, but most of Tulsa's white residents never knew about it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200129–30-147">[147]</a> In the early 1970s, along with Henry C. Whitlow, Jr., a history teacher at <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_High_School_(Oklahoma)" title="Booker T. Washington High School (Oklahoma)">Booker T. Washington High School</a>, Mozella Franklin Jones helped to desegregate the Tulsa Historical Society by mounting the first major exhibition on the history of African Americans in Tulsa. Jones also created, at the Tulsa Historical Society, the first collection of massacre photographs available to the public.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200121–36-148">[148]</a> While researching and sharing the history of the riot, Jones collaborated with a white woman named Ruth Sigler Avery, who was also trying to publicize accounts of the riot. The two women, however, encountered pressure, particularly among whites, to keep silent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200130–31-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Survivors">Survivors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Survivors">edit</a>]</div> The Tulsa massacre claimed an estimated 150–300 lives; over 800 people were seriously injured, and many more are estimated to have had their lives drastically changed forever.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Olivia_Hooker">Olivia Hooker</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Olivia Hooker">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Olivia_Hooker" title="Olivia Hooker">Olivia Hooker</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Olivia_Hooker" title="Olivia Hooker">Olivia Hooker</a> was born on February 12, 1915, in Muskogee, Oklahoma. Her family was one of the many families affected by the Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921 when she was only six years old. Her family's home in the Greenwood District of Tulsa, Oklahoma was broken into by a group of white men with torches and was torn apart. Many of her family's belongings were destroyed. One item that Hooker recalled was her sister's piano. She remembered hearing a group of white men whacking into the piano as she and her four other siblings hid under the dining room table, which their mother covered with a tablecloth. Her father owned a store in Tulsa, which she recalled was absolutely destroyed and only one safe was left standing. The only reason it was left standing was that it was too big and heavy to be destroyed or stolen. Hooker also remembered vividly her schoolhouse being destroyed and blown up with dynamite. After the massacre, Hooker and her family moved to Topeka, Kansas to rebuild their lives. Hooker recalled her mother telling her, "don't spend your time agonizing over the past." With a new fresh start in Topeka, Kansas, Hooker was the first African American woman to join the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a> (in February 1945).<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> After leaving the Coast Guard, Hooker went on to earn her Master's degree in psychology from <a href="/wiki/Teacher%27s_College,_Columbia_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Teacher's College, Columbia University">Teacher's College, Columbia University</a>. She earned her doctorate in clinical psychology at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Rochester" title="University of Rochester">University of Rochester</a>.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Hooker went on to have multiple jobs with her degree in psychology, mostly basing her work on the Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921. Olivia Hooker retired from work at the age of 87. She died at the age of 103 on November 21, 2018 in her home in New York. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eldoris_McCondichie">Eldoris McCondichie</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Eldoris McCondichie">edit</a>]</div> Eldoris McCondichie was born on September 1, 1911, in Tyler, Texas. She was four years old when she and her family moved to Tulsa, Oklahoma in the Greenwood district. Her family was part of the working class. Her father had worked in a field and her mother did housework. On May 31, 1921, McCondichie was nine years old. She remembered being frantically awakened by her mother. She remembered her mother saying, "the white people are killing the colored people." McCondichie and her family evacuated their Tulsa home to find refuge up north from the massacre. McCondichie described how "airplanes were raining down bullets", and how no one had enough time to even put clothes on and evacuate their homes. She recalled seeing women walking on the railroad track with no shoes in their nightgowns. She remembered finding shelter in a chicken coop during the riots to protect herself from machine gun fire. After McCondichie and her family evacuated Tulsa, they found refuge in a farmer's home overnight. Her family traveled to <a href="/wiki/Pawhuska,_Oklahoma" title="Pawhuska, Oklahoma">Pawhuska, Oklahoma</a>, where they stayed for about 2–3 days until they knew it was safe to return home. Upon returning to Tulsa, Eldoris described what was left of the Greenwood district as "war-torn". She recalled many businesses and homes were burnt to the ground. Her family slowly rebuilt their lives in Tulsa and never left, referring to it as their "forever home".<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> Eldoris was married to Arthur McCodichie for 67 years and had four children; two sons and two daughters. She died on September 12, 2010, several days after celebrating her 99th birthday. Her final resting place is in the Crownhill Cemetery in Tulsa, Oklahoma.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="George_Monroe">George Monroe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: George Monroe">edit</a>]</div> George Monroe was five years old during the attack on the Greenwood district.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> He claimed some images could never leave his mind. He remembered seeing people getting shot and his own curtains being set on fire by a mob of white men. He also recalled hiding under a bed with his older sister, when a rioter stepped on his finger, causing his sister to throw her hand over his mouth to prevent the men from hearing his screams. George Monroe lived out the rest of his life in Tulsa, Oklahoma. He became a musician, owner of a Tulsa nightclub, and the first black man in Tulsa to sell Coca-Cola. George Monroe died in 2001.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mary_E._Jones_Parrish">Mary E. Jones Parrish</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Mary E. Jones Parrish">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mary_E._Jones_Parrish" title="Mary E. Jones Parrish">Mary E. Jones Parrish</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Mary_E._Jones_Parrish" title="Mary E. Jones Parrish">Mary Elizabeth Jones Parrish</a> (1892–1972) was born in 1892 in Yazoo City, Mississippi. She moved to Tulsa around 1919 and worked teaching typing and shorthand at a branch of the YMCA. Parrish was reading in her home when the Tulsa race massacre began on the evening of May 31, 1921. Parrish's daughter, Florence Mary, called the young journalist and teacher to the window. "Mother," she said, "I see men with guns." The two eventually fled into the night under a hail of bullets. Mary Parrish wrote a first-person account and collected eye-witness statements from dozens of others and published them immediately following the tragedy under the title The Events of the Tulsa Disaster. Parrish documented the magnitude of the loss of human life and property at the hands of white vigilantes. Parrish hoped that her book would "open the eyes of the thinking people to the impending danger of letting such conditions exist and in the 'Land of the Free and the Home of the Brave.'<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> A new edition was published in 2021 by Trinity University Press under the title, The Nation Must Awake: My Witness to the Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921. The new edition includes a new afterword by Anneliese M. Bruner, Parrish's great-granddaughter. The New York Times called Parrish's "a story of survival... remains relevant a century later" while The New Yorker called it "The first and most visceral long-form account of how Greenwood residents experienced the massacre."<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lessie_Benningfield_("Mother_Randle")">Lessie Benningfield ("Mother Randle")</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Lessie Benningfield ("Mother Randle")">edit</a>]</div> Lessie Benningfield, also known as Mother Randle, was born in Morris, Oklahoma on November 10, 1914. Her parents were farmers; she had three sisters and a brother. Benningfield does not recall much due to her young age during the massacre. She remembers a mob of white men barging into her home and then destroying her family's house. She has memories of feelings of intense fear while trying to evacuate her home and get somewhere safe with her family. She spent the rest of her childhood and young adulthood in Tulsa and graduated from <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_High_School_(Oklahoma)" title="Booker T. Washington High School (Oklahoma)">Booker T. Washington High School</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> Benningfield is now a part of an active lawsuit with the Greenwood Advocates, which is a team of human and civil rights lawyers fighting for justice for victims and their families. Benningfield states she still has nightmares of seeing the piles of dead bodies she saw during the massacre. For her 106th birthday, which took place in 2020, the community raised thousands of dollars for her to remodel her home.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Since then, she has been interviewed several times and remained in the public eye during the 2021 centennial anniversary of the massacre at the age of 107. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hal_Singer">Hal Singer</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Hal Singer">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Hal_Singer" title="Hal Singer">Hal Singer</a> was born on October 8, 1919, in Tulsa, Oklahoma to two working-class parents. His mother worked in a wealthy white resident's home as a cook and his father worked producing oil rigging tools. Singer was 18 months old when the Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921 took place. A white woman, for whom his mother worked, put his family on a train to Kansas City during the massacre so the Singer family would have a safe place to wait it out. Up to the day of his passing, Singer recalled how forever grateful he was for the woman's kindness. When his family returned to their home, it was burnt to the ground. They had to rebuild their whole lives again from scratch. However, they stayed in Tulsa in the Greenwood district all through his childhood.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> As a young boy, Singer hung out by the rail tracks and invited <a href="/wiki/Jazz_band" title="Jazz band">jazz bands</a> to come over and have some of his mother's cooking. This helped him in the long run as he became an iconic <a href="/wiki/Saxophonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Saxophonist">saxophonist</a> of his generation. Singer went on to play with and for <a href="/wiki/Duke_Ellington" title="Duke Ellington">Duke Ellington</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ray_Charles" title="Ray Charles">Ray Charles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Billie_Holiday" title="Billie Holiday">Billie Holiday</a>. He was married for over 50 years to his wife Arlette Singer. On August 18, 2020, just months before his 101st birthday, he died in <a href="/wiki/Chatou" title="Chatou">Chatou</a>, a suburb of <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-independent-165">[165]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Essie_Lee_Johnson_Beck">Essie Lee Johnson Beck</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Essie Lee Johnson Beck">edit</a>]</div> Essie Johnson (1916–2006) was five years old when the Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921 took place. Her family evacuated their Tulsa home in the early hours of May 31. Beck remembers her parents making her and her siblings stay away from the windows because there were active shooters targeting the windows of homes. She describes the feelings of fright and confusion. Her family had to evacuate their home since almost all homes were being burnt to the ground in her neighborhood. Her mother took Beck and her four other siblings and started running to find shelter elsewhere. Beck recalls watching airplanes above her dropping bombs onto the roof of houses causing them to catch on fire. Her mother was trying to get her and her siblings to Golden Gate Park. Beck's father stayed behind to help as much as possible and to assist injured people. Beck recalls once they got to Golden Gate Park, they hid behind trees. Beck and her family soon after that found shelter in churches and school basements for the remaining days. Once they were cleared to go back, their home was burnt to the ground. Beck recalls having to live in a tent on the dirt waiting for their house to be rebuilt. She describes the whole experience to be awful.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vernice_Simms">Vernice Simms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Vernice Simms">edit</a>]</div> Vernice Simms was seventeen years old when the Massacre took place. She lived in the Greenwood district with her family as she attended <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_High_School_(Oklahoma)" title="Booker T. Washington High School (Oklahoma)">Booker T. Washington High School</a>, where she was preparing for her prom. Simms remembers vividly being in her backyard when bullets started raining down and everyone was cautioned to get into the house as quickly as possible. As the riots and massacre progressed, Simms and her family found refuge at a white family's home, where they were safe from the massacre. When they returned to their Greenwood home, everything was burnt to the ground. Simms and her family had to live in a tent. She recalls Booker T. Washington High School being turned into a hospital for the wounded. Simms volunteered at the hospital where she fed and gave water to people who were injured during the massacre. While her house was being rebuilt by her father, she finished high school in Oklahoma City. Afterward, Simms studied at <a href="/wiki/Langston_University" title="Langston University">Langston University</a>. After she graduated from university, she came home to see her house finally rebuilt. She recalls never getting any money from insurance or the government to help. Simms described the events as devastating and scary.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lena_Eloise_Taylor_Butler">Lena Eloise Taylor Butler</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Lena Eloise Taylor Butler">edit</a>]</div> Eloise Taylor was nineteen years old and she lived in Greenwood when the Massacre took place. She was the daughter of the famed Horace Greeley Beecher Taylor, better known as "Peg Leg" Taylor. According to Taylor's great-granddaughter, who has passed on Eloise's story, Eloise witnessed some of the first gunfighting of the Massacre. She recounts how Peg Leg Taylor "fought his way to" Eloise and helped her escape into the woods north of the city, where they then lay and hid while White rioters continued to hunt down and kill other survivors around them. "...they found some of the people that were out there in the woods laying on their stomach—Lord help these people!—and they just shot 'em. Right there on the ground where they lay. I'm talking about kids...women. They didn't care. Old people. People who had breastfed them. They didn't give a damn. They killed 'em right there on the ground..." Eloise was reportedly so terrified that when "...finally her daddy told her to 'get up...get up and c'mon,' she said [in order] for them to move, he had to hurt her. She said he had to hurt her to make her stand up." Eloise and her father then walked several miles to a nearby town, where they "got help, got warm, got clothes, got food, and moved on", and where they also "decided that they would never talk about it again". Eloise finally opened up to her great-granddaughters about her experience in 1997, only a few short years before she died in 2000 at the age of 98.<a href="#cite_note-Taylor_Account-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tulsa_Race_Massacre_Commission">Tulsa Race Massacre Commission</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Tulsa Race Massacre Commission">edit</a>]</div> In 1996, as the riot's 75th anniversary neared, the state legislature authorized an Oklahoma Commission to investigate the Tulsa Race Riot, by appointing individuals to study and prepare a report detailing a historical account of the riot. Authorization of the study "enjoyed strong support from members of both political parties and all political persuasions".<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> The commission had originally been called the "Tulsa Race Riot Commission", but in November 2018, the name was changed to "Tulsa Race Massacre Commission".<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> The commission conducted interviews and heard testimony in order to thoroughly document the causes and damages. The commission delivered its final report on February 21, 2001.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001-170">[170]</a> The report recommended actions for substantial restitution to the black residents, listed below in order of priority: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <ol><li>Direct payment of reparations to survivors of the 1921 Tulsa race riot;</li> <li>Direct payment of reparations to descendants of the survivors of the Tulsa race riot;</li> <li>A scholarship fund available to students affected by the Tulsa race riot;</li> <li>Establishment of an economic development enterprise zone in the historic area of the Greenwood district; and</li> <li>A memorial for the reburial of the remains of the victims of the Tulsa race riot.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200120–21-171">[171]</a></li></ol> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-commission_actions">Post-commission actions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Post-commission actions">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Search_for_mass_graves">Search for mass graves</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Search for mass graves">edit</a>]</div> The Tulsa Race Massacre Commission arranged for archaeological, non-invasive <a href="/wiki/Survey_(archaeology)" title="Survey (archaeology)">ground surveys</a> of <a href="/wiki/Newblock_Park" title="Newblock Park">Newblock Park</a>, Oaklawn Cemetery, and Booker T. Washington Cemetery, which were identified as possible locations for <a href="/wiki/Mass_grave" title="Mass grave">mass graves</a> of black victims of the violence. <a href="/wiki/Oral_history" title="Oral history">Oral histories</a>, other sources and timing suggested that whites would have buried blacks at the first two locations; black people were said to have buried black victims at the third location after the riot was over. The people who were buried at Washington Cemetery, which is reserved for black people, were probably thought to be those victims who had died of their wounds after the riot had ended, since it was the most distant suspected burial location from downtown. Investigations of the three potential mass grave sites were performed in 1997 and 1998. Even though the total area of all three of these locations could not be surveyed, preliminary data suggested that they contained no mass graves. In 1999, an eyewitness who had seen whites burying black victims at Oaklawn Cemetery was found. A team investigated the potential area with more equipment. In the end, searches for mass graves were made with the aid of technology that included <a href="/wiki/Ground-penetrating_radar" title="Ground-penetrating radar">ground-penetrating radar</a>, followed by <a href="/wiki/Core_sample" title="Core sample">core sampling</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ExpertsReport-172">[172]</a> The experts' report, presented to the Commission in December 2000, could not substantiate claims of mass graves in Oaklawn Cemetery, Washington Cemetery, or Newblock Park.<a href="#cite_note-ExpertsReport-172">[172]</a> A promising spot in Washington Cemetery had turned out to be a layer of clay, and another promising spot in Newblock Park had turned out to be an old basement.<a href="#cite_note-ExpertsReport-172">[172]</a> The suggestion that the bodies had been burned in the city <a href="/wiki/Incineration" title="Incineration">incinerator</a> was also considered unfeasible and discounted, given the incinerator's capacity and logistical considerations.<a href="#cite_note-ExpertsReport-172">[172]</a> In preparation for the 100th anniversary of the massacre, state archaeologists, using ground-penetrating radar, probed Oaklawn Cemetery for "long-rumored" mass graves.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> Mayor <a href="/wiki/G._T._Bynum" title="G. T. Bynum">G. T. Bynum</a> calls it "a murder investigation".<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> After input from the public, officials from the Oklahoma Archeological Survey used three subsurface scanning techniques to survey Newblock Park, Oaklawn Cemetery, and an area known as The Canes along the <a href="/wiki/Arkansas_River" title="Arkansas River">Arkansas River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Search-175">[175]</a> The Oklahoma Archeological Survey subsequently announced that they were discontinuing search efforts at Newblock Park after not finding any evidence of graves.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> On December 17, 2019, the team of <a href="/wiki/Forensic_archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensic archaeology">forensic archaeologists</a> announced that they had found anomalies consistent with that of human-dug pits beneath the ground at Oaklawn Cemetery and the ground where the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_244" title="Interstate 244">Interstate 244</a> bridge crosses the Arkansas River. They announced that the anomalies are likely candidates for mass graves, but further radar surveys and physical excavations of the sites are needed.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> Researchers secured permission to perform "limited excavations" from the city and as a result, they will be able to determine what the contents of these sites are, beginning in April 2020, and while they do not expect to dig up any human remains, they asserted that if they find any human remains in the course of their excavations, they will treat them with the proper respect.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> An initial dig at a suspected area of the Oaklawn Cemetery in July 2020 found no human remains.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> On October 21, 2020, a forensic team said that it had unearthed 11 coffins in Oaklawn Cemetery; records and research suggested that as many as 18 victims would be found. The forensic team will need to do more work in order to determine if the coffins contain the remains of massacre victims. As stated by Kary Stackelbeck, a state archaeologist, the remains will not be moved until they can be properly exhumed because their deterioration needs to be prevented. She also stated that the site where the remains were discovered "constitutes a mass grave.... We have a high degree of confidence that this is one of the locations we were looking for. But we have to remain cautious because we have not done anything to expose the human remains beyond those that have been encountered."<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> The team planned to exhume the remains in June 2021.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> Forensic anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Phoebe_Stubblefield" title="Phoebe Stubblefield">Phoebe Stubblefield</a> later planned to analyze the remains in order to determine if they are the remains of people who were killed in the 1921 massacre. In June 2021, after scientists resumed work at the site, 35 coffins were recovered from the mass grave. The remains of 19 people were taken to an on-site science lab. Officials stated that they have completed a preliminary analysis of nine of those human remains.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> Stackelbeck announced in September 2023 a completed survey identified 59 gravesites, 57 of which were previously undiscovered. Seven sets of remains were recovered, each found in simple wooden boxes.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> <a href="/wiki/C._L._Daniel" title="C. L. Daniel">C. L. Daniel</a> was the first victim identified in July 2024 from the remains exhumed.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> He was a World War I veteran from Georgia who was a resident of Utah.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> By August 3, 2024, remains believed to be two additional victims of the riot were found.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> By August 16, 2024 the remains of eleven riot victims had been recovered from Oaklawn Cemetery<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reconciliation">Reconciliation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Reconciliation">edit</a>]</div> In March 2001, each of the 118 known survivors of the riot still alive at the time, the youngest of whom was 85, was given a gold-plated medal bearing the state seal, as had been approved by bi-partisan state leaders.<a href="#cite_note-news6-189">[189]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Tulsa_Reparations_Coalition" title="Tulsa Reparations Coalition">Tulsa Reparations Coalition</a>, sponsored by the Center for Racial Justice, Inc., was formed on April 7, 2001, to obtain <a href="/wiki/Restitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Restitution">restitution</a> for the damages suffered by Tulsa's black community, as recommended by the Oklahoma Commission.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> On June 1, 2001, Governor <a href="/wiki/Frank_Keating" title="Frank Keating">Frank Keating</a> signed the 1921 Tulsa Race Riot Reconciliation Act into law. The act acknowledged that the event occurred but failed to deliver any substantial <a href="/wiki/Reparations_(transitional_justice)" title="Reparations (transitional justice)">reparations</a> to the victims or their descendants. In spite of the commission's recommendation for reparations in their report on the riot, the Oklahoma state legislature did not agree that reparations were appropriate and thus did not include them in the reconciliation act.<a href="#cite_note-kos_2012-06-30-191">[191]</a> The act provided for the following: <ul><li>More than 300 college scholarships for descendants of Greenwood residents;</li> <li>Creation of a memorial to those who died in the riot. A park with statues was dedicated as <a href="/wiki/John_Hope_Franklin" title="John Hope Franklin">John Hope Franklin</a> Reconciliation Park on October 27, 2010, named in honor of the notable African-American historian from Tulsa;<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> and</li> <li>Economic development in Greenwood.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Survivors'_lawsuit">Survivors' lawsuit</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Survivors' lawsuit">edit</a>]</div> Five survivors, represented by a legal team that included <a href="/wiki/Johnnie_Cochran" title="Johnnie Cochran">Johnnie Cochran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Ogletree" title="Charles Ogletree">Charles Ogletree</a>, filed suit against the city of Tulsa and the state of Oklahoma (Alexander, et al. v. Oklahoma, et al.) in February 2003, based on the findings of the 2001 report. Ogletree said the state and city should compensate the victims and their families "to honor their admitted obligations as detailed in the commission's report".<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> The federal district and <a href="/wiki/Appellate_court" title="Appellate court">appellate courts</a> dismissed the suit on the grounds that a recommendation was not an "admitted obligation" and noting the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_limitations" title="Statute of limitations">statute of limitations</a> had been exceeded on the 80-year-old case.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> The state requires that civil rights cases be filed within two years of the event. For that reason, the court did not rule on the issues. The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> declined to hear the appeal. In April 2007, Ogletree appealed to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">U.S. Congress</a> to pass a bill extending the statute of limitations for the case, given the state and city's accountability for the destruction and the long suppression of material about it. The bill was introduced by <a href="/wiki/John_Conyers" title="John Conyers">John Conyers</a> of Michigan and heard by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_the_Judiciary" title="United States House Committee on the Judiciary">Judiciary Committee of the House</a> but it did not pass, because of concerns about <a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law" title="Ex post facto law">ex post facto</a> legislation.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="John_Hope_Franklin_Reconciliation_Park">John Hope Franklin Reconciliation Park</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: John Hope Franklin Reconciliation Park">edit</a>]</div> A park was developed in 2010 in the Greenwood area as a memorial to victims of the riot. In October 2010, the park was named for noted historian <a href="/wiki/John_Hope_Franklin" title="John Hope Franklin">John Hope Franklin</a>, who was born and raised in Tulsa.<a href="#cite_note-News6-197">[197]</a> He became known as a historian of <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">the South</a>. The park includes three statues of figures by sculptor <a href="/wiki/Ed_Dwight" title="Ed Dwight">Ed Dwight</a>, representing Hostility, Humiliation and Hope.<a href="#cite_note-mullins-198">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renewed_calls_for_restitution">Renewed calls for restitution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Renewed calls for restitution">edit</a>]</div> An extensive curriculum on the event was provided to Oklahoma school districts in 2020.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> On May 29, 2020, the eve of the 99th anniversary of the event and the onset of the <a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a> released a report titled "The Case for Reparations in Tulsa, Oklahoma: A Human Rights Argument", demanding reparations for survivors and descendants of the violence because the economic impact of the massacre is still visible as illustrated by the high poverty rates and lower life expectancies in north Tulsa.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> Several documentary projects were also announced at this time with plans to release them on the 100th anniversary of the event, including Black Wall Street by <a href="/wiki/Dream_Hampton" title="Dream Hampton">Dream Hampton</a>, and another documentary by Salima Koroma.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> In September 2020, a 105-year old survivor of the massacre, <a href="/wiki/Viola_Fletcher" title="Viola Fletcher">Viola Fletcher</a>, filed a lawsuit with two other survivors against the city for reparations caused by damages to the city's black businesses.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> In 2021, Oklahoma librarians persuaded the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> to change the official subject headings, which place limits on the terms that people are allowed to use whenever they conduct searches for some of the information, for the event from "riot" to "massacre".<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> On May 19, 2021, survivors Fletcher, then 107; her 100-year-old brother, Hughes Van Ellis; and 106-year old Lessie Benningfield Randle testified about their experiences during the massacre and their reparations lawsuit before a House Judiciary subcommittee.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> The lawsuit was dismissed with prejudice in July 2023, but in November 2023, their lawyers appealed that decision to the Oklahoma Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> On June 12, 2024 the <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Supreme_Court" title="Oklahoma Supreme Court">Oklahoma Supreme Court</a> affirmed the dismissal of the lawsuit, effectively concluding the suit. The Court dismissed the lawsuit stating that although the grievances submitted by the plaintiffs were legitimate, they concluded that Oklahoma's public nuisance statute did not apply to them.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> Their testimony of the three survivors coincided with pending resolutions before the U.S. House and Senate Judiciary Committees that propose federal recognition of the centennial of the massacre on May 31 and June 1.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> In September 2024, the Department of Justice opened a federal review of the massacre under the <a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_Unsolved_Civil_Rights_Crime_Act" title="Emmett Till Unsolved Civil Rights Crime Act">Emmett Till Unsolved Civil Rights Crime Act</a>.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> The report was released on January 10, 2025, which found that "the massacre was the result not of uncontrolled mob violence, but of a coordinated, military-style attack on Greenwood".<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> Tulsa's ongoing Beyond Apology Commission is tasked with improving economic mobility and the building of inter-generational wealth for survivors of the massacre and was reported by the New York Times to be planning new housing benefits in January 2025.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="President_Biden's_2021_visit">President Biden's 2021 visit</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: President Biden's 2021 visit">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P20210601AS-1868_(51224604501).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/P20210601AS-1868_%2851224604501%29.jpg/220px-P20210601AS-1868_%2851224604501%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/P20210601AS-1868_%2851224604501%29.jpg/330px-P20210601AS-1868_%2851224604501%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/P20210601AS-1868_%2851224604501%29.jpg/440px-P20210601AS-1868_%2851224604501%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1066" /></a><figcaption>President Biden speaks at a ceremony marking the 100th anniversary of the Tulsa Massacre.</figcaption></figure> On June 1, 2021, the 100th anniversary of the massacre, President <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> visited the area, the first sitting president to do so, and during his visit, he made a speech in which he stated, "Some injustices are so heinous, so horrific, so grievous, they cannot be buried, no matter how hard people try."<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> Biden toured the Greenwood Cultural Center and met with survivors Viola Fletcher, Hughes Van Ellis, and Lessie Benningfield Randle.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tulsa_Historical_Society_and_Museum">Tulsa Historical Society and Museum</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Tulsa Historical Society and Museum">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Traveling_Panels.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Traveling_Panels.jpg/220px-Traveling_Panels.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Traveling_Panels.jpg/330px-Traveling_Panels.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Traveling_Panels.jpg/440px-Traveling_Panels.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Tulsa Race Massacre: Traveling Panels</figcaption></figure> The Tulsa Historical Society and Museum offer a virtual exhibit of the Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921 that is open at all times during the day and is free of charge to the public. This online exhibit offers many photos, audio recordings, documents, and resources that cannot be found anywhere else.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> It also offers a traveling exhibit consisting of 4 panels regarding the Tulsa Race Massacre that are allowed to travel to locations within the Tulsa Metropolitan Area. The main goal of the panels is to educate the community.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Present-day_Black_Wall_Street">Present-day Black Wall Street</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Present-day Black Wall Street">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Greenwood_District-Present_Day_.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Greenwood_District-Present_Day_.jpg/220px-Greenwood_District-Present_Day_.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Greenwood_District-Present_Day_.jpg/330px-Greenwood_District-Present_Day_.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Greenwood_District-Present_Day_.jpg/440px-Greenwood_District-Present_Day_.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3670" data-file-height="2512" /></a><figcaption>A drive through the present-day Greenwood District (March 2021)</figcaption></figure> Black Wall Street can still be found today under the Historical <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_District,_Tulsa" title="Greenwood District, Tulsa">Greenwood District</a> in Tulsa, Oklahoma. After the Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921, it took about 10 years to rebuild the district. The historical Vernon <a href="/wiki/AME_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="AME Church">AME Church</a> is the only building standing today that is a part of the last remaining structure of the 1921 massacre.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> The residents of the Greenwood district try to keep the memory of the Tulsa Race Massacre prominent within the community. Today, many memorials stand out of respect for the memory of what was once Black Wall Street. Many investigations are still underway in the Greenwood District in the hope that more unmarked graves can be found and more victims of the Massacre can be identified.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: In popular culture">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Refexample_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section gives <a href="/wiki/Template:Self-sourcing_examples#Self-sourcing_examples" title="Template:Self-sourcing examples">self-sourcing popular culture examples</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing_with_Wiki_Markup/1" title="Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1">adding citations to reliable sources</a> and remove less pertinent examples. <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">Unsourced</a> or poorly sourced material may be challenged or removed. (April 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>The Nation Must Awake: My Witness to the Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921 (2021; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tupress.org/9781595349439/the-nation-must-awake/">Trinity University Press</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1595349439" title="Special:BookSources/978-1595349439">978-1595349439</a>) by Mary E. Jones Parrish, previously titled The Events of the Tulsa Disaster (1923, self-published), eyewitness accounts that were compiled by a woman who survived the massacre.</li> <li>Magic City (1998; <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0060929077" title="Special:BookSources/978-0060929077">978-0060929077</a>), presents a fictionalized account of the massacre.</li> <li>Fire in Beulah (2001; <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0142000243" title="Special:BookSources/978-0142000243">978-0142000243</a>), a novel by <a href="/wiki/Rilla_Askew" title="Rilla Askew">Rilla Askew</a>, is set during the riot.</li> <li>The Burning: Massacre, Destruction, and the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 (2001; <a href="/wiki/St._Martin%27s_Press" title="St. Martin's Press">St. Martin's Press</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0312272838" title="Special:BookSources/978-0312272838">978-0312272838</a>), a nonfiction account of the massacre by <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Madigan" title="Timothy Madigan">Tim Madigan</a>.</li> <li>If We Must Die (2002; <a href="/wiki/Texas_Christian_University_Press" title="Texas Christian University Press">TCU Press</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0875652627" title="Special:BookSources/978-0875652627">978-0875652627</a>), a novel about Tulsa's 1921 Greenwood Riot by Pat Carr. A <a href="/wiki/If_We_Must_Die" title="If We Must Die">poem with the same name</a> was published by <a href="/wiki/Claude_McKay" title="Claude McKay">Claude McKay</a> in 1919 and it is about the <a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a> race riots.</li> <li>Tulsa Burning (2002), a book by Anna Myers, is a novel for middle-grade readers set during the riot.</li> <li>Riot and Remembrance: The Tulsa Race War and Its Legacy (2003; ) <a href="/wiki/Mariner_Books" title="Mariner Books">Mariner Books</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-618-10813-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-618-10813-0">0-618-10813-0</a>), a nonfiction account of the massacre by <a href="/wiki/James_S._Hirsch" title="James S. Hirsch">James S. Hirsch</a></li> <li>Big Mama Speaks (2011), <a href="/wiki/Hannibal_B._Johnson" title="Hannibal B. Johnson">Hannibal B. Johnson</a>'s one-woman play featuring Vanessa Harris-Adams and remembrances and reminiscences of the Black Wall Street.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a></li> <li>"The Case for Reparations" (2014) in <a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a>, an article by <a href="/wiki/Ta-Nehisi_Coates" title="Ta-Nehisi Coates">Ta-Nehisi Coates</a> that brought more attention to the riots.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a></li> <li>Dreamland Burning (2017; <a href="/wiki/Little,_Brown_and_Company" title="Little, Brown and Company">Little, Brown and Company</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0316384902" title="Special:BookSources/978-0316384902">978-0316384902</a>), a novel by Jennifer Latham that interweaves the events in Tulsa in 1921 with their modern consequences.</li> <li>The Tulsa massacre gives the backstory for Bitter Root, an <a href="/wiki/Eisner_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Eisner Award">Eisner Award</a> winning comic series by David F. Walker, Chuck Brown, and Sanford Greene.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unspeakable:_The_Tulsa_Race_Massacre" title="Unspeakable: The Tulsa Race Massacre">Unspeakable: The Tulsa Race Massacre</a> (2021; <a href="/wiki/Carolrhoda_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolrhoda Books">Carolrhoda Books</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1541581203" title="Special:BookSources/978-1541581203">978-1541581203</a>) with text by <a href="/wiki/Carole_Boston_Weatherford" title="Carole Boston Weatherford">Carole Boston Weatherford</a> and illustrations by <a href="/wiki/Floyd_Cooper_(illustrator)" title="Floyd Cooper (illustrator)">Floyd Cooper</a> was awarded the 2022 Caldecott Medal.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Film_and_television">Film and television</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Film and television">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Going back to T-Town (1993), a documentary directed by Samuel D. Pollard and Joyce Vaughn, released as Episode 12, Season 5 of <a href="/wiki/American_Experience" title="American Experience">American Experience</a>, a TV series on <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a></li> <li>The Tulsa Lynching of 1921: A Hidden Story (2000), a documentary directed by Michael Wilkerson, was first released on <a href="/wiki/Cinemax" title="Cinemax">Cinemax</a> in 2000.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a></li> <li>Before They Die (2008), a documentary by Reggie Turner, endorsed by the Tulsa Project, chronicling the lives of the last survivors of the Tulsa Race Riot and their quest for justice from both the city and the state.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_Crimes_in_the_Heartland" title="Hate Crimes in the Heartland">Hate Crimes in the Heartland</a> (2014), a documentary by <a href="/wiki/Rachel_Lyon" title="Rachel Lyon">Rachel Lyon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bavand_Karim" title="Bavand Karim">Bavand Karim</a> that provides an in-depth examination of the riot.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmen_(TV_series)" title="Watchmen (TV series)">Watchmen</a> (2019), a TV series on <a href="/wiki/HBO" title="HBO">HBO</a>, based on the characters in the <a href="/wiki/Watchmen" title="Watchmen">graphic novel with the same name</a>. The producer of the series, <a href="/wiki/Damon_Lindelof" title="Damon Lindelof">Damon Lindelof</a>, was inspired to open the pilot episode with depictions of the riots and base the series on racial tensions after he read Coates' article about them.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> Many aspects of the series' plot center on the legacy of the graphic novel and the massacre in an alternate timeline in the present day in Tulsa, where <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">racial conflict</a> remains high.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> Due to its popularity, Watchmen was considered the first exposé of the Tulsa race massacre via the <a href="/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">entertainment</a> industry because its history was not widely discussed and it had never been depicted in that way before.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovecraft_Country_(TV_series)" title="Lovecraft Country (TV series)">Lovecraft Country</a> (2020), a TV series on HBO, based on the 2016 <a href="/wiki/Lovecraft_Country_(novel)" title="Lovecraft Country (novel)">novel with the same title</a>. In episode 9, titled "Rewind 1921", its main characters Atticus "Tic" Freeman, his father Montrose Freeman, and Letitia "Leti" Lewis travel back in time to the night of the massacre in order to retrieve a spell book (which was burned in the fictional reality on that night) and use it to save the life of a family member.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/The_Equalizer_(2021_TV_series)#Season_2_(2021–22)" title="The Equalizer (2021 TV series)">the television 2021 version of The Equalizer</a>, Season 2 episode 10, titled "Legacy", tells a fictionalized story of a family whose home was destroyed during the Tulsa race massacre and who had a painting of a member stolen by a white family that would later become tycoons in the shipping industry. The main character, Robyn McCall, is asked to retrieve the painting for an elderly survivor of the events.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Who_We_Are:_A_Chronicle_of_Racism_in_America" title="Who We Are: A Chronicle of Racism in America">Who We Are: A Chronicle of Racism in America</a> (2021), civil rights lawyer Jeffery Robinson visits the Greenwood District of Tulsa and speaks with residents about the massacre. In a conversation at Oaklawn Cemetery with Rev. Dr. Robert Turner and Chief Egunwale F. Amusan (who serves as the President of the African Ancestral Society), Robinson asks, "What is the most reasonable estimate of how many people died?" Amusan replies, "You're looking at 4,000 people that you cannot account for."<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killers_of_the_Flower_Moon_(film)" title="Killers of the Flower Moon (film)">Killers of the Flower Moon</a> (2023), a film directed by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Scorsese" title="Martin Scorsese">Martin Scorsese</a> and based on the 2017 <a href="/wiki/Killers_of_the_Flower_Moon_(book)" title="Killers of the Flower Moon (book)">book of the same name</a> by <a href="/wiki/David_Grann" title="David Grann">David Grann</a>, features footage of the massacre.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music_and_art">Music and art</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Music and art">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Nash" title="Graham Nash">Graham Nash</a>'s song, "Dirty Little Secret" from his 2002 album <a href="/wiki/Songs_for_Survivors" title="Songs for Survivors">Songs for Survivors</a> is about the Tulsa race massacre.</li> <li>Scorched Earth (2006), a work of art on canvas by <a href="/wiki/Mark_Bradford" title="Mark Bradford">Mark Bradford</a>, on display at <a href="/wiki/The_Broad" title="The Broad">The Broad</a> museum<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a></li> <li>Race Riot Suite (2011), a jazz suite by <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Fred_Jazz_Odyssey" title="Jacob Fred Jazz Odyssey">Jacob Fred Jazz Odyssey</a>, released by Kinnara Records, was recorded at Tulsa's <a href="/wiki/The_Church_Studio" title="The Church Studio">Church Studio</a><a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Dylan" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a>'s song "<a href="/wiki/Murder_Most_Foul_(song)" title="Murder Most Foul (song)">Murder Most Foul</a>" on his 2020 album <a href="/wiki/Rough_and_Rowdy_Ways" title="Rough and Rowdy Ways">Rough and Rowdy Ways</a> has the line "Take me back to Tulsa to the scene of the crime"<a href="#cite_note-murdermostfoul-236">[236]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gap_Band" title="The Gap Band">The Gap Band</a>, which was formed in Tulsa, was named after Greenwood, Archer, and Pine streets in remembrance of the Tulsa race massacre. A long-standing rumor claimed that their 1982 song "<a href="/wiki/You_Dropped_a_Bomb_on_Me" title="You Dropped a Bomb on Me">You Dropped a Bomb on Me</a>" was inspired by the aerial bombing during the massacre, but this was debunked by frontman and songwriter <a href="/wiki/Charlie_Wilson_(singer)" title="Charlie Wilson (singer)">Charlie Wilson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steph_Simon" title="Steph Simon">Steph Simon</a>, an African American rapper from Tulsa, uses the history of the 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre as a regular motif across his discography.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg/32px-Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg/48px-Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg/64px-Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="450" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oklahoma" title="Portal:Oklahoma">Oklahoma portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2022_Buffalo_shooting" title="2022 Buffalo shooting">Buffalo supermarket shooting</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charleston_church_shooting" title="Charleston church shooting">Charleston church shooting</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_accusation_of_rape#Justification_for_lynchings" title="False accusation of rape">False accusations of rape as justifications for lynchings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_expulsions_of_African_Americans" title="List of expulsions of African Americans">List of expulsions of African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_civil_unrest_in_the_United_States" title="List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States">List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">List of lynching victims in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_massacres_in_the_United_States" title="List of massacres in the United States">List of massacres in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sundown_towns_in_the_United_States" title="List of sundown towns in the United States">List of sundown towns in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching#United_States" title="Lynching">Lynching#United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">Mass racial violence in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">Racism against African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">Racism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosewood_massacre" title="Rosewood massacre">Rosewood massacre</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundown_town" title="Sundown town">Sundown town</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001196-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001196_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 196. </li> <li id="cite_note-broadax-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-broadax_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-broadax_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Endowment_for_the_Humanities1921" class="citation news cs1">National Endowment for the Humanities (June 18, 1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84024055/1921-06-18/ed-1/seq-1/">"The broad ax. [volume] (Salt Lake City, Utah) 1895–19??, June 18, 1921, Image 1"</a>. The Broad Ax. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2163-7202">2163-7202</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191023180407/https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84024055/1921-06-18/ed-1/seq-1/">Archived</a> from the original on October 23, 2019. Retrieved October 23, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Broad+Ax&rft.atitle=The+broad+ax.+%5Bvolume%5D+%28Salt+Lake+City%2C+Utah%29+1895%E2%80%9319%3F%3F%2C+June+18%2C+1921%2C+Image+1&rft.date=1921-06-18&rft.issn=2163-7202&rft.au=National+Endowment+for+the+Humanities&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchroniclingamerica.loc.gov%2Flccn%2Fsn84024055%2F1921-06-18%2Fed-1%2Fseq-1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001116-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001116_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001116_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001116_3-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 116. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001124-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001124_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 124. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillows1921[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillows1921[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillows1921">Willows 1921</a>, p. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]. </li> <li id="cite_note-Cleaver-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cleaver_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cleaver_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cleaver_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cleaver_6-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85042345/1921-06-03/ed-1/seq-1/">"Negro Deputy Sheriff Blames Black Dope-Head for Inciting His Race Into Rioting Here"</a>. The Morning Tulsa Daily World. June 3, 1921. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181120050606/https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85042345/1921-06-03/ed-1/seq-1/">Archived</a> from the original on November 20, 2018. Retrieved December 3, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Negro+Deputy+Sheriff+Blames+Black+Dope-Head+for+Inciting+His+Race+Into+Rioting+Here&rft.date=1921-06-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchroniclingamerica.loc.gov%2Flccn%2Fsn85042345%2F1921-06-03%2Fed-1%2Fseq-1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gurley-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gurley_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gurley_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gurley_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gurley_7-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gurley_7-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/compoundobject/collection/race-riot/id/1098/rec/2">"Statement O. W. Gurley, Attorney General Civil Case No. 1062"</a>. 1921. p. 1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181204151536/http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/compoundobject/collection/race-riot/id/1098/rec/2">Archived</a> from the original on December 4, 2018. Retrieved December 4, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Statement+O.+W.+Gurley%2C+Attorney+General+Civil+Case+No.+1062&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1921&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalprairie.ok.gov%2Fcdm%2Fcompoundobject%2Fcollection%2Frace-riot%2Fid%2F1098%2Frec%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Luther-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Luther_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Luther_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Luther_8-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/compoundobject/collection/race-riot/id/1100/rec/8">"Statement Luther James, Attorney General Civil Case No. 1062"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181204151525/http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/compoundobject/collection/race-riot/id/1100/rec/8">Archived</a> from the original on December 4, 2018. Retrieved December 4, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Statement+Luther+James%2C+Attorney+General+Civil+Case+No.+1062&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalprairie.ok.gov%2Fcdm%2Fcompoundobject%2Fcollection%2Frace-riot%2Fid%2F1100%2Frec%2F8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> Oklahoma Digital Prairie. July 18, 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rooney-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Rooney_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRooneyDaley1921" class="citation web cs1">Rooney, Lt. Col. L. J. F.; Daley, Charles (June 3, 1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/ref/collection/race-riot/id/146">"Letter from Lieutenant Colonel L. J. F. Rooney and Charles Daley of the Inspector General's Department to the Adjutant General, June 3, 1921"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181203152119/http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/ref/collection/race-riot/id/146">Archived</a> from the original on December 3, 2018. 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University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0812253030" title="Special:BookSources/978-0812253030"><bdi>978-0812253030</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I%27ve+been+here+all+the+while%3A+Black+freedom+on+Native+land&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0812253030&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Alaina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200236-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch200236_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2002">Hirsch 2002</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rothstein-38"><a href="#cite_ref-Rothstein_38-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRothstein2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rothstein" title="Richard Rothstein">Rothstein, Richard</a> (2017). <a href="/wiki/The_Color_of_Law:_A_Forgotten_History_of_How_Our_Government_Segregated_America" class="mw-redirect" title="The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America">The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America</a>. 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American Heritage magazine, 2006; Retrieved September 18, 2006 </li> <li id="cite_note-OK_History_2001-02-28_p56-58-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OK_History_2001-02-28_p56-58_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OK_History_2001-02-28_p56-58_46-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OK_History_2001-02-28_p56-58_46-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOklahoma_Commission_to_Study_the_Tulsa_Race_Riot_of_19212001" class="citation web cs1">Oklahoma Commission to Study the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 (February 28, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.okhistory.org/research/forms/freport.pdf">"Tulsa Race Riot"</a> (PDF). pp. 56–58.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tulsa+Race+Riot&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E56-%3C%2Fspan%3E58&rft.date=2001-02-28&rft.au=Oklahoma+Commission+to+Study+the+Tulsa+Race+Riot+of+1921&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.okhistory.org%2Fresearch%2Fforms%2Ffreport.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Story_of_Attack_on_Woman_Denied-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Story_of_Attack_on_Woman_Denied_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Story_of_Attack_on_Woman_Denied_47-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tulsaworld.com/archive/story-of-attack-on-woman-denied/article_6a43affa-7d3a-5259-a574-18f315849dbc.html">"Story of Attack on Woman Denied"</a>. The Tulsa Daily World. June 2, 1921. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200623025720/https://www.tulsaworld.com/archive/story-of-attack-on-woman-denied/article_6a43affa-7d3a-5259-a574-18f315849dbc.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 23, 2020. Retrieved June 21, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Story+of+Attack+on+Woman+Denied&rft.date=1921-06-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tulsaworld.com%2Farchive%2Fstory-of-attack-on-woman-denied%2Farticle_6a43affa-7d3a-5259-a574-18f315849dbc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200279–80,_82,_86-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch200279–80,_82,_86_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2002">Hirsch 2002</a>, pp. 79–80, 82, 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200157-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200157_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrehbiel2011" class="citation news cs1">Krehbiel, Randy (April 29, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tulsaworld.com/news/article.aspx?subjectid=11&articleid=20110529_16_A1_Alotha882074&allcom=1&r=8175">"Tulsa Race Riot legacy still felt in the city"</a>. Tulsa World. Retrieved November 30, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tulsa+World&rft.atitle=Tulsa+Race+Riot+legacy+still+felt+in+the+city&rft.date=2011-04-29&rft.aulast=Krehbiel&rft.aufirst=Randy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tulsaworld.com%2Fnews%2Farticle.aspx%3Fsubjectid%3D11%26articleid%3D20110529_16_A1_Alotha882074%26allcom%3D1%26r%3D8175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200279–80-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch200279–80_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2002">Hirsch 2002</a>, pp. 79–80. </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin2000" class="citation book cs1">Franklin, Buck Colbert (2000). Franklin, John Hope; Franklin, John Whittington (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mylifeandera00john">My Life and An Era: The Autobiography of Buck Colbert Franklin</a>. Louisiana State University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mylifeandera00john/page/195">195–196</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Life+and+An+Era%3A+The+Autobiography+of+Buck+Colbert+Franklin&rft.pages=195-196&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=Buck+Colbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmylifeandera00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHendrickson2019" class="citation book cs1">Hendrickson, Paul (2019). Plagued by Fire: The Dreams and Furies of Frank Lloyd Wright. Knopf. p. 253. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3853-5365-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3853-5365-6"><bdi>978-0-3853-5365-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plagued+by+Fire%3A+The+Dreams+and+Furies+of+Frank+Lloyd+Wright&rft.pages=253&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-3853-5365-6&rft.aulast=Hendrickson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988">"[A] second article is said to have appeared in the early edition, possibly on the editorial page, which far more blatantly race-baited the citizenry to come to the courthouse for an evening lynching. It was supposedly headlined: TO LYNCH NEGRO TONIGHT. But that alleged article too got ripped out and disposed of." </li> <li id="cite_note-Editorial-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Editorial_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Editorial_54-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Editorial_54-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Editorial_54-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tulsaworld.com/archive/race-riot-tribune-mystery-unsolved/article_81f8ac0b-01bd-56a8-97ba-851961c400be.html">"1921 Race Riot:Tribune mystery unsolved"</a>. Randy Krehbiel, Tulsa World, May 31, 2002. May 31, 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200229192215/https://www.tulsaworld.com/archive/race-riot-tribune-mystery-unsolved/article_81f8ac0b-01bd-56a8-97ba-851961c400be.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 29, 2020. Retrieved February 29, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1921+Race+Riot%3ATribune+mystery+unsolved&rft.pub=Randy+Krehbiel%2C+Tulsa+World%2C+May+31%2C+2002&rft.date=2002-05-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tulsaworld.com%2Farchive%2Frace-riot-tribune-mystery-unsolved%2Farticle_81f8ac0b-01bd-56a8-97ba-851961c400be.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tulsa_Tribune_-_the_massacre-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tulsa_Tribune_-_the_massacre_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tulsa_Tribune_-_the_massacre_55-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tulsaraceriot.wordpress.com/tag/tulsa-tribune/">"Tulsa Tribune"</a>. The Tulsa Race Massacre. April 19, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Tulsa+Race+Massacre&rft.atitle=Tulsa+Tribune&rft.date=2016-04-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftulsaraceriot.wordpress.com%2Ftag%2Ftulsa-tribune%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllsworth1992[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidu9SlbjZHeHgCpgPA47_47–48]-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllsworth1992[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidu9SlbjZHeHgCpgPA47_47–48]_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEllsworth1992">Ellsworth 1992</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u9SlbjZHeHgC&pg=PA47">47–48</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrophy2007" class="citation book cs1">Brophy, Alfred L. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S-mKwbU0XlEC&pg=PA654">"Tulsa (Oklahoma) Riot of 1921"</a>. In Rucker, Walter C.; Upton, James N. (eds.). Encyclopedia of American Race Riots. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 654. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33302-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33302-6"><bdi>978-0-313-33302-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tulsa+%28Oklahoma%29+Riot+of+1921&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+American+Race+Riots&rft.pages=654&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33302-6&rft.aulast=Brophy&rft.aufirst=Alfred+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS-mKwbU0XlEC%26pg%3DPA654&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200158–59-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200158–59_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, pp. 58–59. </li> <li id="cite_note-guthrie1-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-guthrie1_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-guthrie1_59-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn86063952/1921-06-01/ed-1/seq-1/">"How The Big Fight In Tulsa Started"</a>. The Guthrie Daily Leader. June 1, 1921. pp. 1, 4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190306234913/https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn86063952/1921-06-01/ed-1/seq-1/">Archived</a> from the original on March 6, 2019. Retrieved March 6, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guthrie+Daily+Leader&rft.atitle=How+The+Big+Fight+In+Tulsa+Started&rft.pages=1%2C+4&rft.date=1921-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchroniclingamerica.loc.gov%2Flccn%2Fsn86063952%2F1921-06-01%2Fed-1%2Fseq-1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200160-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200160_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200281-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch200281_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2002">Hirsch 2002</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200283-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch200283_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2002">Hirsch 2002</a>, p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200287–88-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch200287–88_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2002">Hirsch 2002</a>, pp. 87–88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200162-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200162_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200162_64-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200162,_67-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200162,_67_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, pp. 62, 67. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001194-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001194_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 194. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200165-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200165_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200165_67-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200166–67-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200166–67_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, pp. 66–67. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200296–97-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch200296–97_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2002">Hirsch 2002</a>, pp. 96–97. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200180-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200180_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2017" class="citation web cs1">Jones, F. (June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theoklahomaeagle.net/2017/06/01/96-years-later-the-greenwood-cultural-center-1921-race-riot-massacre-facts-with-video/">"96 Years Later The Greenwood Cultural Center 1921 Race Riot Massacre Facts with Video"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190306044409/http://theoklahomaeagle.net/2017/06/01/96-years-later-the-greenwood-cultural-center-1921-race-riot-massacre-facts-with-video/">Archived</a> from the original on March 6, 2019. Retrieved April 9, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=96+Years+Later+The+Greenwood+Cultural+Center+1921+Race+Riot+Massacre+Facts+with+Video&rft.date=2017-06&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheoklahomaeagle.net%2F2017%2F06%2F01%2F96-years-later-the-greenwood-cultural-center-1921-race-riot-massacre-facts-with-video%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2002103-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2002103_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2002">Hirsch 2002</a>, p. 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200166-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200166_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParrish192219-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParrish192219_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParrish1922">Parrish 1922</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParrish192220-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParrish192220_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParrish1922">Parrish 1922</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-Voorhis_letter-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Voorhis_letter_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Voorhis_letter_76-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalprairie.ok.gov/digital/collection/race-riot/id/265">"Letter Captain Frank Van Voorhis to Lieut. Col. L. J. F. Rooney"</a>. digitalprairie.com. July 30, 1921. pp. 1–3. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200608150057/https://digitalprairie.ok.gov/digital/collection/race-riot/id/265/">Archived</a> from the original on June 8, 2020. Retrieved June 18, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=digitalprairie.com&rft.atitle=Letter+Captain+Frank+Van+Voorhis+to+Lieut.+Col.+L.+J.+F.+Rooney&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.date=1921-07-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalprairie.ok.gov%2Fdigital%2Fcollection%2Frace-riot%2Fid%2F265&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Tulsa Daily World, June 1, 1921 </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gateway.okhistory.org/ark:/67531/metadc134561/">"Modern Ku Klux Klan Comes Into Being: Seventeen First Victims"</a>. Tulsa Daily World. November 10, 1917.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tulsa+Daily+World&rft.atitle=Modern+Ku+Klux+Klan+Comes+Into+Being%3A+Seventeen+First+Victims&rft.date=1917-11-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgateway.okhistory.org%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc134561%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200298–99-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch200298–99_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2002">Hirsch 2002</a>, pp. 98–99. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch200297–105,_108-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch200297–105,_108_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2002">Hirsch 2002</a>, pp. 97–105, 108. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2002107-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2002107_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2002107_81-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2002">Hirsch 2002</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200173–74-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200173–74_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, pp. 73–74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin1931[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-83">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin1931[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_83-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin1931[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_February_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(February_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_83-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFranklin1931">Franklin 1931</a>, p. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001107-84">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001107_84-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001107_84-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001106-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001106_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission20016-86"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission20016_86-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001viiiprologue-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001viiiprologue_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. viii, prologue. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeyes2016" class="citation news cs1">Keyes, Allison (May 27, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/long-lost-manuscript-contains-searing-eyewitness-account-tulsa-race-massacre-1921-180959251/">"A Long-Lost Manuscript Contains a Searing Eyewitness Account of the Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921"</a>. Smithsonian Magazine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181212083245/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/long-lost-manuscript-contains-searing-eyewitness-account-tulsa-race-massacre-1921-180959251/">Archived</a> from the original on December 12, 2018. Retrieved December 21, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=A+Long-Lost+Manuscript+Contains+a+Searing+Eyewitness+Account+of+the+Tulsa+Race+Massacre+of+1921&rft.date=2016-05-27&rft.aulast=Keyes&rft.aufirst=Allison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fsmithsonian-institution%2Flong-lost-manuscript-contains-searing-eyewitness-account-tulsa-race-massacre-1921-180959251%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin19314-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin19314_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFranklin1931">Franklin 1931</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin19318-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin19318_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFranklin1931">Franklin 1931</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-LSUPress-91"><a href="#cite_ref-LSUPress_91-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lsupress.org/books/detail/my-life-and-an-era/">"My Life and An Era: The Autobiography of Buck Colbert Franklin"</a>. LSU Press. Louisiana State University. Retrieved June 27, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LSU+Press&rft.atitle=My+Life+and+An+Era%3A+The+Autobiography+of+Buck+Colbert+Franklin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flsupress.org%2Fbooks%2Fdetail%2Fmy-life-and-an-era%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001123–132-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001123–132_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, pp. 123–132. </li> <li id="cite_note-mcnulty-93"><a href="#cite_ref-mcnulty_93-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tulsaraceriot.wordpress.com/2013/03/06/mcnulty-park/">"McNulty Park"</a>. The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921. March 6, 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181103092217/https://tulsaraceriot.wordpress.com/2013/03/06/mcnulty-park/">Archived</a> from the original on November 3, 2018. Retrieved November 3, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Tulsa+Race+Riot+of+1921&rft.atitle=McNulty+Park&rft.date=2013-03-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftulsaraceriot.wordpress.com%2F2013%2F03%2F06%2Fmcnulty-park%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200183,_177-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200183,_177_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, pp. 83, 177. </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalprairie.ok.gov/digital/collection/race-riot/id/168">"Letter Chas F. Barrett, Adjutant General to Lieut. Col. L. J. F. Rooney, 1921 June 1"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200608145724/https://digitalprairie.ok.gov/digital/collection/race-riot/id/168/">Archived</a> from the original on June 8, 2020. Retrieved June 18, 2020. <q>...very often it was difficult to tell where bullets came from owing to the fires and also to the fact that so much ammunition exploded in the building[s] as they were being consumed...At all times I warned them to not fire until fired upon as we had been ordered by Col. Rooney to fire only when absolutely necessary to defend our lives.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+Chas+F.+Barrett%2C+Adjutant+General+to+Lieut.+Col.+L.+J.+F.+Rooney%2C+1921+June+1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalprairie.ok.gov%2Fdigital%2Fcollection%2Frace-riot%2Fid%2F168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85042345/1921-06-04/ed-1/seq-2/">"Barrett Commends Tulsa for Co-operation With the State Military Authorities"</a>. The Morning Tulsa Daily World. June 4, 1921. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180814202642/https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85042345/1921-06-04/ed-1/seq-2/">Archived</a> from the original on August 14, 2018. Retrieved August 14, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Morning+Tulsa+Daily+World&rft.atitle=Barrett+Commends+Tulsa+for+Co-operation+With+the+State+Military+Authorities&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1921-06-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchroniclingamerica.loc.gov%2Flccn%2Fsn85042345%2F1921-06-04%2Fed-1%2Fseq-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BostonGlobe_19210602-97"><a href="#cite_ref-BostonGlobe_19210602_97-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newspaperarchive.com/boston-daily-globe-jun-02-1921-p-1/">"Tulsa Dead Total 85 / Nine of Them white"</a>. The Boston Daily Globe. June 2, 1921.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Boston+Daily+Globe&rft.atitle=Tulsa+Dead+Total+85+%2F+Nine+of+Them+white&rft.date=1921-06-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewspaperarchive.com%2Fboston-daily-globe-jun-02-1921-p-1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170401060340/http://www.greenwoodculturalcenter.com/tulsa-race-riot">"tulsa-race-riot"</a>. greenwoodculturalcenter.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.greenwoodculturalcenter.com/tulsa-race-riot">the original</a> on April 1, 2017. Retrieved March 31, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=tulsa-race-riot&rft.pub=greenwoodculturalcenter.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.greenwoodculturalcenter.com%2Ftulsa-race-riot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045389/1921-06-02/ed-1/seq-1/#date1=1836&sort=relevance&rows=20&words=RACE%20RIOTS%20TULSA&searchType=basic&sequence=0&index=0&state=&date2=1922&proxtext=Tulsa%20Race%20riot&y=12&x=7&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=9">"Richmond Times-Dispatch"</a>. Richmond, VA. June 2, 1921. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150204000836/http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045389/1921-06-02/ed-1/seq-1/#date1=1836&sort=relevance&rows=20&words=RACE%20RIOTS%20TULSA&searchType=basic&sequence=0&index=0&state=&date2=1922&proxtext=Tulsa%20Race%20riot&y=12&x=7&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=9">Archived</a> from the original on February 4, 2015. Retrieved February 1, 2015 – via chroniclingamerica.loc.gov.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Richmond+Times-Dispatch&rft.date=1921-06-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchroniclingamerica.loc.gov%2Flccn%2Fsn83045389%2F1921-06-02%2Fed-1%2Fseq-1%2F%23date1%3D1836%26sort%3Drelevance%26rows%3D20%26words%3DRACE%2520RIOTS%2520TULSA%26searchType%3Dbasic%26sequence%3D0%26index%3D0%26state%3D%26date2%3D1922%26proxtext%3DTulsa%2520Race%2520riot%26y%3D12%26x%3D7%26dateFilterType%3DyearRange%26page%3D9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2002118-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2002118_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2002">Hirsch 2002</a>, p. 118. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/compoundobject/collection/okresources/id/70551/rec/104">"Sixth and Seventh Annual Report for the State Department of Health of Oklahoma, for the year ending June 30, 1922 and for the year ending June 30, 1923"</a>. State Department of Health of Oklahoma. p. 64.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sixth+and+Seventh+Annual+Report+for+the+State+Department+of+Health+of+Oklahoma%2C+for+the+year+ending+June+30%2C+1922+and+for+the+year+ending+June+30%2C+1923&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=State+Department+of+Health+of+Oklahoma&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalprairie.ok.gov%2Fcdm%2Fcompoundobject%2Fcollection%2Fokresources%2Fid%2F70551%2Frec%2F104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Walter Whites total estimate of about 250 white and black fatalities is apparently confirmed in Tim Madigan, The Burning: Massacre, Destruction, and the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 (2013), p. 224 {reference only} </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001121-103"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001121_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 121. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001131-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001131_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200113-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200113_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200123-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200123_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001117-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001117_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001117_107-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 117. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001115–116-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001115–116_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, pp. 115–116. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillows19213-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillows19213_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillows1921">Willows 1921</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillows192120Condensed_Report-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillows192120Condensed_Report_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillows1921">Willows 1921</a>, p. 20, Condensed Report. </li> <li id="cite_note-Karatzas_2018-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Karatzas_2018_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Karatzas_2018_111-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaratzas2018" class="citation journal cs1">Karatzas, Konstantinos D. (June 2018). "Interpreting violence: The 1921 Tulsa Race Riot and its legacy". European Journal of American Culture. 36: 131 – via EBSCOhost.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+American+Culture&rft.atitle=Interpreting+violence%3A+The+1921+Tulsa+Race+Riot+and+its+legacy&rft.volume=36&rft.pages=131&rft.date=2018-06&rft.aulast=Karatzas&rft.aufirst=Konstantinos+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillows19214,_12Condensed_Report-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillows19214,_12Condensed_Report_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillows1921">Willows 1921</a>, pp. 4, 12, Condensed Report. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001189-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission2001189_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, p. 189. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillows192166-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillows192166_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillows1921">Willows 1921</a>, p. 66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2002119-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2002119_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2002">Hirsch 2002</a>, p. 119. </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/compoundobject/collection/race-riot/id/390/rec/3">"Statement Barney Cleaver, Attorney General Civil Case No. 1062"</a>. 1921. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181204151437/http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/compoundobject/collection/race-riot/id/390/rec/3">Archived</a> from the original on December 4, 2018. Retrieved December 4, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Statement+Barney+Cleaver%2C+Attorney+General+Civil+Case+No.+1062&rft.date=1921&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalprairie.ok.gov%2Fcdm%2Fcompoundobject%2Fcollection%2Frace-riot%2Fid%2F390%2Frec%2F3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AP66-117"><a href="#cite_ref-AP66_117-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045211/1921-06-06/ed-1/seq-2/">"Tulsa Guard Kills Man"</a>. Evening Public Ledger. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Library of Congress; accessed December 31, 2016. June 6, 1921. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200608151235/https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045211/1921-06-06/ed-1/seq-2/">Archived</a> from the original on June 8, 2020. Retrieved June 18, 2020 – via Chronicling America.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evening+Public+Ledger&rft.atitle=Tulsa+Guard+Kills+Man&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1921-06-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchroniclingamerica.loc.gov%2Flccn%2Fsn83045211%2F1921-06-06%2Fed-1%2Fseq-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYTimes_2021-06-03-118">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NYTimes_2021-06-03_118-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTimes_2021-06-03_118-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1921/06/03/98700187.pdf">"Tulsa In Remorse to Rebuild Homes; Dead Now Put at 30"</a> (PDF). The New York Times. June 3, 1921. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200102093041/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1921/06/03/98700187.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on January 2, 2020. Retrieved December 31, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Tulsa+In+Remorse+to+Rebuild+Homes%3B+Dead+Now+Put+at+30&rft.date=1921-06-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1921%2F06%2F03%2F98700187.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllsworth1992[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidu9SlbjZHeHgCpgPA94_94–96]-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllsworth1992[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidu9SlbjZHeHgCpgPA94_94–96]_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllsworth1992[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidu9SlbjZHeHgCpgPA94_94–96]_119-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFEllsworth1992">Ellsworth 1992</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u9SlbjZHeHgC&pg=PA94">94–96</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gateway.okhistory.org/ark:/67531/metadc152337/m1/1/zoom/?resolution=6&lat=1636.2829138340094&lon=3264.7387257093555">"No Trace of Girl"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Black_Dispatch" title="The Black Dispatch">The Black Dispatch</a>. 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June 9, 1921. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181209125229/https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85042345/1921-06-08/ed-1/seq-2/">Archived</a> from the original on December 9, 2018. Retrieved December 7, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Burned+District+In+Fire+Limits%2C+The+Morning+Tulsa+daily+world&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1921-06-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchroniclingamerica.loc.gov%2Flccn%2Fsn85042345%2F1921-06-08%2Fed-1%2Fseq-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gateway.okhistory.org/ark:/67531/metadc77800/m1/2/zoom/?resolution=1&lat=5004&lon=3410.500000000004">"Leading Negroes Meet with Committee – to sanction Program"</a>. Tulsa Daily World. 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Retrieved December 21, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Leading+Negroes+Meet+with+Committee+%E2%80%93+to+sanction+Program&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Tulsa+Daily+World&rft.date=1921-06-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgateway.okhistory.org%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc77800%2Fm1%2F2%2Fzoom%2F%3Fresolution%3D1%26lat%3D5004%26lon%3D3410.500000000004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gateway.okhistory.org/ark:/67531/metadc152338/m1/3/zoom/?resolution=6&lat=2589.5838953879365&lon=4271.1610735414415">"Unbroken Faith Shown In Re-habilitation Program"</a>. The Black Dispatch. 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Retrieved December 21, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Unbroken+Faith+Shown+In+Re-habilitation+Program&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=The+Black+Dispatch&rft.date=1921-06-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgateway.okhistory.org%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc152338%2Fm1%2F3%2Fzoom%2F%3Fresolution%3D6%26lat%3D2589.5838953879365%26lon%3D4271.1610735414415&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200138,_40,_168-126"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOklahoma_Commission200138,_40,_168_126-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOklahoma_Commission2001">Oklahoma Commission 2001</a>, pp. 38, 40, 168. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160811114139/http://www.newson6.com/story/32107074/police-chief-donates-rare-picture-of-tulsas-first-african-american-officer">"Police Chief Donates Rare Picture Of Tulsa's First African-American Officer"</a>. May 31, 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newson6.com/story/5e360dab2f69d76f62038942/police-chief-donates-rare-picture-of-tulsas-first-africanamerican-officer">the original</a> on August 11, 2016. Retrieved December 7, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Police+Chief+Donates+Rare+Picture+Of+Tulsa%27s+First+African-American+Officer&rft.date=2016-05-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newson6.com%2Fstory%2F5e360dab2f69d76f62038942%2Fpolice-chief-donates-rare-picture-of-tulsas-first-africanamerican-officer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParrish192287-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParrish192287_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParrish1922">Parrish 1922</a>, p. 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-Clark_1976-129"><a href="#cite_ref-Clark_1976_129-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark1976" class="citation thesis cs1">Clark, Blue (1976). 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John A. Gustafson, Attorney General Civil Case No. 1062"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181204151357/http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/compoundobject/collection/race-riot/id/1180/rec/1">Archived</a> from the original on December 4, 2018. 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July 8, 1921. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181203152156/http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/compoundobject/collection/race-riot/id/788/rec/14">Archived</a> from the original on December 3, 2018. Retrieved December 3, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+C.+J.+Seeber+to+S.+P.+Freeling%2C+Attorney+General&rft.date=1921-07-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalprairie.ok.gov%2Fcdm%2Fcompoundobject%2Fcollection%2Frace-riot%2Fid%2F788%2Frec%2F14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kinion-132"><a href="#cite_ref-Kinion_132-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/ref/collection/race-riot/id/782">"Letter Archie A. Kinion to S. P. Freeling, Attorney General"</a>. July 7, 1921. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181204011105/http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/ref/collection/race-riot/id/782">Archived</a> from the original on December 4, 2018. Retrieved December 3, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+Archie+A.+Kinion+to+S.+P.+Freeling%2C+Attorney+General&rft.date=1921-07-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalprairie.ok.gov%2Fcdm%2Fref%2Fcollection%2Frace-riot%2Fid%2F782&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/compoundobject/collection/race-riot/id/791/rec/1">"Letter Assistant Attorney General to R. J. Churchill"</a>. July 27, 1921. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181203152209/http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/compoundobject/collection/race-riot/id/791/rec/1">Archived</a> from the original on December 3, 2018. Retrieved December 3, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+Assistant+Attorney+General+to+R.+J.+Churchill&rft.date=1921-07-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalprairie.ok.gov%2Fcdm%2Fcompoundobject%2Fcollection%2Frace-riot%2Fid%2F791%2Frec%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/compoundobject/collection/race-riot/id/1274/rec/9">"Local Findings on John A. Gustafson, Attorney General Civil Case No. 1062; Page 1"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181209165235/http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/compoundobject/collection/race-riot/id/1274/rec/9">Archived</a> from the original on December 9, 2018. Retrieved December 7, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Local+Findings+on+John+A.+Gustafson%2C+Attorney+General+Civil+Case+No.+1062%3B+Page+1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalprairie.ok.gov%2Fcdm%2Fcompoundobject%2Fcollection%2Frace-riot%2Fid%2F1274%2Frec%2F9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/compoundobject/collection/race-riot/id/1307/rec/16">"Witness Statements taken by R. E. 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Vulture.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vulture&rft.atitle=Lovecraft+Country+Recap%3A+Home+Runs+on+Their+Heads&rft.date=2020-10-12&rft.aulast=Triplett&rft.aufirst=Steffan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vulture.com%2Farticle%2Flovecraft-country-recap-season-1-episode-9-rewind-1921.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSepinwall2020" class="citation magazine cs1">Sepinwall, Alan (October 12, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv-recaps/lovecraft-country-recap-episode-9-rewind-1921-tulsa-1073598/">"'Lovecraft Country' Recap: Into the Fire"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rolling_Stone" title="Rolling Stone">Rolling Stone</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rolling+Stone&rft.atitle=%27Lovecraft+Country%27+Recap%3A+Into+the+Fire&rft.date=2020-10-12&rft.aulast=Sepinwall&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rollingstone.com%2Ftv%2Ftv-recaps%2Flovecraft-country-recap-episode-9-rewind-1921-tulsa-1073598%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.avclub.com/lovecraft-country-tackles-personal-and-national-trauma-1845342523">"Lovecraft Country tackles personal and national trauma"</a>. TV Club. October 12, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TV+Club&rft.atitle=Lovecraft+Country+tackles+personal+and+national+trauma&rft.date=2020-10-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.avclub.com%2Flovecraft-country-tackles-personal-and-national-trauma-1845342523&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> Kunstler, Emily, and Kunstler, Sarah (directors) (2021). Who We Are: A Chronicle of Racism in America (Motion picture). </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thebroad.org/art/mark-bradford/scorched-earth">"The Broad: Mark Bradford: Scorched Earth"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180910014608/https://www.thebroad.org/art/mark-bradford/scorched-earth">Archived</a> from the original on September 10, 2018. Retrieved September 9, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Broad%3A+Mark+Bradford%3A+Scorched+Earth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thebroad.org%2Fart%2Fmark-bradford%2Fscorched-earth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.allmusic.com/album/mw0002187745">Race Riot Suite</a> at <a href="/wiki/AllMusic_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="AllMusic (identifier)">AllMusic</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-murdermostfoul-236"><a href="#cite_ref-murdermostfoul_236-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bobdylan.com/songs/murder-most-foul/">"Murder Most Foul Lyrics"</a>. bobdylan.com. Sony. Retrieved October 10, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bobdylan.com&rft.atitle=Murder+Most+Foul+Lyrics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bobdylan.com%2Fsongs%2Fmurder-most-foul%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/tulsa-race-massacre-gap-band-010242782.html">"Tulsa Race Massacre: How The Gap Band Was a Tribute to the Former 'Black Wall Street'"</a>. yahoo.com. May 28, 2021. Retrieved December 9, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=yahoo.com&rft.atitle=Tulsa+Race+Massacre%3A+How+The+Gap+Band+Was+a+Tribute+to+the+Former+%27Black+Wall+Street%27&rft.date=2021-05-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.yahoo.com%2Fentertainment%2Ftulsa-race-massacre-gap-band-010242782.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagazine2023" class="citation web cs1">Magazine, Grace Wood Tulsa World (March 31, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tulsaworld.com/entertainment/music/steph-simon-rapper-producer-and-activist-creates-music-with-a-mission/article_33ffaaa6-ac99-11ed-acfe-6fb16d29bb8d.html">"Steph Simon: Rapper, producer and activist creates music with a mission"</a>. Tulsa World. Retrieved January 9, 2025.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tulsa+World&rft.atitle=Steph+Simon%3A+Rapper%2C+producer+and+activist+creates+music+with+a+mission&rft.date=2023-03-31&rft.aulast=Magazine&rft.aufirst=Grace+Wood+Tulsa+World&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftulsaworld.com%2Fentertainment%2Fmusic%2Fsteph-simon-rapper-producer-and-activist-creates-music-with-a-mission%2Farticle_33ffaaa6-ac99-11ed-acfe-6fb16d29bb8d.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Tulsa race massacre <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Tulsa+race+massacre">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Tulsa+race+massacre&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrophy2002" class="citation book cs1">Brophy, Alfred L. (2002). Reconstructing the Dreamland: The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921, Race Reparations, and Reconciliation. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-514685-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-514685-9"><bdi>0-19-514685-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstructing+the+Dreamland%3A+The+Tulsa+Race+Riot+of+1921%2C+Race+Reparations%2C+and+Reconciliation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-19-514685-9&rft.aulast=Brophy&rft.aufirst=Alfred+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> "[T]the best account of the 1921 Tulsa riot, which drew wide acclaim from historians and others". – <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRao2017" class="citation journal cs1">Rao, Gautham (September 2017). "University, Court, and Slave: Pro-Slavery Thought in Southern Colleges and Courts and the Coming of Civil War by Alfred L. Brophy (review)". Journal of the Civil War Era. 7 (3): 481–483. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwe.2017.0069">10.1353/cwe.2017.0069</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148763755">148763755</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Civil+War+Era&rft.atitle=University%2C+Court%2C+and+Slave%3A+Pro-Slavery+Thought+in+Southern+Colleges+and+Courts+and+the+Coming+of+Civil+War+by+Alfred+L.+Brophy+%28review%29&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E481-%3C%2Fspan%3E483&rft.date=2017-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcwe.2017.0069&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A148763755%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rao&rft.aufirst=Gautham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllsworth1992" class="citation book cs1">Ellsworth, Scott (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u9SlbjZHeHgC">Death in a Promised Land: The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921</a>. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-1767-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-1767-5"><bdi>978-0-8071-1767-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved March 29, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Death+in+a+Promised+Land%3A+The+Tulsa+Race+Riot+of+1921&rft.place=Baton+Rouge%2C+LA&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8071-1767-5&rft.aulast=Ellsworth&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du9SlbjZHeHgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin1931" class="citation web cs1">Franklin, Buck Colbert (August 22, 1931). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nmaahc.si.edu/object/nmaahc_2015.176.1">"The Tulsa Race Riot and Three of Its Victims"</a>. National Museum of African American History and Culture. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181203152335/https://nmaahc.si.edu/object/nmaahc_2015.176.1">Archived</a> from the original on December 3, 2018. Retrieved December 3, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Tulsa+Race+Riot+and+Three+of+Its+Victims&rft.pub=National+Museum+of+African+American+History+and+Culture&rft.date=1931-08-22&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=Buck+Colbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnmaahc.si.edu%2Fobject%2Fnmaahc_2015.176.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.si.edu/object/nmaahc_2015.176.1">Full text.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181027185825/https://www.si.edu/object/nmaahc_2015.176.1">Archived</a> October 27, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalliburton1972" class="citation journal cs1">Halliburton, R. (March 1, 1972). "The Tulsa Race War of 1921". Journal of Black Studies. 2 (3): 333–358. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002193477200200305">10.1177/002193477200200305</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2783722">2783722</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161789413">161789413</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Black+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Tulsa+Race+War+of+1921&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E333-%3C%2Fspan%3E358&rft.date=1972-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161789413%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2783722%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002193477200200305&rft.aulast=Halliburton&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalliburton1975" class="citation book cs1">Halliburton, Rudia H. (1975). Tulsa Race War of 1921. San Jose, CA: R and E Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88-247333-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-88-247333-6"><bdi>0-88-247333-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tulsa+Race+War+of+1921&rft.place=San+Jose%2C+CA&rft.pub=R+and+E+Publishing&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-88-247333-6&rft.aulast=Halliburton&rft.aufirst=Rudia+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirsch2002" class="citation book cs1">Hirsch, James S. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MnPs7DQpsa8C">Riot and Remembrance: The Tulsa Race War and Its Legacy</a>. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-618-10813-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-618-10813-0"><bdi>0-618-10813-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved September 1, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Riot+and+Remembrance%3A+The+Tulsa+Race+War+and+Its+Legacy&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-618-10813-0&rft.aulast=Hirsch&rft.aufirst=James+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMnPs7DQpsa8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Rob Hower, 1921 Tulsa Race Riot: The American Red Cross – Angels of Mercy. Tulsa, OK: Homestead Press, 1993. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-96-658230-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-96-658230-6">0-96-658230-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannibal_B._Johnson" title="Hannibal B. Johnson">Hannibal B. Johnson</a>, Black Wall Street: From Riot to Renaissance in Tulsa's Historic Greenwood District. Austin, TX: Eakin Press 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57-168221-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-57-168221-X">1-57-168221-X</a></li> <li>Tim Madigan, The Burning: Massacre, Destruction, and the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-31-227283-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-31-227283-9">0-31-227283-9</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1972" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Lee E. (1972). Anatomy of Four Race Riots: Racial Conflict in Knoxville, Elaine (Arkansas), Tulsa, and Chicago, 1919–1921. University Press of Mississippi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87805-009-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87805-009-3"><bdi>978-0-87805-009-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anatomy+of+Four+Race+Riots%3A+Racial+Conflict+in+Knoxville%2C+Elaine+%28Arkansas%29%2C+Tulsa%2C+and+Chicago%2C+1919%E2%80%931921&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-87805-009-3&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Lee+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillows1921" class="citation web cs1">Willows, Maurice (December 31, 1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170101001129/http://tulsahistory.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/1921-Red-Cross-Report-December-30th.pdf">"Disaster Relief Report Riot 1921"</a> (PDF). Tulsa Historical Society & Museum. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tulsahistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/1921-Red-Cross-Report-December-30th-with-watermark.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on January 1, 2017. Retrieved February 14, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Disaster+Relief+Report+Riot+1921&rft.pub=Tulsa+Historical+Society+%26+Museum&rft.date=1921-12-31&rft.aulast=Willows&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tulsahistory.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2018%2F11%2F1921-Red-Cross-Report-December-30th-with-watermark.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWittenBrooksFenner2001" class="citation journal cs1">Witten, Alan; Brooks, Robert; Fenner, Thomas (June 2001). "The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921: A geophysical study to locate a mass grave". The Leading Edge. 20 (6): 655–660. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001LeaEd..20..655W">2001LeaEd..20..655W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1190%2F1.1439020">10.1190/1.1439020</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Leading+Edge&rft.atitle=The+Tulsa+Race+Riot+of+1921%3A+A+geophysical+study+to+locate+a+mass+grave&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E655-%3C%2Fspan%3E660&rft.date=2001-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1190%2F1.1439020&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001LeaEd..20..655W&rft.aulast=Witten&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=Brooks%2C+Robert&rft.au=Fenner%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenwood2015" class="citation journal cs1">Greenwood, Ronni Michelle (June 2015). "Remembrance, Responsibility, and Reparations: The Use of Emotions in Talk about the 1921 Tulsa Race Riot". Journal of Social Issues. 71 (2): 338–355. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjosi.12114">10.1111/josi.12114</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Social+Issues&rft.atitle=Remembrance%2C+Responsibility%2C+and+Reparations%3A+The+Use+of+Emotions+in+Talk+about+the+1921+Tulsa+Race+Riot&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E338-%3C%2Fspan%3E355&rft.date=2015-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fjosi.12114&rft.aulast=Greenwood&rft.aufirst=Ronni+Michelle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrehbiel2019" class="citation book cs1">Krehbiel, Randy (2019). Tulsa, 1921: Reporting a Massacre. University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-6583-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-6583-7"><bdi>978-0-8061-6583-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tulsa%2C+1921%3A+Reporting+a+Massacre&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-6583-7&rft.aulast=Krehbiel&rft.aufirst=Randy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.okhistory.org/research/forms/freport.pdf">Oklahoma Commission to Study the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921</a> (PDF) (Report). Tulsa, Oklahoma: Oklahoma Commission. February 28, 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180602235628/http://www.okhistory.org/research/forms/freport.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on June 2, 2018. Retrieved June 20, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Oklahoma+Commission+to+Study+the+Tulsa+Race+Riot+of+1921&rft.place=Tulsa%2C+Oklahoma&rft.pub=Oklahoma+Commission&rft.date=2001-02-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.okhistory.org%2Fresearch%2Fforms%2Ffreport.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParrish1922" class="citation web cs1">Parrish, Mary E. Jones (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://utulsa.as.atlas-sys.com/repositories/2/digital_objects/425">"Events of the Tulsa Disaster"</a>. University of Tulsa, Department of Special Collections and University Archives. Retrieved November 6, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Events+of+the+Tulsa+Disaster&rft.pub=University+of+Tulsa%2C+Department+of+Special+Collections+and+University+Archives&rft.date=1922&rft.aulast=Parrish&rft.aufirst=Mary+E.+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Futulsa.as.atlas-sys.com%2Frepositories%2F2%2Fdigital_objects%2F425&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.justice.gov/crt/media/1383756/dl">"Review and Evaluation Tulsa Race Massacre"</a>. Department of Justice report. January 9, 2025.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Review+and+Evaluation+Tulsa+Race+Massacre&rft.pub=Department+of+Justice+report&rft.date=2025-01-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.justice.gov%2Fcrt%2Fmedia%2F1383756%2Fdl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeNeed_L._Brown2020" class="citation news cs1">DeNeed L. Brown (October 19, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/tulsa-begins-search-for-original-18-black-people-killed-in-1921-race-massacre/ar-BB1aaKYq?ocid=spartan-ntp-feeds">"Tulsa begins search for 'Original 18' black people killed in 1921 race massacre"</a>. The Washington Post.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Tulsa+begins+search+for+%27Original+18%27+black+people+killed+in+1921+race+massacre&rft.date=2020-10-19&rft.au=DeNeed+L.+Brown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.msn.com%2Fen-us%2Fnews%2Fus%2Ftulsa-begins-search-for-original-18-black-people-killed-in-1921-race-massacre%2Far-BB1aaKYq%3Focid%3Dspartan-ntp-feeds&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDexter_Mullins2014" class="citation news cs1">Dexter Mullins (July 19, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/7/19/survivors-of-infamous1921tulsaraceriotstillhopeforjustice.html">"Survivors of infamous 1921 Tulsa race riot still hope for justice"</a>. Al-Jazeera.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Survivors+of+infamous+1921+Tulsa+race+riot+still+hope+for+justice&rft.date=2014-07-19&rft.au=Dexter+Mullins&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famerica.aljazeera.com%2Farticles%2F2014%2F7%2F19%2Fsurvivors-of-infamous1921tulsaraceriotstillhopeforjustice.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.voicesofoklahoma.com/interview/clark-otis/">"Interview with Otis Clark, Tulsa Race Massacre Survivor"</a> (Audio podcast with transcript). Voices of Oklahoma. November 23, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Voices+of+Oklahoma&rft.atitle=Interview+with+Otis+Clark%2C+Tulsa+Race+Massacre+Survivor&rft.date=2009-11-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.voicesofoklahoma.com%2Finterview%2Fclark-otis%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.voicesofoklahoma.com/interview/young-wess-cathryn/">"Interview with Wess (& Cathryn) Young, Tulsa Race Massacre Survivor"</a> (Audio podcast with transcript). Voices of Oklahoma. August 21, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Voices+of+Oklahoma&rft.atitle=Interview+with+Wess+%28%26+Cathryn%29+Young%2C+Tulsa+Race+Massacre+Survivor&rft.date=2009-08-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.voicesofoklahoma.com%2Finterview%2Fyoung-wess-cathryn%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100613071113/http://okhistory.org/trrc/freport.pdf">"Tulsa Race Riot: A Report"</a>. The Oklahoma Commission to Study the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921. February 28, 2001.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kjrh.com/news/local-news/tulsa-1921-race-riot-commission-to-be-renamed-tulsa-race-massacre-commission">"Tulsa 1921 Race Riot Commission renamed Race Massacre Commission"</a>. <a href="/wiki/KJRH-TV" title="KJRH-TV">KJRH News</a>. Tulsa. November 29, 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190222204806/https://www.kjrh.com/news/local-news/tulsa-1921-race-riot-commission-to-be-renamed-tulsa-race-massacre-commission">Archived</a> from the original on February 22, 2019. Retrieved May 10, 2019. <q>Sen. Kevin Matthews held a news conference Thursday morning, in which he announced the official name change of the 1921 Race Riot Commission to the 1921 Race Massacre Commission.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=KJRH+News&rft.atitle=Tulsa+1921+Race+Riot+Commission+renamed+Race+Massacre+Commission&rft.date=2019-11-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kjrh.com%2Fnews%2Flocal-news%2Ftulsa-1921-race-riot-commission-to-be-renamed-tulsa-race-massacre-commission&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDay2016" class="citation news cs1">Day, Meagan (September 21, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timeline.com/history-tulsa-race-massacre-a92bb2356a69">"The history of the Tulsa race massacre that destroyed America's wealthiest black neighborhood"</a>. Medium. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180823030410/https://timeline.com/history-tulsa-race-massacre-a92bb2356a69">Archived</a> from the original on August 23, 2018. Retrieved February 27, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medium&rft.atitle=The+history+of+the+Tulsa+race+massacre+that+destroyed+America%27s+wealthiest+black+neighborhood&rft.date=2016-09-21&rft.aulast=Day&rft.aufirst=Meagan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimeline.com%2Fhistory-tulsa-race-massacre-a92bb2356a69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRao2017" class="citation web cs1">Rao, Sameer (May 31, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.colorlines.com/articles/its-been-96-years-white-mobs-destroyed-tulsas-black-wall-street">"It's Been 96 Years Since White Mobs Destroyed Tulsa's Black Wall Street"</a>. Colorlines. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180301164551/https://www.colorlines.com/articles/its-been-96-years-white-mobs-destroyed-tulsas-black-wall-street">Archived</a> from the original on March 1, 2018. Retrieved March 1, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Colorlines&rft.atitle=It%27s+Been+96+Years+Since+White+Mobs+Destroyed+Tulsa%27s+Black+Wall+Street&rft.date=2017-05-31&rft.aulast=Rao&rft.aufirst=Sameer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.colorlines.com%2Farticles%2Fits-been-96-years-white-mobs-destroyed-tulsas-black-wall-street&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoorehead1999" class="citation web cs1">Moorehead, Monica (June 10, 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/45a/416.html">"U.S. ethnic cleansing: The 1921 Tulsa Massacre"</a>. Workers World. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190523012115/http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/45a/416.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 23, 2019. Retrieved March 1, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Workers+World&rft.atitle=U.S.+ethnic+cleansing%3A+The+1921+Tulsa+Massacre&rft.date=1999-06-10&rft.aulast=Moorehead&rft.aufirst=Monica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hartford-hwp.com%2Farchives%2F45a%2F416.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATulsa+race+massacre" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tulsa_race_riot" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Tulsa race riot">Tulsa race riot</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.subliminal.org/tulsa/">Facts and Links for "The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921"</a>, Subliminal.org</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tulsahistory.org/exhibit/1921-tulsa-race-massacre">"1921 Tulsa Race Massacre"</a>, Tulsa Historical Society. Archived copy: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101015171251/http://www.tulsahistory.org/learn/online-exhibits/the-tulsa-race-riot/">"Tulsa Race Riot"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tccl.bibliocommons.com/search?t=keyword&q=Tulsa%20Race%20Riot">"Tulsa Race Riot: Photographs from the Beryl Ford Collection"</a>, Tulsa City County Library: African American Resource Center</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.okstate.edu/search-and-find/collections/digital-collections/tulsa-race-riot-of-1921-collection/">Tulsa Race Massacre Collection at Oklahoma State University</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://129.244.102.213/speccoll/collections/F704T92P37%201922_Events/Events1.pdf">Parrish, Mary E Jones "Events of the Tulsa Disaster"</a> 1922 (PDF File)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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/></a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">History of Oklahoma</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prior to 19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooper_Bison_Kill_Site" title="Cooper Bison Kill Site">Cooper Bison Kill</a> (11th millennium BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiro_Mounds" title="Spiro Mounds">Spiro Mounds</a> (9th–15th century CE)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_Territory" title="Arkansas Territory">Arkansas Territory</a> (1819−1824)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche%E2%80%93Mexico_Wars" title="Comanche–Mexico Wars">Comanche–Mexico Wars</a> (1821–1870s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutthroat_Gap_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Cutthroat Gap Massacre">Cutthroat Gap Massacre</a> (1833)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Removal">Indian Removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a> (1834–1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Antelope Hills Expedition">Antelope Hills Expedition</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Indian Territory in the American Civil War">Civil War</a> (1861–1865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washita_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Washita Massacre">Washita Massacre</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Territory" title="Oklahoma Territory">Oklahoma Territory</a> (1890–1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_run#In_Oklahoma" title="Land run">Land runs</a> (1890s)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Sequoyah" title="State of Sequoyah">State of Sequoyah</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">State of Oklahoma</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Corn_Rebellion" title="Green Corn Rebellion">Green Corn Rebellion</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_murders" title="Osage Indian murders">Osage Indian murders</a> (1920s)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tulsa race massacre</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a> (1930s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_Bridge_War" title="Red River Bridge War">Red River Bridge War</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a> (1995)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2005_University_of_Oklahoma_bombing" title="2005 University of Oklahoma bombing">OU Bombing</a> (2005)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Black_Lives_Matter454" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeeee;;background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Black_Lives_Matter" title="Template:Black Lives Matter"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Black_Lives_Matter" title="Template talk:Black Lives Matter"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Black_Lives_Matter" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Black Lives Matter"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Black_Lives_Matter454" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#eeeeee;;width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Melina_Abdullah" title="Melina Abdullah">Melina Abdullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tay_Anderson" title="Tay Anderson">Tay Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_Brooks" title="Cat Brooks">Cat Brooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cori_Bush" title="Cori Bush">Cori Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwen_Carr" title="Gwen Carr">Gwen Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Crump" title="Benjamin Crump">Benjamin Crump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrisse_Cullors" title="Patrisse Cullors">Patrisse Cullors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aalayah_Eastmond" title="Aalayah Eastmond">Aalayah Eastmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnetta_Elzie" title="Johnetta Elzie">Johnetta Elzie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Franks_Jr." title="Bruce Franks Jr.">Bruce Franks Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darnella_Frazier" title="Darnella Frazier">Darnella Frazier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erica_Garner" title="Erica Garner">Erica Garner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alicia_Garza" title="Alicia Garza">Alicia Garza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elle_Hearns" class="mw-redirect" title="Elle Hearns">Elle Hearns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hudson" title="Sandy Hudson">Sandy Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blair_Imani" title="Blair Imani">Blair Imani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalie_Aleta_Jackson" title="Natalie Aleta Jackson">Natalie Aleta Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marissa_Johnson" title="Marissa Johnson">Marissa Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasha_Johnson" title="Sasha Johnson">Sasha Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jari_Jones" title="Jari Jones">Jari Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tishaura_Jones" title="Tishaura Jones">Tishaura Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariame_Kaba" title="Mariame Kaba">Mariame Kaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Kaepernick" title="Colin Kaepernick">Colin Kaepernick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brittany_Kamai" title="Brittany Kamai">Brittany Kamai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janaya_Khan" title="Janaya Khan">Janaya Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaun_King" title="Shaun King">Shaun King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekima_Levy_Armstrong" title="Nekima Levy Armstrong">Nekima Levy Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eva_Lewis" title="Eva Lewis">Eva Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamika_Mallory" title="Tamika Mallory">Tamika Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_McHarris" title="Philip McHarris">Philip McHarris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DeRay_Mckesson" title="DeRay Mckesson">DeRay Mckesson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhiyidin_Moye" title="Muhiyidin Moye">Muhiyidin Moye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bree_Newsome" title="Bree Newsome">Bree Newsome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikkita_Oliver" title="Nikkita Oliver">Nikkita Oliver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijeoma_Oluo" title="Ijeoma Oluo">Ijeoma Oluo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brittany_Packnett_Cunningham" title="Brittany Packnett Cunningham">Brittany Packnett Cunningham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Puryear" title="Eugene Puryear">Eugene Puryear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teressa_Raiford" title="Teressa Raiford">Teressa Raiford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jen_Reid" title="Jen Reid">Jen Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linda_Sarsour" title="Linda Sarsour">Linda Sarsour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Sinyangwe" title="Samuel Sinyangwe">Samuel Sinyangwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Stevens" title="Nova Stevens">Nova Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keeanga-Yamahtta_Taylor" title="Keeanga-Yamahtta Taylor">Keeanga-Yamahtta Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Thompson_(Minnesota_politician)" title="John Thompson (Minnesota politician)">John Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ay%E1%BB%8D_Tometi" title="Ayọ Tometi">Ayọ Tometi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assa_Traor%C3%A9" title="Assa Traoré">Assa Traoré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrus_Marcus_Ware" title="Syrus Marcus Ware">Syrus Marcus Ware</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#eeeeee;;width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferguson_unrest" title="Ferguson unrest">Ferguson unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Baltimore_protests" title="2015 Baltimore protests">2015 Baltimore protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015%E2%80%932016_University_of_Missouri_protests" title="2015–2016 University of Missouri protests">2015–2016 University of Missouri protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dismissal_of_Robert_Rialmo" title="Dismissal of Robert Rialmo">Dismissal of Robert Rialmo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_Donald_Trump_Chicago_rally_protest" title="2016 Donald Trump Chicago rally protest">2016 Donald Trump Chicago rally protest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_St._Louis_protests" title="2017 St. Louis protests">2017 St. Louis protests</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">2020s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breonna_Taylor_protests" title="Breonna Taylor protests">Breonna Taylor protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_changes_made_due_to_the_George_Floyd_protests" title="List of changes made due to the George Floyd protests">changes made</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_name_changes_due_to_the_George_Floyd_protests" title="List of name changes due to the George Floyd protests">name changes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_and_memorials_removed_during_the_George_Floyd_protests" title="List of monuments and memorials removed during the George Floyd protests">removal of monuments and memorials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactions_to_the_George_Floyd_protests" title="Reactions to the George Floyd protests">reactions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Derek_Chauvin" title="Trial of Derek Chauvin">trial of Derek Chauvin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_and_controversies_during_the_George_Floyd_protests" title="Violence and controversies during the George Floyd protests">violence and controversies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump_photo_op_at_St._John%27s_Church" title="Donald Trump photo op at St. John's Church">Donald Trump photo op at St. John's Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_police_violence_incidents_during_George_Floyd_protests" title="List of police violence incidents during George Floyd protests">police violence incidents</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_police_shoving_incident" title="Buffalo police shoving incident">Buffalo police shoving incident</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Louis_gun-toting_incident" title="St. Louis gun-toting incident">St. Louis gun-toting incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vehicle-ramming_incidents_during_George_Floyd_protests" title="List of vehicle-ramming incidents during George Floyd protests">vehicle-ramming incidents</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Birders_Week" title="Black Birders Week">Black Birders Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackout_Tuesday" title="Blackout Tuesday">Blackout Tuesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitol_Hill_Occupied_Protest" title="Capitol Hill Occupied Protest">Capitol Hill Occupied Protest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_for_Black_Lives_(academic_protest)" title="Strike for Black Lives (academic protest)">Academic strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_for_Black_Lives_(coalition_protest)" title="Strike for Black Lives (coalition protest)">General strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenosha_unrest" title="Kenosha unrest">Kenosha unrest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kenosha_unrest_shooting" title="Kenosha unrest shooting">shooting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_American_athlete_strikes" title="2020 American athlete strikes">Athlete strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Minneapolis_false_rumors_riot" title="2020 Minneapolis false rumors riot">2020 Minneapolis false rumors riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932023_Minneapolis%E2%80%93Saint_Paul_racial_unrest" title="2020–2023 Minneapolis–Saint Paul racial unrest">2020–2023 Minneapolis–Saint Paul racial unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orisha_Land" title="Orisha Land">Orisha Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daunte_Wright_protests" title="Daunte Wright protests">Daunte Wright protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Uptown_Minneapolis_unrest" title="2021 Uptown Minneapolis unrest">2021 Uptown Minneapolis unrest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Deona_Marie_Knajdek" title="Killing of Deona Marie Knajdek">vehicle-ramming attack</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre_Nichols_protests" title="Tyre Nichols protests">Tyre Nichols protests</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#eeeeee;;width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_protests_in_New_York_City" title="Black Lives Matter protests in New York City">Protests in New York City</a></li> <li>List of George Floyd protests <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_George_Floyd_protests_in_the_United_States" title="List of George Floyd protests in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_George_Floyd_protests_outside_the_United_States" title="List of George Floyd protests outside the United States">outside the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Daunte_Wright_protests" title="List of Daunte Wright protests">List of Daunte Wright protests</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#eeeeee;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_unarmed_African_Americans_killed_by_law_enforcement_officers_in_the_United_States" title="List of unarmed African Americans killed by law enforcement officers in the United States">Deaths protested</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">2009–2011</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Oscar_Grant" title="Killing of Oscar Grant">Oscar Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Aiyana_Jones" title="Killing of Aiyana Jones">Aiyana Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_James_Craig_Anderson" title="Murder of James Craig Anderson">James Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Mark_Duggan" title="Killing of Mark Duggan">Mark Duggan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Kenneth_Chamberlain_Sr." title="Killing of Kenneth Chamberlain Sr.">Kenneth Chamberlain Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Anthony_Lamar_Smith" title="Killing of Anthony Lamar Smith">Anthony Lamar Smith</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">2012–2013</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Ramarley_Graham" title="Killing of Ramarley Graham">Ramarley Graham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Trayvon_Martin" title="Killing of Trayvon Martin">Trayvon Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Rekia_Boyd" title="Killing of Rekia Boyd">Rekia Boyd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jordan_Davis" title="Murder of Jordan Davis">Jordan Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Timothy_Russell_and_Malissa_Williams" title="Killing of Timothy Russell and Malissa Williams">Timothy Russell and Malissa Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Tyrone_West" title="Death of Tyrone West">Tyrone West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Larry_Jackson_Jr." title="Killing of Larry Jackson Jr.">Larry Jackson Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Jonathan_Ferrell" title="Killing of Jonathan Ferrell">Jonathan Ferrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Miriam_Carey" title="Killing of Miriam Carey">Miriam Carey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Renisha_McBride" title="Murder of Renisha McBride">Renisha McBride</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">2014</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Dontre_Hamilton" title="Killing of Dontre Hamilton">Dontre Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Eric_Garner" title="Killing of Eric Garner">Eric Garner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_John_Crawford_III" title="Killing of John Crawford III">John Crawford III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Michael_Brown" title="Killing of Michael Brown">Michael Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Ezell_Ford" title="Killing of Ezell Ford">Ezell Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Laquan_McDonald" title="Murder of Laquan McDonald">Laquan McDonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Akai_Gurley" title="Killing of Akai Gurley">Akai Gurley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Tamir_Rice" title="Killing of Tamir Rice">Tamir Rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Antonio_Martin" title="Killing of Antonio Martin">Antonio Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Jerame_Reid" title="Killing of Jerame Reid">Jerame Reid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">2015</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Natasha_McKenna" title="Death of Natasha McKenna">Natasha McKenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Charley_Leundeu_Keunang" title="Killing of Charley Leundeu Keunang">Charley Leundeu Keunang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Tony_Robinson" title="Killing of Tony Robinson">Tony Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Anthony_Hill" title="Killing of Anthony Hill">Anthony Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Meagan_Hockaday" title="Killing of Meagan Hockaday">Meagan Hockaday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Eric_Harris" title="Killing of Eric Harris">Eric Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Walter_Scott" title="Killing of Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Freddie_Gray" title="Killing of Freddie Gray">Freddie Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_William_Chapman" title="Killing of William Chapman">William Chapman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charleston_church_shooting" title="Charleston church shooting">Charleston church shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Jonathan_Sanders" title="Death of Jonathan Sanders">Jonathan Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Sandra_Bland" title="Death of Sandra Bland">Sandra Bland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Samuel_DuBose" title="Killing of Samuel DuBose">Samuel DuBose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Mansur_Ball-Bey" title="Killing of Mansur Ball-Bey">Mansur Ball-Bey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Jeremy_McDole" title="Killing of Jeremy McDole">Jeremy McDole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Corey_Jones" title="Killing of Corey Jones">Corey Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Jamar_Clark" title="Killing of Jamar Clark">Jamar Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Woods" class="mw-redirect" title="Mario Woods">Mario Woods</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">2016</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Greg_Gunn" title="Killing of Greg Gunn">Greg Gunn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Alton_Sterling" title="Killing of Alton Sterling">Alton Sterling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Philando_Castile" title="Killing of Philando Castile">Philando Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Joseph_Mann" title="Killing of Joseph Mann">Joseph Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Adama_Traor%C3%A9" title="Death of Adama Traoré">Adama Traoré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Abdirahman_Abdi" title="Death of Abdirahman Abdi">Abdirahman Abdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Paul_O%27Neal" title="Killing of Paul O'Neal">Paul O'Neal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Korryn_Gaines" title="Killing of Korryn Gaines">Korryn Gaines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Jamarion_Robinson" title="Killing of Jamarion Robinson">Jamarion Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylville_Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="Sylville Smith">Sylville Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Elijah_Doughty" title="Death of Elijah Doughty">Elijah Doughty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Terence_Crutcher" title="Killing of Terence Crutcher">Terence Crutcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Keith_Lamont_Scott" title="Killing of Keith Lamont Scott">Keith Lamont Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Alfred_Olango" title="Killing of Alfred Olango">Alfred Olango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Deborah_Danner" title="Killing of Deborah Danner">Deborah Danner</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">2017</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Jocques_Clemmons" title="Killing of Jocques Clemmons">Jocques Clemmons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jordan_Edwards" title="Murder of Jordan Edwards">Jordan Edwards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Edson_Da_Costa" title="Death of Edson Da Costa">Edson Da Costa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Rashan_Charles" title="Death of Rashan Charles">Rashan Charles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Patrick_Harmon" title="Killing of Patrick Harmon">Patrick Harmon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">2018</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Anthony_Weber" title="Killing of Anthony Weber">Anthony Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Stephon_Clark" title="Killing of Stephon Clark">Stephon Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Marcus-David_Peters" title="Killing of Marcus-David Peters">Marcus-David Peters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Antwon_Rose_Jr." title="Killing of Antwon Rose Jr.">Antwon Rose Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Markeis_McGlockton" title="Killing of Markeis McGlockton">Markeis McGlockton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Daniel_Hambrick" title="Killing of Daniel Hambrick">Daniel Hambrick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Botham_Jean" title="Murder of Botham Jean">Botham Jean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Tamla_Horsford" title="Death of Tamla Horsford">Tamla Horsford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Jemel_Roberson" title="Killing of Jemel Roberson">Jemel Roberson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Emantic_Fitzgerald_Bradford_Jr." title="Killing of Emantic Fitzgerald Bradford Jr.">EJ Bradford Jr.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">2019</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_George_Robinson" title="Killing of George Robinson">George Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Willie_McCoy" title="Killing of Willie McCoy">Willie McCoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Danquirs_Franklin" title="Killing of Danquirs Franklin">Danquirs Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Javier_Ambler" title="Killing of Javier Ambler">Javier Ambler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Lassana_Cisse" title="Murder of Lassana Cisse">Lassana Cisse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Ronald_Greene" title="Killing of Ronald Greene">Ronald Greene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Pamela_Turner" title="Killing of Pamela Turner">Pamela Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Layleen_Polanco" title="Death of Layleen Polanco">Layleen Polanco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Shukri_Abdi" title="Death of Shukri Abdi">Shukri Abdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Christopher_Kapessa" title="Death of Christopher Kapessa">Christopher Kapessa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Elijah_McClain" title="Killing of Elijah McClain">Elijah McClain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Atatiana_Jefferson" title="Killing of Atatiana Jefferson">Atatiana Jefferson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">2020</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Alvin_Cole" title="Killing of Alvin Cole">Alvin Cole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Ahmaud_Arbery" title="Murder of Ahmaud Arbery">Ahmaud Arbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Manuel_Ellis" title="Killing of Manuel Ellis">Manuel Ellis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Breonna_Taylor" title="Killing of Breonna Taylor">Breonna Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Daniel_Prude" title="Killing of Daniel Prude">Daniel Prude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Nina_Pop" title="Killing of Nina Pop">Nina Pop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_George_Floyd" title="Murder of George Floyd">George Floyd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Dion_Johnson" title="Killing of Dion Johnson">Dion Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Tony_McDade" title="Killing of Tony McDade">Tony McDade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Regis_Korchinski-Paquet" title="Death of Regis Korchinski-Paquet">Regis Korchinski-Paquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_James_Scurlock" title="Killing of James Scurlock">James Scurlock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_David_McAtee" title="Killing of David McAtee">David McAtee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Oluwatoyin_Salau_and_Victoria_Sims" title="Murders of Oluwatoyin Salau and Victoria Sims">Oluwatoyin Salau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Carlos_Carson" title="Killing of Carlos Carson">Carlos Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Rayshard_Brooks" title="Killing of Rayshard Brooks">Rayshard Brooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Julian_Lewis" title="Killing of Julian Lewis">Julian Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Dijon_Kizzee" title="Killing of Dijon Kizzee">Dijon Kizzee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Marcellis_Stinnette" title="Killing of Marcellis Stinnette">Marcellis Stinnette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Chaniece_Wallace" title="Death of Chaniece Wallace">Chaniece Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Walter_Wallace" title="Killing of Walter Wallace">Walter Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Andre_Hill" title="Murder of Andre Hill">Andre Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Dolal_Idd" title="Killing of Dolal Idd">Dolal Idd</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">2021</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Marvin_Scott" title="Death of Marvin Scott">Marvin Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Adam_Toledo" title="Killing of Adam Toledo">Adam Toledo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Daunte_Wright" title="Killing of Daunte Wright">Daunte Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Lindani_Myeni" title="Killing of Lindani Myeni">Lindani Myeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Ma%27Khia_Bryant" title="Killing of Ma'Khia Bryant">Ma'Khia Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Andrew_Brown_Jr." title="Killing of Andrew Brown Jr.">Andrew Brown Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Winston_Boogie_Smith" title="Killing of Winston Boogie Smith">Winston Boogie Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Leneal_Frazier" title="Killing of Leneal Frazier">Leneal Frazier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">2022</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Amir_Locke" title="Killing of Amir Locke">Amir Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Patrick_Lyoya" title="Killing of Patrick Lyoya">Patrick Lyoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Jayland_Walker" title="Killing of Jayland Walker">Jayland Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Donovan_Lewis" title="Killing of Donovan Lewis">Donovan Lewis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">2023</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Keenan_Anderson" title="Death of Keenan Anderson">Keenan Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Tyre_Nichols" title="Killing of Tyre Nichols">Tyre Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Irvo_Otieno" title="Killing of Irvo Otieno">Irvo Otieno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Jordan_Neely" title="Killing of Jordan Neely">Jordan Neely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Ricky_Cobb_II" title="Killing of Ricky Cobb II">Ricky Cobb II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Johnny_Hollman" title="Killing of Johnny Hollman">Johnny Hollman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Ta%27Kiya_Young" title="Killing of Ta'Kiya Young">Ta'Kiya Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Leonard_Cure" title="Killing of Leonard Cure">Leonard Cure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">2024</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Dexter_Reed" title="Killing of Dexter Reed">Dexter Reed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Roger_Fortson" title="Killing of Roger Fortson">Roger Fortson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Sonya_Massey" title="Killing of Sonya Massey">Sonya Massey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Robert_Brooks" title="Killing of Robert Brooks">Robert Brooks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#eeeeee;;width:1%">Other cases protested</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalief_Browder" title="Kalief Browder">Kalief Browder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Texas_pool_party_incident" title="2015 Texas pool party incident">2015 Texas pool party incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting_of_Charles_Kinsey" title="Shooting of Charles Kinsey">Shooting of Charles Kinsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting_of_Jacob_Blake" title="Shooting of Jacob Blake">Shooting of Jacob Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting_of_Ralph_Yarl" title="Shooting of Ralph Yarl">Shooting of Ralph Yarl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankin_County_torture_incident" title="Rankin County torture incident">Rankin County torture incident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#eeeeee;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Black Lives Matter movement in popular culture">In popular culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;"><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_art" title="Black Lives Matter art">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_art_in_New_York_City" title="Black Lives Matter art in New York City">New York City</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bust_of_George_Floyd" title="Bust of George Floyd">Bust of George Floyd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_art_in_Portland,_Oregon" title="Black Lives Matter art in Portland, Oregon">Portland, Oregon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_mural_(Portland,_Oregon)" title="George Floyd mural (Portland, Oregon)">George Floyd mural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Stand_with_You" title="We Stand with You">We Stand with You</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Say_Their_Names" title="Say Their Names">Say Their Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_George_Floyd" title="Statue of George Floyd">Statue of George Floyd</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Street_murals58" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Black_Lives_Matter_street_murals" title="List of Black Lives Matter street murals">Street murals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_street_mural_(Cincinnati)" title="Black Lives Matter street mural (Cincinnati)">Cincinnati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_street_mural_(Indianapolis)" title="Black Lives Matter street mural (Indianapolis)">Indianapolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_street_mural_(Portland,_Oregon)" title="Black Lives Matter street mural (Portland, Oregon)">Portland, Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_street_mural_(Salt_Lake_City)" title="Black Lives Matter street mural (Salt Lake City)">Salt Lake City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_street_mural_(Santa_Cruz,_California)" title="Black Lives Matter street mural (Santa Cruz, California)">Santa Cruz, California</a></li> <li>Seattle <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_street_mural_(Capitol_Hill,_Seattle)" title="Black Lives Matter street mural (Capitol Hill, Seattle)">Capitol Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_street_mural_(Seattle_City_Hall)" title="Black Lives Matter street mural (Seattle City Hall)">City Hall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_street_mural_(Springfield,_Massachusetts)" title="Black Lives Matter street mural (Springfield, Massachusetts)">Springfield, Massachusetts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All_American_Boys" title="All American Boys">All American Boys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Software" title="Black Software">Black Software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackout_(young_adult_novel)" title="Blackout (young adult novel)">Blackout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brit(ish)" title="Brit(ish)">Brit(ish)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dear_Martin" title="Dear Martin">Dear Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Hate_U_Give" title="The Hate U Give">The Hate U Give</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/His_Name_Is_George_Floyd" title="His Name Is George Floyd">His Name Is George Floyd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Can%27t_Breathe:_A_Killing_on_Bay_Street" title="I Can't Breathe: A Killing on Bay Street">I Can't Breathe: A Killing on Bay Street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rest_in_Power:_The_Enduring_Life_of_Trayvon_Martin" title="Rest in Power: The Enduring Life of Trayvon Martin">Rest in Power: The Enduring Life of Trayvon Martin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Film</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/16_Shots" title="16 Shots">16 Shots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3_1/2_Minutes,_10_Bullets" title="3 1/2 Minutes, 10 Bullets">3 1/2 Minutes, 10 Bullets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Son_(2019_film)" title="American Son (2019 film)">American Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bars4Justice" title="Bars4Justice">Bars4Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruitvale_Station_(film)" title="Fruitvale Station (film)">Fruitvale Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_Revolution" title="Generation Revolution">Generation Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Hate_U_Give_(film)" title="The Hate U Give (film)">The Hate U Give</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rest_in_Power:_The_Trayvon_Martin_Story" title="Rest in Power: The Trayvon Martin Story">Rest in Power: The Trayvon Martin Story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stay_Woke:_The_Black_Lives_Matter_Movement" title="Stay Woke: The Black Lives Matter Movement">Stay Woke: The Black Lives Matter Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stranger_Fruit_(film)" title="Stranger Fruit (film)">Stranger Fruit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Distant_Strangers" title="Two Distant Strangers">Two Distant Strangers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whose_Streets%3F" title="Whose Streets?">Whose Streets?</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Music</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Alright_(Kendrick_Lamar_song)" title="Alright (Kendrick Lamar song)">Alright</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Angel_Down_(song)" title="Angel Down (song)">Angel Down</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Bigger_Picture_(song)" title="The Bigger Picture (song)">The Bigger Picture</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Black_Parade_(song)" title="Black Parade (song)">Black Parade</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Can%27t_Put_It_in_the_Hands_of_Fate" title="Can't Put It in the Hands of Fate">Can't Put It in the Hands of Fate</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Chains_(Usher_song)" title="Chains (Usher song)">Chains</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Cop_vs._Phone_Girl" title="Cop vs. Phone Girl">Cop vs. Phone Girl</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Don%27t_Shoot_(The_Game_song)" title="Don't Shoot (The Game song)">Don't Shoot</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Formation_(song)" title="Formation (song)">Formation</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Freedom_(Beyonc%C3%A9_song)" title="Freedom (Beyoncé song)">Freedom</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Hell_You_Talmbout" title="Hell You Talmbout">Hell You Talmbout</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/I_Can%27t_Breathe_(H.E.R._song)" title="I Can't Breathe (H.E.R. song)">I Can't Breathe</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Lavender_(Nightfall_Remix)" title="Lavender (Nightfall Remix)">Lavender (Nightfall Remix)</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Loyal_Like_Sid_%26_Nancy" title="Loyal Like Sid & Nancy">Loyal Like Sid & Nancy</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Otherside_of_America" title="Otherside of America">Otherside of America</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Riot_(XXXTentacion_song)" title="Riot (XXXTentacion song)">Riot</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Rockstar_(DaBaby_song)" title="Rockstar (DaBaby song)">Rockstar (BLM Remix)</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Seven_Last_Words_of_the_Unarmed" title="The Seven Last Words of the Unarmed">The Seven Last Words of the Unarmed</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Snow_on_tha_Bluff_(song)" title="Snow on tha Bluff (song)">Snow on tha Bluff</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/This_Is_America_(song)" title="This Is America (song)">This Is America</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/What_They%27ll_Say_About_Us" title="What They'll Say About Us">What They'll Say About Us</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/White_Privilege_II" title="White Privilege II">White Privilege II</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colin_in_Black_%26_White" title="Colin in Black & White">Colin in Black & White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8:46_(special)" title="8:46 (special)">8:46</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Holding_a_Black_Lives_Matter_Sign_in_America%27s_Most_Racist_Town" title="Holding a Black Lives Matter Sign in America's Most Racist Town">Holding a Black Lives Matter Sign in America's Most Racist Town</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Ferguson" title="Our Lady of Ferguson">Our Lady of Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taking_a_Stand_in_Baton_Rouge" title="Taking a Stand in Baton Rouge">Taking a Stand in Baton Rouge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woke_(TV_series)" title="Woke (TV series)">Woke (TV series)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#eeeeee;;width:1%">Activist groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/8_to_Abolition" title="8 to Abolition">8 to Abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assata%27s_Daughters" title="Assata's Daughters">Assata's Daughters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Feminist_Future" title="Black Feminist Future">Black Feminist Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_Global_Network_Foundation" title="Black Lives Matter Global Network Foundation">Black Lives Matter Global Network Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Visions_Collective" title="Black Visions Collective">Black Visions Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BlackinChem" title="BlackinChem">BlackinChem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BYP100" title="BYP100">BYP100</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_Zero" title="Campaign Zero">Campaign Zero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don%27t_Shoot_Portland" title="Don't Shoot Portland">Don't Shoot Portland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millennial_Activists_United" title="Millennial Activists United">Millennial Activists United</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mothers_of_Gynecology_Movement" title="Mothers of Gynecology Movement">Mothers of Gynecology Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mothers_of_the_Movement" title="Mothers of the Movement">Mothers of the Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_for_Black_Lives" title="Movement for Black Lives">Movement for Black Lives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peoples_Power_Assemblies" title="Peoples Power Assemblies">Peoples Power Assemblies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SayHerName" title="SayHerName">#SayHerName</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Cop_City" title="Stop Cop City">Stop Cop City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_Riders_NYC" title="Street Riders NYC">Street Riders NYC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taking_the_Initiative_Party" title="Taking the Initiative Party">Taking the Initiative Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_of_Moms" title="Wall of Moms">Wall of Moms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Coats_for_Black_Lives" title="White Coats for Black Lives">White Coats for Black Lives</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#eeeeee;;width:1%">Proposed legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BREATHE_Act" title="BREATHE Act">BREATHE Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commission_for_Diversity_in_the_Public_Realm" title="Commission for Diversity in the Public Realm">Commission for Diversity in the Public Realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ending_Qualified_Immunity_Act" title="Ending Qualified Immunity Act">Ending Qualified Immunity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_Justice_in_Policing_Act" title="George Floyd Justice in Policing Act">George Floyd Justice in Policing Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_Law_Enforcement_Trust_and_Integrity_Act" title="George Floyd Law Enforcement Trust and Integrity Act">George Floyd Law Enforcement Trust and Integrity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SAFE-T_Act" title="SAFE-T Act">Safety, Accountability, Fairness and Equity-Today Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_police_reforms_related_to_the_George_Floyd_protests" title="List of police reforms related to the George Floyd protests">List of police reforms related to the George Floyd protests</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#eeeeee;;width:1%">Groups associated with opposition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All_Lives_Matter" title="All Lives Matter">All Lives Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alt-right" title="Alt-right">Alt-right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Guns_Matter" title="Black Guns Matter">Black Guns Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Lives_Matter" title="Blue Lives Matter">Blue Lives Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_Front" title="Patriot Front">Patriot Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia_and_Black_Lives_Matter" title="Russia and Black Lives Matter">Russian disinformation campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">Trump administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Citizens%27_Alarm" title="United Citizens' Alarm">United Citizens' Alarm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Lives_Matter" title="White Lives Matter">White Lives Matter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#eeeeee;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020_deployment_of_federal_forces_in_the_United_States" title="2020 deployment of federal forces in the United States">2020 deployment of federal forces in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932023_United_States_racial_unrest" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2023 United States racial unrest">2020–2023 United States racial unrest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_and_protests_of_the_2020%E2%80%932023_United_States_racial_unrest" class="mw-redirect" title="List of incidents and protests of the 2020–2023 United States racial unrest">list of incidents</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_Plaza" title="Black Lives Matter Plaza">Black Lives Matter Plaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_maternal_mortality_in_the_United_States" title="Black maternal mortality in the United States">Black maternal mortality in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_stereotype_of_African_Americans" title="Criminal stereotype of African Americans">Criminal stereotype of African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defund_the_police" title="Defund the police">Defund the police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_while_black" title="Driving while black">Driving while black</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Running_while_Black" title="Running while Black">Running while Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shopping_while_black" title="Shopping while black">shopping while black</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferguson_effect" title="Ferguson effect">Ferguson effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_Square" title="George Floyd Square">George Floyd Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hands_up,_don%27t_shoot" title="Hands up, don't shoot">Hands up, don't shoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_can%27t_breathe" title="I can't breathe">I can't breathe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._national_anthem_kneeling_protests" title="U.S. national anthem kneeling protests">National anthem protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality_against_Native_Americans#Native_Lives_Matter" title="Police brutality against Native Americans">Native Lives Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_justice,_no_peace" title="No justice, no peace">No justice, no peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_abolition_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Police abolition movement">Police abolition movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2021_Minneapolis_Question_2" title="2021 Minneapolis Question 2">2021 Minneapolis Question 2</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_accountability" title="Police accountability">Police accountability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_wall_of_silence" title="Blue wall of silence">blue wall of silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gypsy_cop" class="mw-redirect" title="Gypsy cop">gypsy cops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_perjury" title="Police perjury">police perjury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualified_immunity" title="Qualified immunity">qualified immunity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality_in_the_United_States" title="Police brutality in the United States">Police brutality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Militarization_of_police#21st_Century" title="Militarization of police">militarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_compliance" title="Pain compliance">pain compliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_use_of_deadly_force_in_the_United_States" title="Police use of deadly force in the United States">use of deadly force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use_of_torture_by_police_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Use of torture by police in the United States">use of torture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_misconduct" title="Police misconduct">Police misconduct</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/False_arrest#United_States" title="False arrest">false arrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_profiling_in_the_United_States" title="Racial profiling in the United States">racial profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ticket_quota" title="Ticket quota">ticket quota</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rest_in_power" title="Rest in power">Rest in power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Save_the_Boards" title="Save the Boards">Save the Boards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taking_the_knee" title="Taking the knee">Taking the knee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_stop" title="Terry stop">Terry stop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woke" title="Woke">Woke</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeeee;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Black_Lives_Matter" title="Category:Black Lives Matter">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lynching_in_the_United_States98" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Template:Lynching in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Lynching in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lynching in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lynching_in_the_United_States98" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States98" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">List of lynching victims in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Before 1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Francis_McIntosh" title="Lynching of Francis McIntosh">Francis McIntosh</a> (1836)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Parish_Lovejoy" title="Elijah Parish Lovejoy">Elijah Parish Lovejoy</a> (1837)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josefa_Segovia" title="Josefa Segovia">Josefa Segovia</a> (1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancho_Daniel" title="Pancho Daniel">Pancho Daniel</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_race_riot_of_1863" title="Detroit race riot of 1863">Joshua Boyd</a> (1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Plummer" title="Henry Plummer">Henry Plummer</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Sketoe" title="Bill Sketoe">Bill Sketoe</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clubfoot_George" title="Clubfoot George">Clubfoot George</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Long" title="Steve Long">Steve Long, Ace and Con Moyer</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Outlaw" title="Wyatt Outlaw">Wyatt Outlaw</a> (1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_W._Stephens" title="John W. Stephens">John W. Stephens</a> (1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Boyd_(county_solicitor)" title="Alexander Boyd (county solicitor)">Alexander Boyd</a> (1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Williams_(militia_leader)" title="Jim Williams (militia leader)">Jim Williams</a> (1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_David_Jones" title="Lynching of David Jones">David Jones</a> (1872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jo_Reed" title="Lynching of Jo Reed">Jo Reed</a> (1875)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_St._Clair_(minister)" title="Arthur St. Clair (minister)">Arthur St. Clair</a> (1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Michael_Green" title="Lynching of Michael Green">Michael Green</a> (1878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Standing" title="Joseph Standing">Joseph Standing</a> (1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Nose_George" title="Big Nose George">Big Nose George Parrott</a> (1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Thurber" title="Charles Thurber">Charles Thurber</a> (1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisbee_massacre" title="Bisbee massacre">John Wesley Heath</a> (1884)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Eliza_Woods" title="Lynching of Eliza Woods">Eliza Woods</a> (1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingo_Jack" title="Mingo Jack">Samuel "Mingo Jack" Johnson</a> (1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Amos_Miller" title="Lynching of Amos Miller">Amos Miller</a> (1888)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joseph_Vermillion" title="Lynching of Joseph Vermillion">Joseph Vermillion</a> (1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Meadows" title="Lynching of George Meadows">George Meadows</a> (1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Watson" title="Ellen Watson">Ellen Watson</a> (1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison,_Georgia#Jim_Crow_era" title="Madison, Georgia">Brown Washington</a> (1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jim_Taylor" title="Lynching of Jim Taylor">Jim Taylor</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tillman#Lynching_and_race" title="Benjamin Tillman">Dick Lundy</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joe_Coe" title="Lynching of Joe Coe">Joe Coe</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lewis_(lynching_victim)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Lewis (lynching victim)">Robert Lewis</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ephraim_Grizzard" title="Lynching of Ephraim Grizzard">Ephraim Grizzard</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Samuel_J._Bush" title="Lynching of Samuel J. Bush">Samuel J. Bush</a> (1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark,_South_Carolina#History" title="Denmark, South Carolina">John Peterson</a> (1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Alfred_Blount" title="Lynching of Alfred Blount">Alfred Blount</a> (1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Smith_(lynching_victim)" title="Henry Smith (lynching victim)">Henry Smith</a> (1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Richard_Puryear" title="Lynching of Richard Puryear">Richard Puryear</a> (1894)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Stephen_Williams" title="Lynching of Stephen Williams">Stephen Williams</a> (1894)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Springs,_Mississippi#Lynching" title="Rocky Springs, Mississippi">Amos Hicks</a> (1894)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellicott_City,_Maryland#Incorporation_and_disincorporation" title="Ellicott City, Maryland">Jacob Henson</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_William_Andrews" title="Lynching of William Andrews">William Andrews</a> (1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joseph_H._McCoy" title="Lynching of Joseph H. McCoy">Joseph H. McCoy</a> (1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/LaFayette,_Alabama#History" title="LaFayette, Alabama">John Anderson</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Henry_James" title="Lynching of John Henry James">John Henry James</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_F._W._Stewart" title="Lynching of F. W. Stewart">F. W. Stewart</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Sam_Hose" title="Lynching of Sam Hose">Sam Hose</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Benjamin_Thomas" title="Lynching of Benjamin Thomas">Benjamin Thomas</a> (1899)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">1900–1940</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Rochelle" title="Fred Rochelle">Fred Rochelle</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ballie_Crutchfield" title="Lynching of Ballie Crutchfield">Ballie Crutchfield</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Ward" title="Lynching of George Ward">George Ward</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#Twentieth_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Walker Davis</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danville_race_riot" title="Danville race riot">J. D. Mayfield</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_White" title="Lynching of George White"> George White</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_David_Wyatt" title="Lynching of David Wyatt">David Wyatt</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Marie_Thompson" title="Lynching of Marie Thompson">Marie Thompson</a> (1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Paul_Reed_and_Will_Cato" title="Lynching of Paul Reed and Will Cato">Paul Reed and Will Cato</a> (1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadsden,_Alabama#Lynching_of_Bunk_Richardson" title="Gadsden, Alabama">Bunk Richardson</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ed_Johnson" title="Lynching of Ed Johnson">Ed Johnson</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyah,_Texas#History" title="Toyah, Texas">Slab Pitts</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_William_Burns" title="Lynching of William Burns">William Burns</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Earnest_Williams" title="Lynching of Earnest Williams">Earnest Williams</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Miller_(outlaw)" title="Jim Miller (outlaw)">Jim Miller</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">James Hodges</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Matthew Chase</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">"Mose" Creole</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">"Pie" Hill</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_%22Froggie%22_James" class="mw-redirect" title="William "Froggie" James">William "Froggie" James and Henry Salzner</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centreville,_Alabama#1910_lynching" title="Centreville, Alabama">Grant Richardson</a> (1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_King_Johnson" title="Lynching of King Johnson">King Johnson</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Name unknown (TX)</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Laura_and_L._D._Nelson" title="Lynching of Laura and L. D. Nelson">Laura and L. D. Nelson</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livermore,_Kentucky#Opera_house_lynching" title="Livermore, Kentucky">Will Porter</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Zachariah_Walker" title="Lynching of Zachariah Walker">Zachariah Walker</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Mary Jackson</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_racial_conflict_in_Forsyth_County,_Georgia" title="1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County, Georgia">Rob Edwards</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">George Saunders</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Robert Perry</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">? Anderson</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Charles Fisher</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Evans" title="Lynching of John Evans">John Evans</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Frank" title="Leo Frank">Leo Frank</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cedarbluff,_Mississippi#History" title="Cedarbluff, Mississippi">Name unknown (MS)</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jesse_Washington" title="Lynching of Jesse Washington">Jesse Washington</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Anthony_Crawford" title="Lynching of Anthony Crawford">Anthony Crawford</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cedarbluff,_Mississippi#History" title="Cedarbluff, Mississippi">Jeff Brown</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Paulo_Boleta" title="Lynching of Paulo Boleta">Paulo Boleta</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Little_(unionist)" title="Frank Little (unionist)">Frank Little</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Charles Jones</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ell_Persons" title="Lynching of Ell Persons">Ell Persons</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Prager" title="Robert Prager">Robert Prager</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1918_lynchings" title="May 1918 lynchings">Mary Turner and her unborn baby</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1918_lynchings" title="May 1918 lynchings">Hazel "Hayes" Turner</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Taylor" title="Lynching of George Taylor">George Taylor</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_McIlherron" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim McIlherron">Jim McIlherron</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Olli_Kinkkonen" title="Lynching of Olli Kinkkonen">Olli Kinkkonen</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison,_Georgia#Jim_Crow_era" title="Madison, Georgia">Wallace Baynes</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omaha_race_riot_of_1919" title="Omaha race riot of 1919">Will Brown</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_Everest" title="Wesley Everest">Wesley Everest</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hartfield" title="John Hartfield">John Hartfield</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jay_Lynch" title="Lynching of Jay Lynch">Jay Lynch</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_Washington" title="Berry Washington">Berry Washington</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_Alabama_coal_strike#Willie_Baird" title="1920 Alabama coal strike">Willie Baird</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Belton" title="Roy Belton">Roy Belton</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Rowland" title="Dick Rowland">Dick Rowland (attempted)</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Henry_Lowry" title="Lynching of Henry Lowry">Henry Lowry</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_James_Harvey_and_Joe_Jordan" title="Lynching of James Harvey and Joe Jordan">James Harvey and Joe Jordan</a> (1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Pullen" title="Joe Pullen">Joe Pullen</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Samuel_Smith" title="Lynching of Samuel Smith">Samuel Smith</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_L._Q._Ivy" title="Lynching of L. Q. Ivy">L. Q. Ivy</a> (1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Raymond_Byrd" title="Lynching of Raymond Byrd">Raymond Byrd</a> (1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clark_(lynching_victim)" title="James Clark (lynching victim)">James Clark</a> (1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Lake,_Colorado#Fred_Selak" title="Grand Lake, Colorado">Fred N. Selak</a> (1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Tom_Payne" title="Lynching of Tom Payne">Tom Payne</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Carter" title="Lynching of John Carter">John Carter</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Dan_Anderson" title="Lynching of Dan Anderson">Dan Anderson</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Will_Sherod" title="Lynching of Will Sherod">Will Sherod</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Bernice_Raspberry" title="Lynching of Bernice Raspberry">Bernice Raspberry</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Owen_Flemming" title="Lynching of Owen Flemming">Owen Flemming</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joseph_Upchurch" title="Lynching of Joseph Upchurch">Joseph Upchurch</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joe_Smith" title="Lynching of Joe Smith">Joe Smith</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Albert_Williams" title="Lynching of Albert Williams">Albert Williams</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Thomas_Bradshaw" title="Lynching of Thomas Bradshaw">Thomas Bradshaw</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Winston_Pounds" title="Lynching of Winston Pounds">Winston Pounds</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Thomas_Williams" title="Lynching of Thomas Williams">Thomas Williams</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Henry_Choate" title="Lynching of Henry Choate">Henry Choate</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Leonard_Woods" title="Lynching of Leonard Woods">Leonard Woods</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mondak,_Montana" title="Mondak, Montana">J. C. Collins</a> (1928)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Hughes" title="Lynching of George Hughes">George Hughes</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Cameron_(activist)" title="James Cameron (activist)">James Cameron</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Raymond_Gunn" title="Lynching of Raymond Gunn">Lynching of Raymond Gunn</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Williams_(laborer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matthew Williams (laborer)">Matthew Williams</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Shedrick_Thompson" title="Death of Shedrick Thompson">Shedrick Thompson</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Armwood" title="Lynching of George Armwood">George Armwood</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Cordie_Cheek" title="Lynching of Cordie Cheek">Cordie Cheek</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Claude_Neal" title="Lynching of Claude Neal">Claude Neal</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Austin_Callaway" title="Lynching of Austin Callaway">Austin Callaway</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbert_Williams" title="Elbert Williams">Elbert Williams</a> (1940)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">After 1940</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Hall" title="Felix Hall">Felix Hall</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kunze" title="Johannes Kunze">Johannes Kunze</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screws_v._United_States" title="Screws v. United States">Robert "Bobbie" Hall</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Willie_James_Howard" title="Lynching of Willie James Howard">Willie James Howard</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recy_Taylor" title="Recy Taylor">Recy Taylor</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cecil_Jones" class="mw-redirect" title="John Cecil Jones">John Cecil Jones</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Willie_Earle" title="Lynching of Willie Earle">Willie Earle</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamar_Smith_(activist)" title="Lamar Smith (activist)">Lamar Smith</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Lee" title="George W. Lee">George W. Lee</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge_Edward_Aaron" title="Judge Edward Aaron">Judge Edward Aaron</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Willie_Edwards" title="Murder of Willie Edwards">Willie Edwards</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Mack_Charles_Parker" title="Lynching of Mack Charles Parker">Mack Charles Parker</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Allen" title="Louis Allen">Louis Allen</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Lemuel_Penn" title="Murder of Lemuel Penn">Lemuel Penn</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Frank_Morris" title="Murder of Frank Morris">Frank Morris</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Dahmer" title="Vernon Dahmer">Vernon Dahmer</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Wharlest_Jackson" title="Murder of Wharlest Jackson">Wharlest Jackson</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Carol_Jenkins" title="Murder of Carol Jenkins">Carol Jenkins</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting_of_Henry_Marrow" class="mw-redirect" title="Shooting of Henry Marrow">Henry Marrow</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livernois%E2%80%93Fenkell_riot" title="Livernois–Fenkell riot">Marian Pyszko</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Betty_Gardner" title="Murder of Betty Gardner">Betty Gardner</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Miami_riots" title="1980 Miami riots">Arthur McDuffie</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Michael_Donald" title="Lynching of Michael Donald">Michael Donald</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Yusef_Hawkins" title="Murder of Yusef Hawkins">Yusef Hawkins</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_James_Byrd_Jr." title="Murder of James Byrd Jr.">James Byrd Jr.</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_James_Craig_Anderson" title="Murder of James Craig Anderson">James Craig Anderson</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Ahmaud_Arbery" title="Murder of Ahmaud Arbery">Ahmaud Arbery</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Multiple_victims98" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Multiple victims</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Joseph_Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Joseph Smith">Death of Joseph Smith</a> (<a href="/wiki/Joseph_Smith" title="Joseph Smith">Joseph Smith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyrum_Smith" title="Hyrum Smith">Hyrum Smith</a>) (1844)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marais_des_Cygnes_massacre" title="Marais des Cygnes massacre">Marais des Cygnes, KS, massacre</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Hanging_at_Gainesville" title="Great Hanging at Gainesville">Great Hanging at Gainesville, TX</a> (1862)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_draft_riots" title="New York City draft riots">New York City draft riots</a> (1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_race_riot_(1863)" class="mw-redirect" title="Detroit race riot (1863)">Detroit race riot (1863)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Signoret" title="Felix Signoret">? Lachenais and four others</a> (1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Pillow" title="Battle of Fort Pillow">Fort Pillow, TN, massacre</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Plummer" title="Henry Plummer">Plummer Gang</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_riots_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="Memphis riots of 1866">Memphis massacre</a> (1866)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1866_Gallatin_County_race_riot" title="1866 Gallatin County race riot">Gallatin County, KY, race riot</a> (1866)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_massacre_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans massacre of 1866">New Orleans massacre of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reno_Gang" title="Reno Gang">Reno Brothers Gang</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camilla_massacre" title="Camilla massacre">Camilla, GA, massacre</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Long" title="Steve Long">Steve Long and two half-brothers</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulaski_riot" title="Pulaski riot">Pulaski, TN, riot</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Samuel_Bierfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynching of Samuel Bierfield">Samuel Bierfield and Lawrence Bowman</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opelousas_massacre" title="Opelousas massacre">Opelousas, LA, massacre</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bear_River_City,_Wyoming#Bear_River_City_Riot_of_November_19,_1868" title="Bear River City, Wyoming">Bear River City riot</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_massacre_of_1871" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese massacre of 1871">Chinese massacre of 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meridian_race_riot_of_1871" title="Meridian race riot of 1871">Meridian, MS, race riot</a> (1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colfax_massacre" title="Colfax massacre">Colfax, LA, massacre</a> (1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_riot_of_1874" class="mw-redirect" title="Election riot of 1874">Election riot of 1874</a> (AL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Moya" title="Juan Moya">Juan, Antonio, and Marcelo Moya</a> (1874)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Benjamin_and_Mollie_French" title="Lynching of Benjamin and Mollie French">Benjamin and Mollie French</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellenton_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Ellenton riot">Ellenton, SC, riot</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg_massacre" title="Hamburg massacre">Hamburg, SC, massacre</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thibodaux_massacre" title="Thibodaux massacre">Thibodeax, LA, massacre</a> (1878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horrell_Brothers" title="Horrell Brothers">Mart and Tom Horrell</a> (1878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Nevlin_Porter_and_Johnson_Spencer" title="Lynching of Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer">Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer</a> (1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willits,_California##Triple_Masonic_lynching_of_1879" title="Willits, California">Elijah Frost, Abijah Gibson, Tom McCracken</a> (1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variety_Hall_shootout" title="Variety Hall shootout">T.J. House, James West, John Dorsey</a> (1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_14,_1891,_lynchings" class="mw-redirect" title="March 14, 1891, lynchings">New Orleans 1891 lynchings</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_the_Ruggles_brothers" title="Lynching of the Ruggles brothers">Ruggles Brothers (CA)</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Grocery_lynchings" title="People's Grocery lynchings">Thomas Moss, Henry Stewart, Calvin McDowell (TN)</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Nevlin_Porter_and_Johnson_Spencer" title="Lynching of Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer">Porter and Spencer (MS)</a> (1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenix_election_riot" title="Phoenix election riot">Phoenix, SC, election riot</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_insurrection_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilmington insurrection of 1898">Wilmington, NC, insurrection</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Julia_and_Frazier_Baker" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynching of Julia and Frazier Baker">Julia and Frazier Baker</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pana_riot" title="Pana riot">Pana, IL, riot</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watkinsville_lynching" title="Watkinsville lynching">Watkinsville lynching</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1906_Atlanta_race_massacre" title="1906 Atlanta race massacre">1906 Atlanta race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemper_County,_Mississippi#History" title="Kemper County, Mississippi">Kemper County, MS</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_the_Walker_family" title="Lynching of the Walker family">Walker family</a> (1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Springfield_race_riot_of_1908" title="Springfield race riot of 1908">Springfield race riot of 1908</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slocum,_Texas" title="Slocum, Texas">Slocum, TX, massacre</a> (1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Laura_and_L._D._Nelson" title="Lynching of Laura and L. D. Nelson">Laura and L.D. Nelson</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_County,_Georgia#History" title="Harris County, Georgia">Harris County, GA, lynchings</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newberry_Six_lynchings" title="Newberry Six lynchings">Newberry, FL, lynchings</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_St._Louis_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="East St. Louis riots">East St. Louis, IL, riots</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooks_County,_Georgia" title="Brooks County, Georgia">Lynching rampage in Brooks County, GA</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenkins_County,_Georgia,_riot_of_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Jenkins County, Georgia, riot of 1919">Jenkins County, GA, riot</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longview_race_riot" title="Longview race riot">Longview, TX, race riot</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elaine_race_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Elaine race riot">Elaine, AR, race riot</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omaha_race_riot_of_1919" title="Omaha race riot of 1919">Omaha race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoxville_riot_of_1919" title="Knoxville riot of 1919">Knoxville riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duluth_lynchings" title="Duluth lynchings">Duluth, MN, lynchings</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocoee_massacre" title="Ocoee massacre">Ocoee, FL, massacre</a> (1920)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tulsa race massacre</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perry_race_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Perry race riot">Perry, FL, race riot</a> (1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosewood_massacre" title="Rosewood massacre">Rosewood, FL, massacre</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jim_and_Mark_Fox" title="Lynching of Jim and Mark Fox">Jim and Mark Fox</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Thomas_Shipp_and_Abram_Smith" title="Lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith">Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tate_County,_Mississippi#History" title="Tate County, Mississippi">Tate County, MS</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooke_Hart#Lynching_of_Thurmond_and_Holmes" class="mw-redirect" title="Brooke Hart">Thomas Harold Thurmond and John M. Holmes</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Roosevelt_Townes_and_Robert_McDaniels" title="Lynching of Roosevelt Townes and Robert McDaniels">Roosevelt Townes and Robert McDaniels</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaumont_race_riot_of_1943" title="Beaumont race riot of 1943">Beaumont, TX, Race Riot</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27Day_Short" title="O'Day Short">O'Day Short, wife, and two children</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_Ford_lynchings" title="Moore's Ford lynchings">Moore's Ford, GA, lynchings</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harriette_Moore" title="Harriette Moore">Harriette Moore</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anniston,_Alabama#The_Civil_Rights_era" title="Anniston, Alabama">Anniston, AL</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">Freedom Summer Murders</a> (<a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a>) (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Cold_Case" title="Mississippi Cold Case">Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore</a> (1964)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_White_Caps" title="Indiana White Caps">Indiana White Caps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_American_Jews" title="Lynching of American Jews">Jews</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anti-lynching_movement" title="Anti-lynching movement">Anti-lynching movement</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:American_anti-lynching_activists" title="Category:American anti-lynching activists">American anti-lynching activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Crusade_Against_Lynching" title="American Crusade Against Lynching">American Crusade Against Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessie_Daniel_Ames" title="Jessie Daniel Ames">Jessie Daniel Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_C._Ansorge" title="Martin C. Ansorge">Martin C. Ansorge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Southern_Women_for_the_Prevention_of_Lynching" title="Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching">Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flossie_Bailey" title="Flossie Bailey">Flossie Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_O%27Connell_Bradley" title="William O'Connell Bradley">William O'Connell Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Barksdale_Brown" title="Ella Barksdale Brown">Ella Barksdale Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father_Divine" title="Father Divine">Father Divine</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Flag_Salute" title="Flag Salute">Flag Salute</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">N.A.A.C.P.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conference_on_Lynching" title="National Conference on Lynching">National Conference on Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Strange_Fruit" title="Strange Fruit">Strange Fruit</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Legislation11" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dyer_Anti-Lynching_Bill" title="Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill">Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_P._Costigan#Costigan–Wagner_Bill" title="Edward P. Costigan">Costigan-Wagner Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_for_Victims_of_Lynching_Act" title="Justice for Victims of Lynching Act">Justice for Victims of Lynching Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_Unsolved_Civil_Rights_Crime_Act" title="Emmett Till Unsolved Civil Rights Crime Act">Emmett Till Unsolved Civil Rights Crime Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_Antilynching_Act" title="Emmett Till Antilynching Act">Emmett Till Antilynching Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defenders of lynching</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_G._Bilbo" title="Theodore G. Bilbo">Theodore G. Bilbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cole_L._Blease" title="Cole L. Blease">Cole L. Blease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_S._Carr" title="Julian S. Carr">Julian S. Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Johnston_Catts" title="Sidney Johnston Catts">Sidney Johnston Catts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dixon_Jr." title="Thomas Dixon Jr.">Thomas Dixon Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebecca_Latimer_Felton" title="Rebecca Latimer Felton">Rebecca Latimer Felton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Temple_Graves" title="John Temple Graves">John Temple Graves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Trotwood_Moore" title="John Trotwood Moore">John Trotwood Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_T._Morgan" title="John T. Morgan">John T. Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rolph" title="James Rolph">James Rolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goodloe_Sutton" title="Goodloe Sutton">Goodloe Sutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tillman" title="Benjamin Tillman">Benjamin Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Vardaman" title="James K. Vardaman">James K. Vardaman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Watson" title="Thomas E. Watson">Thomas E. Watson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Memory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/America%27s_Black_Holocaust_Museum" title="America's Black Holocaust Museum">America's Black Holocaust Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Civil Rights Memorial">Civil Rights Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Legacy_Museum" title="The Legacy Museum">The Legacy Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Memorial_for_Peace_and_Justice" title="National Memorial for Peace and Justice">National Memorial for Peace and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_African_American_History_and_Culture" title="National Museum of African American History and Culture">National Museum of African American History and Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Poverty_Law_Center" title="Southern Poverty Law Center">Southern Poverty Law Center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Allen_(collector)" title="James Allen (collector)">James Allen (collector)</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/And_you_are_lynching_Negroes" title="And you are lynching Negroes">And you are lynching Negroes</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_John_Shillady" title="Attack on John Shillady">Attack on John Shillady</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Liberty_Place" title="Battle of Liberty Place">Battle of Liberty Place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation" title="The Birth of a Nation">The Birth of a Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Clansman:_A_Historical_Romance_of_the_Ku_Klux_Klan" title="The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan">The Clansman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deaths_in_police_custody_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Deaths in police custody in the United States">Deaths in police custody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fury_(1936_film)" title="Fury (1936 film)">Fury (1936 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hang_%27Em_High" title="Hang 'Em High">Hang 'Em High</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_postcard" title="Lynching postcard">Lynching postcard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Burning" title="Mississippi Burning">Mississippi Burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Cold_Case" title="Mississippi Cold Case">Mississippi Cold Case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ox-Bow_Incident" title="The Ox-Bow Incident">The Ox-Bow Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parade_(musical)" title="Parade (musical)">Parade (musical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottsboro_Boys" title="Scottsboro Boys">Scottsboro Boys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Mountain#Confederate_Memorial_Carving" title="Stone Mountain">Stone Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_in_Mississippi" title="Summer in Mississippi">Summer in Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundown_town" title="Sundown town">Sundown town</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_sundown_towns_in_the_United_States" title="List of sundown towns in the United States">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/They_Won%27t_Forget" title="They Won't Forget">They Won't Forget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_United_States_of_Lyncherdom" title="The United States of Lyncherdom">"The United States of Lyncherdom" (Twain)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Shipp" title="United States v. Shipp">United States v. Shipp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vendetta_(1999_film)" title="Vendetta (1999 film)">Vendetta (1999 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_massacre" title="Wilmington massacre">Wilmington insurrection of 1898</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lynching_deaths_in_the_United_States_by_state" title="Category:Lynching deaths in the United States by state">Lynching deaths in the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Terrorist_attacks_in_the_United_States_by_deaths" title="Template:Terrorist attacks in the United States by deaths"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Terrorist_attacks_in_the_United_States_by_deaths" title="Template talk:Terrorist attacks in the United States by deaths"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Terrorist_attacks_in_the_United_States_by_deaths" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Terrorist attacks in the United States by deaths"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Deadliest_terrorist_attacks_in_the_United_States237" class="hlist vevent" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Terrorism in the United States">Deadliest terrorist attacks in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a> (2001) (<a href="/wiki/Lists_of_victims_of_the_September_11_attacks" title="Lists of victims of the September 11 attacks">2,977 deaths</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a> (1995) (168 deaths)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Meadows_Massacre" title="Mountain Meadows Massacre">Mountain Meadows Massacre</a> (1857) (120 deaths)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tulsa race massacre</a> (1921) (75–300 deaths)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_nightclub_shooting" title="Pulse nightclub shooting">Pulse nightclub shooting</a> (2016) (49 deaths)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bath_School_disaster" title="Bath School disaster">Bath School disaster</a> (1927) (44 deaths)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_bombing" title="Wall Street bombing">Wall Street bombing</a> (1920) (38 deaths)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/UpStairs_Lounge_arson_attack" title="UpStairs Lounge arson attack">UpStairs Lounge arson attack</a> (1973) (32 deaths)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_El_Paso_Walmart_shooting" title="2019 El Paso Walmart shooting">El Paso Walmart shooting</a> (2019) (23 deaths)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_massacre" title="Wilmington massacre">Wilmington insurrection</a> (1898) (22 deaths)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times_bombing" title="Los Angeles Times bombing">Los Angeles Times bombing</a> (1910) (21 deaths)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2025_New_Orleans_truck_attack" title="2025 New Orleans truck attack">New Orleans truck attack</a> (2025) (14 deaths)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Fort_Hood_shooting" title="2009 Fort Hood shooting">Fort Hood shooting</a> (2009) (14 deaths)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_San_Bernardino_attack" title="2015 San Bernardino attack">San Bernardino attack</a> (2015) (14 deaths)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a> (1886) (12 deaths)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1975_LaGuardia_Airport_bombing" title="1975 LaGuardia Airport bombing">LaGuardia Airport bombing</a> (1975) (11 deaths)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_synagogue_shooting" title="Pittsburgh synagogue shooting">Pittsburgh synagogue shooting</a> (2018) (11 deaths)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preparedness_Day_bombing" title="Preparedness Day bombing">Preparedness Day bombing</a> (1916) (10 deaths)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milwaukee_Police_Department_bombing" title="Milwaukee Police Department bombing">Milwaukee Police Department bombing</a> (1917) (10 deaths)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Buffalo_shooting" title="2022 Buffalo shooting">Buffalo supermarket shooting</a> (2022) (10 deaths)</li></ol> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Death counts do not include deceased perpetrator(s). This navbox reflects information from <a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States#Deadliest_attacks" title="Terrorism in the United States">this list</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&oldid=1275954467">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tulsa_race_massacre&oldid=1275954467</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Category:Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1921_in_Oklahoma" title="Category:1921 in Oklahoma">1921 in Oklahoma</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1921_riots_in_the_United_States" title="Category:1921 riots in the United States">1921 riots in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1921_murders_in_the_United_States" title="Category:1921 murders in the United States">1921 murders in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Massacres_of_African_Americans" title="Category:Massacres of African Americans">Massacres of African Americans</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Massacres_in_1921" title="Category:Massacres in 1921">Massacres in 1921</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mass_murder_in_the_United_States_in_the_1920s" title="Category:Mass murder in the United States in the 1920s">Mass murder in the United States in the 1920s</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_history_in_Tulsa,_Oklahoma" title="Category:African-American history in Tulsa, Oklahoma">African-American history in Tulsa, Oklahoma</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arson_in_Oklahoma" title="Category:Arson in Oklahoma">Arson in Oklahoma</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arson_in_the_1920s" title="Category:Arson in the 1920s">Arson in the 1920s</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Attacks_on_buildings_and_structures_in_the_1920s" title="Category:Attacks on buildings and structures in the 1920s">Attacks on buildings and structures in the 1920s</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Attacks_on_buildings_and_structures_in_Oklahoma" title="Category:Attacks on buildings and structures in Oklahoma">Attacks on buildings and structures in Oklahoma</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethnic_cleansing_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Ethnic cleansing in the United States">Ethnic cleansing in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Category:History of civil rights in the United States">History of civil rights in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Category:African-American segregation in the United States">African-American segregation in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-black_racism_in_Oklahoma" title="Category:Anti-black racism in Oklahoma">Anti-black racism in Oklahoma</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Tulsa,_Oklahoma" title="Category:History of Tulsa, Oklahoma">History of Tulsa, Oklahoma</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:June_1921_in_the_United_States" title="Category:June 1921 in the United States">June 1921 in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ku_Klux_Klan_crimes" title="Category:Ku Klux Klan crimes">Ku Klux Klan crimes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deaths_by_firearm_in_Oklahoma" title="Category:Deaths by firearm in Oklahoma">Deaths by firearm in Oklahoma</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lynching_deaths_in_Oklahoma" title="Category:Lynching deaths in Oklahoma">Lynching deaths in Oklahoma</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mass_murder_in_Oklahoma" title="Category:Mass murder in Oklahoma">Mass murder in Oklahoma</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:May_1921" title="Category:May 1921">May 1921</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Presidency_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Category:Presidency of Warren G. 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type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Tulsa race massacre","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tulsa_race_massacre","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1824714","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1824714","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-09-28T05:36:08Z","dateModified":"2025-02-16T01:23:44Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/7\/71\/Tulsa_Aftermath.jpg","headline":"racially charged mass attack in Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA in May-June 1921"}</script> </body> </html>