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mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Lichenometry</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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searchaux" style="display:none">Geomorphic method of geochronologic aging</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lichen_forming_a_Hidden_Mickey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Lichen_forming_a_Hidden_Mickey.jpg/220px-Lichen_forming_a_Hidden_Mickey.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Lichen_forming_a_Hidden_Mickey.jpg/330px-Lichen_forming_a_Hidden_Mickey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Lichen_forming_a_Hidden_Mickey.jpg/440px-Lichen_forming_a_Hidden_Mickey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="619" /></a><figcaption>Lichen grown in a <a href="/wiki/Mickey_Mouse" title="Mickey Mouse">Mickey Mouse</a> shape</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lichen_Mickey_13_years_later.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Lichen_Mickey_13_years_later.jpg/220px-Lichen_Mickey_13_years_later.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Lichen_Mickey_13_years_later.jpg/330px-Lichen_Mickey_13_years_later.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Lichen_Mickey_13_years_later.jpg/440px-Lichen_Mickey_13_years_later.jpg 2x" data-file-width="801" data-file-height="619" /></a><figcaption>13 years later</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaeontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeontology">palaeontology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">geomorphology</a>, <b>lichenometry</b> is a geomorphic method of <a href="/wiki/Geochronologic" class="mw-redirect" title="Geochronologic">geochronologic</a> dating that uses <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichen</a> growth to determine the <a href="/wiki/Surface_exposure_dating" title="Surface exposure dating">age of exposed rock</a>, based on a presumed specific rate of increase in radial size over time.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LSN_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LSN-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 9">: 9 </span></sup> Measuring the diameter of the largest lichen of a species on a rock surface can therefore be used to determine the length of time the rock has been exposed. Lichen can be preserved on old rock faces for up to 10,000 years,<sup id="cite_ref-Benedict_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benedict-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> providing the maximum age limit of the technique, but it is most accurate (within 10% error) when applied to surfaces that have been exposed for less than 1,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (The practical limit of the technique might be 4,000 to 5,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Benedict_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benedict-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) </p><p>Lichenometry is especially useful for dating surfaces less than 500 years old, as radiocarbon dating techniques are less accurate over this period.<sup id="cite_ref-innes_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-innes-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lichens most commonly used for lichenometry are those of the genera <i><a href="/wiki/Rhizocarpon" title="Rhizocarpon">Rhizocarpon</a></i> (such as the species <i><a href="/wiki/Rhizocarpon_geographicum" title="Rhizocarpon geographicum">Rhizocarpon geographicum</a></i>) and <i><a href="/wiki/Xanthoria" title="Xanthoria">Xanthoria</a></i>. The measured growth rates of <i>R. geographicum</i> tends to fall within the range of 0.9–0.3 millimeter per year, depending on several factors, including the size of the lichen patch.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The technique was first employed by <a href="/wiki/Knut_F%C3%A6gri" title="Knut Fægri">Knut Fægri</a> in 1933, though the first exclusively lichenometric paper was not published until 1950, by Austrian <a href="/wiki/Roland_Beschel" title="Roland Beschel">Roland Beschel</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in a paper concerning the European <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scope_and_limitations">Scope and limitations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lichenometry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Scope and limitations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhizocarpon_geographicum_on_quartz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Rhizocarpon_geographicum_on_quartz.jpg/220px-Rhizocarpon_geographicum_on_quartz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Rhizocarpon_geographicum_on_quartz.jpg/330px-Rhizocarpon_geographicum_on_quartz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Rhizocarpon_geographicum_on_quartz.jpg/440px-Rhizocarpon_geographicum_on_quartz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Map_lichen" class="mw-redirect" title="Map lichen">map lichen</a> (<i>Rhizocarpon geographicum</i>), the lichen most used in lichenometry</figcaption></figure> <p>Lichenometry can provide dates for <a href="/wiki/Glacial" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacial">glacial</a> deposits in <a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">tundra</a> environments, lake level changes, glacial <a href="/wiki/Moraine" title="Moraine">moraines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trim_lines" class="mw-redirect" title="Trim lines">trim lines</a>, palaeofloods,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> rockfalls, seismic events associated with the rockfalls,<sup id="cite_ref-LSN_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LSN-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> talus (<a href="/wiki/Scree" title="Scree">scree</a>) stabilization and former extent of <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a> or very persistent snow cover.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has also been explored as a tool in assessing the speed of <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">glacier retreat</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lichens-global-warming_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lichens-global-warming-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the potential problems of the technique are the difficulty of correctly identifying the species, the delay between exposure and colonization, the varying growth rates from region to region, growth rates not always being constant over time and depend uuon substrate texture and composition, the climate, and determining the lichen that is the largest.<sup id="cite_ref-innes_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-innes-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lichenometry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xanthoria_elegans_97571.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Xanthoria_elegans_97571.jpg/220px-Xanthoria_elegans_97571.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Xanthoria_elegans_97571.jpg/330px-Xanthoria_elegans_97571.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Xanthoria_elegans_97571.jpg/440px-Xanthoria_elegans_97571.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1224" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Xanthoria_elegans" class="mw-redirect" title="Xanthoria elegans">Xanthoria elegans</a></i> was one of the first lichens used for lichenometry.</figcaption></figure> <p>Several methods exist for dating surfaces with help of lichenometry; the most simple relies on a single largest lichen though other methods use more. There are also differences in the way the lichen is measured; some scientists suggest that the largest <a href="/wiki/Diameter" title="Diameter">diameter</a> should be measured, but others prefer the diameter of the largest inscribed circle. A problem in dating lichens is the fact that several <a href="/wiki/Thalli" class="mw-redirect" title="Thalli">thalli</a> can fuse together, making several minor lichens appears as a larger one of older age.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lichenometrist Tom Bradwell has listed the following five method families as the principal ones into which most other methods can be classified: </p> <ul><li><b>Largest lichen (LL):</b> When the single largest lichen of a species is used it means that the lichen that is oldest or grows in most favorable conditions is used to date the minimum age of the exposed surface. This was the original lichenometric from which others then developed or used as reference. Despite relying upon a single lichen this technique is praised for its simplicity and allows obtaining an image of the age of rock exposure while still in the field.<sup id="cite_ref-GA_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GA-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Largest five lichens (5LL):</b> This method is a development of the <b>LL</b> and was developed in the 1970s to avoid reliance on one single potentially anomalous lichen. It has been proved that neither accuracy nor precision improves significantly by having more than five lichens.<sup id="cite_ref-GA_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GA-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Fixed-area largest lichen (FALL):</b> This technique was initially specially designed for dating rockfalls and <a href="/wiki/Talus_cone" class="mw-redirect" title="Talus cone">talus cones</a> with no uniform age of deposition. The largest <a href="/wiki/Thallus" title="Thallus">thallus</a> in a unit area is measured. The sample areas are usually boulders with surfaces of about 1 m<sup>2</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-GA_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GA-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Size-frequency approach (SF):</b> The analysis of size and frequency of lichens was initially done in order to study lichen populations and preexisting thalli growing on surfaces, but has since been used as an effective absolute and relative dating method.<sup id="cite_ref-GA_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GA-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Lichen cover approach (LC):</b> This method works with the premise of that the area covered by a single species will increase over time, and by measuring the total area percentage covered by a certain lichen species the age of exposure can be inferred.<sup id="cite_ref-GA_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GA-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lichenometry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holocene climatic and glacial history of the central Sierra Nevada, California, R.R. Curry, pp. 1–47, 1969, Geological Society of America Special Paper, 123, S.A. Schumm and W.C. Bradley, eds., 1969</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LSN-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LSN_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LSN_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lichens in relation to management issues in the Sierra Nevada national parks, McCune, B., J. Grenon, and E. Martin, L. Mutch, Sierra Nevada Network, Cooperative agreement CA9088A0008. Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, and Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks, Three Rivers, California, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://openjournals.wsu.edu/index.php/pnwfungi/article/view/1031">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Benedict-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Benedict_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Benedict_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBenedict2009" class="citation journal cs1">Benedict, James B. (January 2009). "A Review of Lichenometric Dating and Its Applications to Archaeology". <i><a href="/wiki/American_Antiquity" title="American Antiquity">American Antiquity</a></i>. <b>74</b> (1): 143–172. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0002731600047545">10.1017/S0002731600047545</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:83108496">83108496</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=A+Review+of+Lichenometric+Dating+and+Its+Applications+to+Archaeology&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=143-172&rft.date=2009-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0002731600047545&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A83108496%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Benedict&rft.aufirst=James+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALichenometry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sowers, J.M., Noller, J.S., and Lettis, W.R., eds., 1997, Dating and Earthquakes: Review of Quaternary Geochronology and its Application to Paleoseismology. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, NUREG/CR 5562.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-innes-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-innes_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-innes_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInnes" class="citation journal cs1">Innes, John L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ppg.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/9/2/187">"Lichenometry"</a>. <i>Progress in Physical Geography</i>. <b>9</b> (187).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Progress+in+Physical+Geography&rft.atitle=Lichenometry&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=187&rft.aulast=Innes&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fppg.sagepub.com%2Fcgi%2Freprint%2F9%2F2%2F187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALichenometry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArmstrong1983" class="citation journal cs1">Armstrong, R. A. (August 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-8137.1983.tb04870.x">"Growth Curve of the Lichen <i>Rhizocarpon Geographicum</i>"</a>. <i>New Phytologist</i>. <b>94</b> (4): 619–622. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-8137.1983.tb04870.x">10.1111/j.1469-8137.1983.tb04870.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-646X">0028-646X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Phytologist&rft.atitle=Growth+Curve+of+the+Lichen+Rhizocarpon+Geographicum&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=619-622&rft.date=1983-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-8137.1983.tb04870.x&rft.issn=0028-646X&rft.aulast=Armstrong&rft.aufirst=R.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1469-8137.1983.tb04870.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALichenometry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeschel1950" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roland_Beschel" title="Roland Beschel">Beschel, R.</a> (1950). "Flechten als Altersmasstab rezenter Moränen". <i>Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie</i>. <b>1</b>: 152–161.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Gletscherkunde+und+Glazialgeologie&rft.atitle=Flechten+als+Altersmasstab+rezenter+Mor%C3%A4nen&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=152-161&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Beschel&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALichenometry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080823052446/http://mc2.vicnet.net.au/home/date/web/lich.html">"Lichenometry"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mc2.vicnet.net.au/home/date/web/lich.html">the original</a> on 2008-08-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-02-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lichenometry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmc2.vicnet.net.au%2Fhome%2Fdate%2Fweb%2Flich.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALichenometry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Allen (2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/156523915/A-Lichenometric-Study-of-Palaeofloods-in-the-Brecon-Beacons">https://www.scribd.com/doc/156523915/A-Lichenometric-Study-of-Palaeofloods-in-the-Brecon-Beacons</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolominaIvanovBradwell2010" class="citation journal cs1">Solomina, Olga; Ivanov, Mikhail; Bradwell, Tom (2010). "Lichenometric studies on moraines in the Polar Urals". <i>Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography</i>. <b>92</b> (1): 81–99. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40661039">40661039</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geografiska+Annaler%3A+Series+A%2C+Physical+Geography&rft.atitle=Lichenometric+studies+on+moraines+in+the+Polar+Urals&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=81-99&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40661039%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Solomina&rft.aufirst=Olga&rft.au=Ivanov%2C+Mikhail&rft.au=Bradwell%2C+Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALichenometry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lichens-global-warming-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lichens-global-warming_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Armstrong2004" class="citation journal cs1">Richard Armstrong (September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090225044120/http://www.sfam.org.uk/pdf/features/lichens.pdf">"Lichens, Lichenometry, and Global Warming"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Microbiologist</i>: 32–35. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfam.org.uk/pdf/features/lichens.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2009-02-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Microbiologist&rft.atitle=Lichens%2C+Lichenometry%2C+and+Global+Warming&rft.pages=32-35&rft.date=2004-09&rft.au=Richard+Armstrong&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfam.org.uk%2Fpdf%2Ffeatures%2Flichens.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALichenometry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blackwellpublishing.com:443/Microbiology/pdfs/lichens.pdf">Lichen, Lichenometry and Global Warming</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110708012620/http://www.blackwellpublishing.com:443/Microbiology/pdfs/lichens.pdf">Archived</a> 2011-07-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GA-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GA_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GA_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GA_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GA_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GA_13-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradwell2009" class="citation journal cs1">Bradwell, Tom (2009). "Lichenometric Dating: A commentary in the light of some recent statistical studies". <i><a href="/wiki/Geografiska_Annaler" title="Geografiska Annaler">Geografiska Annaler</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geografiska+Annaler&rft.atitle=Lichenometric+Dating%3A+A+commentary+in+the+light+of+some+recent+statistical+studies&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Bradwell&rft.aufirst=Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALichenometry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lichenometry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinchester2023" class="citation journal cs1">Winchester, Vanessa (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fland12030611">"Lichenometric dating and its limitations and problems: a guide for practitioners"</a>. <i>Land</i>. <b>12</b> (3): 611. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fland12030611">10.3390/land12030611</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Land&rft.atitle=Lichenometric+dating+and+its+limitations+and+problems%3A+a+guide+for+practitioners&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=611&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fland12030611&rft.aulast=Winchester&rft.aufirst=Vanessa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fland12030611&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALichenometry" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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title="Template talk:Chronology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chronology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chronology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chronology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chronology" title="Chronology">Chronology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;">Key topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_History" title="Big History">Big History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periods</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Era" title="Era">Eras</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Epoch_(reference_date)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoch (reference date)">Epochs</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Calendar_era" title="Calendar era">Calendar eras</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_calendar" title="Holocene calendar">Human Era</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ab_urbe_condita" title="Ab urbe condita">Ab urbe condita</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anno_Domini" title="Anno Domini">Anno Domini</a> / <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anno_Mundi" title="Anno Mundi">Anno Mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosporan_era" title="Bosporan era">Bosporan era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bostran_era" title="Bostran era">Bostran era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_calendar" title="Byzantine calendar">Byzantine era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_era" title="Seleucid era">Seleucid era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Caesar_(Iberian_Peninsula)" class="mw-redirect" title="Era of Caesar (Iberian Peninsula)">Era of Caesar (Iberia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Before_present" class="mw-redirect" title="Before present">Before present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Hijri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_chronology" title="Egyptian chronology">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sothic_cycle" title="Sothic cycle">Sothic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_units_of_time" title="Hindu units of time">Hindu units of time</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yuga" title="Yuga">Yuga</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_calendars" title="Mesoamerican calendars">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Long_Count_calendar" title="Mesoamerican Long Count calendar">Long Count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar#Short_Count" title="Maya calendar">Short Count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzolk%27in" class="mw-redirect" title="Tzolk'in">Tzolk'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haab%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Haab'">Haab'</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Regnal_year" title="Regnal year">Regnal year</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anka_year" title="Anka year">Anka year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_of_Kings" title="Canon of Kings">Canon of Kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regnal_years_of_English_and_British_monarchs" title="Regnal years of English and British monarchs">English and British regnal year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Regnal_lists" title="Category:Regnal lists">Lists of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limmu" title="Limmu">Limmu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Regnal_year" title="Regnal year">Era names</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_era_name" title="Chinese era name">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_era_name" title="Japanese era name">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_era_name" title="Korean era name">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_era_name" title="Vietnamese era name">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">Calendars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Pre-Julian / Julian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Pre-Julian Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Original Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proleptic_Julian_calendar" title="Proleptic Julian calendar">Proleptic Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revised_Julian_calendar" title="Revised Julian calendar">Revised Julian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Gregorian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proleptic_Gregorian_calendar" title="Proleptic Gregorian calendar">Proleptic Gregorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">Old Style and New Style dates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_of_the_Gregorian_calendar" title="Adoption of the Gregorian calendar">Adoption of the Gregorian calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_dating" title="Dual dating">Dual dating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar" title="Lunisolar calendar">Lunisolar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Hindu</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_calendar" title="Solar calendar">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">Lunar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_year_numbering" title="Astronomical year numbering">Astronomical year numbering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexagenary_cycle" title="Sexagenary cycle">Chinese sexagenary cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_Calendar" title="Geologic Calendar">Geologic Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_calendars" title="Iranian calendars">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_week_date" title="ISO week date">ISO week date</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_calendars" title="Mesoamerican calendars">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_calendar" title="Aztec calendar">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_count" title="Winter count">Winter count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Earth_Time" title="New Earth Time">New Earth Time</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_chronology" title="Astronomical chronology">Astronomic time</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#fff;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Calendar" title="Cosmic Calendar">Cosmic Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephemeris" title="Ephemeris">Ephemeris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_year" title="Galactic year">Galactic year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metonic_cycle" title="Metonic cycle">Metonic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milankovitch_cycles" title="Milankovitch cycles">Milankovitch cycles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_time" title="Deep time">Deep time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale#Terminology" title="Geologic time scale">Geological time units</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_Standard_Stratigraphic_Age" title="Global Standard Stratigraphic Age">Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Boundary_Stratotype_Section_and_Point" title="Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point">Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronostratigraphy" title="Chronostratigraphy">Chronostratigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_geochemistry" title="Isotope geochemistry">Isotope geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_superposition" title="Law of superposition">Law of superposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminescence_dating" title="Luminescence dating">Luminescence dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarium%E2%80%93neodymium_dating" title="Samarium–neodymium dating">Samarium–neodymium dating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">Chronological<br />dating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Absolute_dating" title="Absolute dating">Absolute dating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid_dating" title="Amino acid dating">Amino acid racemisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeomagnetic_dating" title="Archaeomagnetic dating">Archaeomagnetic dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrochronology" title="Dendrochronology">Dendrochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_core" title="Ice core">Ice core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incremental_dating" title="Incremental dating">Incremental dating</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lichenometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleomagnetism" title="Paleomagnetism">Paleomagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">Radiometric dating</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Lead–lead dating">Lead–lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E2%80%93Ar_dating" title="K–Ar dating">Potassium–argon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">Radiocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Uranium–lead dating">Uranium–lead</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tephrochronology" title="Tephrochronology">Tephrochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminescence_dating" title="Luminescence dating">Luminescence dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoluminescence_dating" title="Thermoluminescence dating">Thermoluminescence dating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Relative_dating" title="Relative dating">Relative dating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fluorine_absorption_dating" title="Fluorine absorption dating">Fluorine absorption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dating" title="Nitrogen dating">Nitrogen dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsidian_hydration_dating" title="Obsidian hydration dating">Obsidian hydration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seriation_(archaeology)" title="Seriation (archaeology)">Seriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy_(archaeology)" title="Stratigraphy (archaeology)">Stratigraphy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;">Genetic methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">Molecular clock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;">Linguistic methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">Glottochronology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">Chronicle</a></li> 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