Japan - Muromachi, Ashikaga, Shogunate

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class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <main> <div class="md-page-wrapper"> <div id="content" class="md-content"> <div class="md-article-container template-desktop infinite-pagination"> <div class="infinite-scroll-container article last"> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content md-expanded" data-topic-id="300531"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan">Japan</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/Japan">Introduction & Quick Facts</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref23230"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan#ref23230">Land</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23231"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan#ref23231">Relief</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23232"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Geologic-framework">Geologic framework</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23233"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Geologic-framework#ref23233">The major physiographic regions</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23234"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Geologic-framework#ref23234">Drainage and soils</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23235"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Geologic-framework#ref23235">Drainage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23236"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Soils">Soils</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23237"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Soils#ref23237">Climate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23238"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Soils#ref23238">Temperature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23239"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Soils#ref23239">Precipitation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23240"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Soils#ref23240">Plant and animal life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23241"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Soils#ref23241">Flora</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23242"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Soils#ref23242">Fauna</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23243"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Soils#ref23243">The environment</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref23248"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/People">People</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23249"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/People#ref23249">Ethnic groups</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23251"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/People#ref23251">Languages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23252"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Religion">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref282061"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Religion#ref282061">Settlement patterns</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref282062"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Religion#ref282062">Traditional regions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref282063"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Religion#ref282063">Rural settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref282064"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Religion#ref282064">Urban settlement</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23253"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Demographic-trends">Demographic trends</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref23254"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Demographic-trends#ref23254">Economy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23255"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Demographic-trends#ref23255">General considerations</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref282051"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Demographic-trends#ref282051">Background</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23256"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-role-of-government">The role of government</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23263"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-role-of-government#ref23263">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23264"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-role-of-government#ref23264">Agriculture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref282052"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-role-of-government#ref282052">Forestry and fishing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23259"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Resources-and-power">Resources and power</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23260"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Resources-and-power#ref23260">Minerals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23267"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Resources-and-power#ref23267">Mining and quarrying</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23268"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Resources-and-power#ref23268">Power</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23269"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Resources-and-power#ref23269">Manufacturing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23270"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Finance">Finance</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23271"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Finance#ref23271">Banking</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23272"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Finance#ref23272">Securities</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23273"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade">Trade</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23274" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade#ref23274">External trade</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23275"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade#ref23275">Exports</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23276"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade#ref23276">Imports</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23277"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade#ref23277">Internal trade</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref282053"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade#ref282053">Labor and taxation</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23258"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade#ref23258">Trade unions and employers’ associations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23257"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade#ref23257">Taxation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23278"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade#ref23278">Transportation and telecommunications</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23279"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Trade#ref23279">Roads</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23280"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Railways">Railways</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23281"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Railways#ref23281">Port facilities</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23282"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Railways#ref23282">Air transport</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23283"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Railways#ref23283">Telecommunications</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref23284"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Government-and-society">Government and society</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23286"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Government-and-society#ref23286">Constitutional framework</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23287"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Government-and-society#ref23287">Local government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23291"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Government-and-society#ref23291">Justice</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23288"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Government-and-society#ref23288">Political process</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23289"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Government-and-society#ref23289">Elections</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23290"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-parties">Political parties</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23292"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-parties#ref23292">Security</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23293"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-parties#ref23293">Armed forces</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23294"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-parties#ref23294">Police</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23301"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-parties#ref23301">Health and welfare</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23302"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-parties#ref23302">Health</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23303"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-parties#ref23303">Welfare</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23304"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-parties#ref23304">Housing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23295"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-parties#ref23295">Education</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23296"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Development-of-the-modern-system">Development of the modern system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23297" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Development-of-the-modern-system#ref23297">System organization</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23298"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Development-of-the-modern-system#ref23298">Primary and secondary education</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23299"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Development-of-the-modern-system#ref23299">Higher education</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23300"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Development-of-the-modern-system#ref23300">Continuing education</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref23305"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Cultural-life">Cultural life</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23306"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Cultural-life#ref23306">Cultural milieu</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23307"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Cultural-life#ref23307">Influences</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23308"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Cultural-life#ref23308">Aesthetics</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23309"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-arts">The arts</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23310"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-arts#ref23310">Traditional forms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23311"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-arts#ref23311">Western forms</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23312"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-arts#ref23312">Cultural institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23316"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Daily-life-and-social-customs">Daily life and social customs</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23317"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref23317">Popular culture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref282059"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref282059">Cuisine</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23318"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref23318">Social customs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23319"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref23319">Sports and recreation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23313"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Media-and-publishing">Media and publishing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref282060"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Media-and-publishing#ref282060">Books and magazines</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23314"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Media-and-publishing#ref23314">The press</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23315"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Media-and-publishing#ref23315">Radio and television</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref214442"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/History">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23117"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/History#ref23117">Ancient Japan to 1185</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23118" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/History#ref23118">Prehistoric Japan</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23119"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/History#ref23119">Pre-Ceramic culture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23120"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/History#ref23120">Jōmon culture (c. 10,500 to c. 300 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23121"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Yayoi-period-c-300-bce-c-250-ce">The Yayoi period (c. 300 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>–c. 250 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span>)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23122"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Yayoi-period-c-300-bce-c-250-ce#ref23122">Chinese chronicles</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23123" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Yayoi-period-c-300-bce-c-250-ce#ref23123">The Tumulus (Tomb) period (c. 250–552)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23124"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Yayoi-period-c-300-bce-c-250-ce#ref23124">The unification of the nation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23125"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Yayoi-period-c-300-bce-c-250-ce#ref23125">The Yamato court</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23126"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Rise-and-expansion-of-Yamato">Rise and expansion of Yamato</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23127"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Rise-and-expansion-of-Yamato#ref23127">The Yamato polity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23128"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Rise-and-expansion-of-Yamato#ref23128">Yamato relations with Korean states</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23129"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Yamato-decline-and-the-introduction-of-Buddhism">Yamato decline and the introduction of Buddhism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23130" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Yamato-decline-and-the-introduction-of-Buddhism#ref23130">The age of reform (552–710)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23131"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Yamato-decline-and-the-introduction-of-Buddhism#ref23131">The idealized government of Prince Shōtoku</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23132"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Taika-reforms">The Taika reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23133"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Taika-reforms#ref23133">The <em><strong>ritsuryō</strong></em> system</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23134" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Nara-period-710-784">The Nara period (710–784)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23135"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Nara-period-710-784#ref23135">Beginning of the imperial state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23136"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Nara-period-710-784#ref23136">Culture in the Nara period</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23137" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Heian-period-794-1185">The Heian period (794–1185)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23138"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Heian-period-794-1185#ref23138">Changes in ritsuryō government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23139"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Heian-period-794-1185#ref23139">Aristocratic government at its peak</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23140"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Government-by-cloistered-emperors">Government by cloistered emperors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23141"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Government-by-cloistered-emperors#ref23141">The rise of the warrior class</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23142"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Medieval-Japan">Medieval Japan</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23143" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Medieval-Japan#ref23143">The Kamakura period (1192–1333)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23144"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Medieval-Japan#ref23144">The establishment of warrior government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23145"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Medieval-Japan#ref23145">The Hōjō regency</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23146"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Medieval-Japan#ref23146">The Mongol invasions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23147"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Samurai-groups-and-farming-villages">Samurai groups and farming villages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23148"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Samurai-groups-and-farming-villages#ref23148">Kamakura culture: the new Buddhism and its influence</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23149"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Samurai-groups-and-farming-villages#ref23149">Decline of Kamakura society</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23150" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Muromachi-or-Ashikaga-period-1338-1573">The Muromachi (or Ashikaga) period (1338–1573)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23151"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Muromachi-or-Ashikaga-period-1338-1573#ref23151">The Kemmu Restoration and the dual dynasties</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23152"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Muromachi-or-Ashikaga-period-1338-1573#ref23152">The establishment of the Muromachi <em>bakufu</em></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23153"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Muromachi-or-Ashikaga-period-1338-1573#ref23153">Muromachi government structure</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23154"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Muromachi-or-Ashikaga-period-1338-1573#ref23154">The growth of local autonomy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23155"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Muromachi-or-Ashikaga-period-1338-1573#ref23155">Trade between China and Japan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23156"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Onin-War-1467-77">The Ōnin War (1467–77)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23157"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Onin-War-1467-77#ref23157">The Sengoku (“Warring States”) period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23158"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Onin-War-1467-77#ref23158">The emergence of new forces.</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23159"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Onin-War-1467-77#ref23159">The arrival of the Europeans</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23160"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-establishment-of-warrior-culture">The establishment of warrior culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23161"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Early-modern-Japan-1550-1850">Early modern Japan (1550–1850)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23162" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Early-modern-Japan-1550-1850#ref23162">Unification</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23163"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Early-modern-Japan-1550-1850#ref23163">The Oda regime</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23164"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Early-modern-Japan-1550-1850#ref23164">The Hideyoshi regime</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23165"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Early-modern-Japan-1550-1850#ref23165">Azuchi-Momoyama culture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23166" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-bakuhan-system">The bakuhan system</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23167"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-bakuhan-system#ref23167">The establishment of the system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23168"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-bakuhan-system#ref23168">The enforcement of national seclusion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23169"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Tokugawa-status-system">The Tokugawa status system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23170"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Tokugawa-status-system#ref23170">Commerce, cities, and culture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23171" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-Tokugawa-status-system#ref23171">The weakening of the <em>bakuhan</em> system</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23172"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-reform-in-the-bakufu-and-the-han">Political reform in the <em>bakufu</em> and the <em>han</em></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23173"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-reform-in-the-bakufu-and-the-han#ref23173">The growth of the northern problem</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23174"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-reform-in-the-bakufu-and-the-han#ref23174">New learning and thought</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23175"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-reform-in-the-bakufu-and-the-han#ref23175">Heterodox Confucian schools</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23176"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Shinto-and-kokugaku">Shintō and <em>kokugaku</em></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23177"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Shinto-and-kokugaku#ref23177">Western studies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23178"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Shinto-and-kokugaku#ref23178">Growth of popular knowledge</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23179"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Religious-attitudes">Religious attitudes</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23180"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Religious-attitudes#ref23180">The maturity of Edo culture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23181" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Religious-attitudes#ref23181">The last years of the <em>bakuhan</em></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23182"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Religious-attitudes#ref23182">The Tempō reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23183"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-opening-of-Japan">The opening of Japan</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref23184"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-opening-of-Japan#ref23184">Japan from 1850 to 1945</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23185" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-opening-of-Japan#ref23185">The Meiji restoration</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23186"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-fall-of-the-Tokugawa">The fall of the Tokugawa</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23187"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-fall-of-the-Tokugawa#ref23187">From feudal to modern state</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23188"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-fall-of-the-Tokugawa#ref23188">Abolition of feudalism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23189"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-fall-of-the-Tokugawa#ref23189">Constitutional movement</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23190" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-emergence-of-imperial-Japan">The emergence of imperial Japan</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23191"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-emergence-of-imperial-Japan#ref23191">Foreign affairs</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23192"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-emergence-of-imperial-Japan#ref23192">The Sino-Japanese War</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23193"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-emergence-of-imperial-Japan#ref23193">The Russo-Japanese War</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23194"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Japanese-expansionism">Japanese expansionism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23195"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Japanese-expansionism#ref23195">Constitutional government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23196"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Japanese-expansionism#ref23196">Social change</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23197" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-rise-of-the-militarists">The rise of the militarists</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23198"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-rise-of-the-militarists#ref23198">The weakening of party government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23199"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-rise-of-the-militarists#ref23199">Aggression in Manchuria</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23200"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-road-to-World-War-II">The road to World War II</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23201"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-road-to-World-War-II#ref23201">Events in China</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23202"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/The-road-to-World-War-II#ref23202">Foreign relations</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23203" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/World-War-II-and-defeat">World War II and defeat</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23204"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/World-War-II-and-defeat#ref23204">Prologue to war</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23205"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/World-War-II-and-defeat#ref23205">Early successes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23206"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/World-War-II-and-defeat#ref23206">Japan on the defensive</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23207"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/World-War-II-and-defeat#ref23207">The end of the war</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref236922"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Japan-since-1945">Japan since 1945</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23208" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Japan-since-1945#ref23208">The early postwar decades</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23209"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Japan-since-1945#ref23209">Occupation</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23210"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Japan-since-1945#ref23210">Political reform</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23211"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Japan-since-1945#ref23211">Economic and social changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23212"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Japan-since-1945#ref23212">Educational reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23213"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Japan-since-1945#ref23213">Political trends</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23214"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Japan-since-1945#ref23214">The era of rapid growth</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23215"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Economic-transformation">Economic transformation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23216"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Economic-transformation#ref23216">Social change</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23217"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Economic-transformation#ref23217">Political developments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref23218"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/International-relations">International relations</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref23219" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/International-relations#ref23219">The late 20th and early 21st centuries</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23220"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/International-relations#ref23220">Economic change</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23221"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-developments">Political developments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23222"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-developments#ref23222">Social change</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref23223"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Japan/Political-developments#ref23223">International relations</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref276895"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" 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Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/jp.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">CRW Flags - Flag of Japan</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="http://www.dk.emb-japan.go.jp/itprtop_en/" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">Official Site of the Embassy of Japan in Denmark</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/japan/" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">Central Intelligence Agency - The World Factbook - Japan</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-title">Britannica Websites</div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-subtitle">Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.</div> <ul class="list-unstyled bps-topic-web-sites lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Japan/345715" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Japan - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Japan/275136" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Japan - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="caption alternate-titles">Also known as: Nihon, Nippon</div> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Marius-B-Jansen/1467" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Marius B. Jansen</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Professor of History, Princeton University, 1959–92. Author of <em>Sakamoto Ryōma and the Meiji Restoration </em>and others.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Marius B. Jansen</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Akira-Watanabe/3121" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Akira Watanabe</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Chairman, Department of Geography, Ochanomizu Women's University, Tokyo. Editor of <i>Gazetteer of Japan.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Akira Watanabe</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-26T00:00:00CST" >Nov 26, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/300531/932f970544b216da249e33d8c0491ac8" rel="nofollow">Stock market today: Wall Street hangs near its records despite tariff talk</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 26, 2024, 2:46 PM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/300531/c58b6bd86941f916bb5fb873c645c519" rel="nofollow">The engine of Japan's flagship new small rocket explodes during a test for a second time</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 26, 2024, 8:28 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/300531/fdbe52e496877317718e0bc5deaff858" rel="nofollow">South Korea holds memorial for forced laborers in Japan after boycotting Japanese event</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 26, 2024, 12:00 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/300531/0218064869fb4a1270dad471432b9c46" rel="nofollow">Japan holds first memorial for 'all workers' at Sado gold mines but blurs WWII atrocity. Why?</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 25, 2024, 9:01 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/300531/c87df6f1a69f73675e302b09d014b09b" rel="nofollow">Stolen shoe mystery solved at Japanese kindergarten when security camera catches weasel in the act</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 25, 2024, 12:38 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="3" id="ref23150">  <section data-level="4" id="ref23151"> <h2 class="h4">The Kemmu Restoration and the dual dynasties</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">On the accession of <span id="ref319342"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Go-Daigo" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Go-Daigo</a>, the retired emperor Go-Uda broke the long-established custom and dissolved the office of retired emperor (<em>in no chō</em>). As a result, the entire authority of the imperial government was concentrated in the hands of a single emperor, Go-Daigo. A party of young reforming court nobles gathered around the emperor, who strove to renovate the government. But to realize his ideal of a true imperial restoration, it was necessary for Go-Daigo to rid himself of the interference of the <em><span id="ref319343"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/shogunate" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">bakufu</a></em>. His plans for its overthrow were discovered, however, and he was arrested and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="exiled" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/exiled" data-type="EB">exiled</a> to Oki Island. But in the Kinai area, local leaders, supported by militant Buddhist monks, raised an army to overthrow the <em>bakufu</em>. The imperial forces were led by Prince <span id="ref319344"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Morinaga" class="md-crosslink ">Morinaga</a> (or Moriyoshi) and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kusunoki-Masashige" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Kusunoki Masashige</a>, but the decisive victory was brought about by the two powerful Kantō warrior families of <span id="ref319345"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ashikaga-Takauji" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ashikaga Takauji</a> and <span id="ref319346"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nitta-Yoshisada" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Nitta Yoshisada</a>, discontented vassals of the Hōjō family. In 1333 Takauji turned on the Hōjō and attacked the Hōjō headquarters in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kyoto-prefecture-Japan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Kyōto</a>. Yoshisada meanwhile destroyed the <em>bakufu</em> in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kamakura" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Kamakura</a>, at which time most of the Hōjō leaders perished in battle or by their own hand. Thus, after 140 years’ rule, the <em>bakufu</em> government was brought to an end.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The return of Go-Daigo to Kyōto in 1333 is known as the <span id="ref319347"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Kemmu-Restoration" class="md-crosslink ">Kemmu Restoration</a>. The emperor immediately set about to restore direct imperial rule. He abolished the powerful office of <em>kampaku</em> and set up a central <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="bureaucracy" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bureaucracy" data-type="MW">bureaucracy</a>. He revived the Records Office (Kirokusho) to settle lawsuits in the provinces and established the Court of Miscellaneous Claims (Zassho Ketsudansho) to handle minor suits and a guard station (<em>musha-dokoro</em>) to keep order among the warriors in Kyōto. He placed Morinaga in charge of his military forces and set up members of the imperial family as provincial leaders in the north and east.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Many local warriors, however, who had joined the imperial forces in the overthrow of the <em>bakufu</em> were disappointed in the division of the spoils and the direction of the emperor’s reforms. Ashikaga Takauji now turned against Go-Daigo, raising a revolt that in 1336 drove the emperor from Kyōto. Takauji enthroned an emperor from the senior <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="imperial" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/imperial" data-type="EB">imperial</a> line, while Go-Daigo and his followers set up a rival court in the Yoshino Mountains near <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Nara-prefecture-Japan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Nara</a>. For the next 60 years political power was divided between the <span id="ref319348"></span>Southern Court in Yoshino and the <span id="ref319349"></span>Northern Court in Kyōto. It remained for Takauji’s grandson Yoshimitsu to establish peace (1392) between the two courts; thereafter, imperial succession remained with the descendants of the Northern Court. Throughout the long dispute, however, local warriors attached themselves to <em>shugo</em>, who increasingly asserted their independence from central authority.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="4" id="ref23152"> <h2 class="h4">The establishment of the Muromachi <em><span id="ref319350"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/shogunate" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">bakufu</a></em></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">After the withdrawal of Go-Daigo to Yoshino, <span id="ref319351"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ashikaga-Yoshimitsu" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ashikaga</a> Takauji set up a <em>bakufu</em> at Nijō Takakura in Kyōto. But in 1378 Takauji’s grandson, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/shogun" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">shogun</a> Yoshimitsu, moved the <em>bakufu</em> to the Muromachi district in Kyōto, where it remained and took final shape. Yoshimitsu, assisted by the successive shogunal deputies (<em>kanrei</em>) <span id="ref319352"></span>Hosokawa Yoriyuki and <span id="ref319353"></span>Shiba Yoshimasa, gradually overcame the power of the great military governors (<em>shugo</em>) who had been so important in the founding of the new regime. He destroyed the Yamana family in 1391, and, in uniting the Northern and Southern courts, attacked and destroyed the great <em>shugo</em> Ōuchi Yoshihiro, thus gaining control of the Inland Sea. Yoshimitsu was now raised to the highest office of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/prime-minister" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">prime minister</a>, or <em>dajō-daijin</em>. He constructed the famed <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kinkaku-ji" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Golden Pavilion</a> (<span id="ref319354"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kinkaku-ji" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kinkaku-ji;</a> see below <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/The-establishment-of-warrior-culture#ref23160" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">The establishment of warrior culture</a>) northeast of the capital in Kitayama, taking great pride in its luxurious display, and also reestablished trade and diplomacy with Ming <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="dynasty" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dynasty" data-type="MW">dynasty</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">China</a> under the title “King of Japan.”</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <section data-level="5" id="ref23153"> <h2 class="h5">Muromachi government structure</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The Muromachi <em>bakufu</em> inherited almost unchanged the structure of its Kamakura predecessor (see above <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/Medieval-Japan#ref23143" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">The establishment of warrior government</a>), setting up a Mandokoro, Monchūjo, and Samurai-dokoro. But after the appointment of Hosokawa Yoriyuki as <em><span id="ref319355"></span>kanrei</em>, this post became the most important in the <em>bakufu</em> government. The official business of the <span id="ref319356"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Board-of-Public-Papers" class="md-crosslink ">Mandokoro</a> was to control the finances of the <em>bakufu</em>; and later the <span id="ref319357"></span>Ise family, who were hereditary retainers of the Ashikaga, came to inherit this office. The <span id="ref319358"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Board-of-Retainers" class="md-crosslink ">Samurai-dokoro</a>, besides handling legal judgments, was <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="entrusted" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/entrusted" data-type="EB">entrusted</a> with the control of the capital. Leading officials called <em><span id="ref319359"></span>shoshi</em> who held the additional post of <em>shugo</em> of Yamashiro province (now in Kyōto urban prefecture) were next in importance to the <em>kanrei</em>. New offices were established to streamline judicial decisions and handle financial matters, and the Ashikaga maintained their own private guard, the <em><span id="ref319360"></span>hōkōshū</em>. In local administration, a special administrator was set up in Kamakura to control the 10 provinces of the Kantō area. This office came to be held by heads of the Ashikaga Motouji family. The 11 provinces of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kyushu-island-Japan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Kyushu</a> were placed under control of an office known as the Kyushu <em>tandai</em>.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The crucial difference between the two <em>bakufu</em>, however, was the difference in the role of the <em><span id="ref319361"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/shugo" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">shugo</a></em>. Appointed first by Takauji in the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="chaos" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/chaos" data-type="MW">chaos</a> of the war between the courts, many rose to positions of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/great-power" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">great power</a> in one or several provinces under their <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="purview" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/purview" data-type="MW">purview</a>. By Yoshimitsu’s time, their number had been reduced and their powers somewhat curtailed. But the structure of the <em>bakufu</em> was essentially a delicate balance between the Ashikaga shogunal house and about a dozen major <em>shugo</em> houses, almost evenly divided between <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="collateral" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/collateral" data-type="MW">collateral</a> Ashikaga houses and nonrelated warrior families. Yoshimitsu made them all establish primary residence in Kyōto, where they ruled in council with the shogun. This retarded their abilities to develop stronger vassalage ties with local warriors in their provinces, and they often sent out deputies to manage their provincial areas in their absence. Consequently, in later years many powerful <em>shugo</em> from the early and middle parts of the Muromachi period were overthrown by their own deputies.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The finances of the Muromachi <em>bakufu</em> could not be met simply from its receipts from the lands under its direct control, as Kamakura had managed to do. So, according to <em>bakufu</em> needs, the <em>shugo</em> and <em>jitō</em> of each province were ordered to levy <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="monetary" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/monetary" data-type="MW">monetary</a> taxes on either every unit of land or every household; this, however, also was not fully effective in meeting financial needs. As a result, the <em>bakufu</em> extracted taxes from such dealers as pawnbrokers and sake brewers, who were among the wealthiest merchants of the time. Financial deficiencies also were supplemented by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/market" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">trading</a> with China. Despite this more diversified tax structure, the Muromachi regime maintained only a shaky hold on the nation. The foundations of the <em>bakufu</em> began to be shaken by the increasing power of the <em>shugo</em> and by the frequent uprisings of local <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/samurai" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">samurai</a> and farmers.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Kamakura-period" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Kamakura period</a> the authority of the <em>shugo</em> was essentially limited to security matters—suppressing rebellion, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="apprehending" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/apprehending" data-type="EB">apprehending</a> murderers, and mustering out vassals for service in Kyōto. In the latter half of the Northern and Southern courts period, their executive power over the areas under their control was increased. As the number of disturbances grew, they gained wide powers of military command. Sometimes estates were made depots for military supplies on the pretext of protecting them from the depredations of local warriors, and half their yearly taxes were given to the <em>shugo</em>. This was called the <span id="ref319362"></span>equal tax division, or <em>hanzei</em>. Many <em>shugo</em> succeeded to their domains by inheritance, and in cases such as that of the Yamana family a single <em>shugo</em> sometimes held a number of provinces. If the primary agent of the Kamakura <em>bakufu</em> had been the <em>jitō</em>, the <em>shugo</em> was the defining office of the Muromachi <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="regime" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/regime" data-type="EB">regime</a>. From the outset, the controlling power of the Ashikaga <em>bakufu</em> was relatively weak, and, especially after the death of Yoshimitsu, the tendency for powerful <em>shugo</em> to defect became marked. Hence, as time passed the office of shogun became increasingly impotent.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="5" id="ref23154"> <h2 class="h5">The growth of local autonomy</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In the villages around Kyōto, the status of farmers rose markedly as agriculture became more highly developed, and commerce and small-scale manufacturing prospered. Also, confederations of the middle and small landlords, or <em><span id="ref319363"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/myoshu" class="md-crosslink ">myōshu</a></em>, proceeded apace and often led to uprisings against absentee control. Such confederations appeared where farming by the larger <em>myōshu</em> had dissolved and middle and small <em>myōshu</em> had established themselves on a wide scale. These smaller landlords endeavored to defend themselves against the ravages of local warfare, forming unions to manage the forests in common and to maintain irrigation works. In such confederations, a leader called the elder (<em>otona</em>) would be selected to head village government. Assemblies were held regularly among its members at the village shrine or temple, and regulations were drawn up for the maintenance of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="community" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/community" data-type="MW">community</a> life.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">As self-government became strong in the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="communities" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/communities" data-type="MW">communities</a>, the resistance of farmers became fierce. After the unification of the Northern and Southern courts, armed uprisings broke out among the farming villages, the peasants demanding reductions in yearly taxes from the old proprietors and a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="moratorium" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/moratorium" data-type="MW">moratorium</a> on debts owed to the moneylenders. A large-scale uprising of this kind took place in 1428 in the last years of Yoshimitsu’s rule. In 1429 an uprising broke out in Harima province (now part of modern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hyogo-prefecture-Japan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Hyōgō</a> prefecture) aimed at the expulsion of the warriors from the province. In 1441 farmers living around Kyōto attacked the pawnbrokers and demanded that the <em>bakufu</em> declare a moratorium on debts. Thereafter, uprisings occurred on a greater or lesser scale almost yearly—testimony to the fading power of both the <em>shōen</em> system and the <em>bakufu</em>.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section> <section data-level="4" id="ref23155"> <h2 class="h4">Trade between China and Japan</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Trade with <span id="ref319364"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ming-dynasty-Chinese-history" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ming dynasty</a> China began after the <em>bakufu</em> agreed to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="suppress" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/suppress" data-type="EB">suppress</a> Japanese piracy. Ashikaga Takauji had sent ships of the Tenryū Temple to trade with the Yüan (Mongol) dynasty. But trade then ceased because of the internal disturbances, and pirates from the maritime districts of western Japan raided both China and the Korean peninsula. When Korea came under the control of the <span id="ref319365"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Joseon-dynasty" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Chosŏn (Yi) dynasty</a> and in China the Ming dynasty emerged, they both requested that the <em>bakufu</em> open formal trade relations, hoping to suppress piracy. Yoshimitsu, both in response to the desires of the merchants and in order to supplement <em>bakufu</em> finances, began formal trade relations with Ming China and Korea, repatriating a large number of Chinese who had been taken captive by the pirates. In response, the Ming also began to trade with Japan, under the form of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="tribute" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/tribute" data-type="EB">tribute</a> from Yoshimitsu, “King of Japan,” to the emperor of China. In order to distinguish between pirate ships and trading ships, seals received from the Ming called <em><span id="ref319366"></span>kangōfu</em> were used, hence the use of the term <em><span id="ref319367"></span>kangō</em>, or tally, trade.</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Profits from the China trade were important to the <em>bakufu</em>, but control of this trade later came into the hands of the western <em>shugo</em> families of the <span id="ref319368"></span>Hosokawa and <span id="ref319369"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ouchi-family" class="md-crosslink ">Ōuchi</a>, under whose protection trading merchants became active in the ports of Hakata, Hyōgo, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sakai" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Sakai</a>. After the Ōnin War (see below <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/The-Onin-War-1467-77#ref23156" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">The Ōnin War [1467–77]</a>), the Ōuchi controlled the trade—albeit in competition and often conflict with the Hosokawa—but with the destruction of the Ōuchi the <em>kangō</em> trade <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="ceased" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/ceased" data-type="EB">ceased</a> and piracy again became rife. Trade with Chosŏn dynasty Korea was carried on through the agency of the Sō family of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tsushima" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Tsushima</a>, and various <em>shugo</em> and the merchants of Hakata were actively involved in it, importing cotton and other goods. Japanese traders even established settlements in southeastern Korea, including Pusan. Also included in the trade with China and Korea were goods imported by Japanese merchants from the <span id="ref319370"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ryukyu-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ryukyu Islands</a>, lying between Japan and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Taiwan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Taiwan</a>, and dye materials, pepper, and other special products from the South Seas.</p><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":29,"pagesTotal":49,"pageId":300531,"pageLength":1952,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"D","adLeg":"D","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":29,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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