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id="toc-Fundamentals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radioactive_decay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radioactive_decay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Radioactive decay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radioactive_decay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decay_constant_determination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decay_constant_determination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Decay constant determination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decay_constant_determination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accuracy_of_radiometric_dating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accuracy_of_radiometric_dating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Accuracy of radiometric dating</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accuracy_of_radiometric_dating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Closure_temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Closure_temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Closure temperature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Closure_temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_age_equation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_age_equation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>The age equation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_age_equation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_dating_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_dating_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Modern dating methods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_dating_methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern dating methods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_dating_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Uranium–lead_dating_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uranium–lead_dating_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Uranium–lead dating method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uranium–lead_dating_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Samarium–neodymium_dating_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samarium–neodymium_dating_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Samarium–neodymium dating method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samarium–neodymium_dating_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potassium–argon_dating_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potassium–argon_dating_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Potassium–argon dating method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potassium–argon_dating_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rubidium–strontium_dating_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rubidium–strontium_dating_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Rubidium–strontium dating method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rubidium–strontium_dating_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uranium–thorium_dating_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uranium–thorium_dating_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Uranium–thorium dating method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uranium–thorium_dating_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiocarbon_dating_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiocarbon_dating_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Radiocarbon dating method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiocarbon_dating_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fission_track_dating_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fission_track_dating_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Fission track dating method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fission_track_dating_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chlorine-36_dating_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chlorine-36_dating_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Chlorine-36 dating method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chlorine-36_dating_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Luminescence_dating_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Luminescence_dating_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Luminescence dating methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Luminescence_dating_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Other methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dating_with_decay_products_of_short-lived_extinct_radionuclides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dating_with_decay_products_of_short-lived_extinct_radionuclides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Dating with decay products of short-lived extinct radionuclides</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dating_with_decay_products_of_short-lived_extinct_radionuclides-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dating with decay products of short-lived extinct radionuclides subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dating_with_decay_products_of_short-lived_extinct_radionuclides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_129I_–_129Xe_chronometer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_129I_–_129Xe_chronometer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The <sup>129</sup>I – <sup>129</sup>Xe chronometer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_129I_–_129Xe_chronometer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_26Al_–_26Mg_chronometer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_26Al_–_26Mg_chronometer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>The <sup>26</sup>Al – <sup>26</sup>Mg chronometer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_26Al_–_26Mg_chronometer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-A_terminology_issue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_terminology_issue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>A terminology issue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_terminology_issue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Radiometric dating</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiometriese_datering" title="Radiometriese datering – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Radiometriese datering" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A3%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A5%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="تأريخ إشعاعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تأريخ إشعاعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Радиоизотопно датиране – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Радиоизотопно датиране" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dataci%C3%B3_radiom%C3%A8trica" title="Datació radiomètrica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Datació radiomètrica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioaktivn%C3%AD_datov%C3%A1n%C3%AD" title="Radioaktivní datování – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Radioaktivní datování" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiometrische_Datierung" title="Radiometrische Datierung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Radiometrische Datierung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dataci%C3%B3n_radiom%C3%A9trica" title="Datación radiométrica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Datación radiométrica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B0%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="تاریخ‌گذاری پرتوسنجشی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ‌گذاری پرتوسنجشی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datation_radiom%C3%A9trique" title="Datation radiométrique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Datation radiométrique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%A9%EC%82%AC%EB%8A%A5_%EC%97%B0%EB%8C%80_%EC%B8%A1%EC%A0%95" title="방사능 연대 측정 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="방사능 연대 측정" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioizotopno_datiranje" title="Radioizotopno datiranje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Radioizotopno datiranje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penanggalan_radiometrik" title="Penanggalan radiometrik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penanggalan radiometrik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldursgreining_me%C3%B0_geislunarm%C3%A6lingu" title="Aldursgreining með geislunarmælingu – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Aldursgreining með geislunarmælingu" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datazione_radiometrica" title="Datazione radiometrica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Datazione radiometrica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9A_%D7%A8%D7%93%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%99" title="תיארוך רדיומטרי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תיארוך רדיומטרי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiometrinis_datavimas" title="Radiometrinis datavimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Radiometrinis datavimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiometrikus_kormeghat%C3%A1roz%C3%A1s" title="Radiometrikus kormeghatározás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Radiometrikus kormeghatározás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D1%86%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%B3_%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%85_%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Радиометрийн он цагийг тогтоох арга – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Радиометрийн он цагийг тогтоох арга" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiometrische_datering" title="Radiometrische datering – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Radiometrische datering" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84%E5%B9%B4%E4%BB%A3%E6%B8%AC%E5%AE%9A" title="放射年代測定 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="放射年代測定" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiometrisk_datering" title="Radiometrisk datering – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Radiometrisk datering" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiometrisk_datering" title="Radiometrisk datering – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Radiometrisk datering" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datowanie_izotopowe" title="Datowanie izotopowe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Datowanie izotopowe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%C3%A7%C3%A3o_radiom%C3%A9trica" title="Datação radiométrica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Datação radiométrica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Радиоизотопное датирование – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Радиоизотопное датирование" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Radiometric dating" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiometri%C4%8Dno_datiranje" title="Radiometrično datiranje – Slovenian" lang="sl" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Technique used to date materials such as rocks or carbon</div> <p> <b>Radiometric dating</b>, <b>radioactive dating</b> or <b>radioisotope dating</b> is a technique which is used to <a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">date</a> materials such as <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rocks</a> or <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, in which trace radioactive <a href="/wiki/Impurity" class="mw-redirect" title="Impurity">impurities</a> were selectively incorporated when they were formed. The method compares the abundance of a naturally occurring <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">radioactive isotope</a> within the material to the abundance of its <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">decay</a> products, which form at a known constant rate of decay.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of radiometric dating was first published in 1907 by <a href="/wiki/Bertram_Boltwood" title="Bertram Boltwood">Bertram Boltwood</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is now the principal source of information about the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_dating" title="Absolute dating">absolute age</a> of rocks and other <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geological features</a>, including the age of <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">fossilized life forms</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">age of Earth</a> itself, and can also be used to date a wide range of natural and <a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">man-made materials</a>. </p><p>Together with <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphic principles</a>, radiometric dating methods are used in <a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">geochronology</a> to establish the <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">geologic time scale</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the best-known techniques are <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium%E2%80%93argon_dating" class="mw-redirect" title="Potassium–argon dating">potassium–argon dating</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Uranium–lead dating">uranium–lead dating</a>. By allowing the establishment of geological timescales, it provides a significant source of information about the ages of <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> and the deduced rates of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> change. Radiometric dating is also used to date <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> materials, including ancient artifacts. </p><p>Different methods of radiometric dating vary in the timescale over which they are accurate and the materials to which they can be applied. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fundamentals">Fundamentals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Fundamentals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radioactive_decay">Radioactive decay</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Radioactive decay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thorium_decay_chain_from_lead-212_to_lead-208.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Thorium_decay_chain_from_lead-212_to_lead-208.svg/300px-Thorium_decay_chain_from_lead-212_to_lead-208.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="399" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Thorium_decay_chain_from_lead-212_to_lead-208.svg/450px-Thorium_decay_chain_from_lead-212_to_lead-208.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Thorium_decay_chain_from_lead-212_to_lead-208.svg/600px-Thorium_decay_chain_from_lead-212_to_lead-208.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3254" data-file-height="4327" /></a><figcaption>Example of a radioactive <a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">decay chain</a> from lead-212 (<sup>212</sup>Pb) to lead-208 (<sup>208</sup>Pb) . Each parent nuclide spontaneously decays into a daughter nuclide (the <a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">decay product</a>) via an <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">α decay</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">β<sup>−</sup> decay</a>. The final decay product, lead-208 (<sup>208</sup>Pb), is stable and can no longer undergo spontaneous radioactive decay.</figcaption></figure> <p>All ordinary <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> is made up of combinations of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a>, each with its own <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a>, indicating the number of <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a>. Additionally, elements may exist in different <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a>, with each isotope of an element differing in the number of <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> in the nucleus. A particular isotope of a particular element is called a <a href="/wiki/Nuclide" title="Nuclide">nuclide</a>. Some nuclides are inherently unstable. That is, at some point in time, an atom of such a nuclide will undergo <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> and spontaneously transform into a different nuclide. This transformation may be accomplished in a number of different ways, including <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha decay</a> (emission of <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a> (<a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> emission, <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a> emission, or <a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron capture</a>). Another possibility is <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">spontaneous fission</a> into two or more nuclides.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>While the moment in time at which a particular nucleus decays is unpredictable, a collection of atoms of a radioactive nuclide decays <a href="/wiki/Exponential_decay" title="Exponential decay">exponentially</a> at a rate described by a parameter known as the <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a>, usually given in units of years when discussing dating techniques. After one half-life has elapsed, one half of the atoms of the nuclide in question will have decayed into a "daughter" nuclide or <a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">decay product</a>. In many cases, the daughter nuclide itself is radioactive, resulting in a <a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">decay chain</a>, eventually ending with the formation of a stable (nonradioactive) daughter nuclide; each step in such a chain is characterized by a distinct half-life. In these cases, usually the half-life of interest in radiometric dating is the longest one in the chain, which is the rate-limiting factor in the ultimate transformation of the radioactive nuclide into its stable daughter. Isotopic systems that have been exploited for radiometric dating have half-lives ranging from only about 10 years (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a>) to over 100 billion years (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Samarium-147" title="Samarium-147">samarium-147</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Bernard-Griffiths1989_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernard-Griffiths1989-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For most radioactive nuclides, the half-life depends solely on nuclear properties and is essentially constant.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is known because decay constants measured by different techniques give consistent values within analytical errors and the ages of the same materials are consistent from one method to another. It is not affected by external factors such as <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>, chemical environment, or presence of a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only exceptions are nuclides that decay by the process of electron capture, such as <a href="/wiki/Beryllium-7" class="mw-redirect" title="Beryllium-7">beryllium-7</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strontium-85" class="mw-redirect" title="Strontium-85">strontium-85</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zirconium-89" class="mw-redirect" title="Zirconium-89">zirconium-89</a>, whose decay rate may be affected by local electron density. For all other nuclides, the proportion of the original nuclide to its decay products changes in a predictable way as the original nuclide decays over time.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This predictability allows the relative abundances of related nuclides to be used as a <a href="/wiki/Clock" title="Clock">clock</a> to measure the time from the incorporation of the original nuclides into a material to the present. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decay_constant_determination">Decay constant determination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Decay constant determination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive decay law">Radioactive decay law</a></div> <p>The radioactive decay constant, the probability that an atom will decay per year, is the solid foundation of the common measurement of radioactivity. The accuracy and precision of the determination of an age (and a nuclide's half-life) depends on the accuracy and precision of the decay constant measurement.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The in-growth method is one way of measuring the decay constant of a system, which involves accumulating daughter nuclides. Unfortunately for nuclides with high decay constants (which are useful for dating very old samples), long periods of time (decades) are required to accumulate enough decay products in a single sample to accurately measure them. A faster method involves using particle counters to determine alpha, beta or gamma activity, and then dividing that by the number of radioactive nuclides. However, it is challenging and expensive to accurately determine the number of radioactive nuclides. Alternatively, decay constants can be determined by comparing isotope data for rocks of known age. This method requires at least one of the isotope systems to be very precisely calibrated, such as the <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Lead–lead dating">Pb–Pb system</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accuracy_of_radiometric_dating">Accuracy of radiometric dating</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Accuracy of radiometric dating"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thermal_ionization_mass_spectrometer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Thermal_ionization_mass_spectrometer.jpg/220px-Thermal_ionization_mass_spectrometer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Thermal_ionization_mass_spectrometer.jpg/330px-Thermal_ionization_mass_spectrometer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Thermal_ionization_mass_spectrometer.jpg/440px-Thermal_ionization_mass_spectrometer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="1972" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thermal_ionization_mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal ionization mass spectrometer">Thermal ionization mass spectrometer</a> used in radiometric dating.</figcaption></figure> <p>The basic equation of radiometric dating requires that neither the parent nuclide nor the daughter product can enter or leave the material after its formation. The possible confounding effects of contamination of parent and daughter isotopes have to be considered, as do the effects of any loss or gain of such isotopes since the sample was created. It is therefore essential to have as much information as possible about the material being dated and to check for possible signs of <a href="/wiki/Metasomatism" title="Metasomatism">alteration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Precision is enhanced if measurements are taken on multiple samples from different locations of the rock body. Alternatively, if several different minerals can be dated from the same sample and are assumed to be formed by the same event and were in equilibrium with the reservoir when they formed, they should form an <a href="/wiki/Isochron_dating" title="Isochron dating">isochron</a>. This can reduce the problem of <a href="/wiki/Contamination" title="Contamination">contamination</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Uranium–lead dating">uranium–lead dating</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Concordia_diagram" class="mw-redirect" title="Concordia diagram">concordia diagram</a> is used which also decreases the problem of nuclide loss. Finally, correlation between different isotopic dating methods may be required to confirm the age of a sample. For example, the age of the <a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Greenland" title="Geology of Greenland">Amitsoq gneisses from western Greenland</a> was determined to be 3.60 ± 0.05 <a href="/wiki/Gigaannum" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigaannum">Ga</a> (billion years ago) using uranium–lead dating and 3.56 ± 0.10 Ga (billion years ago) using lead–lead dating, results that are consistent with each other.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 142–143">: 142–143 </span></sup> </p><p>Accurate radiometric dating generally requires that the parent has a long enough half-life that it will be present in significant amounts at the time of measurement (except as described below under "Dating with short-lived extinct radionuclides"), the half-life of the parent is accurately known, and enough of the daughter product is produced to be accurately measured and distinguished from the initial amount of the daughter present in the material. The procedures used to isolate and analyze the parent and daughter nuclides must be precise and accurate. This normally involves <a href="/wiki/Isotope-ratio_mass_spectrometry" title="Isotope-ratio mass spectrometry">isotope-ratio mass spectrometry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The precision of a dating method depends in part on the half-life of the radioactive isotope involved. For instance, carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,730 years. After an organism has been dead for 60,000 years, so little carbon-14 is left that accurate dating cannot be established. On the other hand, the concentration of carbon-14 falls off so steeply that the age of relatively young remains can be determined precisely to within a few decades.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Closure_temperature">Closure temperature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Closure temperature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Closure_temperature" title="Closure temperature">Closure temperature</a></div> <p>The closure temperature or blocking temperature represents the temperature below which the mineral is a closed system for the studied isotopes. If a material that selectively rejects the daughter nuclide is heated above this temperature, any daughter nuclides that have been accumulated over time will be lost through <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a>, resetting the isotopic "clock" to zero. As the mineral cools, the crystal structure begins to form and diffusion of isotopes is less easy. At a certain temperature, the crystal structure has formed sufficiently to prevent diffusion of isotopes. Thus an igneous or metamorphic rock or melt, which is slowly cooling, does not begin to exhibit measurable radioactive decay until it cools below the closure temperature. The age that can be calculated by radiometric dating is thus the time at which the rock or mineral cooled to closure temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-Faure_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Faure-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rollinson_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rollinson-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This temperature varies for every mineral and isotopic system, so a system can be <a href="/wiki/Closed_system" title="Closed system">closed</a> for one mineral but <a href="/wiki/Open_system_(thermodynamics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Open system (thermodynamics)">open</a> for another. Dating of different minerals and/or isotope systems (with differing closure temperatures) within the same rock can therefore enable the tracking of the thermal history of the rock in question with time, and thus the history of metamorphic events may become known in detail. These temperatures are experimentally determined in the lab by <a href="/wiki/Petrology#Branches" title="Petrology">artificially resetting sample minerals</a> using a high-temperature furnace. This field is known as <a href="/wiki/Thermochronology" title="Thermochronology">thermochronology</a> or thermochronometry.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_age_equation">The age equation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The age equation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Figure_2_High_res_Debaille_et_al_(2017)_The_role_of_phosphates_for_the_Lu%E2%80%93Hf_chronology_of_meteorites.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Figure_2_High_res_Debaille_et_al_%282017%29_The_role_of_phosphates_for_the_Lu%E2%80%93Hf_chronology_of_meteorites.gif/220px-Figure_2_High_res_Debaille_et_al_%282017%29_The_role_of_phosphates_for_the_Lu%E2%80%93Hf_chronology_of_meteorites.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="412" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Figure_2_High_res_Debaille_et_al_%282017%29_The_role_of_phosphates_for_the_Lu%E2%80%93Hf_chronology_of_meteorites.gif/330px-Figure_2_High_res_Debaille_et_al_%282017%29_The_role_of_phosphates_for_the_Lu%E2%80%93Hf_chronology_of_meteorites.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Figure_2_High_res_Debaille_et_al_%282017%29_The_role_of_phosphates_for_the_Lu%E2%80%93Hf_chronology_of_meteorites.gif/440px-Figure_2_High_res_Debaille_et_al_%282017%29_The_role_of_phosphates_for_the_Lu%E2%80%93Hf_chronology_of_meteorites.gif 2x" data-file-width="3427" data-file-height="6416" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Samarium%E2%80%93neodymium_dating" title="Samarium–neodymium dating">Lu-Hf</a> isochrons plotted of meteorite samples. The age is calculated from the slope of the isochron (line) and the original composition from the intercept of the isochron with the y-axis.</figcaption></figure> <p>The mathematical expression that relates radioactive decay to geologic time is<sup id="cite_ref-Faure_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Faure-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cornell_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cornell-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996643573">.mw-parser-output .block-indent{padding-left:3em;padding-right:0;overflow:hidden}</style><div class="block-indent" style="padding-left: 1.2em;"><span class="texhtml"><i>D</i>* = <i>D</i><sub>0</sub> + <i>N</i>(<i>t</i>) (<i>e</i><sup><i>λt</i></sup> − 1)</span></div> <p>where </p> <ul><li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">t</span> is age of the sample,</li> <li><span class="texhtml"><i>D</i>*</span> is number of atoms of the radiogenic daughter isotope in the sample,</li> <li><span class="texhtml"><i>D</i><sub>0</sub></span> is number of atoms of the daughter isotope in the original or initial composition,</li> <li><span class="texhtml"><i>N</i>(<i>t</i>)</span> is number of atoms of the parent isotope in the sample at time <var style="padding-right: 1px;">t</var> (the present), given by <span class="texhtml"><i>N</i>(<i>t</i>) = <i>N</i><sub>0</sub><i>e</i><sup>−<i>λt</i></sup></span>, and</li> <li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">λ</span> is the <a href="/wiki/Decay_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Decay constant">decay constant</a> of the parent isotope, equal to the inverse of the radioactive <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> of the parent isotope<sup id="cite_ref-usgs_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> times the natural logarithm of 2.</li></ul> <p>The equation is most conveniently expressed in terms of the measured quantity <i>N</i>(<i>t</i>) rather than the constant initial value <i>N<sub>o</sub></i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>To calculate the age, it is assumed that the system is <a href="/wiki/Closed_system" title="Closed system">closed</a> (neither parent nor daughter isotopes have been lost from system), <i>D</i><sub>0</sub> either must be negligible or can be accurately estimated, <i>λ</i> is known to high precision, and one has accurate and precise measurements of D* and <i>N</i>(<i>t</i>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The above equation makes use of information on the composition of parent and daughter isotopes at the time the material being tested cooled below its <a href="/wiki/Closure_temperature" title="Closure temperature">closure temperature</a>. This is well established for most isotopic systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Rollinson_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rollinson-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, construction of an isochron does not require information on the original compositions, using merely the present ratios of the parent and daughter isotopes to a standard isotope. An <a href="/wiki/Isochron_dating" title="Isochron dating">isochron plot</a> is used to solve the age equation graphically and calculate the age of the sample and the original composition.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_dating_methods">Modern dating methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Modern dating methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Radiometric dating has been carried out since 1905 when it was <a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_Earth#Invention_of_radiometric_dating" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of the Earth">invented</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> as a method by which one might determine the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of the Earth">age of the Earth</a>. In the century since then the techniques have been greatly improved and expanded.<sup id="cite_ref-usgs_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dating can now be performed on samples as small as a nanogram using a <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass spectrometer">mass spectrometer</a>. The mass spectrometer was invented in the 1940s and began to be used in radiometric dating in the 1950s. It operates by generating a beam of <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ionized atoms</a> from the sample under test. The ions then travel through a magnetic field, which diverts them into different sampling sensors, known as "<a href="/wiki/Faraday_cup" title="Faraday cup">Faraday cups</a>," depending on their mass and level of ionization. On impact in the cups, the ions set up a very weak current that can be measured to determine the rate of impacts and the relative concentrations of different atoms in the beams.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Uranium–lead_dating_method"><span id="Uranium.E2.80.93lead_dating_method"></span>Uranium–lead dating method</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Uranium–lead dating method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Uranium–lead dating">Uranium–lead dating</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pfunze_belt_concordia.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Pfunze_belt_concordia.png/400px-Pfunze_belt_concordia.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Pfunze_belt_concordia.png/600px-Pfunze_belt_concordia.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Pfunze_belt_concordia.png/800px-Pfunze_belt_concordia.png 2x" data-file-width="1298" data-file-height="869" /></a><figcaption>A concordia diagram as used in <a href="/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Uranium–lead dating">uranium–lead dating</a>, with data from the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pfunze_Belt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pfunze Belt (page does not exist)">Pfunze Belt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All the samples show loss of lead isotopes, but the intercept of the errorchron (straight line through the sample points) and the concordia (curve) shows the correct age of the rock.<sup id="cite_ref-Rollinson_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rollinson-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_radiometric_dating" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium–lead radiometric dating">Uranium–lead radiometric dating</a> involves using uranium-235 or uranium-238 to date a substance's absolute age. This scheme has been refined to the point that the error margin in dates of rocks can be as low as less than two million years in two-and-a-half billion years.<sup id="cite_ref-Oberthuer_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oberthuer-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An error margin of 2–5% has been achieved on younger <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> rocks.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Uranium–lead dating is often performed on the <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">mineral</a> <a href="/wiki/Zircon" title="Zircon">zircon</a> (ZrSiO<sub>4</sub>), though it can be used on other materials, such as <a href="/wiki/Baddeleyite" title="Baddeleyite">baddeleyite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monazite" title="Monazite">monazite</a> (see: <a href="/wiki/Monazite_geochronology" title="Monazite geochronology">monazite geochronology</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zircon and baddeleyite incorporate uranium atoms into their crystalline structure as substitutes for <a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">zirconium</a>, but strongly reject lead. Zircon has a very high closure temperature, is resistant to mechanical weathering and is very chemically inert. Zircon also forms multiple crystal layers during metamorphic events, which each may record an isotopic age of the event. <i>In situ</i> micro-beam analysis can be achieved via laser <a href="/wiki/ICP-MS" class="mw-redirect" title="ICP-MS">ICP-MS</a> or <a href="/wiki/Secondary_ion_mass_spectrometry" title="Secondary ion mass spectrometry">SIMS</a> techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of its great advantages is that any sample provides two clocks, one based on uranium-235's decay to lead-207 with a half-life of about 700 million years, and one based on uranium-238's decay to lead-206 with a half-life of about 4.5 billion years, providing a built-in crosscheck that allows accurate determination of the age of the sample even if some of the lead has been lost. This can be seen in the concordia diagram, where the samples plot along an errorchron (straight line) which intersects the concordia curve at the age of the sample.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Samarium–neodymium_dating_method"><span id="Samarium.E2.80.93neodymium_dating_method"></span>Samarium–neodymium dating method</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Samarium–neodymium dating method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Samarium%E2%80%93neodymium_dating" title="Samarium–neodymium dating">Samarium–neodymium dating</a></div> <p>This involves the <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha decay</a> of <sup>147</sup>Sm to <sup>143</sup>Nd with a <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> of 1.06 x 10<sup>11</sup> years. Accuracy levels of within twenty million years in ages of two-and-a-half billion years are achievable.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potassium–argon_dating_method"><span id="Potassium.E2.80.93argon_dating_method"></span>Potassium–argon dating method</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Potassium–argon dating method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Potassium%E2%80%93argon_dating" class="mw-redirect" title="Potassium–argon dating">Potassium–argon dating</a></div> <p>This involves <a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron capture</a> or <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a> decay of potassium-40 to argon-40. Potassium-40 has a half-life of 1.3 billion years, so this method is applicable to the oldest rocks. Radioactive potassium-40 is common in <a href="/wiki/Mica" title="Mica">micas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">feldspars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hornblende" title="Hornblende">hornblendes</a>, though the closure temperature is fairly low in these materials, about 350 °C (mica) to 500 °C (hornblende).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rubidium–strontium_dating_method"><span id="Rubidium.E2.80.93strontium_dating_method"></span>Rubidium–strontium dating method</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Rubidium–strontium dating method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rubidium%E2%80%93strontium_dating" title="Rubidium–strontium dating">Rubidium–strontium dating</a></div> <p>This is based on the beta decay of <a href="/wiki/Rubidium-87" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubidium-87">rubidium-87</a> to <a href="/wiki/Strontium-87" class="mw-redirect" title="Strontium-87">strontium-87</a>, with a half-life of 50 billion years. This scheme is used to date old <a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">igneous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metamorphic_rock" title="Metamorphic rock">metamorphic rocks</a>, and has also been used to date <a href="/wiki/Moon_rock" title="Moon rock">lunar samples</a>. Closure temperatures are so high that they are not a concern. Rubidium-strontium dating is not as precise as the uranium–lead method, with errors of 30 to 50 million years for a 3-billion-year-old sample. Application of in situ analysis (Laser-Ablation ICP-MS) within single mineral grains in faults have shown that the Rb-Sr method can be used to decipher episodes of fault movement.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Uranium–thorium_dating_method"><span id="Uranium.E2.80.93thorium_dating_method"></span>Uranium–thorium dating method</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Uranium–thorium dating method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93thorium_dating" title="Uranium–thorium dating">Uranium–thorium dating</a></div> <p>A relatively short-range dating technique is based on the decay of uranium-234 into thorium-230, a substance with a half-life of about 80,000 years. It is accompanied by a sister process, in which uranium-235 decays into protactinium-231, which has a half-life of 32,760 years.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>While <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> is water-soluble, <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">protactinium</a> are not, and so they are selectively precipitated into ocean-floor <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a>, from which their ratios are measured. The scheme has a range of several hundred thousand years. A related method is <a href="/wiki/Ionium%E2%80%93thorium_dating" title="Ionium–thorium dating">ionium–thorium dating</a>, which measures the ratio of <a href="/wiki/Ionium" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionium">ionium</a> (thorium-230) to thorium-232 in <a href="/wiki/Ocean_sediment" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean sediment">ocean sediment</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiocarbon_dating_method">Radiocarbon dating method</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Radiocarbon dating method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">Radiocarbon dating</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ales_stenar_bred.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ales_stenar_bred.jpg/300px-Ales_stenar_bred.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ales_stenar_bred.jpg/450px-Ales_stenar_bred.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ales_stenar_bred.jpg/600px-Ales_stenar_bred.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1260" data-file-height="492" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ale%27s_Stones" title="Ale's Stones">Ale's Stones</a> at Kåseberga, around ten kilometres south east of <a href="/wiki/Ystad" title="Ystad">Ystad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> were dated at 56 CE using the carbon-14 method on organic material found at the site.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">Radiocarbon dating</a> is also simply called carbon-14 dating. Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon, with a half-life of 5,730 years<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (which is very short compared with the above isotopes), and decays into nitrogen.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other radiometric dating methods, the heavy parent isotopes were produced by <a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">nucleosynthesis</a> in supernovas, meaning that any parent isotope with a short half-life should be extinct by now. Carbon-14, though, is continuously created through collisions of neutrons generated by <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a> with nitrogen in the <a href="/wiki/Upper_atmosphere" title="Upper atmosphere">upper atmosphere</a> and thus remains at a near-constant level on Earth. The carbon-14 ends up as a trace component in atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO<sub>2</sub>).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A carbon-based life form acquires carbon during its lifetime. Plants acquire it through <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, and animals acquire it from consumption of plants and other animals. When an organism dies, it ceases to take in new carbon-14, and the existing isotope decays with a characteristic half-life (5730 years). The proportion of carbon-14 left when the remains of the organism are examined provides an indication of the time elapsed since its death. This makes carbon-14 an ideal dating method to date the age of bones or the remains of an organism. The carbon-14 dating limit lies around 58,000 to 62,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rate of creation of carbon-14 appears to be roughly constant, as cross-checks of carbon-14 dating with other dating methods show it gives consistent results. However, local eruptions of <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a> or other events that give off large amounts of carbon dioxide can reduce local concentrations of carbon-14 and give inaccurate dates. The releases of carbon dioxide into the <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a> as a consequence of <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a> have also depressed the proportion of carbon-14 by a few percent; in contrast, the amount of carbon-14 was increased by above-ground <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear bomb">nuclear bomb</a> tests that were conducted into the early 1960s. Also, an increase in the <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a> or the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a> above the current value would depress the amount of carbon-14 created in the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fission_track_dating_method">Fission track dating method</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Fission track dating method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fission_track_dating" title="Fission track dating">fission track dating</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apatite_Canada.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Apatite_Canada.jpg/220px-Apatite_Canada.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Apatite_Canada.jpg/330px-Apatite_Canada.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Apatite_Canada.jpg/440px-Apatite_Canada.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4808" data-file-height="6112" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Apatite" title="Apatite">Apatite</a> crystals are widely used in fission track dating.</figcaption></figure> <p>This involves inspection of a polished slice of a material to determine the density of "track" markings left in it by the <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">spontaneous fission</a> of uranium-238 impurities. The uranium content of the sample has to be known, but that can be determined by placing a plastic film over the polished slice of the material, and bombarding it with <a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutrons">slow neutrons</a>. This causes induced fission of <sup>235</sup>U, as opposed to the spontaneous fission of <sup>238</sup>U. The fission tracks produced by this process are recorded in the plastic film. The uranium content of the material can then be calculated from the number of tracks and the <a href="/wiki/Neutron_flux" title="Neutron flux">neutron flux</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This scheme has application over a wide range of geologic dates. For dates up to a few million years <a href="/wiki/Mica" title="Mica">micas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tektite" title="Tektite">tektites</a> (glass fragments from volcanic eruptions), and meteorites are best used. Older materials can be dated using <a href="/wiki/Zircon" title="Zircon">zircon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apatite" title="Apatite">apatite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titanite" title="Titanite">titanite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epidote" title="Epidote">epidote</a> and <a href="/wiki/Garnet" title="Garnet">garnet</a> which have a variable amount of uranium content.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the fission tracks are healed by temperatures over about 200 °C the technique has limitations as well as benefits. The technique has potential applications for detailing the thermal history of a deposit.<sup id="cite_ref-Naeser-McCulloh1989_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naeser-McCulloh1989-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chlorine-36_dating_method">Chlorine-36 dating method</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Chlorine-36 dating method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Large amounts of otherwise rare <a href="/wiki/Chlorine-36" title="Chlorine-36"><sup>36</sup>Cl</a> (half-life ~300ky) were produced by irradiation of seawater during atmospheric detonations of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> between 1952 and 1958. The residence time of <sup>36</sup>Cl in the atmosphere is about 1 week. Thus, as an event marker of 1950s water in soil and ground water, <sup>36</sup>Cl is also useful for dating waters less than 50 years before the present. <sup>36</sup>Cl has seen use in other areas of the geological sciences, including dating ice<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and sediments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Luminescence_dating_methods">Luminescence dating methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Luminescence dating methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Luminescence_dating" title="Luminescence dating">Luminescence dating</a></div> <p>Luminescence dating methods are not radiometric dating methods in that they do not rely on abundances of isotopes to calculate age. Instead, they are a consequence of <a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">background radiation</a> on certain minerals. Over time, <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> is absorbed by mineral grains in sediments and archaeological materials such as <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_feldspar" title="Potassium feldspar">potassium feldspar</a>. The radiation causes charge to remain within the grains in structurally unstable "electron traps". Exposure to sunlight or heat releases these charges, effectively "bleaching" the sample and resetting the clock to zero. The trapped charge accumulates over time at a rate determined by the amount of background radiation at the location where the sample was buried. Stimulating these mineral grains using either light (<a href="/wiki/Optically_stimulated_luminescence" title="Optically stimulated luminescence">optically stimulated luminescence</a> or infrared stimulated luminescence dating) or heat (<a href="/wiki/Thermoluminescence_dating" title="Thermoluminescence dating">thermoluminescence dating</a>) causes a luminescence signal to be emitted as the stored unstable electron energy is released, the intensity of which varies depending on the amount of radiation absorbed during burial and specific properties of the mineral.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These methods can be used to date the age of a sediment layer, as layers deposited on top would prevent the grains from being "bleached" and reset by sunlight. Pottery shards can be dated to the last time they experienced significant heat, generally when they were fired in a kiln.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_methods">Other methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Other methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other methods include:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argon%E2%80%93argon_dating" title="Argon–argon dating">Argon–argon</a> (Ar–Ar)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iodine%E2%80%93xenon_dating" class="mw-redirect" title="Iodine–xenon dating">Iodine–xenon</a> (I–Xe)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lanthanum%E2%80%93barium_dating&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lanthanum–barium dating (page does not exist)">Lanthanum–barium</a> (La–Ba)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Lead–lead dating">Lead–lead</a> (Pb–Pb)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetium%E2%80%93hafnium_dating" title="Lutetium–hafnium dating">Lutetium–hafnium</a> (Lu–Hf)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafnium%E2%80%93tungsten_dating" title="Hafnium–tungsten dating">Hafnium–tungsten dating</a> (Hf-W)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E2%80%93Ca_dating" title="K–Ca dating">Potassium–calcium</a> (K–Ca)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhenium%E2%80%93osmium_dating" title="Rhenium–osmium dating">Rhenium–osmium</a> (Re–Os)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93uranium_dating" title="Uranium–uranium dating">Uranium–uranium</a> (U–U)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Krypton%E2%80%93krypton_dating&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Krypton–krypton dating (page does not exist)">Krypton–krypton</a> (Kr–Kr)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beryllium#Isotopes_and_nucleosynthesis" title="Beryllium">Beryllium</a> (<sup>10</sup>Be–<sup>9</sup>Be)<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dating_with_decay_products_of_short-lived_extinct_radionuclides">Dating with decay products of short-lived extinct radionuclides</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Dating with decay products of short-lived extinct radionuclides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Absolute radiometric dating requires a measurable fraction of parent nucleus to remain in the sample rock. For rocks dating back to the beginning of the solar system, this requires extremely long-lived parent isotopes, making measurement of such rocks' exact ages imprecise. To be able to distinguish the relative ages of rocks from such old material, and to get a better time resolution than that available from long-lived isotopes, short-lived isotopes that are no longer present in the rock can be used.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the beginning of the solar system, there were several relatively short-lived radionuclides like <sup>26</sup>Al, <sup>60</sup>Fe, <sup>53</sup>Mn, and <sup>129</sup>I present within the solar nebula. These radionuclides—possibly produced by the explosion of a supernova—are extinct today, but their decay products can be detected in very old material, such as that which constitutes <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorites</a>. By measuring the decay products of extinct radionuclides with a <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass spectrometer">mass spectrometer</a> and using isochronplots, it is possible to determine relative ages of different events in the early history of the solar system. Dating methods based on extinct radionuclides can also be calibrated with the U–Pb method to give absolute ages. Thus both the approximate age and a high time resolution can be obtained. Generally a shorter half-life leads to a higher time resolution at the expense of timescale.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_129I_–_129Xe_chronometer"><span id="The_129I_.E2.80.93_129Xe_chronometer"></span>The <sup>129</sup>I – <sup>129</sup>Xe chronometer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The 129I – 129Xe chronometer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Iodine-129#Meteorite_age_dating" title="Iodine-129">Iodine-129 § Meteorite age dating</a></div> <p><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">129</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>I<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> beta-decays to <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">129</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Xe<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> with a half-life of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7001161400000000000♠"></span>16.14<span style="margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;">±</span>0.12 million years</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-NUBASE2020_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NUBASE2020-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The iodine-xenon chronometer<sup id="cite_ref-IXe_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IXe-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an isochron technique. Samples are exposed to neutrons in a nuclear reactor. This converts the only stable isotope of iodine (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">127</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>I<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>) into <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">128</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Xe<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> via neutron capture followed by beta decay (of <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">128</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>I<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>). After irradiation, samples are heated in a series of steps and the xenon <a href="/wiki/Isotopic_signature" title="Isotopic signature">isotopic signature</a> of the gas evolved in each step is analysed. When a consistent <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">129</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Xe<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>/<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">128</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Xe<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> ratio is observed across several consecutive temperature steps, it can be interpreted as corresponding to a time at which the sample stopped losing xenon.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Samples of a meteorite called Shallowater are usually included in the irradiation to monitor the conversion efficiency from <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">127</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>I<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> to <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">128</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Xe<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>. The difference between the measured <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">129</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Xe<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>/<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">128</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Xe<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> ratios of the sample and Shallowater then corresponds to the different ratios of <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">129</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>I<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>/<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">127</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>I<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> when they each stopped losing xenon. This in turn corresponds to a difference in age of closure in the early solar system.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_26Al_–_26Mg_chronometer"><span id="The_26Al_.E2.80.93_26Mg_chronometer"></span>The <sup>26</sup>Al – <sup>26</sup>Mg chronometer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: The 26Al – 26Mg chronometer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another example of short-lived extinct radionuclide dating is the <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Aluminium-26" title="Aluminium-26"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">26</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Al<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span> – <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">26</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Mg<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> chronometer, which can be used to estimate the relative ages of <a href="/wiki/Chondrule" title="Chondrule">chondrules</a>. <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">26</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Al<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> decays to <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">26</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Mg<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> with a <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> of 720 000 years. The dating is simply a question of finding the deviation from the <a href="/wiki/Natural_abundance" title="Natural abundance">natural abundance</a> of <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">26</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Mg<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> (the product of <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">26</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Al<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> decay) in comparison with the ratio of the stable isotopes <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">27</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Al<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>/<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">24</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Mg<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The excess of <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">26</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Mg<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> (often designated <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">26</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Mg<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>*) is found by comparing the <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">26</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Mg<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>/<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">27</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Mg<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> ratio to that of other Solar System materials.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">26</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Al<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> – <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">26</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Mg<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> chronometer gives an estimate of the time period for formation of primitive meteorites of only a few million years (1.4 million years for Chondrule formation).<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_terminology_issue">A terminology issue</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: A terminology issue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a July 2022 paper in the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Applied_Geochemistry" title="Applied Geochemistry">Applied Geochemistry</a></i>, the authors proposed that the terms "parent isotope" and "daughter isotope" be avoided in favor of the more descriptive "precursor isotope" and "product isotope", analogous to "precursor ion" and "product ion" in <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">mass spectrometry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/IUPAC_books#Gold_Book" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC books">Compendium of Chemical Terminology</a></i>, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/R05082.html">radioactive dating</a>". <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fgoldbook.R05082">10.1351/goldbook.R05082</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoltwood,_Bertram1907" class="citation journal cs1">Boltwood, Bertram (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1450152">"The Ultimate Disintegration Products of the Radio-active Elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium"</a>. <i>American Journal of Science</i>. 4. <b>23</b> (134): 77–88. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1907AmJS...23...78B">1907AmJS...23...78B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.s4-23.134.78">10.2475/ajs.s4-23.134.78</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:131688682">131688682</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=The+Ultimate+Disintegration+Products+of+the+Radio-active+Elements.+Part+II.+The+disintegration+products+of+uranium&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=134&rft.pages=77-88&rft.date=1907&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A131688682%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2475%2Fajs.s4-23.134.78&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1907AmJS...23...78B&rft.au=Boltwood%2C+Bertram&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1450152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiometric+dating" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McRae, A. 1998. <i>Radiometric Dating and the Geological Time Scale: Circular Reasoning or Reliable Tools?</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dating.html">Radiometric Dating and the Geological Time Scale</a>, <a href="/wiki/TalkOrigins_Archive" title="TalkOrigins Archive">TalkOrigins Archive</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bernard-Griffiths1989-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bernard-Griffiths1989_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernard-GriffithsGroan1989" class="citation book cs1">Bernard-Griffiths, J.; Groan, G. (1989). "The samarium–neodymium method". In Roth, Etienne; Poty, Bernard (eds.). <i>Nuclear Methods of Dating</i>. 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(1 April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305440315000667">"Optical dating in archaeology: thirty years in retrospect and grand challenges for the future"</a>. <i>Journal of Archaeological Science</i>. Scoping the Future of Archaeological Science: Papers in Honour of Richard Klein. <b>56</b>: 41–60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2015.02.028">10.1016/j.jas.2015.02.028</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0305-4403">0305-4403</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Science&rft.atitle=Optical+dating+in+archaeology%3A+thirty+years+in+retrospect+and+grand+challenges+for+the+future&rft.volume=56&rft.pages=41-60&rft.date=2015-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jas.2015.02.028&rft.issn=0305-4403&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Richard+G.&rft.au=Jacobs%2C+Zenobia&rft.au=Li%2C+Bo&rft.au=Jankowski%2C+Nathan+R.&rft.au=Cunningham%2C+Alastair+C.&rft.au=Rosenfeld%2C+Anatoly+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0305440315000667&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiometric+dating" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Application of the authigenic 10 Be/ 9 Be dating method to Late Miocene–Pliocene sequences in the northern Danube Basin;Michal Šujan – Global and Planetary Change 137 (2016) 35–53; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michal_Sujan/publication/287807148_Application_of_the_authigenic_10Be9Be_dating_method_to_Late_Miocene-Pliocene_sequences_in_the_northern_Danube_Basin_Pannonian_Basin_System_Confirmation_of_heterochronous_evolution_of_sedimentary_envir/links/5684144b08ae1e63f1f1c4c8/Application-of-the-authigenic-10Be-9Be-dating-method-to-Late-Miocene-Pliocene-sequences-in-the-northern-Danube-Basin-Pannonian-Basin-System-Confirmation-of-heterochronous-evolution-of-sedimentary-envi.pdf">pdf</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Imke de Pater and Jack J. 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Cambridge University Press, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-48219-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-48219-4">0-521-48219-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPourretJohannesson2022" class="citation journal cs1">Pourret, Olivier; Johannesson, Karen (July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.apgeochem.2022.105348">"Radiogenic isotope: Not just about words"</a>. <i>Applied Geochemistry</i>. <b>142</b>: 105348. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022ApGC..14205348P">2022ApGC..14205348P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.apgeochem.2022.105348">10.1016/j.apgeochem.2022.105348</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248907159">248907159</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Geochemistry&rft.atitle=Radiogenic+isotope%3A+Not+just+about+words&rft.volume=142&rft.pages=105348&rft.date=2022-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248907159%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.apgeochem.2022.105348&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022ApGC..14205348P&rft.aulast=Pourret&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rft.au=Johannesson%2C+Karen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.apgeochem.2022.105348&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiometric+dating" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiometric_dating&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunten1995" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Gunten, Hans R. von (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doc.rero.ch/record/292801/files/ract.1995.7071.special-issue.305.pdf">"Radioactivity: A Tool to Explore the Past"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Radiochimica Acta</i>. 70–71 (s1): 305–413. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1524%2Fract.1995.7071.special-issue.305">10.1524/ract.1995.7071.special-issue.305</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:100441969">100441969</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Radiochimica+Acta&rft.atitle=Radioactivity%3A+A+Tool+to+Explore+the+Past&rft.volume=70%E2%80%9371&rft.issue=s1&rft.pages=305-413&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1524%2Fract.1995.7071.special-issue.305&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A100441969%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gunten&rft.aufirst=Hans+R.+von&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoc.rero.ch%2Frecord%2F292801%2Ffiles%2Fract.1995.7071.special-issue.305.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiometric+dating" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagillGaly2005" class="citation book cs1">Magill, Joseph; Galy, Jean (2005). "Archaeology and Dating". <i>Radioactivity Radionuclides Radiation</i>. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 105–115. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005rrr..book.....M">2005rrr..book.....M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F3-540-26881-2_6">10.1007/3-540-26881-2_6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-26881-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-26881-9"><bdi>978-3-540-26881-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archaeology+and+Dating&rft.btitle=Radioactivity+Radionuclides+Radiation&rft.pages=105-115&rft.pub=Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F3-540-26881-2_6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005rrr..book.....M&rft.isbn=978-3-540-26881-9&rft.aulast=Magill&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Galy%2C+Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiometric+dating" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllègre2008" class="citation book cs1">Allègre, Claude J (4 December 2008). <i>Isotope Geology</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521862288" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521862288"><bdi>978-0521862288</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Isotope+Geology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008-12-04&rft.isbn=978-0521862288&rft.aulast=All%C3%A8gre&rft.aufirst=Claude+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiometric+dating" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcSweenRichardsonUhleUhle2003" class="citation book cs1">McSween, Harry Y; Richardson, Steven Mcafee; Uhle, Maria E; Uhle, Professor Maria (2003). <i>Geochemistry: Pathways and Processes</i> (2 ed.). Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-12440-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-12440-9"><bdi>978-0-231-12440-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geochemistry%3A+Pathways+and+Processes&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-231-12440-9&rft.aulast=McSween&rft.aufirst=Harry+Y&rft.au=Richardson%2C+Steven+Mcafee&rft.au=Uhle%2C+Maria+E&rft.au=Uhle%2C+Professor+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiometric+dating" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarry_y._McsweenHuss2010" class="citation book cs1">Harry y. Mcsween, Jr; Huss, Gary R (29 April 2010). <i>Cosmochemistry</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87862-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87862-3"><bdi>978-0-521-87862-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmochemistry&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010-04-29&rft.isbn=978-0-521-87862-3&rft.aulast=Harry+y.+Mcsween&rft.aufirst=Jr&rft.au=Huss%2C+Gary+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiometric+dating" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template:Chronology" title="Template:Chronology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chronology" title="Template talk:Chronology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chronology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chronology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chronology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chronology" title="Chronology">Chronology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;">Key topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_History" title="Big History">Big History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periods</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Era" title="Era">Eras</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Epoch_(reference_date)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoch (reference date)">Epochs</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Calendar_era" title="Calendar era">Calendar eras</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_calendar" title="Holocene calendar">Human Era</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ab_urbe_condita" title="Ab urbe condita">Ab urbe condita</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anno_Domini" title="Anno Domini">Anno Domini</a> / <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anno_Mundi" title="Anno Mundi">Anno Mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosporan_era" title="Bosporan era">Bosporan era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bostran_era" title="Bostran era">Bostran era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_calendar" title="Byzantine calendar">Byzantine era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_era" title="Seleucid era">Seleucid era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Caesar_(Iberian_Peninsula)" class="mw-redirect" title="Era of Caesar (Iberian Peninsula)">Era of Caesar (Iberia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Before_present" class="mw-redirect" title="Before present">Before present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Hijri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_chronology" title="Egyptian chronology">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sothic_cycle" title="Sothic cycle">Sothic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_units_of_time" title="Hindu units of time">Hindu units of time</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yuga" title="Yuga">Yuga</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_calendars" title="Mesoamerican calendars">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Long_Count_calendar" title="Mesoamerican Long Count calendar">Long Count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar#Short_Count" title="Maya calendar">Short Count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzolk%27in" class="mw-redirect" title="Tzolk'in">Tzolk'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haab%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Haab'">Haab'</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Regnal_year" title="Regnal year">Regnal year</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anka_year" title="Anka year">Anka year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_of_Kings" title="Canon of Kings">Canon of Kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regnal_years_of_English_and_British_monarchs" title="Regnal years of English and British monarchs">English and British regnal year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Regnal_lists" title="Category:Regnal lists">Lists of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limmu" title="Limmu">Limmu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Regnal_year" title="Regnal year">Era names</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_era_name" title="Chinese era name">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_era_name" title="Japanese era name">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_era_name" title="Korean era name">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_era_name" title="Vietnamese era name">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">Calendars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Pre-Julian / Julian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Pre-Julian Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Original Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proleptic_Julian_calendar" title="Proleptic Julian calendar">Proleptic Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revised_Julian_calendar" title="Revised Julian calendar">Revised Julian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Gregorian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proleptic_Gregorian_calendar" title="Proleptic Gregorian calendar">Proleptic Gregorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">Old Style and New Style dates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_of_the_Gregorian_calendar" title="Adoption of the Gregorian calendar">Adoption of the Gregorian calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_dating" title="Dual dating">Dual dating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar" title="Lunisolar calendar">Lunisolar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Hindu</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_calendar" title="Solar calendar">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">Lunar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_year_numbering" title="Astronomical year numbering">Astronomical year numbering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexagenary_cycle" title="Sexagenary cycle">Chinese sexagenary cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_Calendar" title="Geologic Calendar">Geologic Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_calendars" title="Iranian calendars">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_week_date" title="ISO week date">ISO week date</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_calendars" title="Mesoamerican calendars">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_calendar" title="Aztec calendar">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_count" title="Winter count">Winter count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Earth_Time" title="New Earth Time">New Earth Time</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_chronology" title="Astronomical chronology">Astronomic time</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#fff;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Calendar" title="Cosmic Calendar">Cosmic Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephemeris" title="Ephemeris">Ephemeris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_year" title="Galactic year">Galactic year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metonic_cycle" title="Metonic cycle">Metonic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milankovitch_cycles" title="Milankovitch cycles">Milankovitch cycles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_time" title="Deep time">Deep time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale#Terminology" title="Geologic time scale">Geological time units</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_Standard_Stratigraphic_Age" title="Global Standard Stratigraphic Age">Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Boundary_Stratotype_Section_and_Point" title="Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point">Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronostratigraphy" title="Chronostratigraphy">Chronostratigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_geochemistry" title="Isotope geochemistry">Isotope geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_superposition" title="Law of superposition">Law of superposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminescence_dating" title="Luminescence dating">Luminescence dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarium%E2%80%93neodymium_dating" title="Samarium–neodymium dating">Samarium–neodymium dating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">Chronological<br />dating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Absolute_dating" title="Absolute dating">Absolute dating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid_dating" title="Amino acid dating">Amino acid racemisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeomagnetic_dating" title="Archaeomagnetic dating">Archaeomagnetic dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrochronology" title="Dendrochronology">Dendrochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_core" title="Ice core">Ice core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incremental_dating" title="Incremental dating">Incremental dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichenometry" title="Lichenometry">Lichenometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleomagnetism" title="Paleomagnetism">Paleomagnetism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Radiometric dating</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Lead–lead dating">Lead–lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E2%80%93Ar_dating" title="K–Ar dating">Potassium–argon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">Radiocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Uranium–lead dating">Uranium–lead</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tephrochronology" title="Tephrochronology">Tephrochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminescence_dating" title="Luminescence dating">Luminescence dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoluminescence_dating" title="Thermoluminescence dating">Thermoluminescence dating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Relative_dating" title="Relative dating">Relative dating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fluorine_absorption_dating" title="Fluorine absorption dating">Fluorine absorption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dating" title="Nitrogen dating">Nitrogen dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsidian_hydration_dating" title="Obsidian hydration dating">Obsidian hydration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seriation_(archaeology)" title="Seriation (archaeology)">Seriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy_(archaeology)" title="Stratigraphy (archaeology)">Stratigraphy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;">Genetic methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">Molecular clock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;">Linguistic methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">Glottochronology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;">Related topics</th><td 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