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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Languages_supporting_prototype-based_programming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages_supporting_prototype-based_programming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Languages supporting prototype-based programming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages_supporting_prototype-based_programming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc 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data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programaci%C3%B3_basada_en_prototips" title="Programació basada en prototips – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Programació basada en prototips" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototypenbasierte_Programmierung" title="Prototypenbasierte Programmierung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Prototypenbasierte Programmierung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programaci%C3%B3n_basada_en_prototipos" title="Programación basada en prototipos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Programación basada en prototipos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B1_%D9%BE%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%87_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B4%E2%80%8C%D9%86%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86%D9%87" title="برنامه‌نویسی بر پایه پیش‌نمونه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="برنامه‌نویسی بر پایه پیش‌نمونه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmation_orient%C3%A9e_prototype" title="Programmation orientée prototype – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Programmation orientée prototype" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%84%EB%A1%9C%ED%86%A0%ED%83%80%EC%9E%85_%EA%B8%B0%EB%B0%98_%ED%94%84%EB%A1%9C%EA%B7%B8%EB%9E%98%EB%B0%8D" title="프로토타입 기반 프로그래밍 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="프로토타입 기반 프로그래밍" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protot%C3%ADpusra_alapul%C3%B3_programoz%C3%A1s" title="Prototípusra alapuló programozás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Prototípusra alapuló programozás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B3_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D" title="പ്രോട്ടോടൈപ്പ് അടിസ്ഥാനമാക്കിയുള്ള പ്രോഗ്രാമിംഗ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പ്രോട്ടോടൈപ്പ് അടിസ്ഥാനമാക്കിയുള്ള പ്രോഗ്രാമിംഗ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototype-gebaseerd_programmeren" title="Prototype-gebaseerd programmeren – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Prototype-gebaseerd programmeren" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%97%E3%83%AD%E3%83%88%E3%82%BF%E3%82%A4%E3%83%97%E3%83%99%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B9" title="プロトタイプベース – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="プロトタイプベース" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programa%C3%A7%C3%A3o_baseada_em_prot%C3%B3tipos" title="Programação baseada em protótipos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Programação baseada em protótipos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototip_(POO)" title="Prototip (POO) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Prototip (POO)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Прототипное программирование – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Прототипное программирование" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%95%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%95%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%BE%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A8%DB%95%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%88_%D8%A8%DB%95_%D9%BE%D8%B1%DB%86%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%AA%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%BE" title="بەرنامەسازیی پشتبەستوو بە پرۆتۆتایپ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بەرنامەسازیی پشتبەستوو بە پرۆتۆتایپ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototyyppipohjainen_ohjelmointi" title="Prototyyppipohjainen ohjelmointi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Prototyyppipohjainen ohjelmointi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9A%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%97%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%8C" title="การเขียนโปรแกรมแบบโพรโทไทป์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การเขียนโปรแกรมแบบโพรโทไทป์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototip_tabanl%C4%B1_programlama" title="Prototip tabanlı programlama – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Prototip tabanlı programlama" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Прототипне програмування – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Прототипне програмування" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BA%ADp_tr%C3%ACnh_d%E1%BB%B1a_tr%C3%AAn_nguy%C3%AAn_m%E1%BA%ABu" title="Lập trình dựa trên nguyên mẫu – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lập trình dựa trên nguyên mẫu" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Style of object-oriented programming in which inheritance is based on reusing objects</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Prototype_pattern" title="Prototype pattern">Prototype pattern</a> or <a href="/wiki/Software_prototyping" title="Software prototyping">Software prototyping</a>.</div> <p><b>Prototype-based programming</b> is a style of <a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented programming</a> in which behavior reuse (known as <a href="/wiki/Inheritance_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inheritance (programming)">inheritance</a>) is performed via a process of reusing existing <a href="/wiki/Object_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (programming)">objects</a> that serve as <a href="/wiki/Prototype" title="Prototype">prototypes</a>. This model can also be known as <i>prototypal</i>, <i>prototype-oriented,</i> <i>classless</i>, or <i>instance-based</i> programming. </p><p>Prototype-based programming uses the process generalized objects, which can then be cloned and extended. Using fruit as an example, a "fruit" object would represent the properties and functionality of fruit in general. A "banana" object would be cloned from the "fruit" object and general properties specific to bananas would be appended. Each individual "banana" object would be cloned from the generic "banana" object. Compare to the <a href="/wiki/Class-based_programming" title="Class-based programming">class-based</a> paradigm, where a "fruit" <i>class</i> would be extended by a "banana" <i>class</i>. </p><p>The first prototype-based <a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming languages</a> were Director a.k.a. Ani (on top of <a href="/wiki/MacLisp" class="mw-redirect" title="MacLisp">MacLisp</a>) (1976-1979), and contemporaneously and not independently, ThingLab (on top of <a href="/wiki/Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a>) (1977-1981), respective PhD projects by Kenneth Michael Kahn at MIT and Alan Hamilton Borning at Stanford (but working with Alan Kay at Xerox PARC). Borning introduced the word "prototype" in his TOPLAS 1981 paper. The first prototype-based programming language with more than one implementer or user was probably <a href="/wiki/T_(programming_language)" title="T (programming language)">Yale T Scheme</a> (1981-1984), though like Director and ThingLab initially, it just speaks of objects without classes. The language that made the name and notion of prototypes popular was <a href="/wiki/Self_(programming_language)" title="Self (programming language)">Self</a> (1985-1995), developed by <a href="/wiki/David_Ungar" title="David Ungar">David Ungar</a> and Randall Smith to research topics in object-oriented language design. </p><p>Since the late 1990s, the classless paradigm has grown increasingly popular. Some current prototype-oriented languages are <a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a> (and other <a href="/wiki/ECMAScript" title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript</a> implementations such as <a href="/wiki/JScript" title="JScript">JScript</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adobe_Flash" title="Adobe Flash">Flash</a>'s <a href="/wiki/ActionScript" title="ActionScript">ActionScript</a> 1.0), <a href="/wiki/Lua_(programming_language)" title="Lua (programming language)">Lua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cecil_(programming_language)" title="Cecil (programming language)">Cecil</a>, <a href="/wiki/NewtonScript" title="NewtonScript">NewtonScript</a>, <a href="/wiki/Io_(programming_language)" title="Io (programming language)">Io</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ioke_(programming_language)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ioke (programming language) (page does not exist)">Ioke</a>, <a href="/wiki/MOO_(programming_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="MOO (programming language)">MOO</a>, <a href="/wiki/REBOL" class="mw-redirect" title="REBOL">REBOL</a> and <a href="/wiki/AutoHotkey" title="AutoHotkey">AHK</a>. </p><p>Since the 2010s, a new generation of languages with pure functional prototypes has appeared, that reduce OOP to its very core: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jsonnet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jsonnet (page does not exist)">Jsonnet</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Type_system#Dynamic_type_checking_and_runtime_type_information" title="Type system">dynamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Lazy_evaluation" title="Lazy evaluation">lazy</a> <a href="/wiki/Purely_functional_programming" title="Purely functional programming">pure functional</a> language with a builtin prototype object system using <a href="/wiki/Mixin" title="Mixin">mixin</a> inheritance; <a href="/wiki/Nix_(package_manager)#Implementation" title="Nix (package manager)">Nix</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Type_system#Dynamic_type_checking_and_runtime_type_information" title="Type system">dynamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Lazy_evaluation" title="Lazy evaluation">lazy</a> <a href="/wiki/Purely_functional_programming" title="Purely functional programming">pure functional</a> language that builds an equivalent object system (Nix "extensions") in just two short function definitions (plus many other convenience functions). Both languages are used to define large distributed software configurations (Jsonnet being directly inspired by GCL, the Google Configuration Language, with which Google defines all its deployments, and has similar semantics though with dynamic binding of variables). Since then, other languages like <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerbil_Scheme&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gerbil Scheme (page does not exist)">Gerbil Scheme</a> have implemented pure functional lazy prototype systems based on similar principles. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Design_and_implementation">Design and implementation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prototype-based_programming&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Design and implementation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Etymologically, a "prototype" means "first cast" ("cast" in the sense of being manufactured). A prototype is a concrete thing, from which other objects can be created by copying and modifying. For example, the <a href="/wiki/International_Prototype_of_the_Kilogram" title="International Prototype of the Kilogram">International Prototype of the Kilogram</a> is an actual object that really exists, from which new kilogram-objects can be created by copying. In comparison, a "class" is an abstract thing, in which objects can belong. For example, all kilogram-objects are in the class of KilogramObject, which might be a subclass of MetricObject, and so on. </p><p>Prototypal inheritance in JavaScript is described by <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Crockford" title="Douglas Crockford">Douglas Crockford</a> as </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>You make prototype objects, and then … make new instances. Objects are mutable in JavaScript, so we can augment the new instances, giving them new fields and methods. These can then act as prototypes for even newer objects. We don't need classes to make lots of similar objects… Objects inherit from objects. What could be more object oriented than that?<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>Advocates of prototype-based programming argue that it encourages the programmer to focus on the behavior of some set of examples and only later worry about classifying these objects into archetypal objects that are later used in a fashion similar to <a href="/wiki/Class_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Class (programming)">classes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Taivalsaari_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taivalsaari-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many prototype-based systems encourage the alteration of prototypes during <a href="/wiki/Run_time_(program_lifecycle_phase)" class="mw-redirect" title="Run time (program lifecycle phase)">run-time</a>, whereas only very few class-based object-oriented systems (such as the dynamic object-oriented system, <a href="/wiki/Common_Lisp" title="Common Lisp">Common Lisp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dylan_(programming_language)" title="Dylan (programming language)">Dylan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Objective-C" title="Objective-C">Objective-C</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perl" title="Perl">Perl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a>) allow classes to be altered during the execution of a program. </p><p>Almost all prototype-based systems are based on <a href="/wiki/Interpreted_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreted language">interpreted</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dynamically_typed" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamically typed">dynamically typed</a> languages. Systems based on <a href="/wiki/Statically_typed" class="mw-redirect" title="Statically typed">statically typed</a> languages are technically feasible, however. The Omega language discussed in <i>Prototype-Based Programming</i><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an example of such a system, though according to Omega's website even Omega is not exclusively static, but rather its "compiler may choose to use static binding where this is possible and may improve the efficiency of a program." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Object_construction">Object construction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prototype-based_programming&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Object construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In prototype-based languages there are no explicit classes. Objects inherit directly from other objects through a prototype property. The prototype property is called <code>prototype</code> in <a href="/wiki/Self_(programming_language)" title="Self (programming language)">Self</a> and <a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a>, or <code>proto</code> in <a href="/wiki/Io_(programming_language)" title="Io (programming language)">Io</a>. There are two methods of constructing new objects: <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_nihilo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex nihilo">ex nihilo</a></i> ("from nothing") object creation or through <i>cloning</i> an existing object. The former is supported through some form of object <a href="/wiki/Literal_(computer_programming)" title="Literal (computer programming)">literal</a>, declarations where objects can be defined at runtime through special syntax such as <code>{...}</code> and passed directly to a variable. While most systems support a variety of cloning, <i>ex nihilo</i> object creation is not as prominent.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In class-based languages, a new instance is constructed through a class's <a href="/wiki/Constructor_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructor (computer science)">constructor function</a>, a special function that reserves a block of memory for the object's members (properties and methods) and returns a reference to that block. An optional set of constructor <a href="/wiki/Parameter_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parameter (computer science)">arguments</a> can be passed to the function and are usually held in properties. The resulting instance will inherit all the methods and properties that were defined in the class, which acts as a kind of template from which similarly typed objects can be constructed. </p><p>Systems that support <i>ex nihilo</i> object creation allow new objects to be created from scratch without cloning from an existing prototype. Such systems provide a special syntax for specifying the properties and behaviors of new objects without referencing existing objects. In many prototype languages there exists a root object, often called <i>Object</i>, which is set as the default prototype for all other objects created in run-time and which carries commonly needed methods such as a <code>toString()</code> function to return a description of the object as a string. One useful aspect of <i>ex nihilo</i> object creation is to ensure that a new object's slot (properties and methods) names do not have <a href="/wiki/Namespace" title="Namespace">namespace</a> conflicts with the top-level <i>Object</i> object. (In the <a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a> language, one can do this by using a null prototype, i.e. <code>Object.create(null)</code>.) </p><p><i>Cloning</i> refers to a process whereby a new object is constructed by copying the behavior of an existing object (its prototype). The new object then carries all the qualities of the original. From this point on, the new object can be modified. In some systems the resulting child object maintains an explicit link (via <i><a href="/wiki/Delegation_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Delegation (object-oriented programming)">delegation</a></i> or <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Resemblance_(programing)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Resemblance (programing) (page does not exist)">resemblance</a></i>) to its prototype, and changes in the prototype cause corresponding changes to be apparent in its clone. Other systems, such as the <a href="/wiki/Forth_(programming_language)" title="Forth (programming language)">Forth</a>-like programming language <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kevo_(programming_language)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kevo (programming language) (page does not exist)">Kevo</a>, do not propagate change from the prototype in this fashion and instead follow a more <i>concatenative</i> model where changes in cloned objects do not automatically propagate across descendants.<sup id="cite_ref-Taivalsaari_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taivalsaari-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre><span></span><span class="c1">// Example of true prototypal inheritance style in JavaScript.</span> <span class="c1">// Object creation using the literal object notation {}.</span> <span class="kd">const</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nx">foo</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nx">name</span><span class="o">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s2">"foo"</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nx">one</span><span class="o">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nx">two</span><span class="o">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mf">2</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">};</span> <span class="c1">// Another object.</span> <span class="kd">const</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nx">bar</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nx">two</span><span class="o">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s2">"two"</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nx">three</span><span class="o">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mf">3</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">};</span> <span class="c1">// Object.setPrototypeOf() is a method introduced in ECMAScript 2015.</span> <span class="c1">// For the sake of simplicity, let us pretend that the following</span> <span class="c1">// line works regardless of the engine used:</span> <span class="nb">Object</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="nx">setPrototypeOf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nx">bar</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nx">foo</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// foo is now the prototype of bar.</span> <span class="c1">// If we try to access foo's properties from bar from now on, </span> <span class="c1">// we'll succeed. </span> <span class="nx">bar</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="nx">one</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// Resolves to 1.</span> <span class="c1">// The child object's properties are also accessible.</span> <span class="nx">bar</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="nx">three</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// Resolves to 3.</span> <span class="c1">// Own properties shadow prototype properties.</span> <span class="nx">bar</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="nx">two</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// Resolves to "two".</span> <span class="nx">bar</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="nx">name</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// Unaffected, resolves to "foo".</span> <span class="nx">foo</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="nx">name</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// Resolves to "foo".</span> </pre></div> <p>For another example: </p> <div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre><span></span><span class="kd">const</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nx">foo</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nx">one</span><span class="o">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nx">two</span><span class="o">:</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mf">2</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">};</span> <span class="c1">// bar.[[prototype]] = foo</span> <span class="kd">const</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nx">bar</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nb">Object</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="nx">create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nx">foo</span><span class="p">);</span> <span class="nx">bar</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="nx">three</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mf">3</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="nx">bar</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="nx">one</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// 1</span> <span class="nx">bar</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="nx">two</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// 2</span> <span class="nx">bar</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="nx">three</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// 3</span> </pre></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Delegation">Delegation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prototype-based_programming&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Delegation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In prototype-based languages that use <i>delegation</i>, the language runtime is capable of <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_dispatch" title="Dynamic dispatch">dispatching</a> the correct method or finding the right piece of data simply by following a series of delegation pointers (from object to its prototype) until a match is found. All that is required to establish this behavior-sharing between objects is the delegation pointer. Unlike the relationship between class and instance in class-based object-oriented languages, the relationship between the prototype and its offshoots does not require that the child object have a memory or structural similarity to the prototype beyond this link. As such, the child object can continue to be modified and amended over time without rearranging the structure of its associated prototype as in class-based systems. It is also important to note that not only data, but also methods can be added or changed. For this reason, some prototype-based languages refer to both data and methods as "slots" or "members".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Sentence needs at least 1 citation. I've coded professionally in JS(all variants) & ActionScript for 4 years, and I've NEVER seen "slots" used this way in JS, and rarely in AS. E.g. see inconsistent/nonexistent usage in following: & . I'm calling 'Citation-needing', if not 'Dubious'. (January 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concatenation">Concatenation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prototype-based_programming&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Concatenation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>concatenative</i> prototyping - the approach implemented by the Kevo programming language - there are no visible pointers or links to the original prototype from which an object is cloned. The prototype (parent) object is copied rather than linked to and there is no delegation. As a result, changes to the prototype will not be reflected in cloned objects.<sup id="cite_ref-Taivalsaar_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taivalsaar-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Incidentally, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmos_(programming_language)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cosmos (programming language) (page does not exist)">Cosmos programming language</a> achieves the same through the use of <a href="/wiki/Persistent_data_structure" title="Persistent data structure">persistent data structures</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main conceptual difference under this arrangement is that changes made to a prototype object are not automatically propagated to clones. This may be seen as an advantage or disadvantage. (However, Kevo does provide additional primitives for publishing changes across sets of objects based on their similarity — so-called <i>family resemblances</i> or <i>clone family</i> mechanism<sup id="cite_ref-Taivalsaar_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taivalsaar-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> — rather than through taxonomic origin, as is typical in the delegation model.) It is also sometimes claimed that delegation-based prototyping has an additional disadvantage in that changes to a child object may affect the later operation of the parent. However, this problem is not inherent to the delegation-based model and does not exist in delegation-based languages such as JavaScript, which ensure that changes to a child object are always recorded in the child object itself and never in parents (i.e. the child's value shadows the parent's value rather than changing the parent's value). </p><p>In simplistic implementations, concatenative prototyping will have faster member lookup than delegation-based prototyping (because there is no need to follow the chain of parent objects), but will conversely use more memory (because all slots are copied, rather than there being a single slot pointing to the parent object). More sophisticated implementations can avoid this problem, however, although trade-offs between speed and memory are required. For example, systems with concatenative prototyping can use a <a href="/wiki/Copy-on-write" title="Copy-on-write">copy-on-write</a> implementation to allow for behind-the-scenes data sharing — and such an approach is indeed followed by Kevo.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, systems with delegation-based prototyping can use <a href="/wiki/Cache_(computing)" title="Cache (computing)">caching</a> to speed up data lookup. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prototype-based_programming&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Advocates of class-based object models who criticize prototype-based systems often have concerns similar to the concerns that proponents of static type systems for programming languages have of dynamic type systems (see <a href="/wiki/Datatype" class="mw-redirect" title="Datatype">datatype</a>). Usually, such concerns involve <a href="/wiki/Correctness_(computer_science)" title="Correctness (computer science)">correctness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Type_safety" title="Type safety">safety</a>, <a href="/wiki/Predictability" title="Predictability">predictability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_efficiency" title="Algorithmic efficiency">efficiency</a> and programmer unfamiliarity. </p><p>On the first three points, classes are often seen as analogous to types (in most statically typed object-oriented languages they serve that role) and are proposed to provide contractual guarantees to their instances, and to users of their instances, that they will behave in some given fashion. </p><p>Regarding efficiency, declaring classes simplifies many <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a> optimizations that allow developing efficient method and instance-variable lookup. For the <a href="/wiki/Self_(programming_language)" title="Self (programming language)">Self</a> language, much development time was spent on developing, compiling, and interpreting techniques to improve the performance of prototype-based systems versus class-based systems. </p><p>A common criticism made against prototype-based languages is that the community of <a href="/wiki/Software_developer" class="mw-redirect" title="Software developer">software developers</a> is unfamiliar with them, despite the popularity and market permeation of <a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a>. However, knowledge about prototype-based systems is increasing with the proliferation of <a href="/wiki/JavaScript_framework" class="mw-redirect" title="JavaScript framework">JavaScript frameworks</a> and the complex use of JavaScript as the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> (Web) matures.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> ECMAScript 6 introduced classes as <a href="/wiki/Syntactic_sugar" title="Syntactic sugar">syntactic sugar</a> over JavaScript's existing prototype-based inheritance, providing an alternative way to create objects and manage inheritance.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Languages_supporting_prototype-based_programming">Languages supporting prototype-based programming</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prototype-based_programming&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Languages supporting prototype-based programming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor-Based_Concurrent_Language" title="Actor-Based Concurrent Language">Actor-Based Concurrent Language</a> (ABCL): <a href="/wiki/ABCL/1" class="mw-redirect" title="ABCL/1">ABCL/1</a>, <a href="/wiki/ABCL/R" class="mw-redirect" title="ABCL/R">ABCL/R</a>, <a href="/wiki/ABCL/R2" class="mw-redirect" title="ABCL/R2">ABCL/R2</a>, <a href="/wiki/ABCL/c_plus" class="mw-redirect" title="ABCL/c plus">ABCL/c+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agora_(programming_language)" title="Agora (programming language)">Agora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AutoHotkey" title="AutoHotkey">AutoHotkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_(programming_language)" title="Cecil (programming language)">Cecil</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Diesel_(programming_language)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diesel (programming language) (page does not exist)">Diesel</a> of <a href="/wiki/Craig_Chambers" title="Craig Chambers">Craig Chambers</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ColdC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ColdC (page does not exist)">ColdC</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=COLA_(software_architecture)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="COLA (software architecture) (page does not exist)">COLA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Lisp" title="Common Lisp">Common Lisp</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cyan-lang.org/">Cyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ECMAScript" title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ActionScript" title="ActionScript">ActionScript</a> 1.0, used by <a href="/wiki/Adobe_Flash" title="Adobe Flash">Adobe Flash</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adobe_Flex" class="mw-redirect" title="Adobe Flex">Adobe Flex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ECMAScript_for_XML" title="ECMAScript for XML">ECMAScript for XML</a> (E4X)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JScript" title="JScript">JScript</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TypeScript" title="TypeScript">TypeScript</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Io_(programming_language)" title="Io (programming language)">Io</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ioke_(programming_language)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ioke (programming language) (page does not exist)">Ioke</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jsonnet_(programming_language)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jsonnet (programming language) (page does not exist)">Jsonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logtalk" title="Logtalk">Logtalk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LPC_(programming_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="LPC (programming language)">LPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lua_(programming_language)" title="Lua (programming language)">Lua</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=M2000_Interpreter_(programming_language)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="M2000 Interpreter (programming language) (page does not exist)">M2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maple_(software)" title="Maple (software)">Maple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOO_(programming_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="MOO (programming language)">MOO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neko_(programming_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neko (programming language)">Neko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NewtonScript" title="NewtonScript">NewtonScript</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nim_(programming_language)" title="Nim (programming language)">Nim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nix_package_manager" class="mw-redirect" title="Nix package manager">Nix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_Lisp" title="Object Lisp">Object Lisp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obliq" title="Obliq">Obliq</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Omega_(programming_language)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Omega (programming language) (page does not exist)">Omega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenLaszlo" title="OpenLaszlo">OpenLaszlo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perl" title="Perl">Perl</a>, with the Class::Prototyped module</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a> with <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/airportyh/prototype.py">prototype.py</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/R_(programming_language)" title="R (programming language)">R</a>, with the proto package</li> <li><a href="/wiki/REBOL" class="mw-redirect" title="REBOL">REBOL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_(programming_language)" title="Red (programming language)">Red (programming language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby (programming language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self_(programming_language)" title="Self (programming language)">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seph_(programming_language)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Seph (programming language) (page does not exist)">Seph</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slate_(programming_language)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slate (programming language) (page does not exist)">Slate (programming language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SmartFrog" title="SmartFrog">SmartFrog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snap!_(programming_language)" title="Snap! (programming language)">Snap!</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etoys_(programming_language)" title="Etoys (programming language)">Etoys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TADS" class="mw-redirect" title="TADS">TADS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tcl" title="Tcl">Tcl</a> with snit extension</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Umajin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Umajin (page does not exist)">Umajin</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prototype-based_programming&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Class-based_programming" title="Class-based programming">Class-based programming</a> (contrast)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_inheritance" title="Differential inheritance">Differential inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prototype-based_programming&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCrockford" class="citation web cs1">Crockford, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://crockford.com/javascript/prototypal.html">"Prototypal Inheritance in JavaScript"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Prototypal+Inheritance+in+JavaScript&rft.aulast=Crockford&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcrockford.com%2Fjavascript%2Fprototypal.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototype-based+programming" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taivalsaari-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taivalsaari_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taivalsaari_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaivalsaari1996" class="citation book cs1">Taivalsaari, Antero (1996). "Section 1.1". <i>Classes vs. Prototypes: Some Philosophical and Historical Observations</i>. pp. 44–50. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.56.4713">10.1.1.56.4713</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Section+1.1&rft.btitle=Classes+vs.+Prototypes%3A+Some+Philosophical+and+Historical+Observations&rft.pages=44-50&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.56.4713%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft.aulast=Taivalsaari&rft.aufirst=Antero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototype-based+programming" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlaschek" class="citation book cs1">Blaschek, Günther. "Section 2.8". <i>Omega: Statically Typed Prototypes</i>. p. 177.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Section+2.8&rft.btitle=Omega%3A+Statically+Typed+Prototypes&rft.pages=177&rft.aulast=Blaschek&rft.aufirst=G%C3%BCnther&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototype-based+programming" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonyMalenfanBardou" class="citation book cs1">Dony, Christophe; Malenfan, Jacques; Bardou, Daniel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lirmm.fr/~dony/postscript/proto-book.pdf">"Section 1.2"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Classifying Prototype-based Programming Languages</i>. p. 17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Section+1.2&rft.btitle=Classifying+Prototype-based+Programming+Languages&rft.pages=17&rft.aulast=Dony&rft.aufirst=Christophe&rft.au=Malenfan%2C+Jacques&rft.au=Bardou%2C+Daniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lirmm.fr%2F~dony%2Fpostscript%2Fproto-book.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototype-based+programming" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taivalsaar-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taivalsaar_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taivalsaar_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntero_Taivalsaar2009" class="citation web cs1">Antero Taivalsaar (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110813004939/http://lively.cs.tut.fi/publications/TR6-JavaScriptConcatenation-Taivalsaari.pdf">"Simplifying JavaScript with Concatenation-Based Prototype Inheritance"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Tampere University of Technology. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lively.cs.tut.fi/publications/TR6-JavaScriptConcatenation-Taivalsaari.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2011-08-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-03-11</span></span>. <q>Kevo implemented a pure concatenation-based object model in which new objects were created by copying and the namespaces of all the objects were always fully self-contained. … Furthermore, Kevo had an internal <i>clone family</i> mechanism that made it possible to track the "genealogy" of changes among groups of objects, so that changes to individual objects could be propagated to other objects when necessary.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Simplifying+JavaScript+with+Concatenation-Based+Prototype+Inheritance&rft.pub=Tampere+University+of+Technology&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Antero+Taivalsaar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flively.cs.tut.fi%2Fpublications%2FTR6-JavaScriptConcatenation-Taivalsaari.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototype-based+programming" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/cosmos-lang/cosmos-lang.github.io/wiki/Object%E2%80%90Oriented-Programming">"Object‐Oriented Programming"</a>. <i>GitHub</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-09-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GitHub&rft.atitle=Object%E2%80%90Oriented+Programming&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgithub.com%2Fcosmos-lang%2Fcosmos-lang.github.io%2Fwiki%2FObject%25E2%2580%2590Oriented-Programming&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototype-based+programming" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaivalsaari1992" class="citation journal cs1">Taivalsaari, Antero (1992). "Kevo, a prototype-based object-oriented programming language based on concatenation and module operations". <i>Technical Report Report LACIR 92-02</i>. University of Victoria.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technical+Report+Report+LACIR+92-02&rft.atitle=Kevo%2C+a+prototype-based+object-oriented+programming+language+based+on+concatenation+and+module+operations&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Taivalsaari&rft.aufirst=Antero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototype-based+programming" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alistapart.com/article/prototypal-object-oriented-programming-using-javascript">"Prototypal Object-Oriented Programming using JavaScript"</a>. <i>A List Apart</i>. 2016-04-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-10-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=A+List+Apart&rft.atitle=Prototypal+Object-Oriented+Programming+using+JavaScript&rft.date=2016-04-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falistapart.com%2Farticle%2Fprototypal-object-oriented-programming-using-javascript&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototype-based+programming" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Classes">"Classes"</a>. <i>JavaScript reference</i>. Mozilla Developer Network<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=JavaScript+reference&rft.atitle=Classes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdeveloper.mozilla.org%2Fen-US%2Fdocs%2FWeb%2FJavaScript%2FReference%2FClasses&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototype-based+programming" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Proprietary scripting language. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.davidbrebner.com/?p=4">http://www.davidbrebner.com/?p=4</a> has some basic examples of use.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prototype-based_programming&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Object_oriented_programming" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Object oriented programming">Object oriented programming</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbadiLuca_Cardelli1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Abadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Abadi">Abadi, Martin</a>; <a href="/wiki/Luca_Cardelli" title="Luca Cardelli">Luca Cardelli</a> (1996). <i>A Theory of Objects</i>. Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4612-6445-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4612-6445-3"><bdi>978-1-4612-6445-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Theory+of+Objects&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-4612-6445-3&rft.aulast=Abadi&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Luca+Cardelli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototype-based+programming" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.laputan.org/reflection/warfare.html">Class Warfare: Classes vs. Prototypes</a>, by Brian Foote.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNobleTaivalsaariMoore1999" class="citation book cs1">Noble, James; Taivalsaari, Antero; Moore, Ivan, eds. (1999). <i>Prototype-Based Programming: Concepts, Languages and Applications</i>. Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-4021-25-3" title="Special:BookSources/981-4021-25-3"><bdi>981-4021-25-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prototype-Based+Programming%3A+Concepts%2C+Languages+and+Applications&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=981-4021-25-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrototype-based+programming" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.media.mit.edu/~lieber/Lieberary/OOP/Delegation/Delegation.html">Using Prototypical Objects to Implement Shared Behavior in Object Oriented Systems</a>, by Henry Lieberman, 1986.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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language</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">Imperative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">Structured</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jackson_structured_programming" title="Jackson structured programming">Jackson structures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Block_(programming)" title="Block (programming)">Block-structured</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_programming" title="Modular programming">Modular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-structured_programming" title="Non-structured programming">Non-structured</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_programming" title="Procedural programming">Procedural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_in_the_large_and_programming_in_the_small" title="Programming in the large and programming in the small">Programming in the large and in the small</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_by_contract" title="Design by contract">Design by contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invariant-based_programming" title="Invariant-based programming">Invariant-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nested_function" title="Nested function">Nested function</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">Object-oriented</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_programming_languages_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Comparison of programming languages (object-oriented programming)">comparison</a>, <a 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Declarative_programming" title="Declarative programming">Declarative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">Functional</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_functional_programming_languages" title="Comparison of functional programming languages">comparison</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recursion_(computer_science)" title="Recursion (computer science)">Recursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anonymous_function" title="Anonymous function">Anonymous function</a> (<a href="/wiki/Partial_application" title="Partial application">Partial application</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher-order_programming" title="Higher-order programming">Higher-order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purely_functional_programming" title="Purely functional programming">Purely functional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_functional_programming" title="Total functional programming">Total</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strict_programming_language" title="Strict programming language">Strict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_algebraic_data_type" title="Generalized algebraic data type">GADTs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_type" title="Dependent type">Dependent types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_logic_programming" title="Functional logic programming">Functional logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacit_programming" title="Tacit programming">Point-free style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expression-oriented_programming_language" title="Expression-oriented programming language">Expression-oriented</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applicative_programming_language" title="Applicative programming language">Applicative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Concatenative_programming_language" title="Concatenative programming language">Concatenative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function-level_programming" title="Function-level programming">Function-level</a>, <a href="/wiki/Value-level_programming" title="Value-level programming">Value-level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dataflow_programming" title="Dataflow programming">Dataflow</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flow-based_programming" title="Flow-based programming">Flow-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactive_programming" title="Reactive programming">Reactive</a> (<a href="/wiki/Functional_reactive_programming" title="Functional reactive programming">Functional reactive</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal programming">Signals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_processing" title="Stream processing">Streams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronous_programming_language" title="Synchronous programming language">Synchronous</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Logic_programming" title="Logic programming">Logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abductive_logic_programming" title="Abductive logic programming">Abductive logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Answer_set_programming" title="Answer set programming">Answer set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constraint_programming" title="Constraint programming">Constraint</a> (<a href="/wiki/Constraint_logic_programming" title="Constraint logic programming">Constraint logic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_logic_programming" title="Inductive logic programming">Inductive logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondeterministic_programming" title="Nondeterministic programming">Nondeterministic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology_language" title="Ontology language">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probabilistic_logic_programming" title="Probabilistic logic programming">Probabilistic logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Query_language" title="Query language">Query</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">DSL</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algebraic_modeling_language" title="Algebraic modeling language">Algebraic modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Array_programming" title="Array programming">Array</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automata-based_programming" title="Automata-based programming">Automata-based</a> (<a href="/wiki/Action_language" title="Action language">Action</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_language" title="Command language">Command</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_command_language" title="Spacecraft command language">Spacecraft</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differentiable_programming" title="Differentiable programming">Differentiable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End-user_development" title="End-user development">End-user</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammar-oriented_programming" title="Grammar-oriented programming">Grammar-oriented</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_description_language" title="Interface description language">Interface description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language-oriented_programming" title="Language-oriented programming">Language-oriented</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_comprehension" title="List comprehension">List comprehension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-code_development_platform" title="Low-code development platform">Low-code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-language_programming" title="Natural-language programming">Natural language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">Non-English-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Page_description_language" title="Page description language">Page description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipeline_(software)" title="Pipeline (software)">Pipes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Filter_(software)" title="Filter (software)">filters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probabilistic_programming" title="Probabilistic programming">Probabilistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_programming" title="Quantum programming">Quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_programming_language" title="Scientific programming language">Scientific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">Scripting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_theoretic_programming" title="Set theoretic programming">Set-theoretic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simulation_language" title="Simulation language">Simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stack-oriented_programming" title="Stack-oriented programming">Stack-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_programming_language" title="System programming language">System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactile_programming_language" title="Tactile programming language">Tactile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template_processor" title="Template processor">Templating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_language" title="Transformation language">Transformation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Graph_rewriting" title="Graph rewriting">Graph rewriting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Production_system_(computer_science)" title="Production system (computer science)">Production</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pattern_matching" title="Pattern matching">Pattern</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_programming_language" title="Visual programming language">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">distributed</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">parallel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor_model" title="Actor model">Actor-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_mutual_exclusion" title="Automatic mutual exclusion">Automatic mutual exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choreographic_programming" title="Choreographic programming">Choreographic programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_logic_programming" title="Concurrent logic programming">Concurrent logic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Concurrent_constraint_logic_programming" title="Concurrent constraint logic programming">Concurrent constraint logic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_object-oriented_programming" title="Concurrent object-oriented programming">Concurrent OO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroprogramming" title="Macroprogramming">Macroprogramming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multitier_programming" title="Multitier programming">Multitier programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_computing" title="Organic computing">Organic computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_programming_model" title="Parallel programming model">Parallel programming models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partitioned_global_address_space" title="Partitioned global address space">Partitioned global address space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process-oriented_programming" title="Process-oriented programming">Process-oriented</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_programming" title="Relativistic programming">Relativistic programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service-oriented_programming" title="Service-oriented programming">Service-oriented</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structured_concurrency" title="Structured concurrency">Structured concurrency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">Metaprogramming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attribute-oriented_programming" title="Attribute-oriented programming">Attribute-oriented</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_programming" title="Automatic programming">Automatic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Inductive_programming" title="Inductive programming">Inductive</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_programming_language" title="Dynamic programming language">Dynamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extensible_programming" title="Extensible programming">Extensible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generic_programming" title="Generic programming">Generic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homoiconicity" title="Homoiconicity">Homoiconicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactive_programming" title="Interactive programming">Interactive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">Macro</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hygienic_macro" title="Hygienic macro">Hygienic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalinguistic_abstraction" title="Metalinguistic abstraction">Metalinguistic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-stage_programming" title="Multi-stage programming">Multi-stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Program_synthesis" title="Program synthesis">Program synthesis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bayesian_program_synthesis" title="Bayesian program synthesis">Bayesian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inferential_programming" title="Inferential programming">Inferential</a>, <a href="/wiki/Programming_by_demonstration" title="Programming by demonstration">by demonstration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Programming_by_example" title="Programming by example">by example</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflective_programming" title="Reflective programming">Reflective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-modifying_code" title="Self-modifying code">Self-modifying code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_programming" title="Symbolic programming">Symbolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template_metaprogramming" title="Template metaprogramming">Template</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_concerns" title="Separation of concerns">Separation<br />of concerns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aspect-oriented_programming" title="Aspect-oriented 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