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<span>Toggle Existing delivery system problems subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Existing_delivery_system_problems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Costs_and_efficiency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Costs_and_efficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Costs and efficiency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Costs_and_efficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economies_of_scale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economies_of_scale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Economies of scale</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economies_of_scale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economical_information_transfer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economical_information_transfer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Economical information transfer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economical_information_transfer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Existing_last_mile_delivery_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Existing_last_mile_delivery_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Existing last mile delivery systems</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Existing_last_mile_delivery_systems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Existing last mile delivery systems subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Existing_last_mile_delivery_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wired_systems_(including_optical_fiber)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wired_systems_(including_optical_fiber)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Wired systems (including optical fiber)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wired_systems_(including_optical_fiber)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Local_area_networks_(LAN)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_area_networks_(LAN)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Local area networks (LAN)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_area_networks_(LAN)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Telephone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Telephone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Telephone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Telephone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-CATV" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#CATV"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>CATV</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-CATV-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Optical_fiber" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optical_fiber"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Optical fiber</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optical_fiber-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wireless_delivery_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wireless_delivery_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Wireless delivery systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wireless_delivery_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lightwaves_and_free-space_optics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lightwaves_and_free-space_optics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Lightwaves and free-space optics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lightwaves_and_free-space_optics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radio_waves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_waves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Radio waves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_waves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-One-way_(broadcast)_radio_and_television_communications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#One-way_(broadcast)_radio_and_television_communications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>One-way (broadcast) radio and television communications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-One-way_(broadcast)_radio_and_television_communications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Two-way_wireless_communications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Two-way_wireless_communications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>Two-way wireless communications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Two-way_wireless_communications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Satellite_communications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Satellite_communications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.5</span> <span>Satellite communications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Satellite_communications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Broadcast_versus_point-to-point" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Broadcast_versus_point-to-point"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.6</span> <span>Broadcast versus point-to-point</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Broadcast_versus_point-to-point-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intermediate_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intermediate_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Intermediate system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intermediate_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Line_aggregation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Line_aggregation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Line aggregation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Line_aggregation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input 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mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 15 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-15" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">15 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="الميل الأخير – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الميل الأخير" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Son_mil" title="Son mil – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Son mil" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8F" title="Апошняя міля – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Апошняя міля" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8F" title="Апошняя міля – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Апошняя міля" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posledn%C3%AD_m%C3%ADle" title="Poslední míle – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Poslední míle" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letzte_Meile" title="Letzte Meile – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Letzte Meile" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dernier_kilom%C3%A8tre" title="Dernier kilomètre – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dernier kilomètre" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimo_miglio" title="Ultimo miglio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ultimo miglio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last-mile_(telecommunicatie)" title="Last-mile (telecommunicatie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Last-mile (telecommunicatie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A9%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%AF%E3%83%B3%E3%83%9E%E3%82%A4%E3%83%AB_(%E9%80%9A%E4%BF%A1%E6%A5%AD%E7%95%8C)" title="ラストワンマイル (通信業界) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ラストワンマイル (通信業界)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_mile" title="Last mile – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Last mile" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8F" title="Последняя миля – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Последняя миля" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_mile" title="Last mile – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Last mile" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8F" title="Остання миля – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Остання миля" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%80%E5%90%8E%E4%B8%80%E5%85%AC%E9%87%8C" title="最后一公里 – Chinese" lang="zh" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Last leg of telecommunications delivery</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about telecommunications terminology. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Last_mile_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Last mile (disambiguation)">Last mile</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Last_mile_(telecommunications)" title="Special:EditPage/Last mile (telecommunications)">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Last+mile%22+telecommunications">"Last mile" telecommunications</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Last+mile%22+telecommunications+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Last+mile%22+telecommunications&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Last+mile%22+telecommunications+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Last+mile%22+telecommunications">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Last+mile%22+telecommunications&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2009</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>last mile</b>, or <b>last kilometer</b>, in the <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunication">telecommunications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">cable television</a> and <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a> industries refers to the final leg of a <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">telecommunications network</a> that delivers telecommunication services to retail <a href="/wiki/End-user" class="mw-redirect" title="End-user">end-users</a> (customers). More specifically, <i>last mile</i> describes the portion of the telecommunications network chain that physically reaches the end-user's premises. Examples are the copper wire <a href="/wiki/Subscriber_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Subscriber line">subscriber lines</a> connecting landline <a href="/wiki/Telephone" title="Telephone">telephones</a> to the local <a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">telephone exchange</a>; <a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">coaxial cable</a> <a href="/wiki/Service_drop" title="Service drop">service drops</a> carrying <a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">cable television</a> signals from <a href="/wiki/Utility_pole" title="Utility pole">utility poles</a> to subscribers' homes, and <a href="/wiki/Cell_tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell tower">cell towers</a> linking local <a href="/wiki/Cell_phones" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell phones">cell phones</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">cellular network</a>. The word "mile" is used metaphorically; the length of the last mile link may be more or less than a mile. Because the last mile of a network to the user is conversely the first mile from the user's premises to the outside world when the user is sending data, the term <b>first mile</b> is also alternatively used. </p><p>The last mile is typically the speed bottleneck in communication networks; its <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</a> effectively limits the amount of data that can be delivered to the customer. This is because retail telecommunication networks have the topology of "<a href="/wiki/Tree_structure" title="Tree structure">trees</a>", with relatively few high capacity "trunk" communication channels branching out to feed many final mile "twigs". The final mile links, being the most numerous and thus the most expensive part of the system, as well as having to interface with a wide variety of user equipment, are the most difficult to upgrade to new technology. For example, telephone <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">trunklines</a> that carry phone calls between switching centers are made of modern <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a>, but the last mile is typically <a href="/wiki/Twisted_pair" title="Twisted pair">twisted pair</a> wires, a technology which has essentially remained unchanged for over a century since the original laying of copper phone cables. </p><p>In recent years, usage of the term "last mile" has expanded outside the communications industries, to include other distribution networks that deliver goods to customers, such as the pipes that deliver water and <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> to customer premises, and the final legs of <a href="/wiki/Mail" title="Mail">mail</a> and <a href="/wiki/Package_delivery" title="Package delivery">package delivery</a> services.<sup id="cite_ref-Spectrum_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spectrum-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term has also been used to describe education and training providers that more tightly link individuals with job opportunities.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Existing_delivery_system_problems">Existing delivery system problems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Existing delivery system problems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_last_mile_hierarchy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/The_last_mile_hierarchy.svg/370px-The_last_mile_hierarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="367" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/The_last_mile_hierarchy.svg/555px-The_last_mile_hierarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/The_last_mile_hierarchy.svg/740px-The_last_mile_hierarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="627" data-file-height="622" /></a><figcaption>Schematic representation of the <a href="/wiki/Tree_(graph_theory)" title="Tree (graph theory)">tree</a> topology of retail distribution networks. The "last mile" links are represented by the fine lines at the bottom. </figcaption></figure> <p>The increasing worldwide demand for rapid, low-<a href="/wiki/Network_latency" class="mw-redirect" title="Network latency">latency</a> and high-volume communication of <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> to homes and businesses has made economical information distribution and delivery increasingly important. As demand has escalated, particularly fueled by the widespread adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>, the need for economical high-speed access by end-users located at millions of locations has ballooned as well. </p><p>As requirements have changed, the existing systems and networks that were initially pressed into service for this purpose have proven to be inadequate. To date, although a number of approaches have been tried, no single clear solution to the 'last mile problem' has emerged. </p><p>As expressed by <a href="/wiki/Shannon%E2%80%93Hartley_theorem" title="Shannon–Hartley theorem">Shannon's equation</a> for <a href="/wiki/Channel_capacity" title="Channel capacity">channel information capacity</a>, the omnipresence of <a href="/wiki/Noise" title="Noise">noise</a> in information systems sets a minimum <a href="/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio" title="Signal-to-noise ratio">signal-to-noise ratio</a> (shortened as S/N) requirement in a channel, even when adequate <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">spectral bandwidth</a> is available. Since the integral of the rate of information transfer with respect to time is information quantity, this requirement leads to a corresponding minimum <a href="/wiki/Eb/N0" title="Eb/N0">energy per bit</a>. The problem of sending any given amount of information across a channel can therefore be viewed in terms of sending sufficient Information-Carrying Energy (ICE).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> For this reason the concept of an ICE 'pipe' or 'conduit' is relevant and useful for examining existing systems. </p><p>The distribution of information to a great number of widely separated end-users can be compared to the distribution of many other resources. Some familiar analogies are: </p> <ul><li>Blood distribution to a large number of <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> over a system of <a href="/wiki/Veins" class="mw-redirect" title="Veins">veins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Arteries">arteries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capillaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Capillaries">capillaries</a></li> <li>Water distribution by a <a href="/wiki/Drip_irrigation" title="Drip irrigation">drip irrigation</a> system to individual <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">plants</a>, including <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">rivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(watercourse)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqueduct (watercourse)">aqueducts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_mains" class="mw-redirect" title="Water mains">water mains</a>, etc.</li> <li>Nourishment to a plant's leaves through <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">roots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trunk_(botany)" title="Trunk (botany)">trunk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Branches" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches">branches</a>.</li></ul> <p>All of these have in common conduits that carry a relatively small amount of a resource a short distance to a very large number of physically separated endpoints. Also common are conduits supporting more voluminous flow, which combine and carry many individual portions over much greater distances. The shorter, lower-volume conduits, which individually serve only one or a small fraction of the endpoints, may have far greater combined length than the larger capacity ones. These common attributes are shown to the right. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Costs_and_efficiency">Costs and efficiency</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Costs and efficiency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The high-capacity conduits in these systems tend to also have in common the ability to efficiently transfer the resource over a long distance. Only a small fraction of the resource being transferred is wasted, lost, or misdirected. The same cannot necessarily be said of lower-capacity conduits. </p><p>One reason has to do with the <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">efficiency of scale</a>. Conduits that are located closer to the endpoint, or end-user, do not individually have as many users supporting them. Even though they are smaller, each has the overhead of an "installation" obtaining and maintaining a suitable path over which the resource can flow. The funding and resources supporting these smaller conduits tend to come from the immediate locale. </p><p>This can have the advantage of a "small-government model". That is, the management and resources for these conduits is provided by local entities and therefore can be optimized to achieve the best solutions in the immediate environment and also to make best use of local resources. However, the lower operating efficiencies and relatively greater installation expenses, compared with the transfer capacities, can cause these smaller conduits, as a whole, to be the most expensive and difficult part of the complete distribution system. </p><p>These characteristics have been displayed in the birth, growth, and funding of the Internet. The earliest inter-computer communication tended to be accomplished with direct wireline connections between individual computers. These grew into clusters of small <a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">local area networks</a> (LAN). The <a href="/wiki/TCP/IP" class="mw-redirect" title="TCP/IP">TCP/IP</a> suite of <a href="/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite" title="Internet protocol suite">protocols</a> was born out of the need to connect several of these LANs together, particularly as related to common projects among the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">United States Department of Defense</a>, industry and some academic institutions. </p><p><a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a> came into being to further these interests. In addition to providing a way for multiple computers and users to share a common inter-LAN connection, the TCP/IP protocols provided a standardized way for dissimilar computers and operating systems to exchange information over this inter-network. The funding and support for the connections among LANs could be spread over one or even several LANs. </p><p>As each new LAN, or subnet, was added, the new subnet's constituents enjoyed access to the greater network. At the same time the new subnet enabled access to any network or networks with which it was already networked. Thus the growth became a mutually inclusive or "win-win" event. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economies_of_scale">Economies of scale</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Economies of scale"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In general, economy of scale makes an increase in capacity of a conduit less expensive as the capacity is increased. There is an overhead associated with the creation of any conduit. This overhead is not repeated as capacity is increased within the potential of the technology being utilized. </p><p>As the Internet has grown in size, by some estimates doubling in the number of users every eighteen months, economy of scale has resulted in increasingly large information conduits providing the longest distance and highest capacity backbone connections. In recent years, the capacity of <a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">fiber-optic communication</a>, aided by a supporting industry, has resulted in an expansion of raw capacity, so much so that in the United States a large amount of installed fiber infrastructure is not being used because it is currently excess capacity "<a href="/wiki/Dark_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Dark fiber">dark fiber</a>". </p><p>This excess backbone capacity exists in spite of the trend of increasing per-user data rates and overall quantity of data. Initially, only the inter-LAN connections were high speed. End-users used existing telephone lines and modems, which were capable of data rates of only a few hundred <a href="/wiki/Bit_rate" title="Bit rate">bit/s</a>. Now almost all end users enjoy access at 100 or more times those early rates. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economical_information_transfer">Economical information transfer</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Economical information transfer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before considering the characteristics of existing last-mile information delivery mechanisms, it is important to further examine what makes information conduits effective. As the <a href="/wiki/Shannon%E2%80%93Hartley_theorem" title="Shannon–Hartley theorem">Shannon–Hartley theorem</a> shows, it is the combination of bandwidth and <a href="/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio" title="Signal-to-noise ratio">signal-to-noise ratio</a> which determines the maximum information rate of a channel. The product of the average information rate and time yields total information transfer. In the presence of <a href="/wiki/Signal_noise" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal noise">noise</a>, this corresponds to some amount of transferred information-carrying energy (ICE). Therefore, the economics of information transfer may be viewed in terms of the economics of the transfer of ICE. </p><p>Effective last-mile conduits must: </p> <ol><li>Deliver signal power, S — (must have adequate signal power capacity).</li> <li>Experience low loss (low occurrence of conversion to unusable energy forms).</li> <li>Support wide transmission <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</a>.</li> <li>Deliver high <a href="/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio" title="Signal-to-noise ratio">signal-to-noise ratio</a> (SNR) — low unwanted-signal (<a href="/wiki/Noise" title="Noise">Noise</a>) power, N.</li> <li>Provide <a href="/wiki/Roaming" title="Roaming">nomadic</a> connectivity.</li></ol> <p>In addition to these factors, a good solution to the last-mile problem must provide each user: </p> <ol><li>High <a href="/wiki/Availability" title="Availability">availability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">reliability</a>.</li> <li>Low <a href="/wiki/Latency_(engineering)" title="Latency (engineering)">latency</a>; latency must be small compared with required interaction times.</li> <li>High per-user capacity. <ol><li>A conduit which is shared among multiple end-users must provide a correspondingly higher capacity in order to properly support each individual user. This must be true for information transfer in each direction.</li> <li>Affordability; suitable capacity must be financially viable.</li></ol></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Existing_last_mile_delivery_systems">Existing last mile delivery systems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Existing last mile delivery systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wired_systems_(including_optical_fiber)"><span id="Wired_systems_.28including_optical_fiber.29"></span>Wired systems (including optical fiber)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Wired systems (including optical fiber)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wired systems provide guided conduits for Information-Carrying Energy (ICE). They all have some degree of shielding, which limits their susceptibility to external noise sources. These transmission lines have losses which are proportional to length. Without the addition of periodic amplification, there is some maximum length beyond which all of these systems fail to deliver an adequate S/N ratio to support information flow. Dielectric <a href="/wiki/Fiber_to_the_x" title="Fiber to the x">optical fiber</a> systems support heavier flow at higher cost. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Local_area_networks_(LAN)"><span id="Local_area_networks_.28LAN.29"></span>Local area networks (LAN)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Local area networks (LAN)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Traditional wired <a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">local area networking</a> systems require copper coaxial cable or a twisted pair to be run between or among two or more of the nodes in the network. Common systems operate at 100 Mbit/s, and newer ones also support 1000 Mbit/s or more. While length may be limited by <a href="/wiki/Collision_detection" title="Collision detection">collision detection</a> and avoidance requirements, signal loss and reflections over these lines also define a maximum distance. The decrease in information capacity made available to an individual user is roughly proportional to the number of users sharing a LAN. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Telephone">Telephone</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Telephone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late 20th century, improvements in the use of existing copper telephone lines increased their capabilities if maximum line length is controlled. With support for higher transmission bandwidth and improved modulation, these <a href="/wiki/Digital_subscriber_line" title="Digital subscriber line">digital subscriber line</a> schemes have increased capability 20-50 times as compared to the previous <a href="/wiki/Voiceband" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceband">voiceband</a> systems. These methods are not based on altering the fundamental physical properties and limitations of the medium, which, apart from the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Twisted_pair" title="Twisted pair">twisted pairs</a>, are no different today than when the first telephone exchange was opened in 1877 by the Bell Telephone Company.<sup id="cite_ref-nxtbook_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nxtbook-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The history and long life of copper-based communications infrastructure is both a testament to the ability to derive new value from simple concepts through technological innovation – and a warning that copper communications infrastructure is beginning to offer <a href="/wiki/Diminishing_returns" title="Diminishing returns">diminishing returns</a> for continued investment.<sup id="cite_ref-nxtbook_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nxtbook-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However one of the largest costs associated with maintaining an ageing copper infrastructure is that of truck roll<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> - sending engineers to physically test, repair, replace and provide new copper connections, and this cost is particularly prevalent in providing rural broadband service over copper.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New technologies such as G.Fast and VDSL2 offer viable high speed solutions to rural broadband provision over existing copper. In light of this many companies have developed automated cross connects (cabinet based automated distribution frames) to eliminate the uncertainty and cost associated with maintaining broadband services over existing copper, these systems usually incorporate some form of automated switching and some include test functionality allowing an ISP representative to complete operations previously requiring a site visit (truck roll) from the central office via a web interface.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many countries the last mile link which connects landline business telephone customers to the local <a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">telephone exchange</a> is often an <a href="/wiki/ISDN30" class="mw-redirect" title="ISDN30">ISDN30</a> which can carry 30 simultaneous telephone calls. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="CATV">CATV</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: CATV"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Community antenna television systems, also known as <a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">cable television</a>, have been expanded to provide bidirectional communication over existing physical cables. However, they are by nature shared systems and the spectrum available for reverse information flow and achievable <a href="/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio" title="Signal-to-noise ratio">S/N</a> are limited. As was done for initial unidirectional TV communication, cable loss is mitigated through the use of periodic amplifiers within the system. These factors set an upper limit on per-user information capacity, particularly when many users share a common section of cable or <a href="/wiki/Access_network" title="Access network">access network</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Optical_fiber">Optical fiber</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Optical fiber"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">Optical fiber</a></div> <p>Fiber offers high information capacity and after the turn of the 21st century became the deployed medium of choice ("<a href="/wiki/Fiber_to_the_x" title="Fiber to the x">Fiber to the <i>x</i></a>") given its scalability in the face of the increasing bandwidth requirements of modern applications. </p><p>In 2004, according to Richard Lynch, Executive Vice President and Chief Technology Officer of the telecom giant <a href="/wiki/Verizon" title="Verizon">Verizon</a>, the company saw the world moving toward vastly higher bandwidth applications as consumers loved everything broadband had to offer and eagerly devoured as much as they could get, including two-way, user-generated content. Copper and coaxial networks would not – in fact, could not – satisfy these demands, which precipitated Verizon's aggressive move into <a href="/wiki/Fiber_to_the_x" title="Fiber to the x">fiber-to-the-home</a> via <a href="/wiki/FiOS" class="mw-redirect" title="FiOS">FiOS</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fiber is a <a href="/wiki/Future-proof" title="Future-proof">future-proof</a> technology that meets the needs of today's users, but unlike other copper-based and wireless last-mile mediums, also has the capacity for years to come, by upgrading the end-point optics and electronics without changing the fiber infrastructure. The fiber itself is installed on existing pole or conduit infrastructure and most of the cost is in labor, providing good regional <a href="/wiki/Economic_stimulus" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic stimulus">economic stimulus</a> in the deployment phase and providing a critical foundation for future regional commerce. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fixed_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Fixed line">Fixed copper lines</a> have been subject to theft due to the value of copper, but optical fibers make unattractive targets. Optical fibers cannot be converted into anything else, whereas <a href="/wiki/Copper#Recycling" title="Copper">copper can be recycled without loss</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wireless_delivery_systems">Wireless delivery systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Wireless delivery systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mobile_CDN" title="Mobile CDN">Mobile CDN</a> coined the term the '<b>mobile mile'</b> to categorize the last mile connection when a wireless system is used to reach the customer. In contrast to wired delivery systems, wireless systems use unguided waves to transmit ICE. They all tend to be unshielded and have a greater degree of susceptibility to unwanted signal and noise sources. </p><p>Because these waves are not guided but diverge, in free space these systems are <a href="/wiki/Attenuation" title="Attenuation">attenuated</a> following an <a href="/wiki/Inverse-square_law" title="Inverse-square law">inverse-square law</a>, inversely proportional to distance squared. Losses thus increase more slowly with increasing length than for wired systems, whose loss increases <a href="/wiki/Exponential_decay" title="Exponential decay">exponentially</a>. In a free space environment, beyond a given length, the losses in a wireless system are lower than those in a wired system. </p><p>In practice, the presence of atmosphere, and especially obstructions caused by terrain, buildings and foliage can greatly increase the loss above the free space value. Reflection, refraction and diffraction of waves can also alter their transmission characteristics and require specialized systems to accommodate the accompanying distortions. </p><p>Wireless systems have an advantage over wired systems in last mile applications in not requiring lines to be installed. However, they also have a disadvantage in that their unguided nature makes them more susceptible to unwanted noise and signals. Spectral reuse can therefore be limited. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lightwaves_and_free-space_optics">Lightwaves and free-space optics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Lightwaves and free-space optics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Visible and infrared light waves are much shorter than radio frequency waves. Their use to transmit data is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">free-space optical communication</a>. Being short, light waves can be focused or collimated with a small lens/antenna, and to a much higher degree than radio waves. Thus, a receiving device can recover a greater portion of the transmitted signal. </p><p>Also, because of the high frequency, a high <a href="/wiki/Bit_rate" title="Bit rate">data transfer rate</a> may be available. However, in practical last mile environments, obstructions and de-steering of these beams, and absorption by elements of the atmosphere including fog and rain, particularly over longer paths, can greatly restrict their use for last-mile wireless communications. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Radio_waves">Radio waves</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Radio waves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Radio frequencies (RF), from low frequencies through the microwave region, have wavelengths much longer than visible light. Although this means that it is not possible to focus the beams nearly as tightly as for light, it also means that the aperture or "capture area" of even the simplest, omnidirectional antenna is significantly larger than that of a lens in any feasible optical system. This characteristic results in greatly increased <a href="/wiki/Attenuation" title="Attenuation">attenuation</a> or "path loss" for systems that are not highly directional. </p><p>Actually, the term <a href="/wiki/Path_loss" title="Path loss">path loss</a> is something of a misnomer because no energy is lost on a free-space path. Rather, it is merely not received by the receiving antenna. The apparent reduction in transmission, as frequency is increased, is an artifact of the change in the aperture of a given type of antenna. </p><p>Relative to the last-mile problem, these longer wavelengths have an advantage over light waves when omnidirectional or sectored transmissions are considered. The larger aperture of radio antennas results in much greater signal levels for a given path length and therefore higher information capacity. On the other hand, the lower carrier frequencies are not able to support the high information bandwidths, which are required by Shannon's equation when the practical limits of S/N have been reached. </p><p>For the above reasons, wireless radio systems are optimal for lower-information-capacity broadcast communications delivered over longer paths. For high-information capacity, highly-directive <a href="/wiki/Point-to-point_(telecommunications)" title="Point-to-point (telecommunications)">point-to-point</a> over short ranges, wireless light-wave systems are the most useful. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="One-way_(broadcast)_radio_and_television_communications"><span id="One-way_.28broadcast.29_radio_and_television_communications"></span>One-way (broadcast) radio and television communications</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: One-way (broadcast) radio and television communications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historically, most high-information-capacity broadcast has used lower frequencies, generally no higher than the UHF television region, with television itself being a prime example. Terrestrial television has generally been limited to the region above 50 MHz where sufficient information bandwidth is available, and below 1,000 MHz, due to problems associated with increased path loss, as mentioned above. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Two-way_wireless_communications">Two-way wireless communications</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Two-way wireless communications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two-way communication systems have primarily been limited to lower-information-capacity applications, such as audio, facsimile, or <a href="/wiki/Radioteletype" title="Radioteletype">radioteletype</a>. For the most part, higher-capacity systems, such as two-way video communications or terrestrial microwave telephone and data trunks, have been limited and confined to UHF or microwave and to point-point paths. </p><p>Higher capacity systems such as third-generation cellular telephone systems require a large infrastructure of more closely spaced cell sites in order to maintain communications within typical environments, where path losses are much greater than in free space and which also require omnidirectional access by the users. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Satellite_communications">Satellite communications</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Satellite communications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For information delivery to end users, satellite systems, by nature, have relatively long path lengths, even for low earth-orbiting satellites. They are also very expensive to deploy and therefore each satellite must serve many users. Additionally, the very long paths of geostationary satellites cause information latency that makes many real-time applications unfeasible. </p><p>As a solution to the last-mile problem, satellite systems have application and sharing limitations. The ICE which they transmit must be spread over a relatively large geographical area. This causes the received signal to be relatively small, unless very large or directional terrestrial antennas are used. A parallel problem exists when a satellite is receiving. </p><p>In that case, the satellite system must have a very great information capacity in order to accommodate a multitude of sharing users and each user must have large antenna, with attendant directivity and pointing requirements, in order to obtain even modest information-rate transfer. These requirements render high-information-capacity, bi-directional information systems uneconomical. This is one reason why the <a href="/wiki/Iridium_Satellite_LLC" class="mw-redirect" title="Iridium Satellite LLC">Iridium</a> satellite system was not more successful. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Broadcast_versus_point-to-point">Broadcast versus point-to-point</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Broadcast versus point-to-point"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For terrestrial and satellite systems, economical, high-capacity, last-mile communications requires <a href="/wiki/Point-to-point_(telecommunications)" title="Point-to-point (telecommunications)">point-to-point</a> transmission systems. Except for extremely small geographic areas, broadcast systems are only able to deliver high S/N ratios at low frequencies where there is not sufficient spectrum to support the large information capacity needed by a large number of users. Although complete "flooding" of a region can be accomplished, such systems have the fundamental characteristic that most of the radiated ICE never reaches a user and is wasted. </p><p>As information requirements increase, broadcast <a href="/wiki/Wireless_mesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless mesh">wireless mesh</a> systems (also sometimes referred to as <a href="/wiki/Microcell" title="Microcell">microcells</a> or nano-cells) which are small enough to provide adequate information distribution to and from a relatively small number of local users require a prohibitively large number of broadcast locations or points of presence along with a large amount of excess capacity to make up for the wasted energy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intermediate_system">Intermediate system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Intermediate system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Recently a new type of information transport midway between wired and wireless systems has been discovered. Called <a href="/wiki/Single-wire_transmission_line#E-Line" title="Single-wire transmission line">E-Line</a>, it uses a single central conductor but no outer conductor or shield. The energy is transported in a plane wave which, unlike radio does not diverge, whereas like radio it has no outer guiding structure. </p><p>This system exhibits a combination of the attributes of wired and wireless systems and can support high information capacity <a href="/wiki/Broadband_over_power_lines" title="Broadband over power lines">utilizing existing power lines</a> over a broad range of frequencies from <a href="/wiki/Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">RF</a> through <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Line_aggregation">Line aggregation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Line aggregation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Link_aggregation" title="Link aggregation">Aggregation</a> is a method of bonding multiple lines to achieve a faster, more reliable connection. Some companies<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="Who says this? (December 2015)">weasel words</span></a></i>]</sup> believe that ADSL aggregation (or "bonding") is the solution to the UK's last mile problem.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backhaul_(telecommunications)" title="Backhaul (telecommunications)">Backhaul (telecommunications)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethernet_in_the_first_mile" title="Ethernet in the first mile">Ethernet in the first mile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_mile_(transportation)" title="Last mile (transportation)">Last mile (transportation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_loop" title="Local loop">Local loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_mile" title="Middle mile">Middle mile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point-to-multipoint_communication" title="Point-to-multipoint communication">Point-to-multipoint communication</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Last_mile_(telecommunications)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Spectrum-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Spectrum_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCherry2003" class="citation news cs1">Cherry, Steven (September 1, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-wireless-last-mile">"The Wireless Last Mile"</a>. <i>IEEE Spectrum</i>. No. Special Report. IEEE<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uk.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS92087+05-Jan-2009+BW20090105?symbol=INAP.O">the original</a> on July 16, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Internap+Chosen+by+Sharedband+to+Help+Bring+High-Speed+Internet+to+New+Business+and+Residential+Customers&rft.pub=Reuters&rft.date=2009-01-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuk.reuters.com%2Farticle%2FpressRelease%2FidUS92087%2B05-Jan-2009%2BBW20090105%3Fsymbol%3DINAP.O&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALast+mile+%28telecommunications%29" class="Z3988"></span>}</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output 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/></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/last_mile_(telecommunications)" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/last mile (telecommunications)">last mile (telecommunications)</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_coding_format" title="Audio coding format">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">DCT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_coding_format" title="Video coding format">video</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">Digital media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_video" title="Internet video">Internet video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_video_platform" title="Online video platform">online video platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edholm%27s_law" title="Edholm's law">Edholm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fax#History" title="Fax">Fax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Information revolution">Information revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mobile phone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_telegraph" title="Optical telegraph">Optical telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pager" title="Pager">Pager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_prepaid_mobile_phones" title="History of prepaid mobile phones">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semaphore" title="Semaphore">Semaphore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phryctoria" title="Phryctoria">Phryctoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">transistor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">Telecommunications history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telautograph" title="Telautograph">Telautograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">Teleprinter</a> (teletype)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Telephone</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">Television</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_television" title="Streaming television">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistled_language" title="Whistled language">Whistled language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless revolution">Wireless revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_Ahmed_(engineer)" title="Nasir Ahmed (engineer)">Nasir Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emile_Berliner" title="Emile Berliner">Emile Berliner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Blake_(inventor)" title="Francis Blake (inventor)">Francis Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bourseul" title="Charles Bourseul">Charles Bourseul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogen_Dalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogen Dalal">Yogen Dalal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Davis_Jr." title="Daniel Davis Jr.">Daniel Davis Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Dolbear" title="Amos Dolbear">Amos Dolbear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver Heaviside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erna_Schneider_Hoover" title="Erna Schneider Hoover">Erna Schneider Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Hopkins_(physicist)" title="Harold Hopkins (physicist)">Harold Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardiner_Greene_Hubbard" title="Gardiner Greene Hubbard">Gardiner Greene Hubbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_pioneers" title="List of Internet pioneers">Internet pioneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Kahn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bob Kahn">Bob Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Charles K. Kao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narinder_Singh_Kapany" title="Narinder Singh Kapany">Narinder Singh Kapany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedy_Lamarr" title="Hedy Lamarr">Hedy Lamarr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Landell_de_Moura" title="Roberto Landell de Moura">Roberto Landell de Moura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocenzo_Manzetti" title="Innocenzo Manzetti">Innocenzo Manzetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Metcalfe" title="Robert Metcalfe">Robert Metcalfe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun-ichi_Nishizawa" title="Jun-ichi Nishizawa">Jun-ichi Nishizawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Grafton_Page" title="Charles Grafton Page">Charles Grafton Page</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radia_Perlman" title="Radia Perlman">Radia Perlman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tivadar_Pusk%C3%A1s" title="Tivadar Puskás">Tivadar Puskás</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almon_Brown_Strowger" title="Almon Brown Strowger">Almon Brown Strowger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sutton_(inventor)" title="Henry Sutton (inventor)">Henry Sutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner_Tainter" title="Charles Sumner Tainter">Charles Sumner Tainter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Tissot" title="Camille Tissot">Camille Tissot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Watson" title="Thomas A. Watson">Thomas A. Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission<br />media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic communication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_communication" title="Molecular communication">Molecular communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">wireless</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_line" title="Transmission line">Transmission line</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_circuit" title="Telecommunication circuit">telecommunication circuit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a><br />and switching</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">Bandwidth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Links</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunication)">terminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exchange</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space-division_multiple_access" title="Space-division multiple access">Space-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">Time-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access" title="Code-division multiple access">Code-division</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">Communication protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_communication" title="Data communication">Data transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Store_and_forward" title="Store and forward">Store and forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Types of network</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">Cellular network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated Services Digital Network">ISDN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">LAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Next-generation_network" title="Next-generation network">NGN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">WAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Notable networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet2" title="Internet2">Internet2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JANET" title="JANET">JANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NPL_network" title="NPL network">NPL network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toasternet" title="Toasternet">Toasternet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Africa" title="Category:Telecommunications in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li>Americas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_North_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in North America">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_South_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in South America">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Communications_in_Antarctica" title="Category:Communications in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Asia" title="Category:Telecommunications in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Europe" title="Category:Telecommunications in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Oceania" title="Category:Telecommunications in Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_telecommunications_regulatory_bodies" title="List of telecommunications regulatory bodies">Global telecommunications regulation bodies</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/16px-Telecom-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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title="Category:Telecommunications">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_telecommunication" title="Outline of telecommunication">Outline</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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