Japan - The Tokugawa status system

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Distinctions between the statuses of warriors, farmers, artisans, and merchants were strictly enforced, but the distinction between the samurai and the other three classes was especially strict. Forming barely 7 percent of Japan’s total population, warriors levied taxes on the farmers, who formed more than four-fifths of the population and who thus provided the economic foundation of the system. 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The establishment of a strict class structure of warriors, farmers, artisans, and merchants (shi-nō-kō-shō) represents the final consummation of the system. Distinctions between the statuses of warriors, farmers, artisans, and merchants were strictly enforced, but the distinction between the samurai and the other three classes was especially strict. Forming barely 7 percent of Japan’s total population, warriors levied taxes on the farmers, who formed more than four-fifths of the population and who thus provided the economic foundation of the system. Symbolizing their dominance of society"/> <meta property="og:type" content="ARTICLE"/> <meta property="og:title" content="Japan - The Tokugawa status system | Britannica"/> <meta property="og:description" content="Japan - The Tokugawa status system: Thus, the bakuhan system was firmly solidified by the second half of the 17th century. The establishment of a strict class structure of warriors, farmers, artisans, and merchants (shi-nō-kō-shō) represents the final consummation of the system. Distinctions between the statuses of warriors, farmers, artisans, and merchants were strictly enforced, but the distinction between the samurai and the other three classes was especially strict. Forming barely 7 percent of Japan’s total population, warriors levied taxes on the farmers, who formed more than four-fifths of the population and who thus provided the economic foundation of the system. 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Forming barely 7 percent of Japan’s total population, warriors levied taxes on the farmers, who formed more than four-fifths of the population and who thus provided the economic foundation of the system. 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class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <main> <div class="md-page-wrapper"> <div id="content" class="md-content"> <div class="md-article-container template-desktop infinite-pagination"> <div class="infinite-scroll-container article last"> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content md-expanded" data-topic-id="300531"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan">Japan</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/Japan">Introduction & Quick Facts</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref23230"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan#ref23230">Land</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23231"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan#ref23231">Relief</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23232"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Geologic-framework">Geologic framework</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23233"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Geologic-framework#ref23233">The major physiographic regions</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23234"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Geologic-framework#ref23234">Drainage and soils</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23235"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Geologic-framework#ref23235">Drainage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23236"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Soils">Soils</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23237"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Soils#ref23237">Climate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23238"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Soils#ref23238">Temperature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23239"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Soils#ref23239">Precipitation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23240"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Soils#ref23240">Plant and animal life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23241"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Soils#ref23241">Flora</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23242"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Soils#ref23242">Fauna</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23243"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Soils#ref23243">The environment</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref23248"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/People">People</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23249"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/People#ref23249">Ethnic groups</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23251"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/People#ref23251">Languages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23252"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Religion">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref282061"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Religion#ref282061">Settlement patterns</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref282062"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Religion#ref282062">Traditional regions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref282063"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Religion#ref282063">Rural settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref282064"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Religion#ref282064">Urban settlement</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23253"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Demographic-trends">Demographic trends</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref23254"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Demographic-trends#ref23254">Economy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23255"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Demographic-trends#ref23255">General considerations</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref282051"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Demographic-trends#ref282051">Background</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23256"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-role-of-government">The role of government</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23263"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-role-of-government#ref23263">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23264"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-role-of-government#ref23264">Agriculture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref282052"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-role-of-government#ref282052">Forestry and fishing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23259"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Resources-and-power">Resources and power</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23260"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Resources-and-power#ref23260">Minerals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23267"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Resources-and-power#ref23267">Mining and quarrying</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23268"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Resources-and-power#ref23268">Power</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23269"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Resources-and-power#ref23269">Manufacturing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23270"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Finance">Finance</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23271"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Finance#ref23271">Banking</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23272"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Finance#ref23272">Securities</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23273"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade">Trade</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23274" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade#ref23274">External trade</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23275"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade#ref23275">Exports</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23276"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade#ref23276">Imports</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23277"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade#ref23277">Internal trade</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref282053"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade#ref282053">Labor and taxation</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23258"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade#ref23258">Trade unions and employers’ associations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23257"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade#ref23257">Taxation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23278"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade#ref23278">Transportation and telecommunications</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23279"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade#ref23279">Roads</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23280"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Railways">Railways</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23281"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Railways#ref23281">Port facilities</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23282"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Railways#ref23282">Air transport</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23283"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Railways#ref23283">Telecommunications</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref23284"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Government-and-society">Government and society</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23286"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Government-and-society#ref23286">Constitutional framework</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23287"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Government-and-society#ref23287">Local government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23291"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Government-and-society#ref23291">Justice</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23288"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Government-and-society#ref23288">Political process</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23289"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Government-and-society#ref23289">Elections</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23290"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-parties">Political parties</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23292"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-parties#ref23292">Security</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23293"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-parties#ref23293">Armed forces</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23294"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-parties#ref23294">Police</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23301"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-parties#ref23301">Health and welfare</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23302"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-parties#ref23302">Health</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23303"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-parties#ref23303">Welfare</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23304"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-parties#ref23304">Housing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23295"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-parties#ref23295">Education</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23296"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Development-of-the-modern-system">Development of the modern system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23297" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Development-of-the-modern-system#ref23297">System organization</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23298"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Development-of-the-modern-system#ref23298">Primary and secondary education</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23299"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Development-of-the-modern-system#ref23299">Higher education</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23300"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Development-of-the-modern-system#ref23300">Continuing education</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref23305"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Cultural-life">Cultural life</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23306"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Cultural-life#ref23306">Cultural milieu</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23307"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Cultural-life#ref23307">Influences</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23308"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Cultural-life#ref23308">Aesthetics</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23309"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-arts">The arts</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23310"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-arts#ref23310">Traditional forms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23311"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-arts#ref23311">Western forms</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23312"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-arts#ref23312">Cultural institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23316"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Daily-life-and-social-customs">Daily life and social customs</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23317"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref23317">Popular culture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref282059"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref282059">Cuisine</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23318"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref23318">Social customs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23319"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref23319">Sports and recreation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23313"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Media-and-publishing">Media and publishing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref282060"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Media-and-publishing#ref282060">Books and magazines</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23314"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Media-and-publishing#ref23314">The press</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23315"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Media-and-publishing#ref23315">Radio and television</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref214442"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/History">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23117"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/History#ref23117">Ancient Japan to 1185</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23118" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/History#ref23118">Prehistoric Japan</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23119"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/History#ref23119">Pre-Ceramic culture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23120"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/History#ref23120">Jōmon culture (c. 10,500 to c. 300 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23121"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Yayoi-period-c-300-bce-c-250-ce">The Yayoi period (c. 300 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>–c. 250 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span>)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23122"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Yayoi-period-c-300-bce-c-250-ce#ref23122">Chinese chronicles</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23123" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Yayoi-period-c-300-bce-c-250-ce#ref23123">The Tumulus (Tomb) period (c. 250–552)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23124"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Yayoi-period-c-300-bce-c-250-ce#ref23124">The unification of the nation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23125"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Yayoi-period-c-300-bce-c-250-ce#ref23125">The Yamato court</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23126"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Rise-and-expansion-of-Yamato">Rise and expansion of Yamato</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23127"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Rise-and-expansion-of-Yamato#ref23127">The Yamato polity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23128"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Rise-and-expansion-of-Yamato#ref23128">Yamato relations with Korean states</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23129"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Yamato-decline-and-the-introduction-of-Buddhism">Yamato decline and the introduction of Buddhism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23130" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Yamato-decline-and-the-introduction-of-Buddhism#ref23130">The age of reform (552–710)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23131"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Yamato-decline-and-the-introduction-of-Buddhism#ref23131">The idealized government of Prince Shōtoku</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23132"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Taika-reforms">The Taika reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23133"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Taika-reforms#ref23133">The <em><strong>ritsuryō</strong></em> system</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23134" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Nara-period-710-784">The Nara period (710–784)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23135"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Nara-period-710-784#ref23135">Beginning of the imperial state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23136"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Nara-period-710-784#ref23136">Culture in the Nara period</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23137" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Heian-period-794-1185">The Heian period (794–1185)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23138"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Heian-period-794-1185#ref23138">Changes in ritsuryō government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23139"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Heian-period-794-1185#ref23139">Aristocratic government at its peak</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23140"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Government-by-cloistered-emperors">Government by cloistered emperors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23141"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Government-by-cloistered-emperors#ref23141">The rise of the warrior class</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23142"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Medieval-Japan">Medieval Japan</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23143" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Medieval-Japan#ref23143">The Kamakura period (1192–1333)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23144"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Medieval-Japan#ref23144">The establishment of warrior government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23145"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Medieval-Japan#ref23145">The Hōjō regency</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23146"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Medieval-Japan#ref23146">The Mongol invasions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23147"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Samurai-groups-and-farming-villages">Samurai groups and farming villages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23148"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Samurai-groups-and-farming-villages#ref23148">Kamakura culture: the new Buddhism and its influence</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23149"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Samurai-groups-and-farming-villages#ref23149">Decline of Kamakura society</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23150" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Muromachi-or-Ashikaga-period-1338-1573">The Muromachi (or Ashikaga) period (1338–1573)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23151"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Muromachi-or-Ashikaga-period-1338-1573#ref23151">The Kemmu Restoration and the dual dynasties</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23152"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Muromachi-or-Ashikaga-period-1338-1573#ref23152">The establishment of the Muromachi <em>bakufu</em></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23153"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Muromachi-or-Ashikaga-period-1338-1573#ref23153">Muromachi government structure</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23154"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Muromachi-or-Ashikaga-period-1338-1573#ref23154">The growth of local autonomy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23155"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Muromachi-or-Ashikaga-period-1338-1573#ref23155">Trade between China and Japan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23156"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Onin-War-1467-77">The Ōnin War (1467–77)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23157"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Onin-War-1467-77#ref23157">The Sengoku (“Warring States”) period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23158"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Onin-War-1467-77#ref23158">The emergence of new forces.</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23159"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Onin-War-1467-77#ref23159">The arrival of the Europeans</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23160"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-establishment-of-warrior-culture">The establishment of warrior culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23161"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Early-modern-Japan-1550-1850">Early modern Japan (1550–1850)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23162" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Early-modern-Japan-1550-1850#ref23162">Unification</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23163"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Early-modern-Japan-1550-1850#ref23163">The Oda regime</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23164"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Early-modern-Japan-1550-1850#ref23164">The Hideyoshi regime</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23165"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Early-modern-Japan-1550-1850#ref23165">Azuchi-Momoyama culture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23166" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-bakuhan-system">The bakuhan system</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23167"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-bakuhan-system#ref23167">The establishment of the system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23168"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-bakuhan-system#ref23168">The enforcement of national seclusion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23169"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Tokugawa-status-system">The Tokugawa status system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23170"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Tokugawa-status-system#ref23170">Commerce, cities, and culture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23171" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Tokugawa-status-system#ref23171">The weakening of the <em>bakuhan</em> system</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23172"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-reform-in-the-bakufu-and-the-han">Political reform in the <em>bakufu</em> and the <em>han</em></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23173"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-reform-in-the-bakufu-and-the-han#ref23173">The growth of the northern problem</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23174"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-reform-in-the-bakufu-and-the-han#ref23174">New learning and thought</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23175"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-reform-in-the-bakufu-and-the-han#ref23175">Heterodox Confucian schools</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23176"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Shinto-and-kokugaku">Shintō and <em>kokugaku</em></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23177"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Shinto-and-kokugaku#ref23177">Western studies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23178"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Shinto-and-kokugaku#ref23178">Growth of popular knowledge</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23179"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Religious-attitudes">Religious attitudes</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23180"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Religious-attitudes#ref23180">The maturity of Edo culture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23181" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Religious-attitudes#ref23181">The last years of the <em>bakuhan</em></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23182"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Religious-attitudes#ref23182">The Tempō reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23183"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-opening-of-Japan">The opening of Japan</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23184"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-opening-of-Japan#ref23184">Japan from 1850 to 1945</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23185" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-opening-of-Japan#ref23185">The Meiji restoration</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23186"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-fall-of-the-Tokugawa">The fall of the Tokugawa</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23187"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-fall-of-the-Tokugawa#ref23187">From feudal to modern state</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23188"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-fall-of-the-Tokugawa#ref23188">Abolition of feudalism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23189"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-fall-of-the-Tokugawa#ref23189">Constitutional movement</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23190" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-emergence-of-imperial-Japan">The emergence of imperial Japan</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23191"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-emergence-of-imperial-Japan#ref23191">Foreign affairs</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23192"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-emergence-of-imperial-Japan#ref23192">The Sino-Japanese War</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23193"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-emergence-of-imperial-Japan#ref23193">The Russo-Japanese War</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23194"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Japanese-expansionism">Japanese expansionism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23195"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Japanese-expansionism#ref23195">Constitutional government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23196"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Japanese-expansionism#ref23196">Social change</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23197" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-rise-of-the-militarists">The rise of the militarists</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23198"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-rise-of-the-militarists#ref23198">The weakening of party government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23199"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-rise-of-the-militarists#ref23199">Aggression in Manchuria</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23200"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-road-to-World-War-II">The road to World War II</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23201"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-road-to-World-War-II#ref23201">Events in China</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23202"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-road-to-World-War-II#ref23202">Foreign relations</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23203" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/World-War-II-and-defeat">World War II and defeat</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23204"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/World-War-II-and-defeat#ref23204">Prologue to war</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23205"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/World-War-II-and-defeat#ref23205">Early successes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23206"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/World-War-II-and-defeat#ref23206">Japan on the defensive</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23207"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/World-War-II-and-defeat#ref23207">The end of the war</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref236922"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Japan-since-1945">Japan since 1945</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23208" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Japan-since-1945#ref23208">The early 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link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Japan-since-1945#ref23214">The era of rapid growth</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23215"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Economic-transformation">Economic transformation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23216"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Economic-transformation#ref23216">Social change</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23217"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Economic-transformation#ref23217">Political developments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23218"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/International-relations">International relations</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23219" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/International-relations#ref23219">The late 20th and early 21st centuries</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23220"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/International-relations#ref23220">Economic change</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23221"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-developments">Political developments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23222"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-developments#ref23222">Social change</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23223"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-developments#ref23223">International relations</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref276895"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" 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Notehelfer</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Professor of History, University of California, Los Angeles. Author of <i>American Samurai: Captain L.L. Janes and Japan.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Fred G. Notehelfer</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Akira-Watanabe/3121" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Akira Watanabe</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Chairman, Department of Geography, Ochanomizu Women's University, Tokyo. Editor of <i>Gazetteer of Japan.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Akira Watanabe</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-26T00:00:00CST" >Nov 26, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/300531/932f970544b216da249e33d8c0491ac8" rel="nofollow">Stock market today: Wall Street hits records despite tariff talk</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 26, 2024, 5:34 PM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/300531/c58b6bd86941f916bb5fb873c645c519" rel="nofollow">The engine of Japan's flagship new small rocket explodes during a test for a second time</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 26, 2024, 8:28 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/300531/fdbe52e496877317718e0bc5deaff858" rel="nofollow">South Korea holds memorial for forced laborers in Japan after boycotting Japanese event</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 26, 2024, 12:00 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/300531/0218064869fb4a1270dad471432b9c46" rel="nofollow">Japan holds first memorial for 'all workers' at Sado gold mines but blurs WWII atrocity. Why?</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 25, 2024, 9:01 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/300531/c87df6f1a69f73675e302b09d014b09b" rel="nofollow">Stolen shoe mystery solved at Japanese kindergarten when security camera catches weasel in the act</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 25, 2024, 12:38 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="3"><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="4" id="ref23169">  <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Thus, the <em>bakuhan</em> system was firmly solidified by the second half of the 17th century. The establishment of a strict class structure of warriors, farmers, artisans, and merchants (<em>shi-nō-kō-shō</em>) represents the final consummation of the system. Distinctions between the statuses of warriors, farmers, artisans, and merchants were strictly enforced, but the distinction between the <span id="ref319472"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/samurai" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">samurai</a> and the other three classes was especially strict. Forming barely 7 percent of Japan’s total population, warriors <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="levied" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/levied" data-type="EB">levied</a> taxes on the farmers, who formed more than four-fifths of the population and who thus provided the economic foundation of the system. Symbolizing their dominance of society by force of arms, samurai wore two swords; by law, the other classes were forbidden to wear them, thus carrying the policies of Nobunaga and Hideyoshi to their logical conclusion. Concern for strict status differentiation was evident even in family relationships, as absolute obedience was demanded from members of the family toward the house head (<em>kachō</em>). Among the family members, the status of women was especially low, and the idea of <em><span id="ref319473"></span>danson-johi</em> (“respect for the male, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="contempt" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/contempt" data-type="MW">contempt</a> for the female”) was prevalent.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The establishment of the Tokugawa regime created a need for legitimation, a new worldview, and a system of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="ethics" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethics" data-type="MW">ethics</a> to support it. Neither the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shinto" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Shintō</a> nor the Buddhist <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="ideologies" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ideologies" data-type="MW">ideologies</a> of the earlier <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="medieval" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/medieval" data-type="MW">medieval</a> society was adequate. But the ideas of <span id="ref319474"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Neo-Confucianism-Japanese-philosophy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Neo-Confucianism</a>, especially of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Song-dynasty" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Sung dynasty</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zhu-Xi" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Chu Hsi</a> school (<span id="ref319475"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shushigaku" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Shushigaku</a>)—which had been well-known to political and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="ethical" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethical" data-type="MW">ethical</a> thinkers since the 13th century—provided an <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="intellectual" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/intellectual" data-type="MW">intellectual</a> rationalization for the status-oriented social structure of the <em>bakuhan</em> system. Shushigaku appealed especially to the feudal rulers because, among the various schools of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confucianism" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Confucianism</a>, it was the most systematic doctrine. <span id="ref319476"></span>Fujiwara Seika is regarded as the father of Tokugawa Neo-Confucianism, lecturing even to Ieyasu himself. Seika’s student, the Chu Hsi scholar <span id="ref319477"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hayashi-Razan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hayashi Razan</a>, served as advisor to the first three shoguns. He established what was to become the official Confucian school, which provided philosophical guidance to the shogunal house and high <em>bakufu</em> officials throughout the period. Razan is said to have had a hand in the drafting of all <em>bakufu</em> official documents and in the formulation of <em>bakufu</em> laws. His political ideas—as seen in such works as <em><span id="ref319478"></span>Honchō hennen-roku</em> (“Chronological History of Japan”) and <em><span id="ref319479"></span>Honchō tsugan</em> (“Survey History of Japan”), completed by his son Gahō—provided a historical justification for the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate, based upon the concept of <em><span id="ref319480"></span>tendō</em> (“way of heaven”). <em>Tendō</em> essentially took on the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="connotation" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/connotation" data-type="MW">connotation</a> of the Chinese term <em>t’ien-ming</em> (“mandate of heaven”; Japanese: <em>tenmei</em>), and Razan and other Confucian thinkers provided an explanation and justification for changes in rulers through the process of <em>gekokujō</em> (overthrow of superiors by inferiors) of the Sengoku period. But the role of Chu Hsi political-ethical thought in Tokugawa times was to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="repudiate" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/repudiate" data-type="MW">repudiate</a> the revolutionary idea of <em>gekokujō</em> by stressing the legitimacy of Ieyasu’s new regime, emphasizing instead the idea of <em>kenshin</em> (“devotion,” or “loyalty”), linking this to Confucian <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="moral" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/moral" data-type="MW">moral</a> concepts. Razan stressed the Chinese idea that, just as there is order between heaven and earth, there needed to be order between rulers and subjects. Thus he argued that the separation of the four classes of society was in accord with the teachings of Confucius. The two central moral ideals of Confucianism were <em><span id="ref319481"></span>chū</em>, or “loyalty,” and <em>kō</em>, or “filial piety.” But in contrast to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">China</a>, Tokugawa thinkers like Razan placed more emphasis on <em>chū</em> as a support for feudal lord-vassal relations than on <em><span id="ref319482"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/xiao-Confucianism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">kō</a></em>, which was a family <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="ethic" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethic" data-type="MW">ethic</a>. Chu Hsi studies opposed the new worldview and logic introduced by Christianity, which gave more importance to God than to the ruler-subject relationship, and also bitterly criticized the other-worldly aspects of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhism" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Buddhism</a>, which had been the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="ideology" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ideology" data-type="MW">ideology</a> of the medieval era. Orthodox Chu Hsi thought was a perfect <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="conservative" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conservative" data-type="MW">conservative</a> philosophy of statecraft that valued loyalty and order above all else.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Japanese thinkers of the 17th century could hardly have been expected to fully ingest a foreign political philosophy already several hundred years old, and challenges to orthodox Chu Hsi thought were many. Some argued for a return to the original teaching of Confucius himself, emulating a reform movement already under way in China. The philosophy of yet another Sung thinker, <span id="ref319483"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wang-Yangming" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Wang Yang-ming</a>, also held a special place in Confucian circles in the early <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Tokugawa-period" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Edo period</a>. Wang Yang-ming studies (<span id="ref319484"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Oyomeigaku" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ōyōmeigaku</a> in Japanese) were characterized by a strong <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/subjective-idealism" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">subjective idealism</a> but, at the same time, were quite practical since they emphasized the unity of thought and deed. Virtue had to be not only <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="cultivated" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cultivated" data-type="MW">cultivated</a> in the abstract but practiced as well. <span id="ref319485"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nakae-Toju" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Nakae Tōju</a>, often regarded as the father of Japanese Wang Yang-ming studies, was so earnest in performing virtuous acts that he was called the sage of Ōmi. One of his followers, <span id="ref319486"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kumazawa-Banzan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kumazawa Banzan</a>, who criticized the growing autocracy in the politics of his day, transformed Wang Yang-ming studies from a means for individual spiritual training into a method for political reformation.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="4" id="ref23170"> <h2 class="h4">Commerce, cities, and culture</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">By reducing <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Osaka-prefecture-Japan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Ōsaka</a> Castle and quelling the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Shimabara-Rebellion" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Shimabara Rebellion</a>, the Tokugawa regime brought to an end the period of violence and ushered in an era of unprecedented domestic peace. As a result, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="commerce" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/commerce" data-type="EB">commerce</a> was promoted and cities developed. Widespread commercialization occurred in the latter half of the 17th century, centered in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kinki-region-Japan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Kinki</a> region, where productive capacity was the most advanced. Now the nationwide farming populace (<em><span id="ref319487"></span>hyakushō</em>) of independent landowners, although subject to heavy taxes and various kinds of labor services, sought the means to enjoy a better <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/standard-of-living" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">standard of living</a>. In addition to their primary efforts as cultivators, they reclaimed new lands and produced various commercial crops and handicraft goods for sale in the city and town markets. Among these commercial crops were cotton and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/rapeseed-oil" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">rapeseed oil</a> in the Kinki region and silk in eastern Japan. Communications and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="transportation" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/transportation" data-type="EB">transportation</a> also developed for the circulation of such goods, thanks to the earlier efforts of various <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/daimyo" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">daimyo</a> to maximize production in their domains and to the increased mobility caused by the <em>sankin kōtai</em> system. As a result of the development of commerce and communications, new-style merchants such as wholesalers and brokers to handle commercial crops came to the fore, and powerful financiers also appeared.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">There was a massive growth of urban centers in the first half of the Edo period, mainly represented by the <span id="ref319488"></span>castle towns of the various daimyo. These daimyo, numbering some 250 for most of the period, were allowed by the <em>bakufu</em> to have but one castle, and thus there was a move to pull down other castles and concentrate the samurai of each <em>han</em> in a capital castle town. These castle towns gradually came to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="acquire" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/acquire" data-type="EB">acquire</a> the character of commercial cities, as some farmers abandoned the countryside and merchants emerged to serve the needs of the burgeoning urban population. Purely commercial cities and post towns (towns along highways) also arose throughout the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/nation-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">country</a> as part of this massive urbanization. While most cities averaged between 10,000 and 20,000 inhabitants, many had populations exceeding 100,000. The three main cities of Edo, Ōsaka, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kyoto-prefecture-Japan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Kyōto</a>, under the direct control of the <em>bakufu</em>, were especially developed. When its warrior inhabitants are included, Edo in the early years of the 18th century had a population of more than one million and thus became one of the largest cities in the world.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The early and mid-Edo periods produced many remarkable figures in the fine arts and crafts. Perhaps the three artists most representative of the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="culture" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture" data-type="MW">culture</a> were <span id="ref319489"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ihara-Saikaku" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ihara Saikaku</a> in <em><span id="ref319490"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/ukiyo-zoshi" class="md-crosslink ">ukiyo-zōshi</a></em> (“tales of the floating world”) <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="genre" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/genre" data-type="MW">genre</a> novels, <span id="ref319491"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Chikamatsu-Monzaemon" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Chikamatsu Monzaemon</a> in <em>jōruri</em> (“puppet play”) drama, and Matsuo <span id="ref319492"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Basho-Japanese-poet" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bashō</a> in haiku poetry. All three flourished during the <span id="ref319493"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Genroku-period" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Genroku</a> era (1688–1704), the name more broadly denoting a golden age of cultural development roughly 50 years long during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Saikaku was an Ōsaka townsman who first aspired to write haikai—humorous renga (linked-verse) poetry from which the more serious haiku was derived—and for more than 30 years he was active as a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/haikai" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">haikai</a> composer. He was especially skilled at <em><span id="ref319494"></span>yakazu haikai</em>, a competition to compose as many haikai as possible within a fixed period of time that <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="derived" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/derived" data-type="EB">derived</a> its name from a popular arrow-shooting competition (<em>yakazu</em>). Saikaku set a new record by composing 23,500 haikai in a single day and night—one verse every four seconds. By 1682 Saikaku largely had given up haikai, however, and began to write <em>ukiyo-zōshi</em>, producing about 20 masterpieces in succession, beginning with <em>Kōshoku ichidai otoko</em> (1682; <em>The Life of an Amorous Man</em>). The <em>ukiyo-zōshi</em> developed out of the so-called <em>kana-zōshi</em> (storybooks written in <em>kana</em> script) into a more thoroughly urban commoner’s form of literature after the latter had themselves replaced the previous <em>otogi-zōshi</em> (“fairy-tale books”) in popularity. The unique urban spirit of the age can be seen in the word <em>ukiyo</em>, which had meant “sad world” in Buddhist terms during medieval times. Written with a different Chinese ideogram in Edo times, it now came to mean “floating world” and implied pleasure—specifically from the pleasure quarters of the great Edo cities. Saikaku consistently attempted to create an accurate depiction of the human desire for love and profit. His works offer sharp <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="criticism" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/criticism" data-type="MW">criticism</a> of the Edo samurai as men so bound by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-status" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">social status</a> and moral principles that they could not live a free life.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Matsuo Bashō became closely attached to <span id="ref319495"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/haiku" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">haiku</a> (although the word itself was not coined until the 19th century) and fashioned it into a popular form of poetry. Bashō was born into a warrior family, but after becoming a <em>rōnin</em> he devoted himself to the development of haiku as a literary form. Bashō found the existing haikai style unsatisfying. He began writing hokku (17-syllable opening verses for renga) as separate poems, developing a new style called <em><span id="ref319496"></span>shōfū</em> or “Bashō style.” Bashō proclaimed what he called <em><span id="ref319497"></span>makoto no</em> (“true”) haiku, seeking the spirit of this poetic form in sincerity and truthfulness. He also introduced a new beauty to haiku by using simple words. Bashō essentially grafted the aristocratic <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="conceptions" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conceptions" data-type="MW">conceptions</a> of medieval poetry onto the more <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="mundane" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mundane" data-type="MW">mundane</a> feelings of Tokugawa <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/urban-culture" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">urban culture</a>, creating a highly popular poetic form. Rather than <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="repudiating" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/repudiating" data-type="MW">repudiating</a> tradition, Bashō’s haiku brought it to completion.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">About the turn of the 17th century, the <em><span id="ref319498"></span>Jōrurihime monogatari</em> (a type of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="romantic" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/romantic" data-type="MW">romantic</a> ballad), which drew on the traditions of the medieval narrative story, was for the first time arranged as a form of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/dramatic-literature" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">dramatic literature</a> accompanied by puppetry and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/samisen" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">samisen</a> (a lutelike musical instrument). It continued to develop until the three great masters—<span id="ref319499"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Takemoto-Gidayu" class="md-crosslink ">Takemoto Gidayū</a> as narrator, Chikamatsu Monzaemon as composer, and <span id="ref319500"></span>Tatsumatsu Hachirobei as puppeteer—made <em><span id="ref319501"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/joruri" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">jōruri</a></em> into a highly popular Tokugawa performing art, enjoyed by all classes of society.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Chikamatsu, like Bashō, came from a warrior family. Chikamatsu, a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="prolific" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/prolific" data-type="MW">prolific</a> writer, wrote more than 80 <em>jidaimono</em> (historical dramas) and 20 <em>sewamono</em> (domestic dramas focusing on urban society), both for <em>jōruri</em>. He also wrote more than 30 kabuki plays. The chief theme running through Chikamatsu’s works is the idea of <em><span id="ref319502"></span>giri</em> (“duty”), which is to be understood not so much as feudal <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="morality" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/morality" data-type="MW">morality</a> enforced from above but rather as the traditional <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="consciousness" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/consciousness" data-type="MW">consciousness</a> of honor and dignity in one’s motives and of social consciousness in human relations. The <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="compositions" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/compositions" data-type="MW">compositions</a> of Chikamatsu’s later years seek the motif of tragedy in the fact that this <em>giri</em>, while proof that people have humanity, cannot be thoroughly achieved because of their immorality and lack of principle. <em>Giri</em> is constantly in conflict with <em><span id="ref319503"></span>ninjō</em> (“human feelings,” especially love), and this tension provides the drama in many of his works. Beginning with his <em>Shinjū ten no Amijima</em> (1720; <em><span id="ref319504"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Love-Suicides-at-Sonezaki" class="md-crosslink ">The Love Suicide of Amijima</a></em>), the leading male and female characters in his <em>sewamono</em> dramas are unable to resolve the contradictions between <em>giri</em> and <em>ninjō</em> in this world and so die by <em><span id="ref319505"></span>shinjū</em> (a suicide pact between lovers) in order to realize their love in a future life. While Buddhist elements can be detected in these tragic endings, they also graphically capture the unresolvable <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="contradictions" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/contradictions" data-type="EB">contradictions</a> that faced townspeople in Genroku society.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="6181" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/62/1862-050-B1AC1BB0/Interior-theatre-woodcut-triptych-Kabuki-Utagawa-Toyokuni.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/300531/6181"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/62/1862-050-B1AC1BB0/Interior-theatre-woodcut-triptych-Kabuki-Utagawa-Toyokuni.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/62/1862-050-B1AC1BB0/Interior-theatre-woodcut-triptych-Kabuki-Utagawa-Toyokuni.jpg?w=300" alt="interior of a Kabuki theater" data-width="1587" data-height="769" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/62/1862-050-B1AC1BB0/Interior-theatre-woodcut-triptych-Kabuki-Utagawa-Toyokuni.jpg" data-href="/media/1/300531/6181">interior of a Kabuki theater</a><span>Interior of a Kabuki theater, colored woodcut triptych by Utagawa Toyokuni, c. 1800; in the British Museum.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Besides the licensed quarters for prostitutes, theatrical districts also flourished in the Genroku era. <span id="ref319506"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Kabuki" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kabuki</a> drama also developed in the early Edo period. <em><span id="ref319507"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Okuni" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Okuni</a></em> kabuki, named for the female dancing troupe led by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Izumo" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Izumo</a> Okuni, became popular at the turn of the 17th century and is conventionally regarded as the origin of this dramatic form. Other troupes imitated her work, developing into <em>yūjo</em> (“prostitutes’ ”) kabuki, run by brothel owners. Ultimately, women were banned from kabuki, and actors and prostitutes separated into distinct quarters. A further development was the <em><span id="ref319508"></span>wakashū</em> (“young-man style”) kabuki, in which the young men were also available as sexual partners; this also was prohibited because of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="widespread" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/widespread" data-type="EB">widespread</a> homosexuality. All kabuki was banned following the death of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/shogun" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">shogun</a> Iemitsu in 1652. It was allowed once again, but only after substantial reform, in which even women’s parts were played by adult males (who were distinguished from the <em>wakashū</em> by shaved forelocks). Kabuki now developed from its previous dancing-act form into a theatrical form centered on a dramatic plot with realistic acting. In western Japan (Kyōto and Ōsaka), the style that emerged was called <em><span id="ref319509"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/wagoto" class="md-crosslink ">wagoto</a></em> (“tender business”), which had a pronounced comical element and concentrated on love; by contrast, the popular form of Edo kabuki was <em><span id="ref319510"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/aragoto" class="md-crosslink ">aragoto</a></em> (“rough business”), which focused on the rash actions of historical heroes. This Edo form of kabuki seemed to suit the rowdy elements of society; indeed the word <em>kabuki</em> itself (using different Chinese ideograms), meaning “inclined,” was first used by wild gangs of outrageously dressed young men called <em>kabukimono</em>.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Despite the popularity of these new theatrical forms, traditional arts of nō drama, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/tea-ceremony" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">tea ceremony</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/floral-decoration" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">flower arrangement</a> also reached new stages of development in the period. The tea ceremony (<em><span id="ref319511"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/tea-ceremony" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">cha-no-yu</a></em>) in particular became popular and was practiced not only by the shogun and daimyo but also by the newly risen merchants, who used their wealth to become eager collectors of famous antique tea-ceremony utensils. As the tea ceremony became popular, many schools emerged, most notably the Sen-ke (Sen house), the school of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sen-Rikyu" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Sen Rikyū</a>. The art of the tea ceremony came to be monopolized by the house heads of the various schools, fostering the development of the “profession” of tea master. This “house head” (<em><span id="ref319512"></span>iemoto</em>) system also spread to flower arrangement and to other arts and became a distinguishing feature of the Edo period. One result of this segmentation into tradition-conscious schools was that it <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="inhibited" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/inhibited" data-type="MW">inhibited</a> further development of these artistic forms. Often, it was only by breaking away from the <em>iemoto</em> that <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="innovation" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/innovation" data-type="MW">innovation</a> could proceed.</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="35480" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/09/42909-004-2C657BD1/Tokugawa-writing-box-paint-wood-lead-pewter.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/300531/35480"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/09/42909-004-2C657BD1/Tokugawa-writing-box-paint-wood-lead-pewter.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/09/42909-004-2C657BD1/Tokugawa-writing-box-paint-wood-lead-pewter.jpg?w=300" alt="writing box decorated with cranes in reeds" data-width="425" data-height="300" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/09/42909-004-2C657BD1/Tokugawa-writing-box-paint-wood-lead-pewter.jpg" data-href="/media/1/300531/35480">writing box decorated with cranes in reeds</a><span>Writing box decorated with cranes in reeds, black lacquered wood with gold paint, inlaid lead, and pewter, attributed to Hon'ami Koetsu, early 17th century; in the Seattle Art Museum.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Distinctive development also occurred in the fine arts and crafts. <span id="ref319513"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ogata-Korin" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ogata Kōrin</a>, for example, brought decorative painting to its highest stage of perfection, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="bequeathing" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bequeathing" data-type="MW">bequeathing</a> to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="posterity" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/posterity" data-type="MW">posterity</a> many splendid masterpieces in gold lacquer (<em>maki-e</em>) and other media. Techniques of <span id="ref319514"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/dye" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">dyeing</a> and weaving were also improved in the Edo period. In Kyōto, <span id="ref319515"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Miyazaki-Yuzen" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Miyazaki Yūzen</a> developed the splendid techniques of <em>yūzen-zome</em> (a rice-paste batik method of dyeing), and the <span id="ref319516"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/weaving" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">weaving</a> and decorating of the traditional <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/kimono" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">kimono</a> became even more colorful. In Edo, drawing in traditional styles was further developed by <span id="ref319517"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hishikawa-Moronobu" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hishikawa Moronobu</a>, who not only depicted the usual courtesans and actors but also vividly portrayed various aspects of the lives of ordinary people. But Moronobu’s real contribution was to develop the Chinese technique of wood-block printing to produce the <span id="ref319518"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/ukiyo-e" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ukiyo-e</a> (“pictures of the floating world”) style, which met a growing popular demand. Many great Edo-period artists—e.g., <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hiroshige" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Andō Hiroshige</a> and Katsushika Hokusai—developed the ukiyo-e genre into a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="unique" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/unique" data-type="EB">unique</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Japanese-art" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Japanese art</a> form. Famous centers of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/pottery" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">pottery</a> production also flourished at various places throughout the country, some ancient, like <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Seto-Japan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Seto</a>, but others, like <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hagi" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Hagi</a>, stimulated by the influence of Korean potters captured during Hideyoshi’s invasions.</p><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD13 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="30644" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/73/38073-004-03ED90A2/inro-samurai-design-background-Kajikawa-nashiji-Tokugawa.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/300531/30644"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/73/38073-004-03ED90A2/inro-samurai-design-background-Kajikawa-nashiji-Tokugawa.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/73/38073-004-03ED90A2/inro-samurai-design-background-Kajikawa-nashiji-Tokugawa.jpg?w=300" alt="inro" data-width="225" data-height="450" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/73/38073-004-03ED90A2/inro-samurai-design-background-Kajikawa-nashiji-Tokugawa.jpg" data-href="/media/1/300531/30644">inro</a><span>Five-case inro with samurai design done in <em>taka-makie</em> (style of high-relief lacquerware) against a background sprinkled with red-gold <em>nashiji-ko</em>, signed Kajikawa, Tokugawa period (1603–1867).</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Both the old ceremonies of the imperial court and the various forms of warrior etiquette developed by the successive <em>bakufu</em> were codified, studied, and even extended to the common people, helping to shape manners throughout the country. Indeed, Japanese customs in dress, food, and housing became established and somewhat standardized during the Edo period. Even eating habits changed from two to three meals a day; in the cities <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/rice" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">rice</a> became the standard food, and a rich variety of cakes and sweets were consumed by urban dwellers.</p><span class="marker MOD13 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section> <section data-level="3" id="ref23171"> <h2 class="h3">The weakening of the <em>bakuhan</em> system</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD14 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">As Japan entered the 18th century, the <em>bakuhan</em> system began to show signs of weakness. The finances of both the <em>bakufu</em> and the <em>han</em> were theoretically based on a rice-producing economy, in which administrators endeavored to levy taxes to be paid in kind, mostly in rice, centered on the annual crop. Rice and other crops were then transported to the great central cities of Edo and Ōsaka, where they were exchanged for <span id="ref319519"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/money" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">money</a>. The extremely <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="diverse" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diverse" data-type="MW">diverse</a> economic and social life of these cities was based upon a money economy in which people and produce were constantly exchanged. This activity radiated outward to the various daimyo castle towns and, inevitably, into the countryside as well. Thus, even the rural areas of Japan were increasingly drawn into a monetized economy, and peasants everywhere paid part of their taxes in money. If commercial development had been largely a phenomenon of the cities in the 17th century, in the 18th and 19th centuries it spread to the hinterlands of Japan, where small-scale producers of goods, distributors, and even retailers appeared. Inevitably, it meant the rise of some wealthy members of the rural populace, who used their wealth to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="invest" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/invest" data-type="EB">invest</a> in land and commercial ventures and to “ape their betters” in the cities in both custom and culture. Few farmers, however, prospered through producing commercial goods, and the majority of peasants remained impoverished. Rural villages were characterized by a few wealthy farmers, a majority of small-scale independent landholders, and a growing number of impoverished tenants. Many small-scale farmers, squeezed by the demands of commercial development, were forced to part with their lands and fell into tenancy.</p><span class="marker MOD14 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD15 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Thus, as the commercial economy extended into <span id="ref319520"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/rural-society" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">rural</a> villages, social divisions arose among the farmers. Tax collection became unstable, and many warriors—whose stipends, still calculated in <em>koku</em>, depended upon taxes paid by the farmers—found themselves in serious financial difficulty. Despite the general improvement of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/agricultural-technology" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">agricultural technology</a> and the spread of such knowledge through manuals and handbooks among an increasingly literate populace during the Edo period, productivity was uneven; and in many areas, and especially during certain eras, periodic crop failures and famines, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="exacerbated" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/exacerbated" data-type="MW">exacerbated</a> by excessive taxation, resulted in people starving or fleeing their villages. The abandonment of cultivated land also became <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="conspicuous" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conspicuous" data-type="MW">conspicuous</a>. As noted above, the samurai class had long since taken up normal residence in the cities. With the development of the urban way of life, they now incurred increasing expenses, despite a spate of <em>bakufu</em> and domain exhortations to practice frugality. Living on fixed incomes, many became greatly impoverished. At times, both the <em>bakufu</em> and the domains tried to suppress commercial production as a means of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="alleviating" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/alleviating" data-type="MW">alleviating</a> the suffering of their vassals; but this met with great resistance from merchants and affected the self-sufficient economy of the farmers as well. It was, in any event, a hopeless effort, given the scale of commercial development nationwide. When attempts to restrict production failed, <em>bakufu</em> and <em>han</em> administrators encouraged such production, seeking to supplement their finances by monopolizing the farmers’ commercial goods and selling them themselves. Thus, on top of excessive taxes, farmers also were sometimes deprived of the profits of their commercial goods.</p><span class="marker MOD15 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD16 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Ultimately, such rural conditions led to major outbreaks of violence. Stratification of rural villages—a growing gap between wealthy and poor farmers—tenancy, the inability of many to survive the harsh realities of commercialization, and exploitation by feudal lords forced some peasants into uprisings (<em><span id="ref319521"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/ikki" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">hyakushō ikki</a></em>). Even in early Edo times, there were localized demonstrations against daimyo for excessive taxation, but from the 18th century peasant protest became increasingly violent and widespread. Some uprisings were directed at local lords, some were more widespread, and some were directed not at feudal warrior overlords but at wealthy peasant landlords and village headmen who also had become exploitative. Meanwhile, economic conditions in the cities—to which frustrated peasants often fled seeking a better life—were hardly better. While many wealthy merchants enjoyed luxurious lifestyles in cooperation with warrior rulers, the city poor, driven to the edge of starvation by the rising prices of rice and other commodities, often rioted, plundering and destroying rice shops and pawnshops.</p><span class="marker MOD16 mod-inline"></span> </section><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":34,"pagesTotal":49,"pageId":300531,"pageLength":3417,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":34,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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