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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Associative_names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Associative_names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Associative names </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Associative_names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-'Spanish'_influenza" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#'Spanish'_influenza"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.1 'Spanish' influenza </div> </a> <ul id="toc-'Spanish'_influenza-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_exonyms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_exonyms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2 Other exonyms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_exonyms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Local names </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Other names </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Timeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Timeline </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_wave_of_early_1918" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_wave_of_early_1918"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 First wave of early 1918 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_wave_of_early_1918-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deadly_second_wave_of_late_1918" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deadly_second_wave_of_late_1918"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Deadly second wave of late 1918 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deadly_second_wave_of_late_1918-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_wave_of_1919" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_wave_of_1919"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.3 Third wave of 1919 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_wave_of_1919-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fourth_wave_of_1920" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fourth_wave_of_1920"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.4 Fourth wave of 1920 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fourth_wave_of_1920-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-pandemic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-pandemic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.5 Post-pandemic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-pandemic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potential_origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Potential origins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potential_origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.3 China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology_and_pathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology_and_pathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Epidemiology and pathology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Epidemiology_and_pathology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Epidemiology and pathology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology_and_pathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transmission_and_mutation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transmission_and_mutation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Transmission and mutation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transmission_and_mutation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signs_and_symptoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signs_and_symptoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Signs and symptoms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Signs_and_symptoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Misdiagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Misdiagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Misdiagnosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Misdiagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_role_of_climate_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_role_of_climate_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 The role of climate conditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_role_of_climate_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Responses </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Responses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Responses subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Public_health_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_health_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Public health management </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_health_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Medical treatment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Information_dissemination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_dissemination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Information dissemination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information_dissemination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mortality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mortality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Mortality </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mortality-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Mortality subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Mortality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Around_the_globe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Around_the_globe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Around the globe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Around_the_globe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Devastated_communities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Devastated_communities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Devastated communities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Devastated_communities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Other areas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Patterns_of_fatality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patterns_of_fatality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Patterns of fatality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patterns_of_fatality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Effects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Effects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 World War I </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Economic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long-term_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-term_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Long-term effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long-term_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_literature_and_other_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_literature_and_other_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 In literature and other media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_literature_and_other_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_with_other_pandemics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_with_other_pandemics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Comparison with other pandemics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_with_other_pandemics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sex_differences_in_mortality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sex_differences_in_mortality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Sex differences in mortality </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sex_differences_in_mortality-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Sex differences in mortality subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sex_differences_in_mortality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Island_of_Newfoundland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Island_of_Newfoundland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Island of Newfoundland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Island_of_Newfoundland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Influenza_pandemic_among_Canadian_soldiers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influenza_pandemic_among_Canadian_soldiers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.1 Influenza pandemic among Canadian soldiers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influenza_pandemic_among_Canadian_soldiers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Footnotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Videos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Videos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Videos </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Videos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Spanish flu</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 94 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-94" aria-hidden="true" > 94 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaanse_griep_in_Suid-Afrika" title="Spaanse griep in Suid-Afrika – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Spaanse griep in Suid-Afrika" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanische_Grippe" title="Spanische Grippe – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Spanische Grippe" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espanjatavd%C3%A2" title="Espanjatavdâ – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Espanjatavdâ" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Anarâškielâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D9%81%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B2%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الإنفلونزا الإسبانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإنفلونزا الإسبانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D4%BF%D6%80%D5%AB%D6%83" title="Սպանական Կրիփ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Սպանական Կրիփ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gripe_espa%C3%B1ol" title="Gripe español – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Gripe español" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0span_qripi" title="İspan qripi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İspan qripi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6_%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%81" title="স্প্যানিশ ফ্লু – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="স্প্যানিশ ফ্লু" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se-pan-g%C3%A2_li%C3%BB-k%C3%A1m" title="Se-pan-gâ liû-kám – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Se-pan-gâ liû-kám" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BF" title="Іспанскі грып – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Іспанскі грып" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%88%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BF" title="Гішпанскі грып – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Гішпанскі грып" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF" title="Испански грип – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Испански грип" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0panska_groznica" title="Španska groznica – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Španska groznica" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pand%C3%A8mia_de_grip_de_1918" title="Pandèmia de grip de 1918 – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pandèmia de grip de 1918" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0pan%C4%9Blsk%C3%A1_ch%C5%99ipka" title="Španělská chřipka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Španělská chřipka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemig_ffliw_1918" title="Pandemig ffliw 1918 – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Pandemig ffliw 1918" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_spanske_syge" title="Den spanske syge – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Den spanske syge" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanische_Grippe" title="Spanische Grippe – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Spanische Grippe" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispaania_gripp" title="Hispaania gripp – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hispaania gripp" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%80%CE%B7" title="Ισπανική γρίπη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ισπανική γρίπη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemia_de_gripe_de_1918" title="Pandemia de gripe de 1918 – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pandemia de gripe de 1918" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispana_gripo" title="Hispana gripo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Hispana gripo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espainiako_gripea" title="Espainiako gripea – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Espainiako gripea" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%86%D9%81%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B2%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="آنفلوانزای اسپانیایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آنفلوانزای اسپانیایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grippe_espagnole" title="Grippe espagnole – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Grippe espagnole" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaanske_gryp" title="Spaanske gryp – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Spaanske gryp" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fli%C3%BA_Sp%C3%A1inneach" title="Fliú Spáinneach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fliú Spáinneach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gripe_de_1918" title="Gripe de 1918 – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Gripe de 1918" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%A8%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B6_%E0%AA%AB%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B2%E0%AB%82" title="સ્પેનિશ ફ્લૂ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="સ્પેનિશ ફ્લૂ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AE-p%C3%A2n-ng%C3%A0_li%C3%B9-k%C3%A1m" title="Sî-pân-ngà liù-kám – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Sî-pân-ngà liù-kám" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8A%A4%ED%8E%98%EC%9D%B8_%EB%8F%85%EA%B0%90" title="스페인 독감 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="스페인 독감" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%BD%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%BA" title="Իսպանական գրիպ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իսպանական գրիպ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%82" title="स्पेनी फ्लू – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="स्पेनी फ्लू" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0panjolska_gripa" title="Španjolska gripa – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Španjolska gripa" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flu_Spanyol" title="Flu Spanyol – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Flu Spanyol" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%A6nska_veikin" title="Spænska veikin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Spænska veikin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_spagnola" title="Influenza spagnola – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Influenza spagnola" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%A2%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%93%D7%99%D7%AA" title="השפעת הספרדית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="השפעת הספרדית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mlipuko_wa_homa_ya_mafua_wa_1918" title="Mlipuko wa homa ya mafua wa 1918 – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mlipuko wa homa ya mafua wa 1918" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsima_spanyol%C3%AE" title="Arsima spanyolî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Arsima spanyolî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%84%E0%BA%82%E0%BB%89%E0%BA%AB%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BB%83%E0%BA%AB%E0%BB%88%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%99" title="ໄຂ້ຫວັດໃຫ່ຍສະເປນ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ໄຂ້ຫວັດໃຫ່ຍສະເປນ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influentia_Hispanica" title="Influentia Hispanica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Influentia Hispanica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C4%81%C5%86u_gripa" title="Spāņu gripa – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Spāņu gripa" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ispani%C5%A1kasis_gripas" title="Ispaniškasis gripas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ispaniškasis gripas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freve_spagnolla" title="Freve spagnolla – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Freve spagnolla" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gil%C3%ADpi_ya_Espania" title="Gilípi ya Espania – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Gilípi ya Espania" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemica_de_gripe_de_1918" title="Pandemica de gripe de 1918 – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Pandemica de gripe de 1918" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_spagnoeula" title="Influenza spagnoeula – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Influenza spagnoeula" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanyoln%C3%A1tha" title="Spanyolnátha – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Spanyolnátha" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%81" title="स्पेनिस फ्लु – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="स्पेनिस फ्लु" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%81%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B2%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87" title="الانفلونزا الاسبانيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الانفلونزا الاسبانيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemik_selesema_1918" title="Pandemik selesema 1918 – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pandemik selesema 1918" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%83%CC%A4-b%C4%83ng-ng%C3%A0_li%C3%B9-g%C4%81ng" title="Să̤-băng-ngà liù-gāng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Să̤-băng-ngà liù-gāng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%81%81%E1%81%89%E1%81%81%E1%81%88_%E1%80%90%E1%80%AF%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8_%E1%80%80%E1%80%99%E1%80%B9%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA" title="၁၉၁၈ တုပ်ကွေး ကမ္ဘာကပ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="၁၉၁၈ တုပ်ကွေး ကမ္ဘာကပ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaanse_griep" title="Spaanse griep – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Spaanse griep" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B9%E3%83%9A%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%81%8B%E3%81%9C" title="スペインかぜ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="スペインかぜ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaans_Grip" title="Spaans Grip – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Spaans Grip" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanskesyken" title="Spanskesyken – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Spanskesyken" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanskesjuka" title="Spanskesjuka – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Spanskesjuka" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gripa_espanh%C3%B2la" title="Gripa espanhòla – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Gripa espanhòla" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ispan_grippi" title="Ispan grippi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ispan grippi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%82" title="ਸਪੇਨੀ ਫਲੂ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਪੇਨੀ ਫਲੂ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%88" title="ہسپانوی فلو – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ہسپانوی فلو" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8D_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%81%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="هسپانوۍ انفلونزا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="هسپانوۍ انفلونزا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemia_grypy_hiszpanki" title="Pandemia grypy hiszpanki – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pandemia grypy hiszpanki" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gripe_espanhola" title="Gripe espanhola – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Gripe espanhola" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grip%C4%83_spaniol%C4%83" title="Gripă spaniolă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Gripă spaniolă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BF" title="Испанский грипп – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Испанский грипп" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influ%C3%A8ntzia_ispagnola" title="Influèntzia ispagnola – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Influèntzia ispagnola" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainish_flu" title="Spainish flu – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Spainish flu" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gripi_spanjoll" title="Gripi spanjoll – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gripi spanjoll" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="Spanish flu" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_pandemic_of_1918" title="Influenza pandemic of 1918 – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Influenza pandemic of 1918" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0panielska_chr%C3%ADpka" title="Španielska chrípka – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Španielska chrípka" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0panska_gripa" title="Španska gripa – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Španska gripa" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%86%D9%81%D9%84%DB%86%D9%86%D8%B2%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="ئەنفلۆنزای ئیسپانی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەنفلۆنزای ئیسپانی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Шпанска грозница – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Шпанска грозница" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0panska_groznica" title="Španska groznica – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Španska groznica" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espanjantauti" title="Espanjantauti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Espanjantauti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanska_sjukan" title="Spanska sjukan – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Spanska sjukan" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemyang_trangkaso_ng_1918" title="Pandemyang trangkaso ng 1918 – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pandemyang trangkaso ng 1918" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/1918_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%83%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="1918 இன்ஃபுளுவென்சா தொற்றுப்பரவல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="1918 இன்ஃபுளுவென்சா தொற்றுப்பரவல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B7%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AB%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%82" title="స్పానిష్ ఫ్లూ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="స్పానిష్ ఫ్లూ" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%82%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%8D%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%99" title="ไข้หวัดใหญ่สเปน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ไข้หวัดใหญ่สเปน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chy mw-list-item"><a href="https://chy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ts%C3%A9x-h%C3%A1enaots%C3%A9stove" title="Tséx-háenaotséstove – Cheyenne" lang="chy" hreflang="chy" data-title="Tséx-háenaotséstove" data-language-autonym="Tsetsêhestâhese" data-language-local-name="Cheyenne" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tsetsêhestâhese</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0spanyol_gribi" title="İspanyol gribi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İspanyol gribi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BF" title="Испан грипп – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Испан грипп" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF" title="Іспанський грип – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Іспанський грип" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%88" title="ہسپانوی فلو – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ہسپانوی فلو" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_d%E1%BB%8Bch_c%C3%BAm_T%C3%A2y_Ban_Nha_1918" title="Đại dịch cúm Tây Ban Nha 1918 – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đại dịch cúm Tây Ban Nha 1918" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gripe_espagnole" title="Gripe espagnole – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Gripe espagnole" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/1918%E5%B9%B4%E6%B5%81%E6%84%9F%E5%A4%A7%E6%B5%81%E8%A1%8C" title="1918年流感大流行 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="1918年流感大流行" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E6%B5%81%E6%84%9F" title="西班牙流感 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="西班牙流感" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/1918%E5%B9%B4%E6%B5%81%E6%84%9F%E5%A4%A7%E6%B5%81%E8%A1%8C" title="1918年流感大流行 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="1918年流感大流行" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a 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For the book, see <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Influenza" title="The Great Influenza">The Great Influenza</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the influenza pandemic that began in 1918. For the virus that caused the pandemic, see <a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H1N1" title="Influenza A virus subtype H1N1">Influenza A virus subtype H1N1</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#FFCCCB">Spanish flu</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"><a href="/wiki/File:Emergency_hospital_during_Influenza_epidemic,_Camp_Funston,_Kansas_-_NCP_1603.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Soldiers from Fort Riley, Kansas, ill with Spanish flu at a hospital ward at Camp Funston" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Emergency_hospital_during_Influenza_epidemic%2C_Camp_Funston%2C_Kansas_-_NCP_1603.jpg/220px-Emergency_hospital_during_Influenza_epidemic%2C_Camp_Funston%2C_Kansas_-_NCP_1603.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Emergency_hospital_during_Influenza_epidemic%2C_Camp_Funston%2C_Kansas_-_NCP_1603.jpg/330px-Emergency_hospital_during_Influenza_epidemic%2C_Camp_Funston%2C_Kansas_-_NCP_1603.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Emergency_hospital_during_Influenza_epidemic%2C_Camp_Funston%2C_Kansas_-_NCP_1603.jpg/440px-Emergency_hospital_during_Influenza_epidemic%2C_Camp_Funston%2C_Kansas_-_NCP_1603.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4802" data-file-height="3597" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Soldiers sick with Spanish flu at a hospital ward at <a href="/wiki/Camp_Funston" title="Camp Funston">Camp Funston</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fort_Riley" title="Fort Riley">Fort Riley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Disease</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">Influenza</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Virus strain</th><td class="infobox-data">Strains of <a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H1N1" title="Influenza A virus subtype H1N1">A/H1N1</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data">Worldwide</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data">February 1918 – April 1920<a href="#cite_note-NIH-NYC-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Suspected cases‡</th><td class="infobox-data">500 million (estimated)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubenbergerMorens2006-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Deaths</div></th><td class="infobox-data">25–50 million (generally accepted), other estimates range from 17 to 100 million<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid30202996-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="text-align:left; border-top:#aaa 1px solid;">‡Suspected cases have not been confirmed by laboratory tests as being due to this strain, although some other strains may have been ruled out.</td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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influenza">Swine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H1N1" title="Influenza A virus subtype H1N1">A/H1N1 subtype</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Influenza_vaccine" title="Influenza vaccine">Vaccines</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic_vaccine" title="2009 swine flu pandemic vaccine">2009 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pandemrix" title="Pandemrix">Pandemrix</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Live_attenuated_influenza_vaccine" title="Live attenuated influenza vaccine">Live attenuated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_influenza_vaccine_brands" class="mw-redirect" title="Seasonal influenza vaccine brands">Seasonal flu vaccine brands</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Influenza_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Influenza treatment">Treatment</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amantadine" title="Amantadine">Amantadine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baloxavir_marboxil" title="Baloxavir marboxil">Baloxavir marboxil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laninamivir" title="Laninamivir">Laninamivir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oseltamivir" title="Oseltamivir">Oseltamivir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peramivir" title="Peramivir">Peramivir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rimantadine" title="Rimantadine">Rimantadine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umifenovir" title="Umifenovir">Umifenovir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanamivir" title="Zanamivir">Zanamivir</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Influenza_pandemic" title="Influenza pandemic">Pandemics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1889%E2%80%931890_pandemic" title="1889–1890 pandemic">1889-1890 Russian flu</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1918 Spanish flu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1957%E2%80%931958_influenza_pandemic" title="1957–1958 influenza pandemic">1957-1958 Asian flu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_flu" title="Hong Kong flu">1968 Hong Kong flu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Russian_flu" title="1977 Russian flu">1977 Russian flu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic" title="2009 swine flu pandemic">2009 swine flu</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="Outbreak">Outbreaks</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1976_swine_flu_outbreak" title="1976 swine flu outbreak">1976 swine flu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_H5N1_outbreak_in_India" title="2006 H5N1 outbreak in India">2006 H5N1 India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_Australian_equine_influenza_outbreak" title="2007 Australian equine influenza outbreak">2007 Australian equine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_Bernard_Matthews_H5N1_outbreak" title="2007 Bernard Matthews H5N1 outbreak">2007 Bernard Matthews H5N1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_H5N1_outbreak_in_West_Bengal" title="2008 H5N1 outbreak in West Bengal">2008 West Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_United_States_H5N2_outbreak" title="2015 United States H5N2 outbreak">2015 United States H5N2 outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932022_H5N8_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2022 H5N8 outbreak">2020–2022 H5N8 outbreak</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:;color: var(--color-base)">See also</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flu_season" title="Flu season">Flu season</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_influenza" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of influenza">Influenza evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Influenza research">Influenza research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza-like_illness" title="Influenza-like illness">Influenza-like illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_annual_reformulations_of_the_influenza_vaccine" title="Historical annual reformulations of the influenza vaccine">Vaccine reformulations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Influenza_sidebar" title="Template:Influenza sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Influenza_sidebar" title="Template talk:Influenza sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Influenza_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Influenza sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The 1918–1920 flu pandemic, also known as the Great Influenza epidemic or by the common <a href="/wiki/Misnomer" title="Misnomer">misnomer</a> Spanish flu, was an exceptionally deadly global <a href="/wiki/Influenza_pandemic" title="Influenza pandemic">influenza pandemic</a> caused by the <a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H1N1" title="Influenza A virus subtype H1N1">H1N1</a> subtype of the <a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus" title="Influenza A virus">influenza A virus</a>. The earliest documented case was March 1918 in the state of <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, with further cases recorded in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> in April. Two years later, nearly a third of the global population, or an estimated 500 million people, had been infected in four successive waves. Estimates of deaths range from 17 million to 50 million,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> and possibly as high as 100 million,<a href="#cite_note-:1-8">[8]</a> making it <a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of epidemics">one of the deadliest pandemics in history</a>. The pandemic broke out near the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, when wartime <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censors</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Belligerent" title="Belligerent">belligerent</a> countries suppressed bad news to maintain <a href="/wiki/Morale" title="Morale">morale</a>, but newspapers <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">freely reported</a> the outbreak in <a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_I" title="Spain during World War I">neutral Spain</a>, creating a false impression of Spain as the epicenter and leading to the "Spanish flu" misnomer.<a href="#cite_note-Friday-9">[9]</a> Limited historical <a href="/wiki/Epidemiological" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological">epidemiological</a> data make the pandemic's geographic origin indeterminate, with competing hypotheses on the initial spread.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubenbergerMorens2006-2">[2]</a> Most influenza outbreaks disproportionately kill the young and old, with a higher survival rate in-between, but this pandemic had unusually high mortality for young adults.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagnonMilleret_al2013e69586-10">[10]</a> Scientists offer several explanations for the high mortality, including a six-year climate anomaly affecting migration of <a href="/wiki/Disease_vectors" class="mw-redirect" title="Disease vectors">disease vectors</a> with increased likelihood of spread through bodies of water.<a href="#cite_note-The_Impact_of_a_Six‐Year_Climate_An-11">[11]</a> However, the claim that young adults had a high mortality during the pandemic has been contested.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Malnourishment, overcrowded medical camps and hospitals, and poor <a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">hygiene</a>, exacerbated by the war, promoted bacterial <a href="/wiki/Superinfection" title="Superinfection">superinfection</a>, killing most of the victims after a typically prolonged death bed.<a href="#cite_note-Brundage-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> The 1918 Spanish flu was the first of three flu pandemics caused by <a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H1N1" title="Influenza A virus subtype H1N1">H1N1 influenza A virus</a>; the others being the <a href="/wiki/1977_Russian_flu" title="1977 Russian flu">1977 Russian flu</a> and the <a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic" title="2009 swine flu pandemic">2009 Swine flu</a> pandemics.<a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-1999-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymologies">Etymologies</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:El_Sol_28_de_mayo_de_1918.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/El_Sol_28_de_mayo_de_1918.jpg/220px-El_Sol_28_de_mayo_de_1918.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/El_Sol_28_de_mayo_de_1918.jpg/330px-El_Sol_28_de_mayo_de_1918.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/El_Sol_28_de_mayo_de_1918.jpg/440px-El_Sol_28_de_mayo_de_1918.jpg 2x" data-file-width="833" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/El_Sol_(Madrid)" title="El Sol (Madrid)">El Sol</a> (<a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>), 28 May 1918: "The three-day fever – In Madrid 80,000 Are Infected – <a href="/wiki/Majesty" title="Majesty">H.M.</a> <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_XIII" title="Alfonso XIII">the King</a> is sick"</figcaption></figure> This pandemic was known by many different names—some old, some new—depending on place, time, and context. The <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a> of alternative names <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">historicises</a> the scourge and its effects on people who would only learn years <a href="/wiki/History_of_virology" title="History of virology">later</a> that invisible <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> caused <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The lack of scientific answers led the Sierra Leone Weekly News (<a href="/wiki/Freetown" title="Freetown">Freetown</a>) to suggest a <a href="/wiki/Biblical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical">biblical</a> framing in July 1918, using an <a href="/wiki/Interrogative" title="Interrogative">interrogative</a> from <a href="/wiki/Beshalach" title="Beshalach">Exodus 16</a> in ancient <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a>:<a href="#cite_note-20">[a]</a> "One thing is for certain—the doctors are at present flabbergasted; and we suggest that rather than calling the disease influenza they should for the present until they have it in hand, say Man hu—'What is it?'"<a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descriptive_names">Descriptive names</h3></div> Outbreaks of <a href="/wiki/Influenza-like_illness" title="Influenza-like illness">influenza-like illness</a> were documented in 1916–17 at British military hospitals in <a href="/wiki/%C3%89taples" title="Étaples">Étaples</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a>,<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> and just across the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> at <a href="/wiki/Aldershot" title="Aldershot">Aldershot</a>, <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>. Clinical indications in common with the 1918 pandemic included rapid symptom progression to a "dusky" <a href="/wiki/Heliotrope_(color)" title="Heliotrope (color)">heliotrope</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyanosis" title="Cyanosis">cyanosis</a> of the face. This characteristic blue-violet cyanosis in expiring patients led to the name 'purple death'.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> The Aldershot physicians later wrote in <a href="/wiki/The_Lancet" title="The Lancet">The Lancet</a>, "the influenza pneumococcal purulent bronchitis we and others described in 1916 and 1917 is fundamentally the same condition as the influenza of this present pandemic."<a href="#cite_note-Oxford-28">[27]</a> This "<a href="/wiki/Purulent" class="mw-redirect" title="Purulent">purulent</a> <a href="/wiki/Bronchitis" title="Bronchitis">bronchitis</a>" is not yet linked to the same <a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H1N1" title="Influenza A virus subtype H1N1">A/H1N1</a> virus,<a href="#cite_note-Cox-29">[28]</a> but it may be a precursor.<a href="#cite_note-Oxford-28">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a> In 1918, '<a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemic</a> <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>' (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: influenza, influence),<a href="#cite_note-Storey-32">[31]</a> also known at the time as 'the grip' (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: la grippe, grasp),<a href="#cite_note-Grippe-33">[32]</a> appeared in <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">U.S.</a> during late spring, and early reports from <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> began appearing on 21 May.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> Reports from both places called it 'three-day fever' (fiebre de los tres días).<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Associative_names">Associative names</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Times_1918-06-25.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/The_Times_1918-06-25.jpg/220px-The_Times_1918-06-25.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/The_Times_1918-06-25.jpg/330px-The_Times_1918-06-25.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/The_Times_1918-06-25.jpg/440px-The_Times_1918-06-25.jpg 2x" data-file-width="948" data-file-height="603" /></a><figcaption>Front page of <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a> (<a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>), 25 June 1918: "The Spanish Influenza"</figcaption></figure> Many alternative names are <a href="/wiki/Exonyms" class="mw-redirect" title="Exonyms">exonyms</a> in the practice of making new <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infectious diseases</a> seem foreign.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hoppe-40">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-Müller-41">[40]</a> This pattern was observed even before the <a href="/wiki/1889%E2%80%931890_pandemic" title="1889–1890 pandemic">1889–1890 pandemic</a>, also known as the 'Russian flu', when the Russians already called epidemic influenza the 'Chinese catarrh', the Germans called it the 'Russian pest', while the Italians in turn called it the 'German disease'.<a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a> These <a href="/wiki/Epithet" title="Epithet">epithets</a> were re-used in the 1918 pandemic, along with new ones.<a href="#cite_note-Davis-44">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="'Spanish'_influenza">'Spanish' influenza</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Times_1918-06-28_p8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/The_Times_1918-06-28_p8.jpg/220px-The_Times_1918-06-28_p8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/The_Times_1918-06-28_p8.jpg/330px-The_Times_1918-06-28_p8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/The_Times_1918-06-28_p8.jpg/440px-The_Times_1918-06-28_p8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="925" data-file-height="974" /></a><figcaption>Advertisement in <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a>, 28 June 1918 for Formamint tablets to prevent "Spanish influenza"</figcaption></figure> Outside Spain, the disease was soon misnamed 'Spanish influenza'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorras-GalloDavis201451-45">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalvin2007-46">[45]</a> In a 2 June 1918 <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a> of <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> dispatch titled, "The Spanish Epidemic," a correspondent in <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a> reported over 100,000 victims of, "The unknown disease…clearly of a gripal character," without referring to "Spanish influenza" directly.<a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> Three weeks later The Times reported that, "Everybody thinks of it as the 'Spanish' influenza to-day."<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a> Three days after that an advertisement appeared in The Times for Formamint tablets to prevent "Spanish influenza".<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a> When it reached Moscow, <a href="/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a> announced, "Ispánka (the Spanish lady) is in town," making 'the Spanish lady' another common name.<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a> The outbreak did not originate in Spain (see <a href="#Potential_origins">below</a>),<a href="#cite_note-Spain-52">[51]</a> but reporting did, due to wartime <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censorship</a> in <a href="/wiki/Belligerent" title="Belligerent">belligerent</a> nations. Spain was a <a href="/wiki/Neutral_country" title="Neutral country">neutral country</a> unconcerned with appearances of <a href="/wiki/Combat_readiness" title="Combat readiness">combat readiness</a>, and without a <a href="/wiki/Propaganda#Wartime" title="Propaganda">wartime propaganda</a> machine to prop up <a href="/wiki/Morale" title="Morale">morale</a>;<a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a> so its newspapers <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">freely</a> reported epidemic effects, including King <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_XIII" title="Alfonso XIII">Alfonso XIII</a>'s illness, making Spain the apparent locus of the epidemic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry2004171-55">[54]</a> The censorship was so effective that Spain's health officials were unaware its neighboring countries were similarly affected.<a href="#cite_note-Economist-56">[55]</a> In an October 1918 "Madrid Letter" to the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Medical_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of the American Medical Association">Journal of the American Medical Association</a>, a Spanish official protested, "we were surprised to learn that the disease was making ravages in other countries, and that people there were calling it the 'Spanish grip'. And wherefore Spanish? …this epidemic was not born in Spain, and this should be recorded as a historic vindication."<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a> But before this letter could be published, The Serbian Newspaper (<a href="/wiki/Corfu" title="Corfu">Corfu</a>) said, "Various countries have been assigning the origin of this imposing guest to each other for quite some time, and at one point in time they agreed to assign its origin to the kind and neutral Spain…"<a href="#cite_note-VojnosanitetskiPregled2-58">[57]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spanish_influenza,_three-day_fever,_the_flu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Spanish_influenza%2C_three-day_fever%2C_the_flu.jpg/170px-Spanish_influenza%2C_three-day_fever%2C_the_flu.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Spanish_influenza%2C_three-day_fever%2C_the_flu.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="404" /></a><figcaption>"Spanish influenza," "three-day fever," "the flu." by <a href="/wiki/Rupert_Blue" title="Rupert Blue">Rupert Blue</a>, U.S. <a href="/wiki/Surgeon_General" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgeon General">Surgeon General</a>, 28 September 1918</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_exonyms">Other exonyms</h4></div> French press initially used 'American flu', but adopted 'Spanish flu' in lieu of antagonizing an ally.<a href="#cite_note-fiction-59">[58]</a> In the spring of 1918, British soldiers called it 'Flanders flu', while German soldiers used 'Flandern-Fieber' (Flemish fever), both after a famous <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lys_(1918)" title="Battle of the Lys (1918)">battlefield</a> in <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> where many soldiers on both sides fell ill.<a href="#cite_note-Davis-44">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Müller-41">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-fes-60">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-IRCC-61">[60]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> it was named 'Brazilian flu', and in <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, 'German flu'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201858-62">[61]</a> In Spain it was also known as the 'French flu' (gripe francesa),<a href="#cite_note-Spain-52">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Friday-9">[9]</a> or the 'Naples Soldier' (Soldado de Nápoles), after a popular song from a <a href="/wiki/Zarzuela" title="Zarzuela">zarzuela</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-fiction-59">[58]</a> Spanish flu (gripe española) is now a common name in Spain,<a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> but remains controversial there.<a href="#cite_note-Rodríguez_2019-66">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-CBC_2020-67">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Other_(philosophy)" title="Other (philosophy)">Othering</a> derived from geopolitical borders and social boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDionneTurkmen2020-68">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-v885-69">[67]</a> In Poland it was the '<a href="/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolshevik</a> disease',<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201858-62">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Takon-70">[68]</a> while the Bolsheviks referred to it as the '<a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_people" title="Kyrgyz people">Kirghiz</a> disease'.<a href="#cite_note-IRCC-61">[60]</a> Some Africans called it a 'white man's sickness', but in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, white men also used the <a href="/wiki/Ethnophaulism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnophaulism">ethnophaulism</a> <a href="/wiki/Kaffir_(racial_term)" title="Kaffir (racial term)">'kaffersiekte'</a> (lit. <a href="/wiki/Negro" title="Negro">negro</a> disease).<a href="#cite_note-Davis-44">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> blamed <a href="/wiki/Sumo" title="Sumo">sumo</a> wrestlers for bringing the disease home from a match in <a href="/wiki/Taiwan#Japanese_rule_(1895–1945)" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> by calling it 'sumo flu' (Sumo Kaze), even though three top wrestlers died there.<a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> 'best practices' first published in 2015 now aim to prevent <a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">social stigma</a> by no longer associating <a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">culturally significant</a> names with new diseases, listing "Spanish flu" under "examples to be avoided".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDionneTurkmen2020213–230-74">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hoppe-40">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> Many authors now eschew calling this the Spanish flu,<a href="#cite_note-fiction-59">[58]</a> instead using variations of '1918–19/20 flu/influenza pandemic'.<a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_names">Local names</h3></div> Some language <a href="/wiki/Endonyms" class="mw-redirect" title="Endonyms">endonyms</a> did not name specific regions or groups of people. Examples specific to this pandemic include: <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ndebele_language" title="Northern Ndebele language">Northern Ndebele</a>: 'Malibuzwe' (let enquiries be made concerning it), <a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a>: 'Ugonjo huo kichwa na kukohoa na kiuno' (the disease of head and coughing and spine),<a href="#cite_note-Muller-1998-79">[77]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yao_language" title="Yao language">Yao</a>: 'chipindupindu' (disease from seeking to make a profit in wartime), <a href="/wiki/Otjiherero_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Otjiherero language">Otjiherero</a>: 'kaapitohanga' (disease which passes through like a bullet),<a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: nakhushi-yi bad (disease of the wind).<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_names">Other names</h3></div> This outbreak was also commonly known as the 'great influenza epidemic',<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> after the 'great war', a common name for <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> before <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry2004b-85">[83]</a> French military doctors originally called it 'disease 11' (maladie onze).<a href="#cite_note-Müller-41">[40]</a> German doctors downplayed the severity by calling it 'pseudo influenza' (Latin: pseudo, false), while in Africa, doctors tried to get patients to take it more seriously by calling it 'influenza vera' (Latin: vera, true).<a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_song" title="Children's song">children's song</a> from the 1889–90 flu pandemic<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a> was shortened and adapted into a <a href="/wiki/Skipping-rope_rhyme" title="Skipping-rope rhyme">skipping-rope rhyme</a> popular in 1918.<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a> It is a <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphor</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">transmissibility</a> of 'Influenza', where that name was <a href="/wiki/Clipping_(morphology)" title="Clipping (morphology)">clipped</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Apheresis_(linguistics)" title="Apheresis (linguistics)">apheresis</a> 'Enza':<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> I had a little bird, its name was Enza. I opened the window, and in-flu-enza. </div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeline">Timeline</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_wave_of_early_1918">First wave of early 1918</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spanish_flu_in_1918,_Police_officers_in_masks,_Seattle_Police_Department_detail,_from-_165-WW-269B-25-police-l_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Spanish_flu_in_1918%2C_Police_officers_in_masks%2C_Seattle_Police_Department_detail%2C_from-_165-WW-269B-25-police-l_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Spanish_flu_in_1918%2C_Police_officers_in_masks%2C_Seattle_Police_Department_detail%2C_from-_165-WW-269B-25-police-l_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Spanish_flu_in_1918%2C_Police_officers_in_masks%2C_Seattle_Police_Department_detail%2C_from-_165-WW-269B-25-police-l_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Spanish_flu_in_1918%2C_Police_officers_in_masks%2C_Seattle_Police_Department_detail%2C_from-_165-WW-269B-25-police-l_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Spanish_flu_in_1918%2C_Police_officers_in_masks%2C_Seattle_Police_Department_detail%2C_from-_165-WW-269B-25-police-l_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Spanish_flu_in_1918%2C_Police_officers_in_masks%2C_Seattle_Police_Department_detail%2C_from-_165-WW-269B-25-police-l_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1922" data-file-height="1538" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Seattle" title="Seattle">Seattle</a> policemen wearing cloth face masks handed out by the American Red Cross during the Spanish flu pandemic, December 1918</figcaption></figure> The pandemic is conventionally marked as having begun on 4 March 1918 with the recording of the case of Albert Gitchell, an army cook at <a href="/wiki/Camp_Funston" title="Camp Funston">Camp Funston</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a>, United States, despite there having been cases before him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201836-93">[91]</a> The disease had already been observed 200 miles (320 km) away in <a href="/wiki/Haskell_County,_Kansas" title="Haskell County, Kansas">Haskell County</a> as early as January 1918, prompting local doctor <a href="/wiki/Loring_Miner" title="Loring Miner">Loring Miner</a> to warn the editors of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Public_Health_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Public Health Service">U.S. Public Health Service</a>'s academic journal Public Health Reports.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry2004b-85">[83]</a> Within days of the 4 March first case at Camp Funston, 522 men at the camp had reported sick.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> By 11 March 1918, the virus had reached <a href="/wiki/Queens" title="Queens">Queens</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a> Failure to take preventive measures in March/April was later criticized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillings1997-96">[94]</a> As the U.S. had entered World War I, the disease quickly spread from Camp Funston, a major training ground for troops of the <a href="/wiki/American_Expeditionary_Forces" title="American Expeditionary Forces">American Expeditionary Forces</a>, to other <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">U.S. Army</a> camps and Europe, becoming an epidemic in the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwest</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a>, and French ports by April 1918, and reaching the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a> by the middle of the month.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201836-93">[91]</a> It then quickly spread to the rest of France, Great Britain, Italy, and Spain and in May reached <a href="/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw" title="Wrocław">Wrocław</a> and <a href="/wiki/Odessa" class="mw-redirect" title="Odessa">Odessa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201836-93">[91]</a> After the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a> (March 1918), <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> started releasing Russian prisoners of war, who then brought the disease to their country.<a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a> It reached North Africa, India, and Japan in May, and soon after had likely gone around the world as there had been recorded cases in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> in April.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201837-98">[96]</a> In June an outbreak was reported in <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> After reaching Australia in July, the wave started to recede.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201837-98">[96]</a> The first wave of the flu lasted from the first quarter of 1918 and was relatively mild.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPattersonPyle1991-100">[98]</a> Mortality rates were not appreciably above normal;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubenbergerMorens2006-2">[2]</a> in the United States ~75,000 flu-related deaths were reported in the first six months of 1918, compared to ~63,000 deaths during the same time period in 1915.<a href="#cite_note-CDCMortality1918-101">[99]</a> In Madrid, Spain, fewer than 1,000 people died from influenza between May and June 1918.<a href="#cite_note-NIHInfluenza2010-102">[100]</a> There were no reported quarantines during the first quarter of 1918. However, the first wave caused a significant disruption in the military operations of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, with three-quarters of French troops, half the British forces, and over 900,000 German soldiers sick.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201838-103">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Deadly_second_wave_of_late_1918">Deadly second wave of late 1918</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USCampHospital45InfluenzaWard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/USCampHospital45InfluenzaWard.jpg/220px-USCampHospital45InfluenzaWard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/USCampHospital45InfluenzaWard.jpg/330px-USCampHospital45InfluenzaWard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/USCampHospital45InfluenzaWard.jpg/440px-USCampHospital45InfluenzaWard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1858" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/American_Expeditionary_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="American Expeditionary Force">American Expeditionary Force</a> flu patients at U.S. Army Camp Hospital no. 45 in <a href="/wiki/Aix-les-Bains" title="Aix-les-Bains">Aix-les-Bains</a>, France, 1918</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EsquellaFutbolTragic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Spanish satirical cartoon published in November 1918 depicting a "tragic game of football" between Mars, Greek god of war, and the Spanish Flu. There is a short poem as a caption which roughly translates to English as "Between flu and war, look at how they've left her, our poor Earth"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/EsquellaFutbolTragic.jpg/220px-EsquellaFutbolTragic.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/EsquellaFutbolTragic.jpg/330px-EsquellaFutbolTragic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/EsquellaFutbolTragic.jpg/440px-EsquellaFutbolTragic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1095" data-file-height="789" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mars,_God_Of_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars, God Of War">Mars, god of war</a>, plays a "tragic game of football" with a skeleton personification of the Spanish flu, November 1918 </figcaption></figure> The second wave began in the second half of August 1918, probably spreading to <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, Massachusetts and <a href="/wiki/Freetown" title="Freetown">Freetown</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Colony_and_Protectorate" title="Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate">Sierra Leone</a>, by ships from <a href="/wiki/Brest,_France" title="Brest, France">Brest</a>, where it had likely arrived with American troops or French recruits for naval training.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201838-103">[101]</a> From the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Navy_Yard" title="Boston Navy Yard">Boston Navy Yard</a> and Camp Devens (later renamed <a href="/wiki/Fort_Devens" title="Fort Devens">Fort Devens</a>), about 30 miles (48 km) west of Boston, other U.S. military sites were soon afflicted, as were troops being transported to Europe.<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> Helped by troop movements, it spread over the next two months to all of North America, and then to Central and <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, also reaching Brazil and the Caribbean on ships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201839-105">[103]</a> In July 1918, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> saw its first cases in some soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-www.sozcu.com.tr-106">[104]</a> From Freetown, the pandemic continued to spread through West Africa along the coast, rivers, and the colonial railways, and from railheads to more remote communities, while South Africa received it in September on ships bringing back members of the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Native_Labour_Corps" title="South African Native Labour Corps">South African Native Labour Corps</a> returning from France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201839-105">[103]</a> From there it spread around southern Africa and beyond the <a href="/wiki/Zambezi" title="Zambezi">Zambezi</a>, reaching Ethiopia in November.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201840-107">[105]</a> On 15 September, New York City saw its first fatality from influenza.<a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Liberty_Loans_Parade" title="Philadelphia Liberty Loans Parade">Philadelphia Liberty Loans Parade</a>, held in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, on 28 September 1918 to promote <a href="/wiki/Liberty_bond" title="Liberty bond">government bonds</a> for World War I, resulted in 12,000 deaths after a major outbreak of the illness spread among people who had attended the parade.<a href="#cite_note-philadelphia-109">[107]</a> From Europe, the second wave swept through Russia in a southwest–northeast diagonal front, as well as being brought to <a href="/wiki/Arkhangelsk" title="Arkhangelsk">Arkhangelsk</a> by the <a href="/wiki/North_Russia_intervention" title="North Russia intervention">North Russia intervention</a>, and then spread throughout <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway" title="Trans-Siberian Railway">Trans-Siberian railway</a>, reaching Iran (where it spread through the holy city of <a href="/wiki/Mashhad" title="Mashhad">Mashhad</a>), and then later India in September, as well as China and Japan in October.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201841-110">[108]</a> The celebrations of the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">Armistice of 11 November 1918</a> also caused outbreaks in <a href="/wiki/Lima" title="Lima">Lima</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nairobi" title="Nairobi">Nairobi</a>, but by December the wave was mostly over.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201842-111">[109]</a> The second wave of the 1918 pandemic was much more deadly than the first. The first wave had resembled typical flu epidemics; those most at risk were the sick and elderly, while younger, healthier people recovered easily. October 1918 was the month with the highest fatality rate of the whole pandemic.<a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a> In the United States, ~292,000 deaths were reported between September–December 1918, compared to ~26,000 during the same time period in 1915.<a href="#cite_note-CDCMortality1918-101">[99]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> reported over 40,000 deaths from influenza and acute respiratory disease. <a href="/wiki/Bombay" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombay">Bombay</a> reported ~15,000 deaths in a population of 1.1 million.<a href="#cite_note-EpidemicInfluenza-113">[111]</a> The <a href="/wiki/1918_flu_pandemic_in_India" title="1918 flu pandemic in India">1918 flu pandemic in India</a> was especially deadly, with an estimated 12.5–20 million deaths in the last quarter of 1918 alone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPattersonPyle1991-100">[98]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Third_wave_of_1919">Third wave of 1919</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E2%80%9CLondon,_Registered_Weekly_Deaths_from_Influenza,_Pneumonia_and_Bronchitis_During_1918_and_1919%E2%80%9D_table_on_page_4_-_Medical_officer_of_health_report_on_1918_flu_epidemic_Wellcome_L0046565_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/%E2%80%9CLondon%2C_Registered_Weekly_Deaths_from_Influenza%2C_Pneumonia_and_Bronchitis_During_1918_and_1919%E2%80%9D_table_on_page_4_-_Medical_officer_of_health_report_on_1918_flu_epidemic_Wellcome_L0046565_%28cropped%29.jpg/262px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="262" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/%E2%80%9CLondon%2C_Registered_Weekly_Deaths_from_Influenza%2C_Pneumonia_and_Bronchitis_During_1918_and_1919%E2%80%9D_table_on_page_4_-_Medical_officer_of_health_report_on_1918_flu_epidemic_Wellcome_L0046565_%28cropped%29.jpg/393px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/%E2%80%9CLondon%2C_Registered_Weekly_Deaths_from_Influenza%2C_Pneumonia_and_Bronchitis_During_1918_and_1919%E2%80%9D_table_on_page_4_-_Medical_officer_of_health_report_on_1918_flu_epidemic_Wellcome_L0046565_%28cropped%29.jpg/524px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1823" data-file-height="2116" /></a><figcaption>London weekly deaths from influenza during 1918 and 1919</figcaption></figure> Pandemic activity persisted, in general, into 1919 in many places. This persistence in activity is possibly attributable to climate, specifically in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere" title="Northern Hemisphere">Northern Hemisphere</a>, where it was winter and thus the usual time for influenza activity.<a href="#cite_note-Chandra-2020-114">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bootsma-2007-115">[113]</a> The pandemic nonetheless continued into 1919 largely independent of region and climate.<a href="#cite_note-Chandra-2020-114">[112]</a> Cases began to rise again in some parts of the United States as early as late November 1918,<a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a> with the Public Health Service issuing its first report of a "recrudescence of the disease" being felt in "widely scattered localities" in early December.<a href="#cite_note-Public_Health_Reports-1918-117">[115]</a> This resurgent activity varied across the country, however, possibly on account of differing restrictions.<a href="#cite_note-Bootsma-2007-115">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a>, for example, experienced a swift resurgence of influenza that reached its peak in December, possibly as a result of the lifting of the ban on public gatherings.<a href="#cite_note-118">[116]</a> Pandemic interventions, such as bans on public gatherings and the closing of schools, were reimposed in many places in an attempt to suppress the spread.<a href="#cite_note-Public_Health_Reports-1918-117">[115]</a> There was "a very sudden and very marked rise in general death rate" in most cities in January 1919; nearly all experienced "some degree of recrudescence" of the flu in January and February.<a href="#cite_note-Jordan1927-119">[117]</a>: 153–154  Significant outbreaks occurred in cities including <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>,<a href="#cite_note-LATimes1919-120">[118]</a> New York City,<a href="#cite_note-NIH-NYC-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Tennessee" title="Memphis, Tennessee">Memphis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nashville" class="mw-redirect" title="Nashville">Nashville</a>, <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>, and <a href="/wiki/St._Louis" title="St. Louis">St. Louis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Vaughan1921-121">[119]</a> By 21 February, with some local variation, influenza activity was reported to have been declining since mid-January in all parts of the country.<a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a> Following this "first great epidemic period" that had commenced in October 1918, deaths from pneumonia and influenza were "somewhat below average" in the large cities of the United States between May 1919 and January 1920.<a href="#cite_note-Jordan1927-119">[117]</a>: 158  Nonetheless, nearly 160,000 deaths were attributed to these causes in the first six months of 1919.<a href="#cite_note-CDCMortality1919-123">[121]</a> It was not until later in the winter and into the spring that a clearer resurgence appeared in Europe. A significant third wave had developed in <a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a> by mid-February, peaking in early March, though it did not fully subside until May.<a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a> France also experienced a significant wave that peaked in February, alongside the Netherlands. <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> saw recrudescences of pandemic activity in March, and Sweden in April.<a href="#cite_note-IORV2009-125">[123]</a> Much of Spain was affected by "a substantial recrudescent wave" of influenza between January and April 1919.<a href="#cite_note-126">[124]</a> Portugal experienced a resurgence in pandemic activity that lasted from March to September 1919, with the greatest impact being felt on the west coast and in the north of the country; all districts were affected between April and May specifically.<a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a> Influenza entered Australia for the first time in January 1919 after a strict maritime quarantine had shielded the country through the latter part of 1918.<a href="#cite_note-Holbrook-2022-128">[126]</a> It assumed epidemic proportions first in <a href="/wiki/Melbourne" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a>, peaking in mid-February.<a href="#cite_note-Shanks-129">[127]</a> The flu soon appeared in neighboring <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a> and then spread across the country throughout the year.<a href="#cite_note-Holbrook-2022-128">[126]</a> New South Wales experienced its first wave of infection between mid-March and late May,<a href="#cite_note-Curson-2006-130">[128]</a> while a second, more severe wave occurred in Victoria between April and June.<a href="#cite_note-Shanks-129">[127]</a> Land quarantine measures hindered the spread of the disease, resulting in varied experiences of exposures and outbreaks among the various states. <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a> was not infected until late April; <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a> avoided the disease until early June, and <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a> remained free from it until mid-August.<a href="#cite_note-Holbrook-2022-128">[126]</a> Out of the six states, Victoria and New South Wales experienced generally more extensive epidemics. Each experienced another significant wave of illness over the winter. The second epidemic in New South Wales was more severe than the first,<a href="#cite_note-Curson-2006-130">[128]</a> while Victoria saw a third wave that was somewhat less extensive than its second, more akin to its first.<a href="#cite_note-Shanks-129">[127]</a> The disease also reached other parts of the world for the first time in 1919, such as <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, which saw its first cases in April; the outbreak had spread to practically all sections of the island by June.<a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a> In other parts, influenza recurred in the form of a true "third wave". <a href="/wiki/British_Hong_Kong" title="British Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> experienced another outbreak in June,<a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a> as did South Africa during its fall and winter months in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere" title="Southern Hemisphere">Southern Hemisphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_New_Zealand" title="Dominion of New Zealand">New Zealand</a> also experienced some cases in May.<a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a> Parts of South America experienced a resurgence of pandemic activity throughout 1919. A third wave hit Brazil between January and June.<a href="#cite_note-Chandra-2020-114">[112]</a> Between July 1919 and February 1920, <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, which had been affected for the first time just in October 1918, experienced a severe second wave, with mortality peaking in August 1919.<a href="#cite_note-Chowell-2014-137">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Montevideo" title="Montevideo">Montevideo</a> similarly experienced a second outbreak between July and September.<a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> The third wave particularly affected Spain, <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> and Great Britain, resulting in hundreds of thousands of deaths.<a href="#cite_note-CollegePhysiciansPhiladelphia-139">[137]</a> It was in general less severe than the second wave but still much more deadly than the initial first wave. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fourth_wave_of_1920">Fourth wave of 1920</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illustrated_Current_News-1918-Thompson,_Paul.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Illustrated_Current_News-1918-Thompson%2C_Paul.png/299px-Illustrated_Current_News-1918-Thompson%2C_Paul.png" decoding="async" width="299" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Illustrated_Current_News-1918-Thompson%2C_Paul.png/449px-Illustrated_Current_News-1918-Thompson%2C_Paul.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Illustrated_Current_News-1918-Thompson%2C_Paul.png/598px-Illustrated_Current_News-1918-Thompson%2C_Paul.png 2x" data-file-width="1410" data-file-height="911" /></a><figcaption>Public health recommendations from the Illustrated Current News</figcaption></figure> In the Northern Hemisphere, fears of a "recurrence" of the flu grew as fall approached. Experts cited the history of past flu epidemics, such as that of 1889–1890, to predict that such a recurrence a year later was not unlikely,<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a> though not all agreed.<a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a> In September 1919, <a href="/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States" title="Surgeon General of the United States">U.S. Surgeon General</a> <a href="/wiki/Rupert_Blue" title="Rupert Blue">Rupert Blue</a> said a return of the flu later in the year would "probably, but by no means certainly," occur.<a href="#cite_note-143">[141]</a> France had readied a public information campaign before the end of the summer,<a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> and Britain began preparations in the autumn with the manufacture of vaccine.<a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a> In Japan, the flu broke out again in December and spread rapidly throughout the country, a fact attributed at the time to the coming of cold weather.<a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Honolulu_Advertiser-1920-147">[145]</a> Pandemic-related measures were renewed to check the spread of the outbreak, and health authorities recommended the use of masks.<a href="#cite_note-The_Honolulu_Advertiser-1920-147">[145]</a> The epidemic intensified in the latter part of December before swiftly peaking in January.<a href="#cite_note-The_Sydney_Morning_Herald-1920-148">[146]</a> Between October 1919 and 23 January 1920, 780,000 cases were reported across the country, with at least 20,000 deaths recorded by that date. This apparently reflected "a condition of severity three times greater than for the corresponding period of" 1918–1919, during Japan's first epidemic.<a href="#cite_note-The_Sydney_Morning_Herald-1920-148">[146]</a> Nonetheless, the disease was regarded as being milder than it had been the year before, albeit more infectious.<a href="#cite_note-149">[147]</a> Despite its rapid peak at the beginning of the year, the outbreak persisted throughout the winter, before subsiding in the spring.<a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-2013-150">[148]</a> In the United States, there were "almost continuously isolated or solitary cases" of flu throughout the spring and summer months of 1919.<a href="#cite_note-EpidemologicStudy-151">[149]</a> An increase in scattered cases became apparent as early as September,<a href="#cite_note-152">[150]</a> but Chicago experienced one of the first major outbreaks of the flu beginning in the middle of January.<a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a> The Public Health Service announced it would take steps to "localize the epidemic",<a href="#cite_note-154">[152]</a> but the disease was already causing a simultaneous outbreak in Kansas City and quickly spread outward from the center of the country in no clear direction.<a href="#cite_note-EpidemologicStudy-151">[149]</a> A few days after its first announcement, PHS issued another assuring that the disease was under the control of state health authorities and that an outbreak of epidemic proportions was not expected.<a href="#cite_note-155">[153]</a> It became apparent within days of the start of Chicago's explosive growth in cases that the flu was spreading in the city at an even faster rate than in winter 1919, though fewer were dying.<a href="#cite_note-156">[154]</a> Within a week, new cases in the city had surpassed its peak during the 1919 wave.<a href="#cite_note-157">[155]</a> Around the same time, New York City began to see its own sudden increase in cases,<a href="#cite_note-158">[156]</a> and other cities around the country were soon to follow.<a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a> Certain pandemic restrictions, such as the closing of schools and theaters and the staggering of business hours to avoid congestion, were reimposed in cities like Chicago,<a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a> Memphis,<a href="#cite_note-The_New_York_Times-1920-161">[159]</a> and New York City.<a href="#cite_note-The_New_York_Times-1920-2-162">[160]</a> As they had during the epidemic in fall 1918, schools in New York City remained open,<a href="#cite_note-The_New_York_Times-1920-2-162">[160]</a> while those in Memphis were shuttered as part of more general restrictions on public gatherings.<a href="#cite_note-The_New_York_Times-1920-161">[159]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1918_flu_in_Oakland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/1918_flu_in_Oakland.jpg/220px-1918_flu_in_Oakland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/1918_flu_in_Oakland.jpg/330px-1918_flu_in_Oakland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/1918_flu_in_Oakland.jpg/440px-1918_flu_in_Oakland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4825" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/American_Red_Cross" title="American Red Cross">American Red Cross</a> nurses tend to flu patients in temporary wards set up inside the <a href="/wiki/Oakland,_California" title="Oakland, California">Oakland</a> Municipal Auditorium</figcaption></figure> The fourth wave in the United States subsided as swiftly as it had appeared, reaching a peak in early February.<a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a> "An epidemic of considerable proportions marked the early months of 1920", the U.S. Mortality Statistics would later note; according to data at this time, the epidemic resulted in one third as many deaths as the 1918–1919 experience.<a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a> New York City alone reported 6,374 deaths between December 1919 and April 1920, almost twice the number of the first wave in spring 1918.<a href="#cite_note-NIH-NYC-1">[1]</a> Other U.S. cities including Detroit, Milwaukee, Kansas City, Minneapolis, and St. Louis were hit particularly hard, with death rates higher than all of 1918.<a href="#cite_note-Vaughan1921-121">[119]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Hawaii" title="Territory of Hawaii">Territory of Hawaii</a> experienced its peak of the pandemic in early 1920, recording 1,489 deaths from flu-related causes, compared with 615 in 1918 and 796 in 1919.<a href="#cite_note-165">[163]</a> Poland experienced a devastating outbreak during the winter months, with its capital <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> reaching a peak of 158 deaths in a single week, compared to the peak of 92 reached in December 1918; however, the 1920 epidemic passed in a matter of weeks, while the 1918–1919 wave had developed over the entire second half of 1918.<a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a> By contrast, the outbreak in western Europe was considered "benign", with the age distribution of deaths beginning to take on that of <a href="/wiki/Flu_season" title="Flu season">seasonal flu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a> Five countries in Europe (Spain, Denmark, Finland, Germany and Switzerland) recorded a late peak between January–April 1920.<a href="#cite_note-IORV2009-125">[123]</a> Mexico experienced a fourth wave between February and March. In South America, <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> experienced "asynchronous recrudescent waves" throughout the year. A severe third wave hit <a href="/wiki/Lima" title="Lima">Lima</a>, the capital city, between January and March, resulting in an all-cause excess mortality rate approximately four times greater than that of the 1918–1919 wave. <a href="/wiki/Ica,_Peru" title="Ica, Peru">Ica</a> similarly experienced another severe pandemic wave in 1920, between July and October.<a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a> A fourth wave also occurred in Brazil, in February.<a href="#cite_note-Chandra-2020-114">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">Korea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Japanese_rule" title="Taiwan under Japanese rule">Taiwan</a>, both colonies of Japan at this time, also experienced pronounced outbreaks in late 1919 and early 1920.<a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Post-pandemic">Post-pandemic</h4></div> By mid-1920, the pandemic was largely considered to be "over" by the public as well as governments.<a href="#cite_note-171">[169]</a> Though parts of Chile experienced a third, milder wave between November 1920 and March 1921,<a href="#cite_note-Chowell-2014-137">[135]</a> the flu seemed to be mostly absent through the winter of 1920–1921.<a href="#cite_note-Jordan1927-119">[117]</a>: 167  In the United States, for example, deaths from pneumonia and influenza were "very much lower than for many years".<a href="#cite_note-Jordan1927-119">[117]</a>: 167  Seasonal Influenza after the end of the pandemic, began to be reported again from many places in 1921.<a href="#cite_note-Jordan1927-119">[117]</a>: 168  Influenza continued to be felt in Chile, where a post pandemic fourth wave affected seven of its 24 provinces between June and December 1921.<a href="#cite_note-Chowell-2014-137">[135]</a> The winter of 1921–1922 was the first major reappearance of seasonal influenza in the Northern Hemisphere after the pandemic ended, in many parts its most significant occurrence since the main pandemic in late 1918. Northwestern Europe was particularly affected. All-cause mortality in the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> approximately doubled in January 1922 alone.<a href="#cite_note-Jordan1927-119">[117]</a>: 168  In <a href="/wiki/Helsinki" title="Helsinki">Helsinki</a>, a major epidemic (the fifth since 1918) prevailed between November and December 1921.<a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a> The flu was also widespread in the United States, its prevalence in California reportedly greater in early March 1922 than at any point since the pandemic ended in 1920.<a href="#cite_note-Jordan1927-119">[117]</a>: 172  In the years after 1920, the disease, a novel one in 1918, assumed a more familiar nature, coming to represent at least one form of the "seasonal flu". The virus, H1N1, remained endemic, occasionally causing more severe or <a href="/wiki/Flu_season#Notable_occurrences" title="Flu season">otherwise notable outbreaks</a> as it gradually evolved over the years.<a href="#cite_note-Taubenberger-2010-173">[171]</a> The period since its initial appearance in 1918 has been termed a "pandemic era", in which all flu pandemics since its emergence have been caused by its own descendants.<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/1957%E2%80%931958_influenza_pandemic" title="1957–1958 influenza pandemic">first of these post-1918 pandemics</a>, in 1957, the virus was totally displaced by the novel <a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H2N2" title="Influenza A virus subtype H2N2">H2N2</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Reassortment" title="Reassortment">reassortant</a> product of the human H1N1 and an <a href="/wiki/Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">avian influenza</a> virus, which thereafter became the active influenza A virus in humans.<a href="#cite_note-Taubenberger-2010-173">[171]</a> In 1977, an influenza virus bearing a very close resemblance to the seasonal H1N1, which had not been seen since the 1950s, appeared in Russia and subsequently initiated a "technical" <a href="/wiki/1977_Russian_flu" title="1977 Russian flu">pandemic</a> that principally affected those 26 years of age and younger.<a href="#cite_note-Taubenberger-2009-175">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rozo-2015-176">[174]</a> While some natural explanations, such as the virus remaining in some frozen state for 20 years,<a href="#cite_note-Rozo-2015-176">[174]</a> have been proposed to explain this unprecedented<a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a> phenomenon, the nature of influenza itself has been cited in favor of human involvement of some kind, such as an accidental leak from a lab where the old virus had been preserved for research purposes.<a href="#cite_note-Rozo-2015-176">[174]</a> Following this miniature pandemic, the reemerged H1N1 became endemic once again but did not displace the other active influenza A virus, <a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H3N2" title="Influenza A virus subtype H3N2">H3N2</a> (which itself had displaced H2N2 through a <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_flu" title="Hong Kong flu">pandemic in 1968</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Taubenberger-2009-175">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-Taubenberger-2010-173">[171]</a> For the first time, two influenza A viruses were observed in cocirculation.<a href="#cite_note-Saunders-Hastings_2016-178">[176]</a> This state of affairs has persisted even after 2009, when a <a href="/wiki/Pandemic_H1N1/09_virus" title="Pandemic H1N1/09 virus">novel H1N1 virus</a> emerged, sparked a <a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic" title="2009 swine flu pandemic">pandemic</a>, and thereafter took the place of the seasonal H1N1 to circulate alongside H3N2.<a href="#cite_note-Saunders-Hastings_2016-178">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potential_origins">Potential origins</h3></div> Despite its name, historical and <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiological</a> data cannot identify the geographic origin of the Spanish flu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubenbergerMorens2006-2">[2]</a> However, several theories have been proposed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4></div> The first confirmed cases originated in the United States. Historian <a href="/wiki/Alfred_W._Crosby" title="Alfred W. Crosby">Alfred W. Crosby</a> stated in 2003 that the flu originated in <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrosby2003-179">[177]</a> and author <a href="/wiki/John_M._Barry" title="John M. Barry">John M. Barry</a> described a January 1918 outbreak in <a href="/wiki/Haskell_County,_Kansas" title="Haskell County, Kansas">Haskell County, Kansas</a>, as the point of origin in his 2004 article.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry2004b-85">[83]</a> A 2018 study of tissue slides and medical reports led by evolutionary biology professor Michael Worobey found evidence against the disease originating from Kansas, as those cases were milder and had fewer deaths compared to the infections in New York City in the same period. The study did find evidence through <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_analyses" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenetic analyses">phylogenetic analyses</a> that the virus likely had a North American origin, though it was not conclusive. In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Hemagglutinin_(influenza)" title="Hemagglutinin (influenza)">haemagglutinin glycoproteins</a> of the virus suggest that it originated long before 1918, and other studies suggest that the reassortment of the H1N1 virus likely occurred in or around 1915.<a href="#cite_note-WorobeyStudy-180">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Europe">Europe</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edvard_Munch_-_Self-Portrait_with_the_Spanish_Flu_-_NG.M.01867_-_National_Museum_of_Art,_Architecture_and_Design.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Edvard_Munch_-_Self-Portrait_with_the_Spanish_Flu_-_NG.M.01867_-_National_Museum_of_Art%2C_Architecture_and_Design.jpg/220px-Edvard_Munch_-_Self-Portrait_with_the_Spanish_Flu_-_NG.M.01867_-_National_Museum_of_Art%2C_Architecture_and_Design.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Edvard_Munch_-_Self-Portrait_with_the_Spanish_Flu_-_NG.M.01867_-_National_Museum_of_Art%2C_Architecture_and_Design.jpg/330px-Edvard_Munch_-_Self-Portrait_with_the_Spanish_Flu_-_NG.M.01867_-_National_Museum_of_Art%2C_Architecture_and_Design.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Edvard_Munch_-_Self-Portrait_with_the_Spanish_Flu_-_NG.M.01867_-_National_Museum_of_Art%2C_Architecture_and_Design.jpg/440px-Edvard_Munch_-_Self-Portrait_with_the_Spanish_Flu_-_NG.M.01867_-_National_Museum_of_Art%2C_Architecture_and_Design.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3461" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Edvard_Munch" title="Edvard Munch">Edvard Munch</a> (1863–1944), Self-Portrait with the Spanish Flu (1919)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Egon_Schiele_-_Kauerndes_Menschenpaar_(Die_Familie)_-_4277_-_%C3%96sterreichische_Galerie_Belvedere.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Egon_Schiele_-_Kauerndes_Menschenpaar_%28Die_Familie%29_-_4277_-_%C3%96sterreichische_Galerie_Belvedere.jpg/220px-Egon_Schiele_-_Kauerndes_Menschenpaar_%28Die_Familie%29_-_4277_-_%C3%96sterreichische_Galerie_Belvedere.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Egon_Schiele_-_Kauerndes_Menschenpaar_%28Die_Familie%29_-_4277_-_%C3%96sterreichische_Galerie_Belvedere.jpg/330px-Egon_Schiele_-_Kauerndes_Menschenpaar_%28Die_Familie%29_-_4277_-_%C3%96sterreichische_Galerie_Belvedere.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Egon_Schiele_-_Kauerndes_Menschenpaar_%28Die_Familie%29_-_4277_-_%C3%96sterreichische_Galerie_Belvedere.jpg/440px-Egon_Schiele_-_Kauerndes_Menschenpaar_%28Die_Familie%29_-_4277_-_%C3%96sterreichische_Galerie_Belvedere.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3508" data-file-height="3313" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Egon_Schiele" title="Egon Schiele">Egon Schiele</a> (1890–1918), <a href="/wiki/The_Family_(Schiele)" title="The Family (Schiele)">Die Familie</a>, painted a few days before his death and just after the death of his wife Edith from the Spanish flu<a href="#cite_note-181">[179]</a></figcaption></figure> The major U.K. troop staging and hospital camp in <a href="/wiki/%C3%89taples" title="Étaples">Étaples</a> in France has been theorized by <a href="/wiki/Virologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Virologist">virologist</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Oxford" title="John Oxford">John Oxford</a> as being at the center of the Spanish flu.<a href="#cite_note-npr-182">[180]</a> His study found that in late 1916 the Étaples camp was hit by the onset of a new disease with high mortality that caused symptoms similar to the flu.<a href="#cite_note-Oxford_2001a-183">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-npr-182">[180]</a> According to Oxford, a similar outbreak occurred in March 1917 at army barracks in <a href="/wiki/Aldershot" title="Aldershot">Aldershot</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Etaples-184">[182]</a> and military pathologists later recognized these early outbreaks as the same disease as the Spanish flu.<a href="#cite_note-oxford:0-185">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-npr-182">[180]</a> The overcrowded camp and hospital at Étaples was an ideal environment for the spread of a respiratory virus. The hospital treated thousands of victims of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapons_in_World_War_I" title="Chemical weapons in World War I">poison gas</a> attacks, and other casualties of war, and 100,000 soldiers passed through the camp every day. It also was home to a <a href="/wiki/Piggery" class="mw-redirect" title="Piggery">piggery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poultry" title="Poultry">poultry</a> was regularly brought in from surrounding villages to feed the camp. Oxford and his team postulated that a precursor virus, harbored in birds, <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutated</a> and then migrated to pigs kept near the front.<a href="#cite_note-Etaples-184">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-oxford:0-185">[183]</a> A report published in 2016 in the Journal of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Medical_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Medical Association">Chinese Medical Association</a> found evidence that the 1918 virus had been circulating in the European armies for months and possibly years before the 1918 pandemic.<a href="#cite_note-JotCMA79-186">[184]</a> Political scientist <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Price-Smith" title="Andrew Price-Smith">Andrew Price-Smith</a> published data from the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_archives" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian archives">Austrian archives</a> suggesting the influenza began in Austria in early 1917.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice-Smith2008-187">[185]</a> A 2009 study in <a href="/wiki/Influenza_and_Other_Respiratory_Viruses" title="Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses">Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses</a> found that Spanish flu mortality simultaneously peaked within the two-month period of October and November 1918 in all fourteen European countries analyzed, which is inconsistent with the pattern that researchers would expect if the virus had originated somewhere in Europe and then spread outwards.<a href="#cite_note-IORV2009-125">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4></div> In 1993, Claude Hannoun, the leading expert on the Spanish flu at the <a href="/wiki/Pasteur_Institute" title="Pasteur Institute">Pasteur Institute</a>, asserted the precursor virus was likely to have come from China and then mutated in the United States near <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> and from there spread to <a href="/wiki/Brest,_France" title="Brest, France">Brest</a>, France, Europe's battlefields, the rest of Europe, and the rest of the world, with <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied</a> soldiers and sailors as the main disseminators.<a href="#cite_note-Hannoun-188">[186]</a> Hannoun considered several alternative hypotheses of origin, such as Spain, Kansas, and Brest, as being possible, but not likely.<a href="#cite_note-Hannoun-188">[186]</a> In 2014, historian Mark Humphries argued that the mobilization of 96,000 <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Labour_Corps" title="Chinese Labour Corps">Chinese laborers</a> to work behind the British and French lines might have been the source of the pandemic. Humphries, of the <a href="/wiki/Memorial_University_of_Newfoundland" title="Memorial University of Newfoundland">Memorial University of Newfoundland</a> in <a href="/wiki/St._John%27s,_Newfoundland" class="mw-redirect" title="St. John's, Newfoundland">St. John's</a>, based his conclusions on newly unearthed records. He found archival evidence that a respiratory illness that struck northern China (where the laborers came from) in November 1917 was identified a year later by Chinese health officials as identical to the Spanish flu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphries2014-189">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vergano-190">[188]</a> Unfortunately, no tissue samples have survived for modern comparison.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2018143-191">[189]</a> Nevertheless, there were some reports of respiratory illness on parts of the path the laborers took to get to Europe, which also passed through North America.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2018143-191">[189]</a> China was one of the few regions of the world seemingly less affected by the Spanish flu pandemic, where several studies have documented a comparatively mild flu season in 1918.<a href="#cite_note-Killingray-2003-192">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-Langford_2005-193">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cheng_2007-194">[192]</a> (Although this is disputed due to lack of data during the <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Period</a>, see <a href="#Around_the_globe">Around the globe</a>.) This has led to speculation that the Spanish flu pandemic originated in China,<a href="#cite_note-Cheng_2007-194">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[193]</a> as the lower rates of flu mortality may be explained by the Chinese population's previously <a href="/wiki/Acquired_immunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Acquired immunity">acquired immunity</a> to the flu virus.<a href="#cite_note-Saunders-Hastings_2016-178">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cheng_2007-194">[192]</a> In the Guangdong Province it was reported that early outbreaks of influenza in 1918 disproportionately impacted young men. The June outbreak infected children and adolescents between 11 and 20 years of age, while the October outbreak was most common in those aged 11 to 15.<a href="#cite_note-196">[194]</a> A report published in 2016 in the Journal of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Medical_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Medical Association">Chinese Medical Association</a> found no evidence that the 1918 virus was imported to Europe via Chinese and Southeast Asian soldiers and workers and instead found evidence of its circulation in Europe before the pandemic.<a href="#cite_note-JotCMA79-186">[184]</a> The 2016 study found that the low flu mortality rate (an estimated one in a thousand) recorded among the Chinese and Southeast Asian workers in Europe suggests that the Asian units were not different from other Allied military units in France at the end of 1918 and, thus, were not a likely source of a new lethal virus.<a href="#cite_note-JotCMA79-186">[184]</a> Further evidence against the disease being spread by Chinese workers was that workers entered Europe through other routes that did not result in a detectable spread, making them unlikely to have been the original hosts.<a href="#cite_note-WorobeyStudy-180">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology_and_pathology">Epidemiology and pathology</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transmission_and_mutation">Transmission and mutation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:U.S._Army_Field_Hospital_No._29,_Hollerich,_Luxembourg_Interior_view-_Influenza_ward.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/U.S._Army_Field_Hospital_No._29%2C_Hollerich%2C_Luxembourg_Interior_view-_Influenza_ward.jpg/220px-U.S._Army_Field_Hospital_No._29%2C_Hollerich%2C_Luxembourg_Interior_view-_Influenza_ward.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/U.S._Army_Field_Hospital_No._29%2C_Hollerich%2C_Luxembourg_Interior_view-_Influenza_ward.jpg/330px-U.S._Army_Field_Hospital_No._29%2C_Hollerich%2C_Luxembourg_Interior_view-_Influenza_ward.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/U.S._Army_Field_Hospital_No._29%2C_Hollerich%2C_Luxembourg_Interior_view-_Influenza_ward.jpg/440px-U.S._Army_Field_Hospital_No._29%2C_Hollerich%2C_Luxembourg_Interior_view-_Influenza_ward.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1016" data-file-height="714" /></a><figcaption>U.S. Army flu patients at Field Hospital No. 29 near Hollerich, Luxembourg 1918. As U.S. troops deployed en masse for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">war effort in Europe</a>, they carried the Spanish flu with them.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Basic_reproduction_number" title="Basic reproduction number">basic reproduction number</a> of the virus was between 2 and 3.<a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a> The close quarters and massive troop movements of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> hastened the pandemic, and probably both increased transmission and augmented mutation. The war may also have reduced people's resistance to the virus. Some speculate the soldiers' immune systems were weakened by malnourishment, as well as the stresses of combat and chemical attacks, increasing their susceptibility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQureshi201642-198">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEwald1994-199">[197]</a> A large factor in the worldwide occurrence of the flu was increased travel. Modern transportation systems made it easier for soldiers, sailors, and civilian travelers to spread the disease.<a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a> Another was lies and denial by governments, leaving the population ill-prepared to handle the outbreaks.<a href="#cite_note-Illing-201">[199]</a> The severity of the second wave has been attributed to the circumstances of the First World War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGladwell199755-202">[200]</a> In civilian life, <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> favors a mild strain. Those who get very ill stay home, and those mildly ill continue with their lives, preferentially spreading the mild strain. In the trenches, natural selection was reversed. Soldiers with a mild strain stayed where they were, while the severely ill were sent on crowded trains to crowded field hospitals, spreading the deadlier virus. The second wave began, and the flu quickly spread around the world again. Consequently, during modern pandemics, health officials look for deadlier strains of a virus when it reaches places with social upheaval.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGladwell199763-203">[201]</a> The fact that most of those who recovered from first-wave infections had become <a href="/wiki/Immunity_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunity (medical)">immune</a> showed that it must have been the same strain of flu. This was most dramatically illustrated in <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a>, which escaped with a combined mortality rate of just 0.29% (0.02% in the first wave and 0.27% in the second wave) because of exposure to the less-lethal first wave.<a href="#cite_note-204">[202]</a> For the rest of the population, the second wave was far more deadly; the most vulnerable people were those like the soldiers in the trenches – adults who were young and fit.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGladwell199756-205">[203]</a> After the lethal second wave struck in late 1918, new cases dropped abruptly. In Philadelphia, for example, 4,597 people died in the week ending 16 October, but by 11 November, influenza had almost disappeared from the city. One explanation for the rapid decline in the lethality of the disease is that doctors became more effective in the prevention and treatment of pneumonia that developed after the victims had contracted the virus. However, John Barry stated in his 2004 book <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Influenza:_The_Epic_Story_of_the_Deadliest_Plague_In_History" class="mw-redirect" title="The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Deadliest Plague In History">The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Deadliest Plague In History</a> that researchers have found no evidence to support this position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry2004b-85">[83]</a> Another theory holds that the 1918 virus mutated extremely rapidly to a less lethal strain. Such <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_influenza" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of influenza">evolution of influenza</a> is a common occurrence: there is a tendency for pathogenic viruses to become less lethal with time, as the hosts of more dangerous strains tend to die out.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry2004b-85">[83]</a> Fatal cases did continue into 1919, however. One notable example was that of <a href="/wiki/Ice_hockey" title="Ice hockey">ice hockey</a> player <a href="/wiki/Joe_Hall_(ice_hockey)" title="Joe Hall (ice hockey)">Joe Hall</a>, who, while playing for the <a href="/wiki/Montreal_Canadiens" title="Montreal Canadiens">Montreal Canadiens</a>, fell victim to the flu in April after an outbreak that resulted in the cancellation of the <a href="/wiki/1919_Stanley_Cup_Finals" title="1919 Stanley Cup Finals">1919 Stanley Cup Finals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-206">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3548786222_7a3d3208d3_bInfluenzaGrippe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/3548786222_7a3d3208d3_bInfluenzaGrippe.jpg/220px-3548786222_7a3d3208d3_bInfluenzaGrippe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/3548786222_7a3d3208d3_bInfluenzaGrippe.jpg/330px-3548786222_7a3d3208d3_bInfluenzaGrippe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/3548786222_7a3d3208d3_bInfluenzaGrippe.jpg/440px-3548786222_7a3d3208d3_bInfluenzaGrippe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2146" data-file-height="2792" /></a><figcaption>US Army symptomology of the flu</figcaption></figure> The majority of the infected experienced only the typical flu symptoms of sore throat, headache, and fever, especially during the first wave.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201845–47-207">[205]</a> However, during the second wave, the disease was much more serious, often complicated by <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_pneumonia" title="Bacterial pneumonia">bacterial pneumonia</a>, which was often the cause of death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201845–47-207">[205]</a> This more serious type would cause heliotrope cyanosis to develop, whereby the skin would first develop two mahogany spots over the cheekbones which would then over a few hours spread to color the entire face blue, followed by black coloration first in the extremities and then further spreading to the limbs and the torso.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201845–47-207">[205]</a> After this, death would follow within hours or days due to the lungs being filled with fluids.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201845–47-207">[205]</a> Other signs and symptoms reported included spontaneous mouth and nosebleeds, miscarriages for pregnant women, a peculiar smell, teeth and hair falling out, <a href="/wiki/Delirium" title="Delirium">delirium</a>, dizziness, insomnia, loss of hearing or smell, and impaired vision.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201845–47-207">[205]</a> One observer wrote, "One of the most striking of the complications was <a href="/wiki/Hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemorrhage">hemorrhage</a> from <a href="/wiki/Mucous_membrane" title="Mucous membrane">mucous membranes</a>, especially from the nose, stomach, and intestine. Bleeding from the ears and <a href="/wiki/Petechia" title="Petechia">petechial hemorrhages</a> in the skin also occurred".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnobler2005-208">[206]</a> The majority of deaths were from <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_pneumonia" title="Bacterial pneumonia">bacterial pneumonia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-MorrisCleary2017-209">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubenbergerReidJanczewskiFanning20011829–39-211">[209]</a> a common <a href="/wiki/Secondary_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary infection">secondary infection</a> associated with influenza. This pneumonia was itself caused by common upper respiratory-tract bacteria, which were able to get into the lungs via the damaged <a href="/wiki/Bronchus" title="Bronchus">bronchial tubes</a> of the victims.<a href="#cite_note-212">[210]</a> The virus also killed people directly by causing massive hemorrhages and <a href="/wiki/Edema" title="Edema">edema</a> in the lungs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubenbergerReidJanczewskiFanning20011829–39-211">[209]</a> Modern analysis has shown the virus to be particularly deadly because in animal trials it triggers an overreaction of the body's immune system (sometimes referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Cytokine_storm" title="Cytokine storm">cytokine storm</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry2004b-85">[83]</a> The strong immune reactions of young adults were postulated to have ravaged the body, whereas the weaker immune reactions of children and middle-aged adults resulted in fewer deaths among those groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry2004-213">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Misdiagnosis">Misdiagnosis</h3></div> Because the virus that caused the disease was too small to be seen under a microscope at the time, there were problems with correctly diagnosing it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201861-214">[212]</a> The bacterium <a href="/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae" title="Haemophilus influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a> was instead mistakenly thought to be the cause, as it was big enough to be seen and was present in many, though not all, patients.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201861-214">[212]</a> For this reason, a vaccine that was used against that bacillus did not make an infection rarer but did decrease the death rate.<a href="#cite_note-215">[213]</a> During the deadly second wave there were also fears that it was in fact <a href="/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">plague</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">dengue fever</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201862-216">[214]</a> Another common misdiagnosis was <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a>, which was common in circumstances of social upheaval, and was therefore also affecting Russia in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201862-216">[214]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, the view of the country's elite was that the nation was in severe decline, and therefore doctors assumed that the disease was typhus caused by poor hygiene, and not an infectious one, causing a mismanaged response which did not ban mass gatherings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201862-216">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_role_of_climate_conditions">The role of climate conditions</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CoughsAndSneezesSpreadDiseases.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/CoughsAndSneezesSpreadDiseases.jpg/220px-CoughsAndSneezesSpreadDiseases.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/CoughsAndSneezesSpreadDiseases.jpg/330px-CoughsAndSneezesSpreadDiseases.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/CoughsAndSneezesSpreadDiseases.jpg/440px-CoughsAndSneezesSpreadDiseases.jpg 2x" data-file-width="710" data-file-height="777" /></a><figcaption>Poster with the slogan: "<a href="/wiki/Coughs_and_sneezes_spread_diseases" title="Coughs and sneezes spread diseases">Coughs and sneezes spread diseases</a>" </figcaption></figure> Studies have shown that the immune system of Spanish flu victims could have been weakened by adverse climate conditions which were particularly unseasonably cold and wet for extended periods of time during the duration of the pandemic. This affected especially WWI troops exposed to incessant rains and lower-than-average temperatures for the duration of the conflict, and especially during the second wave of the pandemic. Ultra-high-resolution climate data combined with highly detailed mortality records analyzed at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> and the Climate Change Institute at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Maine" title="University of Maine">University of Maine</a> identified a severe climate anomaly that impacted Europe from 1914 to 1919, with several environmental indicators directly influencing the severity and spread of the Spanish flu pandemic.<a href="#cite_note-The_Impact_of_a_Six‐Year_Climate_An-11">[11]</a> Specifically, a significant increase in precipitation affected all of Europe during the second wave of the pandemic, from September to December 1918. Mortality figures follow closely the concurrent increase in precipitation and decrease in temperatures. Several explanations have been proposed for this, including the fact that lower temperatures and increased precipitation provided ideal conditions for virus replication and transmission, while also negatively affecting the immune systems of soldiers and other people exposed to the inclement weather, a factor proven to increase likelihood of infection by both viruses and pneumococcal co-morbid infections documented to have affected a large percentage of pandemic victims (one fifth of them, with a 36% mortality rate).<a href="#cite_note-217">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-218">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[219]</a> A six-year climate anomaly (1914–1919) brought cold, marine air to Europe, drastically changing its weather, as documented by eyewitness accounts and instrumental records, reaching as far as the <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign" title="Gallipoli campaign">Gallipoli campaign</a>, in Turkey, where <a href="/wiki/ANZAC" class="mw-redirect" title="ANZAC">ANZAC</a> troops suffered extremely cold temperatures despite the normally Mediterranean climate of the region. The climate anomaly likely influenced the migration of H1N1 avian vectors which contaminate bodies of water with their droppings, reaching 60% infection rates in autumn.<a href="#cite_note-222">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-223">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[222]</a> The climate anomaly has been associated with an anthropogenic increase in atmospheric dust, due to the incessant bombardment; increased nucleation due to dust particles (<a href="/wiki/Cloud_condensation_nuclei" title="Cloud condensation nuclei">cloud condensation nuclei</a>) contributed to increased precipitation.<a href="#cite_note-225">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-226">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Responses">Responses</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_health_management">Public health management</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:157px;max-width:157px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:255px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Coromandel_Hospital_Board.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Coromandel_Hospital_Board.jpg/155px-Coromandel_Hospital_Board.jpg" decoding="async" width="155" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Coromandel_Hospital_Board.jpg/233px-Coromandel_Hospital_Board.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Coromandel_Hospital_Board.jpg/310px-Coromandel_Hospital_Board.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="1181" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Coromandel Hospital Board (<a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_New_Zealand" title="Dominion of New Zealand">New Zealand</a>) advice to influenza sufferers (1918)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:181px;max-width:181px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:255px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:19180927_Gauze_Mask_to_Halt_Spread_of_Plague_(Spanish_flu)_-_The_Washington_Times.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/19180927_Gauze_Mask_to_Halt_Spread_of_Plague_%28Spanish_flu%29_-_The_Washington_Times.jpg/179px-19180927_Gauze_Mask_to_Halt_Spread_of_Plague_%28Spanish_flu%29_-_The_Washington_Times.jpg" decoding="async" width="179" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/19180927_Gauze_Mask_to_Halt_Spread_of_Plague_%28Spanish_flu%29_-_The_Washington_Times.jpg/269px-19180927_Gauze_Mask_to_Halt_Spread_of_Plague_%28Spanish_flu%29_-_The_Washington_Times.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/19180927_Gauze_Mask_to_Halt_Spread_of_Plague_%28Spanish_flu%29_-_The_Washington_Times.jpg/358px-19180927_Gauze_Mask_to_Halt_Spread_of_Plague_%28Spanish_flu%29_-_The_Washington_Times.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="1500" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">In September 1918, the Red Cross recommended two-layer gauze masks to halt the spread of "plague".<a href="#cite_note-WashTimes_19180927-228">[226]</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:340px;max-width:340px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:242px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:1918_Headlines_from_Chicago_newspapers_-_Spanish_flu_-_1918_influenza_pandemic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/1918_Headlines_from_Chicago_newspapers_-_Spanish_flu_-_1918_influenza_pandemic.jpg/338px-1918_Headlines_from_Chicago_newspapers_-_Spanish_flu_-_1918_influenza_pandemic.jpg" decoding="async" width="338" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/1918_Headlines_from_Chicago_newspapers_-_Spanish_flu_-_1918_influenza_pandemic.jpg/507px-1918_Headlines_from_Chicago_newspapers_-_Spanish_flu_-_1918_influenza_pandemic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/1918_Headlines_from_Chicago_newspapers_-_Spanish_flu_-_1918_influenza_pandemic.jpg/676px-1918_Headlines_from_Chicago_newspapers_-_Spanish_flu_-_1918_influenza_pandemic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1298" data-file-height="932" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">1918 Chicago newspaper headlines reflect mitigation strategies such as increased ventilation, arrests for not wearing face masks, sequenced <a href="/wiki/Inoculation" title="Inoculation">inoculations</a>, limitations on crowd size, selective closing of businesses, curfews, and lockdowns.<a href="#cite_note-USAtoday_20201122-229">[227]</a> After October's strict containment measures showed some success, Armistice Day celebrations in November and relaxed attitudes by Thanksgiving caused a resurgence.<a href="#cite_note-USAtoday_20201122-229">[227]</a></div></div></div></div></div> While systems for alerting public health authorities of infectious spread did exist in 1918, they did not generally include influenza, leading to a delayed response.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201883–84-230">[228]</a> Nevertheless, actions were taken. Maritime quarantines were declared on islands such as Iceland, Australia, and American Samoa, saving many lives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201883–84-230">[228]</a> <a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a> measures were introduced, for example closing schools, theatres, and places of worship, limiting public transportation, and banning mass gatherings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201887–88-231">[229]</a> Wearing <a href="/wiki/Surgical_mask" title="Surgical mask">face masks</a> became common in some places, such as Japan, though there were debates over their efficacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201887–88-231">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[230]</a> There was also some resistance to their use, as exemplified by the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Mask_League_of_San_Francisco" title="Anti-Mask League of San Francisco">Anti-Mask League of San Francisco</a>. Vaccines were also developed, but as these were based on bacteria and not the actual virus, they could only help with secondary infections.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201887–88-231">[229]</a> The actual enforcement of various restrictions varied.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201891-233">[231]</a> To a large extent, the New York City health commissioner ordered businesses to open and close on staggered shifts to avoid overcrowding on the subways.<a href="#cite_note-234">[232]</a> A later study found that measures such as banning mass gatherings and requiring the wearing of face masks could cut the death rate up to 50 percent, but this was dependent on their being imposed early in the outbreak and not being lifted prematurely.<a href="#cite_note-235">[233]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_treatment">Medical treatment</h3></div> As there were no <a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">antiviral drugs</a> to treat the virus, and no <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a> to treat the secondary bacterial infections, doctors would rely on a random assortment of medicines with varying degrees of effectiveness, such as <a href="/wiki/Aspirin" title="Aspirin">aspirin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quinine" title="Quinine">quinine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Digitalis" title="Digitalis">digitalis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strychnine" title="Strychnine">strychnine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_sulfate" title="Magnesium sulfate">epsom salts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Castor_oil" title="Castor oil">castor oil</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">iodine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2018109–10-236">[234]</a> Treatments of <a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">traditional medicine</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Bloodletting" title="Bloodletting">bloodletting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">ayurveda</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kampo" title="Kampo">kampo</a> were also applied.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2018111–12-237">[235]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_dissemination">Information dissemination</h3></div> Due to <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, many countries engaged in wartime censorship, and suppressed reporting of the pandemic.<a href="#cite_note-238">[236]</a> For example, the Italian newspaper <a href="/wiki/Corriere_della_Sera" title="Corriere della Sera">Corriere della Sera</a> was prohibited from reporting daily death tolls.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201892-239">[237]</a> The newspapers of the time were also generally <a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">paternalistic</a> and worried about mass panic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201892-239">[237]</a> <a href="/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation">Misinformation</a> also spread along with the disease. In Ireland there was a belief that <a href="/wiki/Miasma_theory" title="Miasma theory">noxious gases</a> were rising from the mass graves of <a href="/wiki/Flanders_Fields" title="Flanders Fields">Flanders Fields</a> and being "blown all over the world by winds".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201869-240">[238]</a> There were also rumors that the Germans were behind it, for example by poisoning the <a href="/wiki/Aspirin" title="Aspirin">aspirin</a> manufactured by <a href="/wiki/Bayer" title="Bayer">Bayer</a>, or by <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapons_in_World_War_I" title="Chemical weapons in World War I">releasing poison gas</a> from <a href="/wiki/U-boat" title="U-boat">U-boats</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201870-241">[239]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mortality">Mortality</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_flu_cases" title="List of Spanish flu cases">List of Spanish flu cases</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Around_the_globe">Around the globe</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:W_curve.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/W_curve.png/220px-W_curve.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/W_curve.png/330px-W_curve.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/W_curve.png/440px-W_curve.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>Difference between the flu mortality age-distributions of the 1918 pandemic and normal epidemics – deaths per 100,000 persons in each age group, United States, for the interpandemic years 1911–1917 (dashed line) and the pandemic year 1918 (solid line)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubenbergerMorens200619-242">[240]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1918_spanish_flu_waves.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/1918_spanish_flu_waves.gif/220px-1918_spanish_flu_waves.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/1918_spanish_flu_waves.gif/330px-1918_spanish_flu_waves.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/1918_spanish_flu_waves.gif/440px-1918_spanish_flu_waves.gif 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="308" /></a><figcaption>Three pandemic waves: weekly combined flu and pneumonia mortality, United Kingdom, 1918–1919<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubenbergerMorens200617-243">[241]</a></figcaption></figure> The Spanish flu infected around 500 million people, about one-third of the world's population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubenbergerMorens2006-2">[2]</a> Estimates as to how many infected people died vary greatly, but the flu is regardless considered to be one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_pandemics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of pandemics">deadliest pandemics</a> in history.<a href="#cite_note-244">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-245">[243]</a> An early estimate from 1927 put global mortality at 21.6 million.<a href="#cite_note-pmid30202996-4">[4]</a> An estimate from 1991 states that the virus killed between 25 and 39 million people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPattersonPyle1991-100">[98]</a> A 2005 estimate put the death toll at 50 million (about 3% of the global population), and possibly as high as 100 million (more than 5%).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnobler2005-208">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnsonMueller2002-246">[244]</a> However, a 2018 reassessment in the <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Epidemiology" title="American Journal of Epidemiology">American Journal of Epidemiology</a> estimated the total to be about 17 million,<a href="#cite_note-pmid30202996-4">[4]</a> though this has been contested.<a href="#cite_note-247">[245]</a> With a world population of 1.8 to 1.9 billion,<a href="#cite_note-248">[246]</a> these estimates correspond to between 1 and 6 percent of the population. Estimates done in 2021 by <a href="/wiki/John_M._Barry" title="John M. Barry">John M. Barry</a> have the total death toll alone at well above 100 million.<a href="#cite_note-:1-8">[8]</a> A 2009 study in <a href="/wiki/Influenza_and_Other_Respiratory_Viruses" title="Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses">Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses</a> based on data from fourteen European countries estimated a total of 2.64 million excess deaths in Europe attributable to the Spanish flu during the major 1918–1919 phase of the pandemic, in line with the three prior studies from 1991, 2002, and 2006 that calculated a European death toll of between 2 million and 2.3 million. This represents a mortality rate of about 1.1% of the European population (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 250 million in 1918), considerably higher than the mortality rate in the U.S., which the authors hypothesize is likely due to the severe effects of the war in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-IORV2009-125">[123]</a> The excess mortality rate in the U.K. has been estimated at 0.28%–0.4%, far below this European average.<a href="#cite_note-pmid30202996-4">[4]</a> Some 12–17 million people died in <a href="/wiki/1918_flu_pandemic_in_India" title="1918 flu pandemic in India">India</a>, about 5% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-249">[247]</a> The death toll in <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">India's British-ruled districts</a> was 13.88 million.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandraKuljaninWray2012-250">[248]</a> Another estimate gives at least 12 million dead.<a href="#cite_note-251">[249]</a> The decade between 1911 and 1921 was the only census period in which India's population fell, mostly due to devastation of the Spanish flu pandemic.<a href="#cite_note-252">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-253">[251]</a> While India is generally described as the country most severely affected by the Spanish flu, at least one study argues that other factors may partially account for the very high excess mortality rates observed in 1918, citing unusually high 1917 mortality and wide regional variation (ranging from 0.47% to 6.66%).<a href="#cite_note-pmid30202996-4">[4]</a> A 2006 study in <a href="/wiki/The_Lancet" title="The Lancet">The Lancet</a> also noted that Indian provinces had excess mortality rates ranging from 2.1% to 7.8%, stating: "Commentators at the time attributed this huge variation to differences in nutritional status and diurnal fluctuations in temperature."<a href="#cite_note-Lancet_2006_Murray,_Lopez,_Chin,_Feehan-254">[252]</a> In Finland, 20,000 died out of 210,000 infected.<a href="#cite_note-255">[253]</a> In Sweden, 34,000 died.<a href="#cite_note-256">[254]</a> In Japan, the flu killed nearly 500,000 people over two waves between 1918 and 1920, with nearly 300,000 excess deaths between October 1918 and May 1919 and 182,000 between December 1919 and May 1920.<a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-2013-150">[148]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>), 1.5 million were assumed to have died among 30 million inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-257">[255]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Tahiti" title="Tahiti">Tahiti</a>, 13% of the population died during one month. Similarly, in <a href="/wiki/Western_Samoa_Trust_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Samoa Trust Territory">Western Samoa</a> 22% of the population of 38,000 died within two months.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2007-258">[256]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>, capital of the Ottoman Empire, 6,403<a href="#cite_note-İSPANYOL_GRİBİNİN_DÜNYA_VE_OSMANLI_DEVLETİ_ÜZERİNDEKİ_ETKİLERİ-259">[257]</a> to 10,000<a href="#cite_note-www.sozcu.com.tr-106">[104]</a> died, giving the city a mortality rate of at least 0.56%.<a href="#cite_note-İSPANYOL_GRİBİNİN_DÜNYA_VE_OSMANLI_DEVLETİ_ÜZERİNDEKİ_ETKİLERİ-259">[257]</a> In New Zealand, the flu killed an estimated 6,400 <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81keh%C4%81" title="Pākehā">Pākehā</a> (or "New Zealanders primarily of European descent") and 2,500 indigenous <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a> in six weeks, with Māori dying at eight times the rate of Pākehā.<a href="#cite_note-260">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-261">[259]</a> In Australia, the flu killed around 12,000<a href="#cite_note-VojnosanitetskiPregled-262">[260]</a> to 20,000 people.<a href="#cite_note-vicparl-263">[261]</a> The country's death rate, 2.7 per 1,000 people, was one of the lowest recorded compared with other countries at the time; however, as much as 40 percent of the population were infected, and a mortality rate of 50 percent was recorded by some <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australian" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal Australian">Aboriginal</a> communities.<a href="#cite_note-nma-264">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-vicparl-263">[261]</a> New South Wales and Victoria saw the greatest relative mortality, with 3.19 and 2.40 deaths per 1,000 people respectively, while Western Australia, Queensland, Southern Australia, and Tasmania experienced rates of 1.70, 1.14, 1.13, and 1.09 per 1,000 respectively. In Queensland, at least one-third of deaths recorded were in the Aboriginal population.<a href="#cite_note-Shanks-129">[127]</a> In the U.S., about 20 million out of a population of 105 million became infected in the 1918–1919 season, and an estimated 500,000 to 850,000 died (0.5 to 0.8 percent of the U.S. population).<a href="#cite_note-265">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-266">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[265]</a> Native American tribes were particularly hard hit. In the <a href="/wiki/Four_Corners" title="Four Corners">Four Corners</a> area, there were 3,293 registered deaths among <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-268">[266]</a> Entire <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alaskan_Native" class="mw-redirect" title="Alaskan Native">Alaskan Native</a> village communities died in <a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Alaska" title="Territory of Alaska">Alaska</a>.<a href="#cite_note-269">[267]</a> In Canada, 50,000 died.<a href="#cite_note-270">[268]</a> In Brazil, 300,000 died, including president <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Paula_Rodrigues_Alves" title="Francisco de Paula Rodrigues Alves">Rodrigues Alves</a>.<a href="#cite_note-271">[269]</a> In the UK, as many as 250,000 died; in France, more than 400,000.<a href="#cite_note-272">[270]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(British_colony)" title="Gold Coast (British colony)">Ghana</a>, the influenza epidemic killed at least 100,000 people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHays1998-273">[271]</a> Tafari Makonnen (the future <a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Haile Selassie of Ethiopia">Haile Selassie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Ethiopia" title="Emperor of Ethiopia">Emperor of Ethiopia</a>) was one of the first Ethiopians who contracted influenza but survived.<a href="#cite_note-Marcus-274">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPankhurst199148f-275">[273]</a> Many of his subjects did not; estimates for fatalities in the capital city, <a href="/wiki/Addis_Ababa" title="Addis Ababa">Addis Ababa</a>, range from 5,000 to 10,000, or higher.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPankhurst199163-276">[274]</a> The death toll in <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russia</a> has been estimated at 450,000, though the epidemiologists who suggested this number called it a "shot in the dark".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPattersonPyle1991-100">[98]</a> If it is correct, Russia lost roughly 0.4% of its population, meaning it suffered the lowest influenza-related mortality in Europe. Another study considers this number unlikely, given that the country was in the grip of a <a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil war</a>, and the infrastructure of daily life had broken down; the study suggests that Russia's death toll was closer to 2%, or 2.7 million people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2018167–69-277">[275]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Devastated_communities">Devastated communities</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spanish_flu_death_chart.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Spanish_flu_death_chart.png/220px-Spanish_flu_death_chart.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Spanish_flu_death_chart.png/330px-Spanish_flu_death_chart.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Spanish_flu_death_chart.png/440px-Spanish_flu_death_chart.png 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="756" /></a><figcaption>Deaths from all causes for New York, London, Paris, and Berlin with peaks in October and November 1918</figcaption></figure> Even in areas where mortality was low, so many adults were incapacitated that much of everyday life was hampered. Some communities closed all stores or required customers to leave orders outside. There were reports that healthcare workers could not tend the sick nor the gravediggers bury the dead because they too were ill. Mass graves were dug by <a href="/wiki/Steam_shovel" title="Steam shovel">steam shovel</a> and bodies buried without coffins in many places.<a href="#cite_note-278">[276]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bristol_Bay" title="Bristol Bay">Bristol Bay</a>, a region of Alaska populated by <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">indigenous people</a>, suffered a death rate of 40 percent of the total population, with some villages entirely disappearing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2018134-279">[277]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nenana,_Alaska" title="Nenana, Alaska">Nenana, Alaska</a>, managed to avoid the extent of the pandemic between 1918 and 1919, but the flu at last reached the town in spring 1920. Reports suggested that during the first two weeks of May, the majority of the town's population became infected; 10% of the population were estimated to have died, most of whom were Alaska Natives.<a href="#cite_note-280">[278]</a> Several <a href="/wiki/Pacific_island" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific island">Pacific island</a> territories were hit particularly hard. The pandemic reached them from New Zealand, which was too slow to implement measures to prevent ships, such as <a href="/wiki/SS_Talune" title="SS Talune">Talune</a>, carrying the flu from leaving its ports. From New Zealand, the flu reached <a href="/wiki/Tonga" title="Tonga">Tonga</a> (killing 8% of the population), <a href="/wiki/Nauru" title="Nauru">Nauru</a> (16%), and <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Fiji" title="Colony of Fiji">Fiji</a> (5%, 9,000 people).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDenoon2004-281">[279]</a> Worst affected was Western Samoa, formerly <a href="/wiki/German_Samoa" title="German Samoa">German Samoa</a>, which had been <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_German_Samoa" title="Occupation of German Samoa">occupied by New Zealand</a> in 1914. 90% of the population was infected; 30% of adult men, 22% of adult women, and 10% of children died. By contrast, <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_American_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Governor of American Samoa">Governor</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Martin_Poyer" title="John Martin Poyer">John Martin Poyer</a> prevented the flu from reaching neighboring <a href="/wiki/American_Samoa" title="American Samoa">American Samoa</a> by imposing a blockade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDenoon2004-281">[279]</a> The disease spread fastest through the higher social classes among the indigenous peoples, because of the custom of gathering <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> from chiefs on their deathbeds; many community elders were infected through this process.<a href="#cite_note-282">[280]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Iran</a>, the mortality was very high: according to an estimate, between 902,400 and 2,431,000, or 8% to 22% of the total population died.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAfkhami2003Afkhami2012-283">[281]</a> The country was going through the <a href="/wiki/Persian_famine_of_1917%E2%80%931919" title="Persian famine of 1917–1919">Persian famine of 1917–1919</a> concurrently. In <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1801%E2%80%931923)" title="History of Ireland (1801–1923)">Ireland</a>, during the worst 12 months, the Spanish flu accounted for one-third of all deaths.<a href="#cite_note-284">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-285">[283]</a> In South Africa it is estimated that about 300,000 people amounting to 6% of the population died within six weeks. Government actions in the early stages of the virus' arrival in the country in September 1918 are believed to have unintentionally accelerated its spread throughout the country.<a href="#cite_note-286">[284]</a> Almost a quarter of the working population of <a href="/wiki/Kimberley,_Northern_Cape" title="Kimberley, Northern Cape">Kimberley</a>, consisting of workers in the diamond mines, died.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201872-287">[285]</a> In <a href="/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a>, one official estimated that 7% of the native population died.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPankhurst199151ff-288">[286]</a> This huge death toll resulted from an extremely high <a href="/wiki/Infection_rate" title="Infection rate">infection rate</a> of up to 50% and the extreme severity of the symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPattersonPyle1991-100">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_areas">Other areas</h4></div> In the Pacific, American Samoa<a href="#cite_note-usnavyreport-289">[287]</a> and the French colony of <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a><a href="#cite_note-whoreport-290">[288]</a> succeeded in preventing even a single death from influenza through effective <a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">quarantines</a>. However, the outbreak was delayed into 1926 for American Samoa and 1921 for New Caledonia as the quarantine period ended.<a href="#cite_note-Shanks-2013-291">[289]</a> On American Samoa, at least 25% of the island residents were clinically attacked and 0.1% died, and on New Caledonia, there was widespread illness and 0.1% population died.<a href="#cite_note-Shanks-2013-291">[289]</a> Australia also managed to avoid the first two waves with a quarantine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201883–84-230">[228]</a> Iceland protected a third of its population from exposure by blocking the main road of the island.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201883–84-230">[228]</a> By the end of the pandemic, the isolated island of <a href="/wiki/Maraj%C3%B3" title="Marajó">Marajó</a>, in Brazil's Amazon River Delta had not reported an outbreak.<a href="#cite_note-292">[290]</a> <a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> also reported no deaths.<a href="#cite_note-293">[291]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1919FluVictimsTokyo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/1919FluVictimsTokyo.jpg/220px-1919FluVictimsTokyo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/1919FluVictimsTokyo.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="290" data-file-height="205" /></a><figcaption>Japanese women in Tokyo during the Spanish flu pandemic, 1919</figcaption></figure> Estimates for the death toll in China have varied widely,<a href="#cite_note-ijima-294">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPattersonPyle1991-100">[98]</a> a range which reflects the lack of centralized collection of health data at the time due to the <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord period</a>. China may have experienced a relatively mild flu season in 1918 compared to other areas of the world.<a href="#cite_note-Cheng_2007-194">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-Saunders-Hastings_2016-178">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-295">[293]</a> However, some reports from its interior suggest that mortality rates from influenza were perhaps higher in at least a few locations in China in 1918.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2018167–69-277">[275]</a> At the very least, there is little evidence that China as a whole was seriously affected by the flu compared to other countries in the world.<a href="#cite_note-296">[294]</a> The first estimate of the Chinese death toll was made in 1991 by Patterson and Pyle, which estimated a toll of between 5 and 9 million. However, this 1991 study was criticized by later studies due to flawed methodology, and newer studies have published estimates of a far lower mortality rate in China.<a href="#cite_note-Killingray-2003-192">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-297">[295]</a> For instance, Iijima in 1998 estimates the death toll in China to be between 1 and 1.28 million based on data available from Chinese port cities.<a href="#cite_note-298">[296]</a> The lower estimates of the Chinese death toll are based on the low mortality rates that were found in Chinese port cities (for example, Hong Kong) and on the assumption that poor communications prevented the flu from penetrating the interior of China.<a href="#cite_note-ijima-294">[292]</a> However, some contemporary newspaper and post office reports, as well as reports from missionary doctors, suggest that the flu did penetrate the Chinese interior and that influenza was severe in at least some locations in the countryside of China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2018167–69-277">[275]</a> Although medical records from China's interior are lacking, extensive medical data were recorded in Chinese port cities, such as then <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a>-controlled Hong Kong, <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Canton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Peking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harbin" title="Harbin">Harbin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>. These data were collected by the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Maritime_Customs_Service" title="Chinese Maritime Customs Service">Chinese Maritime Customs Service</a>, which was largely staffed by non-Chinese foreigners, such as the British, French, and other European <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonial</a> officials in China.<a href="#cite_note-Killingray_2003-299">[297]</a> As a whole, data from China's port cities show low mortality rates compared to other cities in Asia.<a href="#cite_note-Killingray_2003-299">[297]</a> For example, the British authorities at Hong Kong and Canton reported a mortality rate from influenza at a rate of 0.25% and 0.32%, much lower than the reported mortality rate of other cities in Asia, such as <a href="/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Calcutta</a> or Bombay, where influenza was much more devastating.<a href="#cite_note-Killingray_2003-299">[297]</a> Similarly, in the city of <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> – which had a population of over 2 million in 1918 – there were only 266 recorded deaths from <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a> among the Chinese population in 1918.<a href="#cite_note-Killingray_2003-299">[297]</a> If extrapolated from the extensive data recorded from Chinese cities, the suggested mortality rate from influenza in China as a whole in 1918 was likely lower than 1% – much lower than the world average (which was around 3–5%).<a href="#cite_note-Killingray_2003-299">[297]</a> In contrast, Japan and Taiwan had reported a mortality rate from influenza around 0.45% and 0.69% respectively, higher than the mortality rate collected from data in Chinese port cities, such as Hong Kong (0.25%), Canton (0.32%), and Shanghai.<a href="#cite_note-Killingray_2003-299">[297]</a> However, it is noted that the influenza mortality rate in Hong Kong and Canton are under-recorded, because only the deaths that occurred in colony hospitals were counted.<a href="#cite_note-Killingray_2003-299">[297]</a> Similarly, in Shanghai, these statistics are limited to that area of the city under the control of the health section of the Shanghai International Settlement, and the actual death toll in Shanghai was much higher.<a href="#cite_note-Killingray_2003-299">[297]</a> The medical records from China's interior indicate that, compared to cities, rural communities have substantially higher mortality rate.<a href="#cite_note-300">[298]</a> A published influenza survey in Houlu County, Hebei Province, found that the case fatality rate was 9.77% and 0.79% of county population died from influenza in October and November 1918.<a href="#cite_note-301">[299]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Patterns_of_fatality">Patterns of fatality</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1918_at_Spanish_Flu_Ward_Walter_Reed_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/1918_at_Spanish_Flu_Ward_Walter_Reed_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-1918_at_Spanish_Flu_Ward_Walter_Reed_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/1918_at_Spanish_Flu_Ward_Walter_Reed_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-1918_at_Spanish_Flu_Ward_Walter_Reed_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/1918_at_Spanish_Flu_Ward_Walter_Reed_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-1918_at_Spanish_Flu_Ward_Walter_Reed_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5501" data-file-height="4401" /></a><figcaption>A nurse wears a cloth face mask while treating a flu patient in Washington, DC, c. 1919</figcaption></figure> The pandemic mostly killed young adults. In 1918–1919, 99% of pandemic influenza deaths in the U.S. occurred in people under 65, and nearly half of deaths were in young adults 20 to 40 years old. In 1920, the mortality rate among people under 65 had decreased sixfold to half the mortality rate of people over 65, but 92% of deaths still occurred in people under 65.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimonsenClarkeSchonbergerArden1998-302">[300]</a> This is unusual since influenza is typically most deadly to weak individuals, such as <a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">infants</a> under age two, adults over age 70, and the <a href="/wiki/Immunocompromise" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunocompromise">immunocompromised</a>. In 1918, older adults may have had partial protection caused by exposure to the 1889–1890 flu pandemic, known as the "Russian flu".<a href="#cite_note-hansen-303">[301]</a> According to historian John M. Barry, the most vulnerable of all – "those most likely, of the most likely", to die – were pregnant women. He reported that in thirteen studies of hospitalized women in the pandemic, the death rate ranged from 23% to 71%.<a href="#cite_note-304">[302]</a> Of the pregnant women who survived childbirth, over one-quarter (26%) lost the child.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry2004239-305">[303]</a> Another oddity was that the outbreak was widespread in the summer and autumn (in the Northern Hemisphere); influenza is usually worse in winter.<a href="#cite_note-306">[304]</a> There were also geographic patterns to the disease's fatality. Some parts of Asia had 30 times higher death rates than some parts of Europe, and generally, Africa and Asia had higher rates, while Europe and North America had lower ones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2018180–82-307">[305]</a> There was also great variation within continents, with three times higher mortality in Hungary and Spain compared to Denmark, two to three times higher chance of death in Sub-Saharan Africa compared to North Africa, and possibly up to ten times higher rates between the extremes of Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2018180–82-307">[305]</a> Cities were affected worse than rural areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2018180–82-307">[305]</a> There were also differences between cities, which might have reflected exposure to the milder first wave giving immunity, as well as the introduction of social distancing measures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2018183–84-308">[306]</a> Another major pattern was the differences between social classes. In <a href="/wiki/Oslo" title="Oslo">Oslo</a>, death rates were inversely correlated with apartment size, as the poorer people living in smaller apartments died at a higher rate.<a href="#cite_note-309">[307]</a> Social status was also reflected in the higher mortality among immigrant communities, with <a href="/wiki/Italian_Americans" title="Italian Americans">Italian Americans</a>, a recently arrived group at the time, were nearly twice as likely to die compared to the average Americans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2018180–82-307">[305]</a> These disparities reflected worse diets, crowded living conditions, and problems accessing healthcare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2018180–82-307">[305]</a> Paradoxically, however, <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> were relatively spared by the pandemic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2018180–82-307">[305]</a> More men than women were killed by the flu, as they were more likely to go out and be exposed, while women would tend to <a href="/wiki/Housewife" title="Housewife">stay at home</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2018183–84-308">[306]</a> For the same reason men also were more likely to have pre-existing <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, which severely worsened the chances of recovery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2018183–84-308">[306]</a> However, in India the opposite was true, potentially because Indian women were neglected with poorer nutrition, and were expected to care for the sick.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2018183–84-308">[306]</a> A study conducted by He et al. (2011) used a mechanistic modeling approach to study the three waves of the 1918 influenza pandemic. They examined the factors that underlie variability in temporal patterns and their correlation to patterns of mortality and morbidity. Their analysis suggests that temporal variations in transmission rate provide the best explanation, and the variation in transmission required to generate these three waves is within biologically plausible values.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeDushoffDayMa2011-310">[308]</a> Another study by He et al. (2013) used a simple <a href="/wiki/Epidemic_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemic model">epidemic model</a> incorporating three factors to infer the cause of the three waves of the 1918 influenza pandemic. These factors were school opening and closing, temperature changes throughout the outbreak, and human behavioral changes in response to the outbreak. Their modeling results showed that all three factors are important, but human behavioral responses showed the most significant effects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeDushoffDayMa2013-311">[309]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_I">World War I</h3></div> Academic Andrew Price-Smith has made the argument that the virus helped tip the balance of power in the latter days of the war towards the Allied cause. He provides data that the viral waves hit the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> before the Allied powers and that both <a href="/wiki/Morbidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Morbidity">morbidity</a> and mortality in Germany and Austria were considerably higher than in Britain and France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice-Smith2008-187">[185]</a> A 2006 Lancet study corroborates higher excess mortality rates in Germany (0.76%) and Austria (1.61%) compared to Britain (0.34%) and France (0.75%).<a href="#cite_note-Lancet_2006_Murray,_Lopez,_Chin,_Feehan-254">[252]</a> Kenneth Kahn at <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Computing_Services" title="Oxford University Computing Services">Oxford University Computing Services</a> writes that "Many researchers have suggested that the conditions of the war significantly aided the spread of the disease. And others have argued that the course of the war (and subsequent peace treaty) was influenced by the pandemic." Kahn has developed a model that can be used on home computers to test these theories.<a href="#cite_note-312">[310]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic">Economic</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SpanishFluPosterAlberta.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/SpanishFluPosterAlberta.png/170px-SpanishFluPosterAlberta.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/SpanishFluPosterAlberta.png/255px-SpanishFluPosterAlberta.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/SpanishFluPosterAlberta.png/340px-SpanishFluPosterAlberta.png 2x" data-file-width="4580" data-file-height="4959" /></a><figcaption>Provincial Board of Health poster from <a href="/wiki/Alberta,_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Alberta, Canada">Alberta, Canada</a></figcaption></figure> Many businesses in the entertainment and service industries suffered losses in revenue, while the healthcare industry reported profit gains.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarret2007-313">[311]</a> Historian Nancy Bristow has argued that the pandemic, when combined with the increasing number of women attending college, contributed to the success of women in the field of nursing. This was due in part to the failure of medical doctors, who were predominantly men, to contain and prevent the illness. Nursing staff, who were mainly women, celebrated the success of their patient care and did not associate the spread of the disease with their work.<a href="#cite_note-314">[312]</a> A 2020 study found that U.S. cities that implemented early and extensive non-medical measures (quarantine, etc.) suffered no additional adverse economic effects due to implementing those measures.<a href="#cite_note-315">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-316">[314]</a> However, the validity of this study has been questioned because of the coincidence of WWI and other problems with data reliability.<a href="#cite_note-317">[315]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long-term_effects">Long-term effects</h3></div> A 2006 study in the Journal of Political Economy found that "cohorts in utero during the pandemic displayed reduced educational attainment, increased rates of physical disability, lower income, lower socioeconomic status, and higher <a href="/wiki/Transfer_payments" class="mw-redirect" title="Transfer payments">transfer payments</a> received compared with other birth cohorts."<a href="#cite_note-318">[316]</a> A 2018 study found that the pandemic reduced educational attainment in populations.<a href="#cite_note-319">[317]</a> The flu has also been linked to the outbreak of <a href="/wiki/Encephalitis_lethargica" title="Encephalitis lethargica">encephalitis lethargica</a> in the 1920s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVilenskyFoleyGilman2007-320">[318]</a> Survivors faced an elevated mortality risk. Some survivors did not fully recover from physiological conditions resulting from infection.<a href="#cite_note-321">[319]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1918_Influenza_epidemic_burial_site.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/1918_Influenza_epidemic_burial_site.jpg/220px-1918_Influenza_epidemic_burial_site.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/1918_Influenza_epidemic_burial_site.jpg/330px-1918_Influenza_epidemic_burial_site.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/1918_Influenza_epidemic_burial_site.jpg/440px-1918_Influenza_epidemic_burial_site.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3776" data-file-height="2414" /></a><figcaption>Mass burial site of flu victims from 1918 in <a href="/wiki/Auckland" title="Auckland">Auckland</a>, New Zealand</figcaption></figure> Despite the high morbidity and mortality rates that resulted from the epidemic, the Spanish flu began to fade from public awareness over the decades until the arrival of news about <a href="/wiki/Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">bird flu</a> and other pandemics in the 1990s and 2000s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonigsbaum2008-322">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-Beiner_2021-323">[321]</a> This has led some historians to label the Spanish flu a "forgotten pandemic".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrosby2003-179">[177]</a> However, this label has been challenged by the historian <a href="/wiki/Guy_Beiner" title="Guy Beiner">Guy Beiner</a>, who has charted a complex history of social and cultural forgetting, demonstrating how the pandemic was overshadowed by the commemoration of the First World War and mostly neglected in mainstream historiography, yet was remembered in private and local traditions across the globe.<a href="#cite_note-Beiner_2021-323">[321]</a> There are various theories of why the Spanish flu was "forgotten". The rapid pace of the pandemic, which killed most of its victims in the United States within less than nine months, resulted in limited media coverage. The general population was familiar with patterns of pandemic disease in the late 19th and early 20th centuries: typhoid, <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a>, and cholera all occurred near the same time. These outbreaks probably lessened the significance of the influenza pandemic for the public.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisey1986-324">[322]</a> In some areas, the flu was not reported on, the only mention being that of advertisements for medicines claiming to cure it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenedictBraithwaite200038-325">[323]</a> Additionally, the outbreak coincided with the deaths and media focus on the First World War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrosby2003320–22-326">[324]</a> Another explanation involves the age group affected by the disease. The majority of fatalities, from both the war and the epidemic, were among young adults. The high number of war-related deaths of young adults may have overshadowed the deaths caused by flu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimonsenClarkeSchonbergerArden1998-302">[300]</a> When people read the obituaries, they saw the war or postwar deaths and the deaths from the influenza side by side. Particularly in Europe, where the war's toll was high, the flu may not have had a tremendous psychological impact or may have seemed an extension of the war's tragedies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimonsenClarkeSchonbergerArden1998-302">[300]</a> The duration of the pandemic and the war could have also played a role. The war, however, had initially been expected to end quickly but lasted for four years by the time the pandemic struck. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_literature_and_other_media">In literature and other media</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22Stuffy_Cars_Breed_Disease%22_-_Better_Ventilation.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/%22Stuffy_Cars_Breed_Disease%22_-_Better_Ventilation.png/229px-%22Stuffy_Cars_Breed_Disease%22_-_Better_Ventilation.png" decoding="async" width="229" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/%22Stuffy_Cars_Breed_Disease%22_-_Better_Ventilation.png/344px-%22Stuffy_Cars_Breed_Disease%22_-_Better_Ventilation.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/%22Stuffy_Cars_Breed_Disease%22_-_Better_Ventilation.png/458px-%22Stuffy_Cars_Breed_Disease%22_-_Better_Ventilation.png 2x" data-file-width="596" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>US comic published in 1922.</figcaption></figure> Despite the toll of the pandemic, it was never a large theme in American literature.<a href="#cite_note-:0-327">[325]</a> Alfred Crosby suspects that it may be due to the fact that it occurred after World War I, which was the most important event in that generation's lives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrosby2003315-328">[326]</a> <a href="/wiki/Katherine_Anne_Porter" title="Katherine Anne Porter">Katherine Anne Porter</a>'s 1939 novella <a href="/wiki/Pale_Horse,_Pale_Rider" class="mw-redirect" title="Pale Horse, Pale Rider">Pale Horse, Pale Rider</a> is one of the most well-known fictional accounts of the pandemic.<a href="#cite_note-:0-327">[325]</a> The 2006 novel <a href="/wiki/The_Last_Town_on_Earth" title="The Last Town on Earth">The Last Town on Earth</a> focuses on a town which attempts to limit the spread of the flu by preventing people from entering or leaving.<a href="#cite_note-329">[327]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Pull_of_the_Stars" title="The Pull of the Stars">The Pull of the Stars</a> is a 2020 novel by <a href="/wiki/Emma_Donoghue" title="Emma Donoghue">Emma Donoghue</a> set in Dublin during the Spanish flu. Its final draft was submitted in March 2020, and publishers fast-tracked publication because of the then ongoing <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-330">[328]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison_with_other_pandemics">Comparison with other pandemics</h3></div> The Spanish flu killed a much lower percentage of the world's population than the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>, which lasted for many more years.<a href="#cite_note-'Human_Extinction_Isn't_That_Unlikely,'_The_Atlantic,_Robinson_Meyer,_April_29,_2016-331">[329]</a> The recent <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> is estimated to have killed 17.5 - 31.4 million.<a href="#cite_note-332">[330]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Major modern influenza pandemics<a href="#cite_note-333">[331]</a><a href="#cite_note-334">[332]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Name </th> <th>Date </th> <th>World <abbr title="population">pop.</abbr> </th> <th>Subtype </th> <th>Reproduction number<a href="#cite_note-335">[333]</a> </th> <th>Infected (est.) </th> <th>Deaths worldwide </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Case_fatality_rate" title="Case fatality rate">Case fatality rate</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Pandemic_severity_index" title="Pandemic severity index">Pandemic severity</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spanish flu</a><a href="#cite_note-336">[334]</a> </th> <td>1918–20 </td> <td>1.80 billion </td> <td><a href="/wiki/H1N1" class="mw-redirect" title="H1N1">H1N1</a> </td> <td>1.80 (IQR, 1.47–2.27) </td> <td>33% (500 million)<a href="#cite_note-337">[335]</a> or >56% (>1 billion)<a href="#cite_note-nfp:0-338">[336]</a> </td> <td>17<a href="#cite_note-Spreeuwenberg-339">[337]</a>–100<a href="#cite_note-340">[338]</a><a href="#cite_note-341">[339]</a> million </td> <td>2–3%,<a href="#cite_note-nfp:0-338">[336]</a> or ~4%, or ~10%<a href="#cite_note-342">[340]</a> </td> <td style="background:#ff6060;">5 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/1957%E2%80%931958_influenza_pandemic" title="1957–1958 influenza pandemic">Asian flu</a> </th> <td>1957–58 </td> <td>2.90 billion </td> <td><a href="/wiki/H2N2" class="mw-redirect" title="H2N2">H2N2</a> </td> <td>1.65 (IQR, 1.53–1.70) </td> <td>>17% (>500 million)<a href="#cite_note-nfp:0-338">[336]</a> </td> <td>1–4 million<a href="#cite_note-nfp:0-338">[336]</a> </td> <td><0.2%<a href="#cite_note-nfp:0-338">[336]</a> </td> <td style="background: #ffe775">2 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_flu" title="Hong Kong flu">Hong Kong flu</a> </th> <td>1968–69 </td> <td>3.53 billion </td> <td><a href="/wiki/H3N2" class="mw-redirect" title="H3N2">H3N2</a> </td> <td>1.80 (IQR, 1.56–1.85) </td> <td>>14% (>500 million)<a href="#cite_note-nfp:0-338">[336]</a> </td> <td>1–4 million<a href="#cite_note-nfp:0-338">[336]</a> </td> <td><0.2%<a href="#cite_note-nfp:0-338">[336]</a><a href="#cite_note-343">[341]</a> </td> <td style="background: #ffe775">2 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/1977_Russian_flu" title="1977 Russian flu">1977 Russian flu</a> </th> <td>1977–79 </td> <td>4.21 billion </td> <td><a href="/wiki/H1n1" class="mw-redirect" title="H1n1">H1N1</a> </td> <td>? </td> <td>? </td> <td>0.7 million<a href="#cite_note-russia1977-344">[342]</a> </td> <td>? </td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic" title="2009 swine flu pandemic">2009 swine flu pandemic</a><a href="#cite_note-345">[343]</a><a href="#cite_note-346">[344]</a> </th> <td>2009–10 </td> <td>6.85 billion </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pandemic_H1N1/09_virus" title="Pandemic H1N1/09 virus">H1N1/09</a> </td> <td>1.46 (IQR, 1.30–1.70) </td> <td>11–21% (0.7–1.4 billion)<a href="#cite_note-347">[345]</a> </td> <td>151,700–575,400<a href="#cite_note-348">[346]</a> </td> <td>0.01%<a href="#cite_note-349">[347]</a><a href="#cite_note-350">[348]</a> </td> <td style="background: #ffffcc">1 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Flu_season" title="Flu season">Typical seasonal flu</a><a href="#cite_note-351">[t 1]</a> </th> <td>Every year </td> <td>7.75 billion </td> <td>A/H3N2, A/H1N1, <a href="/wiki/Influenzavirus_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Influenzavirus B">B</a>, ... </td> <td>1.28 (IQR, 1.19–1.37) </td> <td>5–15% (340 million – 1 billion)<a href="#cite_note-352">[349]</a> 3–11% or 5–20%<a href="#cite_note-353">[350]</a><a href="#cite_note-354">[351]</a> (240 million – 1.6 billion) </td> <td>290,000–650,000/year<a href="#cite_note-355">[352]</a> </td> <td><0.1%<a href="#cite_note-356">[353]</a> </td> <td style="background: #ffffcc">1 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="9" style="text-align:left;">Notes <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-351"><a href="#cite_ref-351">^</a> Not pandemic, but included for comparison purposes. </li> </ol></div></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_flu_research" title="Spanish flu research">Spanish flu research</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg/220px-Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg/330px-Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg/440px-Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2126" data-file-height="1312" /></a><figcaption>An electron micrograph showing recreated 1918 influenza virions</figcaption></figure> The origin of the Spanish flu pandemic, and the relationship between the near-simultaneous outbreaks in humans and swine, have been controversial. One hypothesis is that the virus strain originated at Fort Riley, Kansas, in viruses in poultry and swine which the fort bred for food; the soldiers were then sent from Fort Riley around the world, where they spread the disease.<a href="#cite_note-357">[354]</a> Similarities between a reconstruction of the virus and avian viruses, combined with the human pandemic preceding the first reports of influenza in swine, led researchers to conclude the influenza virus jumped directly from birds to humans, and swine caught the disease from humans.<a href="#cite_note-influenzareport-358">[355]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubenbergerReidLourensWang2005-359">[356]</a> Others have disagreed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAntonovicsHoodBaker2006-360">[357]</a> and more recent research has suggested the strain may have originated in a nonhuman, mammalian species.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanaWestover2008-361">[358]</a> An estimated date for its appearance in mammalian hosts has been put at the period 1882–1913.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEdos_ReisHayGoldstein2009-362">[359]</a> This ancestor virus diverged about 1913–1915 into two <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clades</a> (or biological groups each descended from a common ancestor), which gave rise to the classical swine and human H1N1 influenza lineages. The last common ancestor of human strains dates between February 1917 and April 1918. Because pigs are more readily infected with avian influenza viruses than are humans, they were suggested as the original recipients of the virus, passing the virus to humans sometime between 1913 and 1918. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Influenza_virus_research.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Influenza_virus_research.jpg/170px-Influenza_virus_research.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Influenza_virus_research.jpg/255px-Influenza_virus_research.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Influenza_virus_research.jpg/340px-Influenza_virus_research.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1966" data-file-height="2786" /></a><figcaption>Dr Terrence Tumpey examines a reconstructed version of the Spanish flu virus at the <a href="/wiki/CDC" class="mw-redirect" title="CDC">CDC</a></figcaption></figure> An effort to recreate the Spanish flu strain (a <a href="/wiki/Strain_(biology)" title="Strain (biology)">strain</a> of influenza A subtype H1N1) was a collaboration among the <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_Institute_of_Pathology" title="Armed Forces Institute of Pathology">Armed Forces Institute of Pathology</a>, the <a href="/wiki/USDA" class="mw-redirect" title="USDA">USDA</a> <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Research_Service" title="Agricultural Research Service">ARS</a> Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, and <a href="/wiki/Mount_Sinai_School_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Mount Sinai School of Medicine">Mount Sinai School of Medicine</a> in New York City. The effort resulted in the announcement (on 5 October 2005) that the group had successfully determined the virus' <a href="/wiki/Genetic_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic sequence">genetic sequence</a>, using historic tissue samples recovered by pathologist <a href="/wiki/Johan_Hultin" title="Johan Hultin">Johan Hultin</a> from an Inuit female flu victim buried in the Alaskan <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a> and samples preserved from American soldiers<a href="#cite_note-363">[360]</a> Roscoe Vaughan and James Downs.<a href="#cite_note-364">[361]</a><a href="#cite_note-365">[362]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubenbergerReidLourensWang2005-359">[356]</a> This enabled researchers at the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC) and the <a href="/wiki/Mount_Sinai_School_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Mount Sinai School of Medicine">Mount Sinai School of Medicine</a>, led by Dr Terrence Tumpey, to synthesize RNA segments from the H1N1 virus and ultimately reconstruct infective virus particles.<a href="#cite_note-:02-366">[363]</a> These were subsequently used to experimentally infect mice, ferrets, and macaques giving valuable insights into influenza virus biology and pathogenesis, providing important information about how to prevent and control future pandemics.<a href="#cite_note-367">[364]</a> On 18 January 2007, Kobasa et al. (2007) reported that monkeys (<a href="/wiki/Macaca_fascicularis" class="mw-redirect" title="Macaca fascicularis">Macaca fascicularis</a>) infected with the recreated flu strain exhibited classic symptoms of the 1918 pandemic, and died from an overreaction of the immune system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKobasaet_al.2007-368">[365]</a> This may explain why the Spanish flu had its surprising effect on younger, healthier people, as a person with a stronger immune system would potentially have a stronger overreaction.<a href="#cite_note-369">[366]</a> In December 2008, research by <a href="/wiki/Yoshihiro_Kawaoka" title="Yoshihiro Kawaoka">Yoshihiro Kawaoka</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Wisconsin">University of Wisconsin</a> linked the presence of three specific genes (termed PA, PB1, and PB2) and a <a href="/wiki/Nucleoprotein" title="Nucleoprotein">nucleoprotein</a> derived from Spanish flu samples to the ability of the 1918 flu virus to invade the lungs and cause pneumonia. These genes were inserted into a modern H1N1 strain and triggered similar symptoms in animal testing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFox2008-370">[367]</a> In 2008 an investigation used the virus sequence to obtain the <a href="/wiki/Hemagglutinin_(influenza)" title="Hemagglutinin (influenza)">Hemagglutinin (HA)</a> antigen and observe the adaptive immunity in 32 survivors of the 1918 flu pandemic, all of them presented seroreactivity and 7 of 8 further tested presented <a href="/wiki/Memory_B_cell" title="Memory B cell">memory B cells</a> able to produce antibodies that bound to the HA antigen highlighting the ability of the <a href="/wiki/Immunological_memory" title="Immunological memory">immunological memory</a> many decades after.<a href="#cite_note-371">[368]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaubenbergerReidLourensWang2005-359">[356]</a> In June 2010, a team at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine reported the <a href="/wiki/2009_flu_pandemic_vaccine" class="mw-redirect" title="2009 flu pandemic vaccine">2009 flu pandemic vaccine</a> provided some cross-protection against the Spanish flu pandemic strain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFox2010-372">[369]</a> One of the few things known for certain about influenza in 1918 and for some years after was that it was, except in the laboratory, exclusively a disease of human beings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrosby1976295-373">[370]</a> In 2013, the AIR Worldwide Research and Modeling Group "characterized the historic 1918 pandemic and estimated the effects of a similar pandemic occurring today using the AIR Pandemic Flu Model". In the model, "a modern-day 'Spanish flu' event would result in additional life insurance losses of between US$15.3–27.8 billion in the United States alone", with 188,000–337,000 deaths in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadhav2013-374">[371]</a> In 2018, Michael Worobey, an evolutionary biology professor at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Arizona" title="University of Arizona">University of Arizona</a> who is examining the history of the 1918 pandemic, revealed that he obtained tissue slides created by William Rolland, a physician who reported on a respiratory illness likely to be the virus while a pathologist in the British military during World War One.<a href="#cite_note-375">[372]</a> Rolland had authored an article in the <a href="/wiki/Lancet_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lancet (journal)">Lancet</a> during 1917 about a respiratory illness outbreak beginning in 1916 in Étaples, France.<a href="#cite_note-376">[373]</a><a href="#cite_note-377">[374]</a> Worobey traced recent references to that article to family members who had retained slides that Rolland had prepared during that time. Worobey extracted tissue from the slides to potentially reveal more about the origin of the pathogen.<a href="#cite_note-Cox-29">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sex_differences_in_mortality">Sex differences in mortality</h2></div> The high <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">mortality rate</a> of the influenza pandemic is one aspect that sets the pandemic apart from other disease outbreaks. Another factor is the higher mortality rate of men compared with women. Men with an underlying condition were at significantly more risk. <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a> was one of the deadliest diseases in the 1900s, and killed more men than women. But with the spread of influenza disease, the cases of tuberculosis cases in men decreased. Many scholars have noted that tuberculosis increased the mortality rate of influenza in males, decreasing their life expectancy. During the 1900s tuberculosis was more common in males than females, but studies show that when influenza spread the tuberculosis mortality rate among females changed. The death rate of tuberculosis in females increased significantly and would continue to decline until post-pandemic.<a href="#cite_note-378">[375]</a> Death rates were particularly high in those aged 20–35. The only comparable disease to this was the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a>, in the 1300s. As other studies have shown, tuberculosis and influenza had <a href="/wiki/Comorbidity" title="Comorbidity">comorbidities</a> and one affected the other. The ages of males dying of the flu show that tuberculosis was a factor, and as males primarily had this disease at the time of the pandemic, they had a higher mortality rate. Life expectancy dropped in males during the pandemic but then increased two years after the pandemic.<a href="#cite_note-379">[376]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Island_of_Newfoundland">Island of Newfoundland</h3></div> One major cause of the spread of influenza was social behavior. Men had more social variation and were mobile more than women due to their work. Even though there was a higher mortality rate in males, each region showed different results, due to such factors as <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">nutritional deficiency</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland</a>, the pandemic spread was highly variable. Influenza did not discriminate who was infected, indeed it attacked the <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">socioeconomic</a> status of people. Although social variability allowed the disease to move quickly geographically, it tended to spread faster and affect men more than women due to labor and social contact. Newfoundland's leading cause of death before the pandemic was tuberculosis and this is known to be a severe underlying condition for people and increases the |mortality rate when infected by the influenza disease. There was diverse labor in Newfoundland, men and women had various occupations that involved day-to-day interaction. But, fishing had a major role in the economy and so males were more mobile than females and had more contact with other parts of the world. The spread of the pandemic is known to have begun in the spring of 1918, but Newfoundland did not see the deadly wave until June or July, which aligns with the high demand for employment in the fishery. The majority of men were working along the coast during the summer and it was typical for entire families to move to Newfoundland and work. Studies show a much higher mortality rate in males compared with females. But, during the first, second, and third waves of the pandemic, the mortality shifted. During the first wave, men had a higher mortality rate, but the mortality rate of females increased and was higher during the second and third waves. The female population was larger in certain regions of Newfoundland and therefore had a bigger impact on the death rate.<a href="#cite_note-380">[377]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Influenza_pandemic_among_Canadian_soldiers">Influenza pandemic among Canadian soldiers</h4></div> Records indicate the most deaths during the first wave of the pandemic were among young men in their 20s, which reflects the age of enlistment in the war. The mobility of young men during 1918 was linked to the spread of influenza and the biggest wave of the epidemic. In late 1917 and throughout 1918, thousands of male troops gathered at the Halifax port before heading to Europe. Any soldier that was ill and could not depart was added to the population of <a href="/wiki/Halifax,_Nova_Scotia" title="Halifax, Nova Scotia">Halifax</a>, which increased the case rate of influenza among men during the <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a>. To determine the cause of the death during the pandemic, war scientists used the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_War_Graves_Commission" title="Commonwealth War Graves Commission">Commonwealth War Graves Commission</a> (CWGC), which reported under 2 million men and women died during the wars, with a record of those who died from 1917 to 1918. The movement of soldiers during this time and the transportation from United States between Canada likely had a significant effect on the spread of the pandemic.<a href="#cite_note-381">[378]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/18px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/24px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Sida-aids.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sida-aids.png/28px-Sida-aids.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sida-aids.png/42px-Sida-aids.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sida-aids.png/56px-Sida-aids.png 2x" data-file-width="290" data-file-height="290" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Viruses" title="Portal:Viruses">Viruses portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1918_flu_pandemic_in_India" title="1918 flu pandemic in India">1918 flu pandemic in India</a> – Known in India as "Bombay Fever"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic" title="2009 swine flu pandemic">2009 swine flu pandemic</a> – 2009–2010 pandemic of swine influenza caused by H1N1 influenza virus</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mask_League_of_San_Francisco" title="Anti-Mask League of San Francisco">Anti-Mask League of San Francisco</a> – 1919 San Francisco organization</li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> – Pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a> – Widespread, often global, epidemic of severe infectious disease</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of epidemics">List of epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_flu_cases" title="List of Spanish flu cases">List of Spanish flu cases</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> The Israelites asked: "Ma'n Hu?" {?מן הוא} – in English: 'what is it?'<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Then paying in <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>,The Song of Forgetting (La canción del olvido)—because the tune was as catchy as the flu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavis2013103–36-63">[62]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-NIH-NYC-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NIH-NYC_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH-NYC_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH-NYC_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved 19 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&rft.atitle=The+Discovery+and+Reconstruction+of+the+1918+Pandemic+Virus&rft.date=2019-12-17&rft.au=CDC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fflu%2Fpandemic-resources%2Freconstruction-1918-virus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpreeuwenberg2018" class="citation journal cs1">Spreeuwenberg (7 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ourworldindata.org/spanish-flu-largest-influenza-pandemic-in-history">"Reassessing the Global Mortality Burden of the 1918 Influenza Pandemic"</a>. 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Retrieved 17 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Our+World+in+Data&rft.atitle=Reassessing+the+Global+Mortality+Burden+of+the+1918+Influenza+Pandemic&rft.volume=187&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2561-%3C%2Fspan%3E2567&rft.date=2018-09-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7314216%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30202996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Faje%2Fkwy191&rft.au=Spreeuwenberg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fourworldindata.org%2Fspanish-flu-largest-influenza-pandemic-in-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_M._Barry" title="John M. 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Medical Microbiology and Immunology. 198 (3): 175–183. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00430-009-0118-5">10.1007/s00430-009-0118-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19543913">19543913</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20496301">20496301</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+Microbiology+and+Immunology&rft.atitle=Novel+swine-origin+influenza+A+virus+in+humans%3A+another+pandemic+knocking+at+the+door&rft.volume=198&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E175-%3C%2Fspan%3E183&rft.date=2009-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A20496301%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19543913&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00430-009-0118-5&rft.aulast=Michaelis&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Doerr%2C+HW&rft.au=Cinatl%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs00430-009-0118-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMermel2009" class="citation journal cs1">Mermel LA (June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(09)61145-4/abstract">"Swine-origin influenza virus in young age groups"</a>. Lancet. 373 (9681): 2108–2109. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2809%2961145-4">10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61145-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19541030">19541030</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27656702">27656702</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210727045637/https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(09)61145-4/fulltext">Archived</a> from the original on 27 July 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lancet&rft.atitle=Swine-origin+influenza+virus+in+young+age+groups&rft.volume=373&rft.issue=9681&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2108-%3C%2Fspan%3E2109&rft.date=2009-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27656702%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19541030&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2809%2961145-4&rft.aulast=Mermel&rft.aufirst=LA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelancet.com%2Fjournals%2Flancet%2Farticle%2FPIIS0140-6736%2809%2961145-4%2Fabstract&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDavis2013">Davis 2013</a>, p. 7: "In short, although the Spanish flu 'had nothing "Spanish" about it,' from a strictly epidemiological perspective, its discursive link to the Iberian nation is beyond dispute. The importance of narrative for a historically informed appreciation of the epidemic stems from the importance of this discursive link and is tied directly to the scientific uncertainty about the etiological agent of the epidemic;" </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hebrewversity.com/word-mannamean-hebrew/">"Biblical Hebrew Words and Meaning"</a>. hebrewversity. 14 March 2018. Retrieved 11 August 2021. <q>in the original Hebrew the people of Israel asked: "Ma'n Hu?" {?מן הוא} – English for 'what is it?' and that is the origin of the name 'manna'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=hebrewversity&rft.atitle=Biblical+Hebrew+Words+and+Meaning&rft.date=2018-03-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hebrewversity.com%2Fword-mannamean-hebrew%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpinney2018">Spinney 2018</a>, p. 65: "In Freetown, a newspaper suggested that the disease be called manhu until more was known about it. Manhu, a Hebrew word meaning 'what is it?' </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCole1994" class="citation cs2">Cole F (1994), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/openview/961aaf74c07749e4424eb56c91718d8c/">Sierra Leone and World War 1</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_London" title="University of London">University of London</a>, School of Oriental and African Studies, p. 213, 10731720, retrieved 11 August 2021 – via ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, <q>local interpretations of the crisis had become deeply reminiscent of the increasing disobedience of the Israelites in the wilderness of Sin. It was therefore urged that the epidemic be called 'Man hu,' (an obvious corruption of "manna") meaning 'what is it?'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sierra+Leone+and+World+War+1&rft.pages=213&rft.pub=University+of+London%2C+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Cole&rft.aufirst=F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fopenview%2F961aaf74c07749e4424eb56c91718d8c%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Sierra Leone Weekly News, vol. XXXV, 9 July 1918, p. 6</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sierra+Leone+Weekly+News&rft.pages=6&rft.date=1918-07-09&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> quoted in Mueller JW (1998), p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammondRollandShore1917" class="citation journal cs1">Hammond JA, Rolland W, Shore TH (14 July 1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(01)56229-7">"Purulent Bronchitis"</a>. 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Vojnosanitetski Pregled. 69 (9): 812–817. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23050410">23050410</a>. <q>the Purple Death … name resulted from the specific skin colour in the most severe cases of the diseased, who by the rule also succumbed to the disease, and is also at the same time the only one which does not link this disease with the Iberian peninsula. This name is actually the most correct.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vojnosanitetski+Pregled&rft.atitle=The+Spanish+flu--Part+I%3A+the+first+wave&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E812-%3C%2Fspan%3E817&rft.date=2012-09&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23050410&rft.aulast=Radusin&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F23050410&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCord1966" class="citation journal cs1">McCord CP (November 1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5334191">"The Purple Death. Some things remembered about the influenza epidemic of 1918 at one army camp"</a>. Journal of Occupational Medicine. 8 (11). Industrial Medical Association: 593–598. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5334191">5334191</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Occupational+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+Purple+Death.+Some+things+remembered+about+the+influenza+epidemic+of+1918+at+one+army+camp&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E593-%3C%2Fspan%3E598&rft.date=1966-11&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5334191&rft.aulast=McCord&rft.aufirst=CP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F5334191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGetz2017" class="citation book cs1">Getz D (19 September 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1006711971">Purple death : the mysterious Spanish flu of 1918</a>. Square Fish. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-250-13909-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-250-13909-2"><bdi>978-1-250-13909-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1006711971">1006711971</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Purple+death+%3A+the+mysterious+Spanish+flu+of+1918&rft.pub=Square+Fish&rft.date=2017-09-19&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1006711971&rft.isbn=978-1-250-13909-2&rft.aulast=Getz&rft.aufirst=D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1006711971&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_28-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOxfordGill2019" class="citation journal cs1">Oxford JS, Gill D (2 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6773402">"A possible European origin of the Spanish influenza and the first attempts to reduce mortality to combat superinfecting bacteria: an opinion from a virologist and a military historian"</a>. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics. 15 (9): 2009–2012. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F21645515.2019.1607711">10.1080/21645515.2019.1607711</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6773402">6773402</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31121112">31121112</a>. <q>Two papers were published in The Lancet in 1917 describing an outbreak of disease constituting 'almost a small epidemic'. The first paper was written by physicians at a hospital center in northern France,3 and the second by a team at an army hospital in Aldershot, in southern England. In both earlier instances and in the 1918 pandemic the disease was characterized by a 'dusky' cyanosis, a rapid progression from quite minor symptoms to death</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Vaccines+%26+Immunotherapeutics&rft.atitle=A+possible+European+origin+of+the+Spanish+influenza+and+the+first+attempts+to+reduce+mortality+to+combat+superinfecting+bacteria%3A+an+opinion+from+a+virologist+and+a+military+historian&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2009-%3C%2Fspan%3E2012&rft.date=2019-09-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6773402%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31121112&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F21645515.2019.1607711&rft.aulast=Oxford&rft.aufirst=JS&rft.au=Gill%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6773402&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cox-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cox_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cox_29-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoxGillCoxWorobey2019" class="citation journal cs1">Cox J, Gill D, Cox F, Worobey M (April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs1473-3099%2819%2930114-8">"Purulent bronchitis in 1917 and pandemic influenza in 1918"</a>. The Lancet. Infectious Diseases. 19 (4): 360–361. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs1473-3099%2819%2930114-8">10.1016/s1473-3099(19)30114-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30938298">30938298</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:91189842">91189842</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet.+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Purulent+bronchitis+in+1917+and+pandemic+influenza+in+1918&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E360-%3C%2Fspan%3E361&rft.date=2019-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A91189842%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30938298&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs1473-3099%2819%2930114-8&rft.aulast=Cox&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Gill%2C+D&rft.au=Cox%2C+F&rft.au=Worobey%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fs1473-3099%252819%252930114-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHonigsbaum2018" class="citation journal cs1">Honigsbaum M (June 2018). "Spanish influenza redux: revisiting the mother of all pandemics". Lancet. 391 (10139): 2492–2495. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2818%2931360-6">10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31360-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29976462">29976462</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:49709093">49709093</a>. <q>Labelled 'purulent bronchitis' for want of a better term, the disease proved fatal in half the cases and many soldiers also developed cyanosis. 2 years later, British respiratory experts, also writing in The Lancet, but this time in the wake of the pandemic, would decide the disease had been 'fundamentally the same condition' as 'Spanish' influenza</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lancet&rft.atitle=Spanish+influenza+redux%3A+revisiting+the+mother+of+all+pandemics&rft.volume=391&rft.issue=10139&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2492-%3C%2Fspan%3E2495&rft.date=2018-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A49709093%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29976462&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2818%2931360-6&rft.aulast=Honigsbaum&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDennis_ShanksMackenzieWallerBrundage2012" class="citation journal cs1">Dennis Shanks G, Mackenzie A, Waller M, Brundage JF (July 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5779808">"Relationship between "purulent bronchitis" in military populations in Europe prior to 1918 and the 1918-1919 influenza pandemic"</a>. Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses. 6 (4): 235–239. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1750-2659.2011.00309.x">10.1111/j.1750-2659.2011.00309.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5779808">5779808</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22118532">22118532</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Influenza+and+Other+Respiratory+Viruses&rft.atitle=Relationship+between+%22purulent+bronchitis%22+in+military+populations+in+Europe+prior+to+1918+and+the+1918-1919+influenza+pandemic&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E235-%3C%2Fspan%3E239&rft.date=2012-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5779808%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22118532&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1750-2659.2011.00309.x&rft.aulast=Dennis+Shanks&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Mackenzie%2C+A&rft.au=Waller%2C+M&rft.au=Brundage%2C+JF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5779808&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Storey-32"><a href="#cite_ref-Storey_32-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStoreyC2020" class="citation news cs1">Storey, C (21 September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.arkansasonline.com/news/2020/sep/21/flu-outbreaks-didnt-start-in-1918/">"OLD NEWS: Influenza was an old foe long before 1918"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Arkansas_Democrat-Gazette" title="Arkansas Democrat-Gazette">Arkansas Democrat-Gazette</a>. Opinion. Retrieved 7 August 2021. <q>I came across this seemingly astute analysis in the Dec. 21, 1913, Gazette.... It was a 'Special Cable to the Gazette Through the International News Service.' Grip Is a Disease Without a Country; All Nations Repudiate Malady: Each Blaming Other Kingdoms, London, Dec. 20. — The grip is a disease without a country, according to a new book just issued which is devoted to the malady. Every country tries to make it out a native of another land.... Eighteenth-century Italian writers say Dr. Hopkirk spoke of "una influenza di freddo" (influence of cold), and English physicians, mistaking the word influenza for the name of the disease itself, used it. The same term is also used in Germany, where a host of dialect names still prevail, such as lightning catarrh and fog plague.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arkansas+Democrat-Gazette&rft.atitle=OLD+NEWS%3A+Influenza+was+an+old+foe+long+before+1918&rft.date=2020-09-21&rft.au=Storey&rft.au=C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.arkansasonline.com%2Fnews%2F2020%2Fsep%2F21%2Fflu-outbreaks-didnt-start-in-1918%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grippe-33"><a href="#cite_ref-Grippe_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdnc.ucr.edu/?a=d&d=LAH18990114.2.131&e=-------en--20--1--txt-txIN--------1">"Grippe is not new"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Herald" title="Los Angeles Herald">Los Angeles Herald</a>. 14 January 1899. p. 6 col. 6. Retrieved 7 August 2021 – via California Digital Newspaper Collection. <q>French doctors gave it the name of "la grippe," which is now anglicized into "the grip" ... It is known all over the world, and there is a disposition in every nation to shift the odium of it upon some other country. Then the Russians call it the Chinese catarrh, the Germans often call it the Russian pest, the Italians name it the German disease, and the French call it sometimes the Italian fever and sometimes the Spanish catarrh.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Herald&rft.atitle=Grippe+is+not+new&rft.pages=p.+6+col.+6&rft.date=1899-01-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdnc.ucr.edu%2F%3Fa%3Dd%26d%3DLAH18990114.2.131%26e%3D-------en--20--1--txt-txIN--------1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDavis2013">Davis 2013</a>, p. 27: "On May 21, 1918, El Liberal published a scant article titled 'Can One Live? The Fashionable Illness.' Likely the first account in Spain of the Spanish flu, it begins: 'For several days, Madrid has been affected by an epidemic, which fortunately is mild; but which, from what it appears, intends to kill doctors from overwork'.... The following day, El Sol and ABC published their first stories about the epidemic: 'What is the Cause? An Epidemic in Madrid' and 'Benign Epidemic. The Sickbay in Madrid,' respectively." </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlfeirán2015" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Alfeirán X (7 December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lavozdegalicia.es/noticia/coruna/coruna/2015/12/07/fiebre-tres-dias/0003_201512H7C6991.htm">"La fiebre de los tres días"</a> [The three-day fever]. La Voz de Galicia (in Spanish). <a href="/wiki/A_Coru%C3%B1a" title="A Coruña">A Coruña</a>. Retrieved 29 July 2021. <q>Las primeras noticias aparecieron en la prensa de Madrid el 21 de mayo de 1918.</q> [The first news appeared in the press of Madrid on 21 May 1918.]</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=La+Voz+de+Galicia&rft.atitle=La+fiebre+de+los+tres+d%C3%ADas&rft.date=2015-12-07&rft.aulast=Alfeir%C3%A1n&rft.aufirst=X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lavozdegalicia.es%2Fnoticia%2Fcoruna%2Fcoruna%2F2015%2F12%2F07%2Ffiebre-tres-dias%2F0003_201512H7C6991.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcClure2009" class="citation news cs1">McClure J (1 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ydr.com/story/news/history/blogs/york-town-square/2009/05/01/currentflu/31647929/">"Spanish flu of 1918 no three-day fever. Try 365-day worldwide plague"</a>. <a href="/wiki/York_Daily_Record" title="York Daily Record">York Daily Record</a>. Retrieved 29 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=York+Daily+Record&rft.atitle=Spanish+flu+of+1918+no+three-day+fever.+Try+365-day+worldwide+plague&rft.date=2009-05-01&rft.aulast=McClure&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ydr.com%2Fstory%2Fnews%2Fhistory%2Fblogs%2Fyork-town-square%2F2009%2F05%2F01%2Fcurrentflu%2F31647929%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalleja2021" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Calleja S (29 July 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.diariodeleon.es/articulo/provincia/la-fiebre-de-los-tres-dias/201810211246001802480.html">"La fiebre de los tres días"</a> [The three-day fever]. Diario de León (in Spanish). <a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3n,_Spain" title="León, Spain">León, Spain</a>. Retrieved 21 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diario+de+Le%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=La+fiebre+de+los+tres+d%C3%ADas&rft.date=2021-07-29&rft.aulast=Calleja&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.diariodeleon.es%2Farticulo%2Fprovincia%2Fla-fiebre-de-los-tres-dias%2F201810211246001802480.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vacunasaep.org/profesionales/noticias/gripe-espanola-1918-parte2">"Impacto de la gripe de 1918 en España"</a>. Comité Asesor de Vacunas de la Asociación Española de Pediatría [Vaccine Advisory Committee of the Spanish Association of Pediatrics] (in Spanish). Retrieved 29 July 2021. <q>En España, se le llamó al principio 'la fiebre de los tres días', atendiendo a la creencia, como en otros países, de que la gripe era una enfermedad leve. Las primeras noticias sobre la gripe, llamando la atención sobre que algo distinto estaba ocurriendo, aparecieron en la prensa a finales de mayo. Por ej. en el diario ABC el 22 de mayo mediante una escueta nota en la página 24: 'Los médicos han comprobado, en Madrid, la existencia de una epidemia de índole gripal, muy propagada, pero, por fortuna, de carácter leve'.</q> [In Spain, it was initially called 'the three-day fever', based on the belief, as in other countries, that the flu was a mild illness. The first reports about the flu, drawing attention to the fact that something different was happening, appeared in the press at the end of May. For example, in the newspaper ABC on 22 May, through a brief note on page 24: "The doctors have verified, in Madrid, the existence of an epidemic of a influenza nature, very widespread, but, fortunately, of a mild nature.']</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Comit%C3%A9+Asesor+de+Vacunas+de+la+Asociaci%C3%B3n+Espa%C3%B1ola+de+Pediatr%C3%ADa&rft.atitle=Impacto+de+la+gripe+de+1918+en+Espa%C3%B1a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvacunasaep.org%2Fprofesionales%2Fnoticias%2Fgripe-espanola-1918-parte2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKillingrayPhillips2003" class="citation book cs1">Killingray D, Phillips H (2 September 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k79_8QX8n44C">The Spanish Influenza Pandemic of 1918-1919: New Perspectives</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-56640-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-56640-2"><bdi>978-1-134-56640-2</bdi></a>. <q>In the popular mind calamities often need to have their origin and cause identified and other countries or peoples credited with blame. This xenophobic response has been common in Europe, that impulse to blame others or the silent places of the Asian heartlands for the source of disease.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spanish+Influenza+Pandemic+of+1918-1919%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003-09-02&rft.isbn=978-1-134-56640-2&rft.aulast=Killingray&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Phillips%2C+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk79_8QX8n44C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoppe-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoppe_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoppe_40-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoppe2018" class="citation journal cs1">Hoppe T (November 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6187801">""Spanish Flu": When Infectious Disease Names Blur Origins and Stigmatize Those Infected"</a>. American Journal of Public Health. 108 (11): 1462–1464. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2105%2FAJPH.2018.304645">10.2105/AJPH.2018.304645</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6187801">6187801</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30252513">30252513</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Public+Health&rft.atitle=%22Spanish+Flu%22%3A+When+Infectious+Disease+Names+Blur+Origins+and+Stigmatize+Those+Infected&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1462-%3C%2Fspan%3E1464&rft.date=2018-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6187801%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30252513&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2105%2FAJPH.2018.304645&rft.aulast=Hoppe&rft.aufirst=T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6187801&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Müller-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Müller_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Müller_41-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Müller_41-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBax2020" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bax D (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.freitag.de/autoren/der-freitag/welt-im-fieber">"Pandemie – Welt im Fieber"</a> [Pandemic - World in Fever]. Der Freitag (in German) (13). Retrieved 31 July 2021. <q>In Großbritannien wurde die Krankheit dagegen als 'Flandrische Grippe' bezeichnet, weil sich viele —en in den Schützengräben von Flandern ansteckten.</q> [In Britain, on the other hand, the disease was called the 'Flanders flu' because many soldiers became infected in the trenches of Flanders.]</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Freitag&rft.atitle=Pandemie+%E2%80%93+Welt+im+Fieber&rft.issue=13&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Bax&rft.aufirst=D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.freitag.de%2Fautoren%2Fder-freitag%2Fwelt-im-fieber&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynolds1866" class="citation book cs1">Reynolds JR (1866). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XOBDAQAAMAAJ&q=the+Germans+,+the+Russian+pest&pg=PA31">A System of Medicine</a>. Vol. 1. Macmillan. pp. 30–31. <q>One is, that every epidemic owns one unknown source, whence it spreads; each nation, in turn, attributing to its neighbour from whom it derived the disease, the unenviable honour of originating it. Thus the Italians have termed it the German disease; the Germans, the Russian pest; the Russians, the Chinese Catarrh;</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+System+of+Medicine&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E30-%3C%2Fspan%3E31&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1866&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=JR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXOBDAQAAMAAJ%26q%3Dthe%2BGermans%2B%2C%2Bthe%2BRussian%2Bpest%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrisonClaiborne1890" class="citation journal cs1">Harrison MA, Claiborne JH Jr, eds. (January 1890). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=87tXAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Like+every+other+disease+about+whose+pathology+we+know+very+little,%22&pg=PA217">"Editorials: La Grippe"</a>. Gaillard's Medical Journal. 50: 217. <q>The outbreak immediately preceding the present one was in 1879, and has been well described by Da Costa. Like every other disease about whose pathology we know very little, this malady has not a scientifically correct name, but at different times and in different countries has received names which are almost purely local; thus the Russians have called it the Chinese catarrh, because it has often invaded Russia from China. The Germans call it the Russian pest, while the Italians in turn call it the German disease.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gaillard%27s+Medical+Journal&rft.atitle=Editorials%3A+La+Grippe&rft.volume=50&rft.pages=217&rft.date=1890-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D87tXAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522Like%2Bevery%2Bother%2Bdisease%2Babout%2Bwhose%2Bpathology%2Bwe%2Bknow%2Bvery%2Blittle%2C%2522%26pg%3DPA217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davis-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davis_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davis_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davis_44-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2018" class="citation book cs1">Davis KC (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1034984776">More deadly than war : the hidden history of the Spanish flu and the First World War</a> (First ed.). New York: Henry Holt and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-250-14512-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-250-14512-3"><bdi>978-1-250-14512-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1034984776">1034984776</a>. <q>The Russians called it the Chinese flu. In Japan, it was wrestler's fever. In South Africa, it was known as either the white man's sickness or kaffersiekte blacks' disease. Soldiers fighting in the Great War called it the three-day fever—a highly inaccurate description—and when it first struck in the spring of 1918, German soldiers called it Flanders fever, after one of the war's most notorious and deadly battlefields</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=More+deadly+than+war+%3A+the+hidden+history+of+the+Spanish+flu+and+the+First+World+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Company&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1034984776&rft.isbn=978-1-250-14512-3&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=KC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1034984776&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorras-GalloDavis201451-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorras-GalloDavis201451_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPorras-GalloDavis2014">Porras-Gallo & Davis 2014</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalvin2007-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalvin2007_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGalvin2007">Galvin 2007</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/archive/article/1918-06-03/5/10.html">"The Spanish Epidemic"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a>. London. 2 June 1918. Retrieved 29 July 2021. <q>The unknown disease which appeared in Madrid a fortnight ago spread with remarkable rapidity.... It is reported that there are well over 100,000 victims in Madrid alone.... Although the disease is clearly of a gripal character...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=The+Spanish+Epidemic&rft.date=1918-06-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetimes.co.uk%2Ftto%2Farchive%2Farticle%2F1918-06-03%2F5%2F10.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/archive/article/1918-06-25/9/16.html">"The Spanish Influenza; A Sufferer's Symptoms"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a>. London. 25 June 1918. Retrieved 29 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=The+Spanish+Influenza%3B+A+Sufferer%27s+Symptoms.&rft.date=1918-06-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetimes.co.uk%2Ftto%2Farchive%2Farticle%2F1918-06-25%2F9%2F16.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/archive/article/1918-06-28/8/4.html">"Public Notice; 'Spanish Influenza' Epidemic"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a>. London. 28 June 1918. Retrieved 11 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Public+Notice%3B+%27Spanish+Influenza%27+Epidemic&rft.date=1918-06-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetimes.co.uk%2Ftto%2Farchive%2Farticle%2F1918-06-28%2F8%2F4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold2018" class="citation web cs1">Arnold C (13 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.laphamsquarterly.org/roundtable/eat-more-onions">"Eat More Onions!"</a>. Lapham's Quarterly. Retrieved 12 August 2021. <q>daily newspapers carried an increasing number of advertisements for influenza-related remedies as drug companies played on the anxieties of readers and reaped the benefits. From the Times of London to the Washington Post, page after page was filled with dozens of advertisements for preventive measures and over-the-counter remedies. 'Influenza!' proclaimed an advert extolling the virtues of Formamint lozenges.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lapham%27s+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Eat+More+Onions%21&rft.date=2018-09-13&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.laphamsquarterly.org%2Froundtable%2Feat-more-onions&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniels2018" class="citation web cs1">Daniels R (29 April 2018) [1998 Mill Hill Essays]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyofnimr.org.uk:80/mill-hill-essays/essays-yearly-volumes/1998-2/in-search-of-an-enigma-the-spanish-lady/">"In Search of an Enigma: The "Spanish Lady""</a>. NIMR History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180429101734/http://www.historyofnimr.org.uk/mill-hill-essays/essays-yearly-volumes/1998-2/in-search-of-an-enigma-the-spanish-lady/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 April 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2021 – via web.archive.org. <q>In turn, when Russia reported on the situation in Moscow, Pravda printed "Ispanka (The Spanish Lady) is in town" and the name has stuck.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NIMR+History&rft.atitle=In+Search+of+an+Enigma%3A+The+%22Spanish+Lady%22&rft.date=2018-04-29&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=R&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyofnimr.org.uk%3A80%2Fmill-hill-essays%2Fessays-yearly-volumes%2F1998-2%2Fin-search-of-an-enigma-the-spanish-lady%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spain-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Spain_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spain_52-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrillaTrillaDaer2008" class="citation journal cs1">Trilla A, Trilla G, Daer C (September 2008). "The 1918 "Spanish flu" in Spain". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 47 (5): 668–673. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F590567">10.1086/590567</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18652556">18652556</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=The+1918+%22Spanish+flu%22+in+Spain&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E668-%3C%2Fspan%3E673&rft.date=2008-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F590567&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18652556&rft.aulast=Trilla&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Trilla%2C+G&rft.au=Daer%2C+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100127100727/http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/world/spanish%20flu%20facts/111285">"Spanish flu facts"</a>. Channel 4 News. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/world/spanish%20flu%20facts/111285">the original</a> on 27 January 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Channel+4+News&rft.atitle=Spanish+flu+facts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.channel4.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2Fworld%2Fspanish%2520flu%2520facts%2F111285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2006" class="citation web cs1">Anderson S (29 August 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-08/acop-aos082806.php">"Analysis of Spanish flu cases in 1918–1920 suggests transfusions might help in bird flu pandemic"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_College_of_Physicians" title="American College of Physicians">American College of Physicians</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111125222223/http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-08/acop-aos082806.php">Archived</a> from the original on 25 November 2011. Retrieved 2 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Analysis+of+Spanish+flu+cases+in+1918%E2%80%931920+suggests+transfusions+might+help+in+bird+flu+pandemic&rft.pub=American+College+of+Physicians&rft.date=2006-08-29&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurekalert.org%2Fpub_releases%2F2006-08%2Facop-aos082806.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry2004171-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarry2004171_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarry2004">Barry 2004</a>, p. 171. </li> <li id="cite_note-Economist-56"><a href="#cite_ref-Economist_56-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpinney2018b" class="citation news cs1">Spinney L (29 September 2018b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2018/09/29/the-centenary-of-the-20th-centurys-worst-catastrophe">"The centenary of the 20th century's worst catastrophe"</a>. The Economist. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613">0013-0613</a>. Retrieved 3 August 2021. <q>On June 29th 1918 Martín Salazar, Spain's inspector-general of health, stood up in front of the Royal Academy of Medicine in Madrid. He declared, not without embarrassment, that the disease which was ravaging his country was to be found nowhere else in Europe. In fact, that was not true. The illness in question, influenza, had been sowing misery in France and Britain for weeks, and in America for longer, but Salazar did not know this because the governments of those countries, a group then at war with Germany and its allies, had made strenuous efforts to suppress such potentially morale-damaging news.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=The+centenary+of+the+20th+century%27s+worst+catastrophe&rft.date=2018-09-29&rft.issn=0013-0613&rft.aulast=Spinney&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fscience-and-technology%2F2018%2F09%2F29%2Fthe-centenary-of-the-20th-centurys-worst-catastrophe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iohMAQAAMAAJ&q=%22we+were+surprised+to+learn+that+the+disease+was+making+ravages+in+other+countries+,+and+that+people+there+were+calling+it+the+%22+Spanish+grip+.+%E2%80%9D+And+wherefore+Spanish+&pg=PA1594">"Madrid Letter"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Medical_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of the American Medical Association">Journal of the American Medical Association</a>. 71 (19): 1594. 9 November 1918.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Medical+Association&rft.atitle=Madrid+Letter&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=19&rft.pages=1594&rft.date=1918-11-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiohMAQAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522we%2Bwere%2Bsurprised%2Bto%2Blearn%2Bthat%2Bthe%2Bdisease%2Bwas%2Bmaking%2Bravages%2Bin%2Bother%2Bcountries%2B%2C%2Band%2Bthat%2Bpeople%2Bthere%2Bwere%2Bcalling%2Bit%2Bthe%2B%2522%2BSpanish%2Bgrip%2B.%2B%25E2%2580%259D%2BAnd%2Bwherefore%2BSpanish%2B%26pg%3DPA1594&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-VojnosanitetskiPregled2-58"><a href="#cite_ref-VojnosanitetskiPregled2_58-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadusin2012" class="citation journal cs1">Radusin M (September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23050410">"The Spanish flu--Part I: the first wave"</a>. Vojnosanitetski Pregled. 69 (9): 812–817. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23050410">23050410</a>. <q>'The Serbian Newspaper' wrote in the period October 23 / November 5, 1918 at the peak of the second, deadliest wave of the pandemic: 'Various countries have been assigning the origin of this imposing guest to each other for quite some time, and at one point in time they agreed to assign its origin to the kind and neutral Spain, which had been fighting off this honour just as much as German submarines, so imposing in their search for hospitality off Spanish shores.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vojnosanitetski+Pregled&rft.atitle=The+Spanish+flu--Part+I%3A+the+first+wave&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E812-%3C%2Fspan%3E817&rft.date=2012-09&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23050410&rft.aulast=Radusin&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F23050410&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-fiction-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fiction_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fiction_59-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fiction_59-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVázquez-EspinosaLaganàVázquez2020" class="citation journal cs1">Vázquez-Espinosa E, Laganà C, Vázquez F (October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7528412">"The Spanish flu and the fiction literature"</a>. Revista Espanola de Quimioterapia. 33 (5): 296–312. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.37201%2Freq%2F049.2020">10.37201/req/049.2020</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7528412">7528412</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32633114">32633114</a>. <q>French journalists had, initially, called it the 'American flu'; but the fact that the American soldiers were his allies in the warlike conflict advised not to assign such a link to them.... Another most popular name in Madrid, was the 'Soldado de Nápoles' (Naples soldier), a popular song in the zarzuela (popular musical genre or 'género chico' in Spain) called La canción del olvido (The forgotten song) due both, were 'highly contagious'. Today, there are many authors who avoid such a name (the Spanish flu) and they aptly refer to it as the '1918- 1819[sic] influenza pandemic'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+Espanola+de+Quimioterapia&rft.atitle=The+Spanish+flu+and+the+fiction+literature&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E296-%3C%2Fspan%3E312&rft.date=2020-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7528412%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32633114&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.37201%2Freq%2F049.2020&rft.aulast=V%C3%A1zquez-Espinosa&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Lagan%C3%A0%2C+C&rft.au=V%C3%A1zquez%2C+F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7528412&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-fes-60"><a href="#cite_ref-fes_60-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüller2020" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Müller S (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fes.de/themenportal-geschichte-kultur-medien-netz/geschichte/spanische-grippe">"Spanische Grippe"</a> [The Spanish Flu]. www.fes.de (in German). <a href="/wiki/Bonn" title="Bonn">Bonn</a>: Friedrich Ebert Foundation. Retrieved 31 July 2021. <q>In Europa wurde die Spanischer Grippe auch als 'Blitzkatarrh', als 'Flandern-Fieber', 'flandische Grippe', bei Engländern und Amerikanern als 'three-day'- oder 'knock-me-down'-Fieber, und in Frankreich als 'la grippe', als 'bronchite purulente' (eitrige Bronchitis) oder beim französische Militärärzte als 'Krankheit 11' (maladie onze) bezeichnet. Die Benennung von Krankheiten und insbesondere Seuchen nach ihrem vermuteten Ursprungsort ist nichts Ungewöhnliches. Es ist der Versuch, einem Geschehen auf die Spur zu kommen. Zugleich werden auf diese Weise Krankheiten als etwas Äußerliches gekennzeichnet, als etwas Fremdes, das eingedrungen ist oder eingeschleppt wurde.</q> [In Europe, the Spanish flu was also referred to as 'Blitzkatarrh', as 'Flanders fever', 'Flanders flu', in English and Americans as 'three-day' or 'knock-me-down' fever, and in France as 'la flu', as 'bronchite purulente' (purulent bronchitis) or by French military doctors as 'disease 11' (maladie onze). The naming of diseases and especially epidemics according to their presumed place of origin is nothing unusual. It is an attempt to track down what is happening. At the same time, in this way, diseases are marked as something external, as something foreign that has invaded or been introduced.]</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.fes.de&rft.atitle=Spanische+Grippe&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCller&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fes.de%2Fthemenportal-geschichte-kultur-medien-netz%2Fgeschichte%2Fspanische-grippe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IRCC-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IRCC_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IRCC_61-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCotter2020" class="citation web cs1">Cotter C (23 April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2020/04/23/spanish-flu-covid-19-1918-pandemic-first-world-war/">"From the 'Spanish Flu' to COVID-19: lessons from the 1918 pandemic and First World War"</a>. Humanitarian Law & Policy. <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a>. Retrieved 7 August 2021. <q>Many other nicknames were given to the pandemic, many based on nationality or race: 'Spanish Lady', 'French Flu', 'Naples Soldier', 'Purple Death', 'War Plague', 'Flanders Grippe', 'Kirghiz Disease', 'Black Man's Disease', 'Hun Flu', 'German Plague', 'Bolshevik Disease' or even the 'Turco-Germanic bacterium criminal entreprise'. These discriminatory epithets reflect the many rumors and theories that quickly spread about the origins of the pathology.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=From+the+%27Spanish+Flu%27+to+COVID-19%3A+lessons+from+the+1918+pandemic+and+First+World+War&rft.series=Humanitarian+Law+%26+Policy&rft.pub=International+Committee+of+the+Red+Cross&rft.date=2020-04-23&rft.aulast=Cotter&rft.aufirst=C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.icrc.org%2Flaw-and-policy%2F2020%2F04%2F23%2Fspanish-flu-covid-19-1918-pandemic-first-world-war%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney201858-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpinney201858_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpinney201858_62-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpinney2018">Spinney 2018</a>, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavis2013103–36-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavis2013103–36_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDavis2013">Davis 2013</a>, pp. 103–36. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandgrebe2018" class="citation web cs1">Landgrebe P (29 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historycampus.org/2018/spanish-flu-100-years-—-name-of-the-death/">"100 Years After: The Name of Death"</a>. History Campus. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200816202544/https://historycampus.org/2018/spanish-flu-100-years-after-name-of-the-death/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 August 2020. Retrieved 16 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=100+Years+After%3A+The+Name+of+Death&rft.pub=History+Campus&rft.date=2018-12-29&rft.aulast=Landgrebe&rft.aufirst=P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistorycampus.org%2F2018%2Fspanish-flu-100-years-%E2%80%94-name-of-the-death%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rodríguez_2019-66"><a href="#cite_ref-Rodríguez_2019_66-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodríguezPalomba2019" class="citation news cs1">Rodríguez LP, Palomba AL (5 March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://english.elpais.com/elpais/2019/02/19/inenglish/1550570720_431591.html">"How is the adjective 'Spanish' used in other languages?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/El_Pa%C3%ADs" title="El País">El País</a> (English ed.). <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>. Retrieved 1 August 2021. <q>The use of 'Spanish' can often have negative connotations, with the adjective often unfairly used to describe unwelcome events and problems. The most obvious example is the so-called 'Spanish flu,' a reference to the 1918 influenza pandemic...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=El+Pa%C3%ADs&rft.atitle=How+is+the+adjective+%27Spanish%27+used+in+other+languages%3F&rft.date=2019-03-05&rft.aulast=Rodr%C3%ADguez&rft.aufirst=LP&rft.au=Palomba%2C+AL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fenglish.elpais.com%2Felpais%2F2019%2F02%2F19%2Finenglish%2F1550570720_431591.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CBC_2020-67"><a href="#cite_ref-CBC_2020_67-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Reilly2020" class="citation news cs1">O'Reilly T (13 May 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/radio/undertheinfluence/how-the-spanish-flu-wasn-t-spanish-at-all-1.5607552">"How the Spanish Flu wasn't Spanish at all"</a>. <a href="/wiki/CBC_Radio" title="CBC Radio">CBC Radio</a>. Under the Influence. Retrieved 1 August 2021. <q>Medical professionals and officials in Spain protested. They said the Spanish people were being falsely stigmatized.... If you've ever wondered about the staying power of a brand, the 'Spanish Flu' is a case in point. A full 100 years later, the 'Spanish Flu' is still referenced — and still remains a source of irritation in Spain.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CBC+Radio&rft.atitle=How+the+Spanish+Flu+wasn%27t+Spanish+at+all&rft.date=2020-05-13&rft.aulast=O%27Reilly&rft.aufirst=T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fradio%2Fundertheinfluence%2Fhow-the-spanish-flu-wasn-t-spanish-at-all-1.5607552&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDionneTurkmen2020-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDionneTurkmen2020_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDionneTurkmen2020">Dionne & Turkmen 2020</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-v885-69"><a href="#cite_ref-v885_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRistićMarinković2022" class="citation journal cs1">Ristić D, Marinković D (14 November 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9662131">"Biopolitics of othering during the COVID-19 pandemic"</a>. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 9 (1). Palgrave: 409. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41599-022-01435-7">10.1057/s41599-022-01435-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2662-9992">2662-9992</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9662131">9662131</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36406151">36406151</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Humanities+and+Social+Sciences+Communications&rft.atitle=Biopolitics+of+othering+during+the+COVID-19+pandemic&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=409&rft.date=2022-11-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9662131%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2662-9992&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36406151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2Fs41599-022-01435-7&rft.aulast=Risti%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Du%C5%A1an&rft.au=Marinkovi%C4%87%2C+Du%C5%A1an&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9662131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Takon-70"><a href="#cite_ref-Takon_70-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTakon2020" class="citation web cs1">Takon L (7 April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lighthouse.mq.edu.au/article/march/Fighting-words-how-war-metaphors-can-trigger-racism">"Fighting words: how war metaphors can trigger racism"</a>. The Lighthouse. <a href="/wiki/Macquarie_University" title="Macquarie University">Macquarie University</a>. Retrieved 8 August 2021. <q>the names given to this disease in different parts of the world reflected prevailing concerns about certain ethnic groups and ideologies. The disease was called the 'Singapore fever' in Penang and the Bolshevik disease in Poland.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Lighthouse&rft.atitle=Fighting+words%3A+how+war+metaphors+can+trigger+racism&rft.date=2020-04-07&rft.aulast=Takon&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flighthouse.mq.edu.au%2Farticle%2Fmarch%2FFighting-words-how-war-metaphors-can-trigger-racism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips1990" class="citation book cs1">Phillips H (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DktxAAAAMAAJ&q=In+one+area+where+Blacks+were+the+first+victims+,+the+accusatory+term+,+%E2%80%9C+Kaffersiekte+%E2%80%9D+was+coined">Black October: The Impact of the Spanish Influenza Epidemic of 1918 on South Africa</a>. Government Printer, South Africa. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7970-1580-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7970-1580-7"><bdi>978-0-7970-1580-7</bdi></a>. <q>In one area where Blacks were the first victims, the accusatory term 'Kaffersiekte' was coined; in another district, where the position was reversed, Blacks returned the compliment with, White man's sickness'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+October%3A+The+Impact+of+the+Spanish+Influenza+Epidemic+of+1918+on+South+Africa&rft.pub=Government+Printer%2C+South+Africa&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-7970-1580-7&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDktxAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DIn%2Bone%2Barea%2Bwhere%2BBlacks%2Bwere%2Bthe%2Bfirst%2Bvictims%2B%2C%2Bthe%2Baccusatory%2Bterm%2B%2C%2B%25E2%2580%259C%2BKaffersiekte%2B%25E2%2580%259D%2Bwas%2Bcoined&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mainichi.jp/articles/20200515/ddm/001/070/126000c"><bdi lang="ja">余録：「春のさきぶれ」といえば何か聞こえが良いが…</bdi></a> [Speaking of "spring sekibu", something sounds good...]. <bdi lang="ja">=毎日新聞</bdi> [Mainichi Shimbun morning newspaper] (in Japanese). 15 May 2020. Retrieved 8 August 2021. <bdi lang="ja">翌月の東京の夏場所は高熱などによる全休力士が相次いだ。世間はこれを「相撲風邪」「力士風邪」と呼んだが、実はこの謎の感染症こそが同年初めから米国で流行の始まった「スペイン風邪」とみられている。</bdi> [The following month, a number of sumo wrestlers were absent from the summer tournament in Tokyo due to high fevers. People called it the "sumo flu" or "wrestler flu," but in fact, this mysterious infection is believed to be the Spanish flu, which began spreading in the United States early that year.]</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%E4%BD%99%E9%8C%B2%EF%BC%9A%E3%80%8C%E6%98%A5%E3%81%AE%E3%81%95%E3%81%8D%E3%81%B6%E3%82%8C%E3%80%8D%E3%81%A8%E3%81%84%E3%81%88%E3%81%B0%E4%BD%95%E3%81%8B%E8%81%9E%E3%81%93%E3%81%88%E3%81%8C%E8%89%AF%E3%81%84%E3%81%8C%E2%80%A6&rft.date=2020-05-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmainichi.jp%2Farticles%2F20200515%2Fddm%2F001%2F070%2F126000c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://japantoday.com/category/features/kuchikomi/how-the-spanish-flu-of-1918-20-ravaged-japan">"How the Spanish flu of 1918-20 ravaged Japan"</a>. Japan Today. 6 May 2020. Retrieved 8 August 2021. <q>The first patients in Japan, reported Shukan Gendai (May 2–9), began showing symptoms around April 1918. Initially the disease was referred to as the "Sumo Kaze" (sumo cold) because a contingent of sumo wrestlers contracted it while on a tour of Taiwan. Three well known grapplers, Masagoishi, Choshunada and Wakagiyama, died before they could return from Taiwan. As the contagion spread, the summer sumo tournament, which would have been held on the grounds of Yasukuni shrine, was cancelled.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Japan+Today&rft.atitle=How+the+Spanish+flu+of+1918-20+ravaged+Japan&rft.date=2020-05-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjapantoday.com%2Fcategory%2Ffeatures%2Fkuchikomi%2Fhow-the-spanish-flu-of-1918-20-ravaged-japan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDionneTurkmen2020213–230-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDionneTurkmen2020213–230_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDionneTurkmen2020">Dionne & Turkmen 2020</a>, pp. 213–230. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/news/item/08-05-2015-who-issues-best-practices-for-naming-new-human-infectious-diseases">"WHO issues best practices for naming new human infectious diseases"</a>. www.who.int. 8 May 2015. Retrieved 4 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.who.int&rft.atitle=WHO+issues+best+practices+for+naming+new+human+infectious+diseases&rft.date=2015-05-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fnews%2Fitem%2F08-05-2015-who-issues-best-practices-for-naming-new-human-infectious-diseases&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200320220124/https://www.who.int/influenza/pandemic-influenza-an-evolving-challenge/en/">"Pandemic influenza: an evolving challenge"</a>. World Health Organization. 22 May 2018. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/influenza/pandemic-influenza-an-evolving-challenge/en/">the original</a> on 20 March 2020. Retrieved 20 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Health+Organization&rft.atitle=Pandemic+influenza%3A+an+evolving+challenge&rft.date=2018-05-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Finfluenza%2Fpandemic-influenza-an-evolving-challenge%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/influenza-pandemic-of-1918-1919">"Influenza pandemic of 1918–19"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia Britannica">Encyclopaedia Britannica</a>. 4 March 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200320220920/https://www.britannica.com/event/influenza-pandemic-of-1918-1919">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2020. Retrieved 20 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Influenza+pandemic+of+1918%E2%80%9319&rft.date=2020-03-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2Finfluenza-pandemic-of-1918-1919&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChodosh2020" class="citation news cs1">Chodosh S (18 March 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.popsci.com/story/health/coronavirus-1918-flu-pandemic/">"What the 1918 flu pandemic can teach us about COVID-19, in four charts"</a>. PopSci. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201224025632/https://www.popsci.com/story/health/coronavirus-1918-flu-pandemic/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 December 2020. Retrieved 20 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PopSci&rft.atitle=What+the+1918+flu+pandemic+can+teach+us+about+COVID-19%2C+in+four+charts&rft.date=2020-03-18&rft.aulast=Chodosh&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.popsci.com%2Fstory%2Fhealth%2Fcoronavirus-1918-flu-pandemic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Muller-1998-79"><a href="#cite_ref-Muller-1998_79-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMueller1998" class="citation conference cs1">Mueller JW (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/23653135">What's in a name. Spanish Influenza in sub-Saharan Africa and what local names say about the perception of this pandemic</a>. Spanish 'Flu 1918–1998: Reflections on the Influenza Pandemic of 1918 after 80 Years. Cape Town, South Africa. Retrieved 13 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=What%27s+in+a+name.+Spanish+Influenza+in+sub-Saharan+Africa+and+what+local+names+say+about+the+perception+of+this+pandemic&rft.place=Cape+Town%2C+South+Africa&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Mueller&rft.aufirst=JW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F23653135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2014" class="citation web cs1">Phillips H (8 October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/influenza_pandemic_africa">"Influenza Pandemic (Africa)"</a>. encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net. International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1). Retrieved 13 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net&rft.atitle=Influenza+Pandemic+%28Africa%29&rft.date=2014-10-08&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Finfluenza_pandemic_africa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreat_Britain_Ministry_of_Health1920" class="citation book cs1">Great Britain Ministry of Health (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FjxQAQAAMAAJ&q=the+affliction+was+called+%E2%80%9Cthe+disease+of+the+wind%22">Report on the Pandemic of Influenza, 1918–19</a>. H.M. Stationery Office. <q>There was a high west wind at the time and this was thought to be the carrying agent so that the affliction was called 'the disease of the wind.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Report+on+the+Pandemic+of+Influenza%2C+1918%E2%80%9319&rft.pub=H.M.+Stationery+Office&rft.date=1920&rft.au=Great+Britain+Ministry+of+Health&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFjxQAQAAMAAJ%26q%3Dthe%2Baffliction%2Bwas%2Bcalled%2B%25E2%2580%259Cthe%2Bdisease%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bwind%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAfkhami2019" class="citation book cs1">Afkhami AA (5 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SiiGDwAAQBAJ&q=In+Tehran,+the+disease+was+called+the+%E2%80%9Cillness+of+the+wind%E2%80%9D+(nakhushi-yi+bad)&pg=PA157">A Modern Contagion: Imperialism and Public Health in Iran's Age of Cholera</a>. JHU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-2722-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-2722-5"><bdi>978-1-4214-2722-5</bdi></a>. <q>In Tehran, the disease was called the "illness of the wind" (nakhushi-yi bad) due to its initial occurrence during a strong westerly wind burst and its rapid spread.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Modern+Contagion%3A+Imperialism+and+Public+Health+in+Iran%27s+Age+of+Cholera&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=2019-02-05&rft.isbn=978-1-4214-2722-5&rft.aulast=Afkhami&rft.aufirst=AA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSiiGDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DIn%2BTehran%2C%2Bthe%2Bdisease%2Bwas%2Bcalled%2Bthe%2B%25E2%2580%259Cillness%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bwind%25E2%2580%259D%2B%28nakhushi-yi%2Bbad%29%26pg%3DPA157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5HA6AQAAMAAJ&q=%22great+influenza+epidemic%22&pg=PA609">Archives of Internal Medicine</a>. Vol. 24. <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>: <a href="/wiki/American_Medical_Association" title="American Medical Association">American Medical Association</a>. 1919. <q>As this included the period of the great influenza epidemic when Type IV infections were usually prevalent, it will be seen that the proportion of fixed types among carriers and among cases is not far from the same.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archives+of+Internal+Medicine&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=American+Medical+Association&rft.date=1919&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5HA6AQAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522great%2Binfluenza%2Bepidemic%2522%26pg%3DPA609&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_Surgeon-General's_Office1920" class="citation book cs1">United States Surgeon-General's Office (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rg9AAAAAYAAJ&q=%22great+influenza+epidemic%22&pg=PA2154">Report of the Surgeon-General of the Army to the Secretary of War for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1919</a>. War Department Annual Reports. Vol. I. U.S. Government Printing Office. <q>On September 13, 1918, the first cases of the great influenza epidemic were admitted, and during the next 10 weeks over 4,100 patients were admitted.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Report+of+the+Surgeon-General+of+the+Army+to+the+Secretary+of+War+for+the+Fiscal+Year+Ending+June+30%2C+1919&rft.series=War+Department+Annual+Reports&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1920&rft.au=United+States+Surgeon-General%27s+Office&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Drg9AAAAAYAAJ%26q%3D%2522great%2Binfluenza%2Bepidemic%2522%26pg%3DPA2154&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry2004b-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarry2004b_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarry2004b_85-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarry2004b_85-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarry2004b_85-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarry2004b_85-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarry2004b_85-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarry2004b">Barry 2004b</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpinney2018">Spinney 2018</a>, p. 64: "In … Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) … officials labelled the new affliction 'influenza (vera)', adding the Latin word vera, meaning 'true' … German doctors … called it 'pseudo-influenza'" </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCross2020" class="citation news cs1">Cross A (29 March 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://globalnews.ca/news/6735528/alan-cross-art-pandemic-coronavirus/">"A look at art and music created in times of pandemic"</a>. Global News (Canada). Retrieved 9 August 2021. <q>Another rhyme with deadly origins appeared during a worldwide influenza pandemic in 1889-1890. Certain the disease could be stopped by sealing up the home from the poisoned air outside, this safety tip emerged in schools: There was a little girl, and she had a little bird; And she called it by the pretty name of Enza; But one day it flew away, but it didn't go to stay; For when she raised the window, in-flu-Enza</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+News+%28Canada%29&rft.atitle=A+look+at+art+and+music+created+in+times+of+pandemic&rft.date=2020-03-29&rft.aulast=Cross&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobalnews.ca%2Fnews%2F6735528%2Falan-cross-art-pandemic-coronavirus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUniversity_Libraries" class="citation web cs1">University Libraries. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://content.lib.washington.edu/exhibits/WWI/influenza.html">"WWI Exhibit: Influenza Pandemic"</a>. content.lib.washington.edu. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington" title="University of Washington">University of Washington</a>. Retrieved 9 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=content.lib.washington.edu&rft.atitle=WWI+Exhibit%3A+Influenza+Pandemic&rft.au=University+Libraries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcontent.lib.washington.edu%2Fexhibits%2FWWI%2Finfluenza.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHakim2002" class="citation book cs1">Hakim J (September 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TYq1SeWvS9oC&q=I+had+a+little+bird,+And+its+name+was+Enza.+I+opened+up+the+window,+And+in+flew+Enza.&pg=PA21">War, Peace, and All that Jazz</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515335-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515335-4"><bdi>978-0-19-515335-4</bdi></a>. <q>In flew Enza—say it fast and it becomes 'influenza.' It was a catchy little rhyme, and boys and girls skipped rope to it.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War%2C+Peace%2C+and+All+that+Jazz&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002-09&rft.isbn=978-0-19-515335-4&rft.aulast=Hakim&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTYq1SeWvS9oC%26q%3DI%2Bhad%2Ba%2Blittle%2Bbird%2C%2BAnd%2Bits%2Bname%2Bwas%2BEnza.%2BI%2Bopened%2Bup%2Bthe%2Bwindow%2C%2BAnd%2Bin%2Bflew%2BEnza.%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHonigsbaum2016" class="citation book cs1">Honigsbaum M (18 October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=74RJDQAAQBAJ&q=Enza">Living with Enza: The Forgotten Story of Britain and the Great Flu Pandemic of 1918</a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-23921-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-23921-0"><bdi>978-0-230-23921-0</bdi></a>. <q>A popular playground skipping rhyme caught the ease with which this 'new disease' was transmitted: I had a little bird; Its name was Enza; I opened the window; And in-flu-enza. As influenza spread from Glasgow to Aberdeen, and from Liverpool to London's Mile End, it was not long before playgrounds throughout the country echoed to the chant.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+with+Enza%3A+The+Forgotten+Story+of+Britain+and+the+Great+Flu+Pandemic+of+1918&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016-10-18&rft.isbn=978-0-230-23921-0&rft.aulast=Honigsbaum&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D74RJDQAAQBAJ%26q%3DEnza&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarch1932" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peyton_C._March" title="Peyton C. 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The White House Never Said a Word About It"</a>. Time. 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This was almost as many deaths as occurred among the Irish fighting in the First World War.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Times&rft.atitle=Coronavirus%3A+forgotten+lessons+of+the+Spanish+flu+pandemic&rft.aulast=FitzGerald&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fbusiness%2Feconomy%2Fcoronavirus-forgotten-lessons-of-the-spanish-flu-pandemic-1.4234270&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-1916/1916irl/bmd/deaths/">"Official Ireland Statistics Office"</a>. 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Retrieved 3 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Influenza&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.series=Fasc.+2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E140-%3C%2Fspan%3E43&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Bibliotheca+Persica+Press&rft.date=2012-03-29&rft.aulast=Afkhami&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Finfluenza&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_M._Barry" title="John M. Barry">Barry JM</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greatinfluenzaep00john">The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Greatest Plague in History</a>. Viking Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-89473-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-89473-4"><bdi>978-0-670-89473-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Influenza%3A+The+Epic+Story+of+the+Greatest+Plague+in+History&rft.pub=Viking+Penguin&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-670-89473-4&rft.aulast=Barry&rft.aufirst=JM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreatinfluenzaep00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry2004b" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_M._Barry" title="John M. Barry">Barry JM</a> (January 2004b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC340389">"The site of origin of the 1918 influenza pandemic and its public health implications"</a>. Journal of Translational Medicine. 2 (1): 3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1479-5876-2-3">10.1186/1479-5876-2-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC340389">340389</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14733617">14733617</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Translational+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+site+of+origin+of+the+1918+influenza+pandemic+and+its+public+health+implications&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3&rft.date=2004-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC340389%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14733617&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1479-5876-2-3&rft.aulast=Barry&rft.aufirst=JM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC340389&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeiner2022" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Guy_Beiner" title="Guy Beiner">Beiner G</a>, ed. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/pandemic-re-awakenings-9780192843739">Pandemic Re-Awakenings: The Forgotten and Unforgotten 'Spanish' Flu of 1918-1919</a>. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192843739" title="Special:BookSources/9780192843739"><bdi>9780192843739</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pandemic+Re-Awakenings%3A+The+Forgotten+and+Unforgotten+%27Spanish%27+Flu+of+1918-1919&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9780192843739&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobal.oup.com%2Facademic%2Fproduct%2Fpandemic-re-awakenings-9780192843739&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenedictBraithwaite2000" class="citation book cs1">Benedict ML, <a href="/wiki/Max_Braithwaite" title="Max Braithwaite">Braithwaite M</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/infaceofdisaster0000bene">"The Year of the Killer Flu"</a>. In the Face of Disaster: True Stories of Canadian Heroes from the Archives of Maclean's. New York: Viking. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/infaceofdisaster0000bene/page/38">38</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-88883-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-88883-2"><bdi>978-0-670-88883-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Year+of+the+Killer+Flu&rft.btitle=In+the+Face+of+Disaster%3A+True+Stories+of+Canadian+Heroes+from+the+Archives+of+Maclean%27s&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-670-88883-2&rft.aulast=Benedict&rft.aufirst=ML&rft.au=Braithwaite%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finfaceofdisaster0000bene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBillings1997" class="citation web cs1">Billings M (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090627131620/http://virus.stanford.edu/uda/">"The 1918 Influenza Pandemic"</a>. Virology at Stanford University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://virus.stanford.edu/uda/">the original</a> on 27 June 2009. Retrieved 1 May 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+1918+Influenza+Pandemic&rft.pub=Virology+at+Stanford+University&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Billings&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvirus.stanford.edu%2Fuda%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBristow2012" class="citation book cs1">Bristow NK (2012). American Pandemic: The Lost Worlds of the 1918 Influenza Epidemic. New York: OUP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-023855-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-023855-1"><bdi>978-0-19-023855-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1231722653">1231722653</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Pandemic%3A+The+Lost+Worlds+of+the+1918+Influenza+Epidemic&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=OUP&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1231722653&rft.isbn=978-0-19-023855-1&rft.aulast=Bristow&rft.aufirst=NK&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandraKuljaninWray2012" class="citation journal cs1">Chandra S, Kuljanin G, Wray J (August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13524-012-0116-x">"Mortality from the influenza pandemic of 1918-1919: the case of India"</a>. Demography. 49 (3): 857–865. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13524-012-0116-x">10.1007/s13524-012-0116-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22661303">22661303</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39247719">39247719</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Demography&rft.atitle=Mortality+from+the+influenza+pandemic+of+1918-1919%3A+the+case+of+India&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E857-%3C%2Fspan%3E865&rft.date=2012-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A39247719%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22661303&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs13524-012-0116-x&rft.aulast=Chandra&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Kuljanin%2C+G&rft.au=Wray%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs13524-012-0116-x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrosby1976" class="citation book cs1">Crosby AW (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/epidemicpeace1910000cros">Epidemic and Peace, 1918</a>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8371-8376-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8371-8376-3"><bdi>978-0-8371-8376-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epidemic+and+Peace%2C+1918&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-8371-8376-3&rft.aulast=Crosby&rft.aufirst=AW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fepidemicpeace1910000cros&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrosby2003" class="citation book cs1">Crosby AW (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KYtAkAIHw24C">America's Forgotten Pandemic: The Influenza of 1918</a> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54175-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54175-6"><bdi>978-0-521-54175-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200603044335/https://books.google.com/books?id=KYtAkAIHw24C">Archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2020. Retrieved 3 May 2020 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+Forgotten+Pandemic%3A+The+Influenza+of+1918&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-54175-6&rft.aulast=Crosby&rft.aufirst=AW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKYtAkAIHw24C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2013" class="citation book cs1">Davis RA (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=taEhAQAAQBAJ&q=spanish+flu+davis&pg=PR4">The Spanish Flu: Narrative and Cultural Identity in Spain, 1918</a>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-33921-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-33921-8"><bdi>978-1-137-33921-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210727045641/https://books.google.com/books?id=taEhAQAAQBAJ&q=spanish+flu+davis&pg=PR4">Archived</a> from the original on 27 July 2021. 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International Organization. 74 (S1): E213 – E230. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020818320000405">10.1017/S0020818320000405</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:230561266">230561266</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Organization&rft.atitle=The+Politics+of+Pandemic+Othering%3A+Putting+COVID-19+in+Global+and+Historical+Context&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=S1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3EE213+-%3C%2Fspan%3E+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3EE230%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020818320000405&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A230561266%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dionne&rft.aufirst=KY&rft.au=Turkmen%2C+FF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0020818320000405&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFdos_ReisHayGoldstein2009" class="citation journal cs1">dos Reis M, Hay AJ, Goldstein RA (October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2772961">"Using non-homogeneous models of nucleotide substitution to identify host shift events: application to the origin of the 1918 'Spanish' influenza pandemic virus"</a>. 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Black November; the 1918 Influenza Pandemic in New Zealand (2nd ed.). University of Canterbury Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-877257-35-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-877257-35-3"><bdi>978-1-877257-35-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+November%3B+the+1918+Influenza+Pandemic+in+New+Zealand&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Canterbury+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-877257-35-3&rft.aulast=Rice&rft.aufirst=GW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimonsenClarkeSchonbergerArden1998" class="citation journal cs1">Simonsen L, Clarke MJ, Schonberger LB, Arden NH, Cox NJ, Fukuda K (July 1998). "Pandemic versus epidemic influenza mortality: a pattern of changing age distribution". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 178 (1): 53–60. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.327.2581">10.1.1.327.2581</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F515616">10.1086/515616</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30114117">30114117</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9652423">9652423</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Pandemic+versus+epidemic+influenza+mortality%3A+a+pattern+of+changing+age+distribution&rft.volume=178&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E53-%3C%2Fspan%3E60&rft.date=1998-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.327.2581%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9652423&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30114117%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F515616&rft.aulast=Simonsen&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Clarke%2C+MJ&rft.au=Schonberger%2C+LB&rft.au=Arden%2C+NH&rft.au=Cox%2C+NJ&rft.au=Fukuda%2C+K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpinney2018" class="citation book cs1">Spinney L (2018). Pale rider: the Spanish flu of 1918 and how it changed the world. London: Vintage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78470-240-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78470-240-3"><bdi>978-1-78470-240-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1090305029">1090305029</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pale+rider%3A+the+Spanish+flu+of+1918+and+how+it+changed+the+world&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1090305029&rft.isbn=978-1-78470-240-3&rft.aulast=Spinney&rft.aufirst=L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStarko2009" class="citation journal cs1">Starko KM (November 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F606060">"Salicylates and pandemic influenza mortality, 1918-1919 pharmacology, pathology, and historic evidence"</a>. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 49 (9): 1405–1410. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F606060">10.1086/606060</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19788357">19788357</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Salicylates+and+pandemic+influenza+mortality%2C+1918-1919+pharmacology%2C+pathology%2C+and+historic+evidence&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1405-%3C%2Fspan%3E1410&rft.date=2009-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F606060&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19788357&rft.aulast=Starko&rft.aufirst=KM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1086%252F606060&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"> Lay summary in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Infectious_Diseases_Society_of_America" title="Infectious Diseases Society of America">Infectious Diseases Society of America</a> (3 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210109085900/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091002132346.htm">"Aspirin Misuse May Have Made 1918 Flu Pandemic Worse"</a>. <a href="/wiki/ScienceDaily" title="ScienceDaily">ScienceDaily</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091002132346.htm">the original</a> on 9 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ScienceDaily&rft.atitle=Aspirin+Misuse+May+Have+Made+1918+Flu+Pandemic+Worse&rft.date=2009-10-03&rft.au=Infectious+Diseases+Society+of+America&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2009%2F10%2F091002132346.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhuangLiuLi2010" class="citation journal cs1">Zhuang W, Liu J, Li W (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8110722">"hsa-miR-33-5p as a Therapeutic Target Promotes Apoptosis of Breast Cancer Cells via Selenoprotein T"</a>. Frontiers in Medicine. 50 (8): 651473. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F651473">10.1086/651473</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8110722">8110722</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33987194">33987194</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Medicine&rft.atitle=hsa-miR-33-5p+as+a+Therapeutic+Target+Promotes+Apoptosis+of+Breast+Cancer+Cells+via+Selenoprotein+T&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=651473&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8110722%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33987194&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F651473&rft.aulast=Zhuang&rft.aufirst=W&rft.au=Liu%2C+J&rft.au=Li%2C+W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8110722&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaubenbergerReidJanczewskiFanning2001" class="citation journal cs1">Taubenberger JK, Reid AH, Janczewski TA, Fanning TG (December 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1088558">"Integrating historical, clinical and molecular genetic data in order to explain the origin and virulence of the 1918 Spanish influenza virus"</a>. 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Series B, Biological Sciences. 356 (1416): 1829–1839. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2001.1020">10.1098/rstb.2001.1020</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1088558">1088558</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11779381">11779381</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Integrating+historical%2C+clinical+and+molecular+genetic+data+in+order+to+explain+the+origin+and+virulence+of+the+1918+Spanish+influenza+virus&rft.volume=356&rft.issue=1416&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1829-%3C%2Fspan%3E1839&rft.date=2001-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1088558%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11779381&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2001.1020&rft.aulast=Taubenberger&rft.aufirst=JK&rft.au=Reid%2C+AH&rft.au=Janczewski%2C+TA&rft.au=Fanning%2C+TG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1088558&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaubenbergerReidLourensWang2005" class="citation journal cs1">Taubenberger JK, Reid AH, Lourens RM, Wang R, Jin G, Fanning TG (October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature04230">"Characterization of the 1918 influenza virus polymerase genes"</a>. Nature. 437 (7060): 889–893. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Natur.437..889T">2005Natur.437..889T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature04230">10.1038/nature04230</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16208372">16208372</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4405787">4405787</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Characterization+of+the+1918+influenza+virus+polymerase+genes&rft.volume=437&rft.issue=7060&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E889-%3C%2Fspan%3E893&rft.date=2005-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature04230&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4405787%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16208372&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005Natur.437..889T&rft.aulast=Taubenberger&rft.aufirst=JK&rft.au=Reid%2C+AH&rft.au=Lourens%2C+RM&rft.au=Wang%2C+R&rft.au=Jin%2C+G&rft.au=Fanning%2C+TG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fnature04230&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaubenbergerMorens2006" class="citation journal cs1">Taubenberger JK, Morens DM (January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3291398">"1918 Influenza: the mother of all pandemics"</a>. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 12 (1): 15–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3201%2Feid1201.050979">10.3201/eid1201.050979</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3291398">3291398</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16494711">16494711</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Emerging+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=1918+Influenza%3A+the+mother+of+all+pandemics&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.date=2006-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3291398%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16494711&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3201%2Feid1201.050979&rft.aulast=Taubenberger&rft.aufirst=JK&rft.au=Morens%2C+DM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3291398&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVanaWestover2008" class="citation journal cs1">Vana G, Westover KM (June 2008). "Origin of the 1918 Spanish influenza virus: a comparative genomic analysis". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 47 (3): 1100–1110. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008MolPE..47.1100V">2008MolPE..47.1100V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2008.02.003">10.1016/j.ympev.2008.02.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18353690">18353690</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Phylogenetics+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Origin+of+the+1918+Spanish+influenza+virus%3A+a+comparative+genomic+analysis&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1100-%3C%2Fspan%3E1110&rft.date=2008-06&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18353690&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2008.02.003&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008MolPE..47.1100V&rft.aulast=Vana&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Westover%2C+KM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVilenskyFoleyGilman2007" class="citation journal cs1">Vilensky JA, Foley P, Gilman S (August 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pedneur.com/article/S0887-8994(07)00194-4/abstract">"Children and encephalitis lethargica: a historical review"</a>. Pediatric Neurology. 37 (2): 79–84. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pediatrneurol.2007.04.012">10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2007.04.012</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17675021">17675021</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200417064629/https://www.pedneur.com/article/S0887-8994(07)00194-4/abstract">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2020. Retrieved 22 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pediatric+Neurology&rft.atitle=Children+and+encephalitis+lethargica%3A+a+historical+review&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E79-%3C%2Fspan%3E84&rft.date=2007-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.pediatrneurol.2007.04.012&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17675021&rft.aulast=Vilensky&rft.aufirst=JA&rft.au=Foley%2C+P&rft.au=Gilman%2C+S&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pedneur.com%2Farticle%2FS0887-8994%2807%2900194-4%2Fabstract&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeiner2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Guy_Beiner" title="Guy Beiner">Beiner G</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1191/1478003806cs070ra">"Out in the Cold and Back: New-Found Interest in the Great Flu"</a>. Cultural and Social History. 3 (4): 496–505. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1191%2F1478003806cs070ra">10.1191/1478003806cs070ra</a> (inactive 1 November 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200724110257/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1191/1478003806cs070ra">Archived</a> from the original on 24 July 2020. Retrieved 29 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cultural+and+Social+History&rft.atitle=Out+in+the+Cold+and+Back%3A+New-Found+Interest+in+the+Great+Flu&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E496-%3C%2Fspan%3E505&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1191%2F1478003806cs070ra&rft.aulast=Beiner&rft.aufirst=G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1191%2F1478003806cs070ra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeiner2022" class="citation cs2">Beiner G, ed. 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Influenza: The Hundred Year Hunt to Cure the Deadliest Disease in History. New York: Atria. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5011-8124-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5011-8124-5"><bdi>978-1-5011-8124-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Influenza%3A+The+Hundred+Year+Hunt+to+Cure+the+Deadliest+Disease+in+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Atria&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-5011-8124-5&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Byerly, Carol R. "The U.S. Military and the Influenza Pandemic of 1918–1919" Public Health Rep. 2010#125 (Suppl 3):82–91. PMCID: PMC2862337 PMID: 20568570 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2862337/">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByerly2005" class="citation book cs1">Byerly CR (2005). Fever of War: The Influenza Epidemic in the U.S. Army during World War I. 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New York History. 104 (2): 296–314. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fnyh.2023.a918265">10.1353/nyh.2023.a918265</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+History&rft.atitle=The+Supervisors+are+Carrying+the+Bag%3A+The+Nurses%27+Emergency+Council%2C+Settlement+Houses%2C+and+the+1918+Influenza+Pandemic+in+New+York+City&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E296-%3C%2Fspan%3E314&rft.date=2023%2F2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fnyh.2023.a918265&rft.aulast=Cimino&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F116044936&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollier1974" class="citation book cs1">Collier R (1974). The Plague of the Spanish Lady – The Influenza Pandemic of 1918–19. Atheneum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-689-10592-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-689-10592-0"><bdi>978-0-689-10592-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Plague+of+the+Spanish+Lady+%E2%80%93+The+Influenza+Pandemic+of+1918%E2%80%9319&rft.pub=Atheneum&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-689-10592-0&rft.aulast=Collier&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2018" class="citation book cs1">Davis KC (2018). More Deadly Than War: The Hidden History of the Spanish Flu and the First World War. Henry Holt and Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1250145123" title="Special:BookSources/978-1250145123"><bdi>978-1250145123</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=More+Deadly+Than+War%3A+The+Hidden+History+of+the+Spanish+Flu+and+the+First+World+War&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Co.&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1250145123&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=KC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorratoltaj2018" class="citation web cs1">Dorratoltaj N (29 March 2018). Carrell H (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.air-worldwide.com/Publications/AIR-Currents/2018/What-the-1918-Flu-Pandemic-Can-Teach-Today-s-Insurers/">"What the 1918 Flu Pandemic Can Teach Today's Insurers"</a>. AIR Research and Modeling Group. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201107223412/https://www.air-worldwide.com/Publications/AIR-Currents/2018/What-the-1918-Flu-Pandemic-Can-Teach-Today-s-Insurers/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 November 2020. 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University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8748-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8748-5"><bdi>978-0-8020-8748-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200724112134/https://books.google.com/books?id=HPDI_30wRsEC">Archived</a> from the original on 24 July 2020. 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Population and Development Review. 26 (3): 565–581. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1728-4457.2000.00565.x">10.1111/j.1728-4457.2000.00565.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2740912">2740912</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19530360">19530360</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Population+and+Development+Review&rft.atitle=The+1918+influenza+epidemic%27s+effects+on+sex+differentials+in+mortality+in+the+United+States&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E565-%3C%2Fspan%3E581&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2740912%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19530360&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1728-4457.2000.00565.x&rft.aulast=Noymer&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Garenne%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2740912&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOxfordSeftonJacksonInnes2002" class="citation journal cs1">Oxford JS, Sefton A, Jackson R, Innes W, Daniels RS, Johnson NP (February 2002). 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Infectious Diseases. 2 (2): 111–114. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1473-3099%2802%2900185-8">10.1016/S1473-3099(02)00185-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11901642">11901642</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet.+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=World+War+I+may+have+allowed+the+emergence+of+%22Spanish%22+influenza&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E111-%3C%2Fspan%3E114&rft.date=2002-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1473-3099%2802%2900185-8&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11901642&rft.aulast=Oxford&rft.aufirst=JS&rft.au=Sefton%2C+A&rft.au=Jackson%2C+R&rft.au=Innes%2C+W&rft.au=Daniels%2C+RS&rft.au=Johnson%2C+NP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOxfordSeftonJacksonJohnson1999" class="citation journal cs1">Oxford JS, Sefton A, Jackson R, Johnson NP, Daniels RS (December 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F70913">"Who's that lady?"</a>. Nature Medicine. 5 (12): 1351–1352. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F70913">10.1038/70913</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10581070">10581070</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5065916">5065916</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Medicine&rft.atitle=Who%27s+that+lady%3F&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1351-%3C%2Fspan%3E1352&rft.date=1999-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5065916%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10581070&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F70913&rft.aulast=Oxford&rft.aufirst=JS&rft.au=Sefton%2C+A&rft.au=Jackson%2C+R&rft.au=Johnson%2C+NP&rft.au=Daniels%2C+RS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F70913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPettitJanice2008" class="citation book cs1">Pettit D, Janice B (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cruelwindpandemi0000pett">A Cruel Wind: Pandemic Flu in America, 1918–1920</a>. Murfreesboro, TN: Timberlane Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9715428-2-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9715428-2-2"><bdi>978-0-9715428-2-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cruel+Wind%3A+Pandemic+Flu+in+America%2C+1918%E2%80%931920&rft.place=Murfreesboro%2C+TN&rft.pub=Timberlane+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-9715428-2-2&rft.aulast=Pettit&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Janice%2C+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcruelwindpandemi0000pett&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilips2010" class="citation journal cs1">Philips H (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3138%2Fcbmh.21.1.121">"The re-appearing shadow of 1918: trends in the historiography of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic"</a>. Canadian Bulletin of Medical History. 21 (1): 121–134. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3138%2Fcbmh.21.1.121">10.3138/cbmh.21.1.121</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15202430">15202430</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Bulletin+of+Medical+History&rft.atitle=The+re-appearing+shadow+of+1918%3A+trends+in+the+historiography+of+the+1918-19+influenza+pandemic&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E121-%3C%2Fspan%3E134&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3138%2Fcbmh.21.1.121&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15202430&rft.aulast=Philips&rft.aufirst=H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3138%252Fcbmh.21.1.121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2014" class="citation journal cs1">Phillips H (1 September 2014). "The Recent Wave of 'Spanish' Flu Historiography". Social History of Medicine. 27 (4): 789–808. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fshm%2Fhku066">10.1093/shm/hku066</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+History+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+Recent+Wave+of+%27Spanish%27+Flu+Historiography&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E789-%3C%2Fspan%3E808&rft.date=2014-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fshm%2Fhku066&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillipsKillingray2003" class="citation book cs1">Phillips H, Killingray D, eds. (2003). The Spanish Flu Pandemic of 1918: New Perspectives. London and New York: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spanish+Flu+Pandemic+of+1918%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2020" class="citation journal cs1">Phillips H (November 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1740022820000315">"'17,'18,'19: religion and science in three pandemics, 1817, 1918, and 2019"</a>. Journal of Global History. 15 (3): 434–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1740022820000315">10.1017/S1740022820000315</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:228999483">228999483</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Global+History&rft.atitle=%2717%2C%2718%2C%2719%3A+religion+and+science+in+three+pandemics%2C+1817%2C+1918%2C+and+2019.&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E434-%3C%2Fspan%3E43&rft.date=2020-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1740022820000315&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A228999483%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS1740022820000315&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter2001" class="citation journal cs1">Potter CW (October 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-2672.2001.01492.x">"A history of influenza"</a>. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 91 (4): 572–579. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-2672.2001.01492.x">10.1046/j.1365-2672.2001.01492.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11576290">11576290</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26392163">26392163</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Microbiology&rft.atitle=A+history+of+influenza&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E572-%3C%2Fspan%3E579&rft.date=2001-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A26392163%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11576290&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1365-2672.2001.01492.x&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=CW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1046%252Fj.1365-2672.2001.01492.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirgeKärtner2007" class="citation journal cs1">Birge JR, Kärtner FX (May 2007). "Efficient optimization of multilayer coatings for ultrafast optics using analytic gradients of dispersion". Applied Optics. 46 (14): 2656–2662. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F132645">10.2307/132645</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/132645">132645</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17446914">17446914</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Optics&rft.atitle=Efficient+optimization+of+multilayer+coatings+for+ultrafast+optics+using+analytic+gradients+of+dispersion&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2656-%3C%2Fspan%3E2662&rft.date=2007-05&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17446914&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F132645%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F132645&rft.aulast=Birge&rft.aufirst=JR&rft.au=K%C3%A4rtner%2C+FX&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuckelSasslerMaiselLeykam2006" class="citation journal cs1">Tuckel P, Sassler S, Maisel R, Leykam A (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236745238">"The Diffusion of the Influenza Pandemic of 1918 in Hartford, Connecticut"</a>. Social Science History. 30 (2): 167–196. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0145553200013432">10.1017/S0145553200013432</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40267904">40267904</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+History&rft.atitle=The+Diffusion+of+the+Influenza+Pandemic+of+1918+in+Hartford%2C+Connecticut&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E167-%3C%2Fspan%3E196&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0145553200013432&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40267904%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Tuckel&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Sassler%2C+S&rft.au=Maisel%2C+R&rft.au=Leykam%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F236745238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTumpeyGarcía-SastreMikulasovaTaubenberger2002" class="citation journal cs1">Tumpey TM, <a href="/wiki/Adolfo_Garc%C3%ADa-Sastre" title="Adolfo García-Sastre">García-Sastre A</a>, Mikulasova A, Taubenberger JK, Swayne DE, Palese P, et al. (October 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC129786">"Existing antivirals are effective against influenza viruses with genes from the 1918 pandemic virus"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 99 (21): 13849–13854. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002PNAS...9913849T">2002PNAS...9913849T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.212519699">10.1073/pnas.212519699</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC129786">129786</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12368467">12368467</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Existing+antivirals+are+effective+against+influenza+viruses+with+genes+from+the+1918+pandemic+virus&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E13849-%3C%2Fspan%3E13854&rft.date=2002-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC129786%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12368467&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.212519699&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002PNAS...9913849T&rft.aulast=Tumpey&rft.aufirst=TM&rft.au=Garc%C3%ADa-Sastre%2C+A&rft.au=Mikulasova%2C+A&rft.au=Taubenberger%2C+JK&rft.au=Swayne%2C+DE&rft.au=Palese%2C+P&rft.au=Basler%2C+CF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC129786&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Videos">Videos</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rfbk1Sg8JlE">We Heard the Bells: The Influenza of 1918</a> – <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">NIH</a> interviews with Spanish Flu survivors.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?465724-7/influenza-pandemic-world-war">Presentation by Nancy Bristow on the Influenza Pandemic and World War I, November 1, 2019</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211027/3x1aLAw_xkY">"Spanish Flu: a warning from history"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge University">Cambridge University</a>. 30 November 2018. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3x1aLAw_xkY">the original</a> on 27 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spanish+Flu%3A+a+warning+from+history&rft.pub=Cambridge+University&rft.date=2018-11-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D3x1aLAw_xkY&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+flu" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=84nq2KxZMBw">Dr. Wise on Influenza</a> (1919) – An 18-minute, dramatised <a href="/wiki/Public_information_film" title="Public information film">public information film</a> (<a href="/wiki/Silent_film" title="Silent film">silent</a>) produced by Britain's <a href="/wiki/Local_Government_Board" title="Local Government Board">Local Government Board</a>, the predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Health_and_Social_Care" title="Department of Health and Social Care">Ministry of Health</a>. Via the <a href="/wiki/BFI_National_Archive" title="BFI National Archive">British Film Institute National Archive</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:Scholia" class="extiw" title="d:Wikidata:Scholia">Scholia</a> has a profile for <a href="https://iw.toolforge.org/scholia/Q178275" class="extiw" title="toolforge:scholia/Q178275">1918-1920 flu pandemic (Q178275)</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Spanish_flu" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Spanish flu">Spanish flu</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Spanish_flu" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Spanish flu">Spanish flu</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.influenzaarchive.org/">The American Influenza Epidemic of 1918–1919: A Digital Encyclopedia</a> – largest digital collection of newspapers, archival manuscripts, and interpretive essays exploring the impact of the epidemic on 50 U.S. cities (<a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a>).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Influenza468" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Influenza" title="Template:Influenza"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Influenza" title="Template talk:Influenza"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Influenza" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Influenza"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Influenza468" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">Influenza</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Influenza research">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_vaccine" title="Influenza vaccine">Vaccine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Influenza treatment">Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_Genome_Sequencing_Project" title="Influenza Genome Sequencing Project">Genome sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reassortment" title="Reassortment">Reassortment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superinfection" title="Superinfection">Superinfection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flu_season" title="Flu season">Flu season</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Viruses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthomyxoviridae" title="Orthomyxoviridae">Orthomyxoviridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus" title="Influenza A virus">Influenza A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenzavirus_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Influenzavirus B">Influenza B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenzavirus_C" class="mw-redirect" title="Influenzavirus C">Influenza C</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenzavirus_D" class="mw-redirect" title="Influenzavirus D">Influenza D</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Influenza A virus subtypes</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H1N1" title="Influenza A virus subtype H1N1">H1N1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H1N2" title="Influenza A virus subtype H1N2">H1N2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H2N2" title="Influenza A virus subtype H2N2">H2N2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H2N3" title="Influenza A virus subtype H2N3">H2N3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H3N1" title="Influenza A virus subtype H3N1">H3N1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H3N2" title="Influenza A virus subtype H3N2">H3N2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H3N8" title="Influenza A virus subtype H3N8">H3N8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H5N1" title="Influenza A virus subtype H5N1">H5N1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H5N2" title="Influenza A virus subtype H5N2">H5N2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H5N3" title="Influenza A virus subtype H5N3">H5N3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H5N6" title="Influenza A virus subtype H5N6">H5N6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H5N8" title="Influenza A virus subtype H5N8">H5N8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H5N9" title="Influenza A virus subtype H5N9">H5N9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H6N1" title="Influenza A virus subtype H6N1">H6N1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H7N1" title="Influenza A virus subtype H7N1">H7N1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H7N2" title="Influenza A virus subtype H7N2">H7N2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H7N3" title="Influenza A virus subtype H7N3">H7N3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H7N4" title="Influenza A virus subtype H7N4">H7N4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H7N7" title="Influenza A virus subtype H7N7">H7N7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H7N9" title="Influenza A virus subtype H7N9">H7N9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H9N2" title="Influenza A virus subtype H9N2">H9N2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H10N3" title="Influenza A virus subtype H10N3">H10N3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H10N7" title="Influenza A virus subtype H10N7">H10N7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H10N8" title="Influenza A virus subtype H10N8">H10N8</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H11N2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Influenza A virus subtype H11N2 (page does not exist)">H11N2</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H11N9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Influenza A virus subtype H11N9 (page does not exist)">H11N9</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H1N1" title="Influenza A virus subtype H1N1">H1N1</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Influenza_pandemic" title="Influenza pandemic">Pandemics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1918 (Spanish flu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Russian_flu" title="1977 Russian flu">1977 (Russian flu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic" title="2009 swine flu pandemic">2009 (Swine flu)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic_H1N1/09_virus" title="Pandemic H1N1/09 virus">2009 A/H1N1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H5N1" title="Influenza A virus subtype H5N1">H5N1</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Outbreaks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_flu_in_Croatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bird flu in Croatia">Croatia (2005)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_H5N1_outbreak_in_India" title="2006 H5N1 outbreak in India">India (2006)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_Bernard_Matthews_H5N1_outbreak" title="2007 Bernard Matthews H5N1 outbreak">UK (2007)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_H5N1_outbreak_in_West_Bengal" title="2008 H5N1 outbreak in West Bengal">West Bengal (2008)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932024_H5N1_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2024 H5N1 outbreak">2020s outbreak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H5N1_genetic_structure" title="H5N1 genetic structure">Genetic structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_and_infection_of_H5N1" title="Transmission and infection of H5N1">Transmission and infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_spread_of_H5N1" title="Global spread of H5N1">Global spread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H5N1_vaccine" title="H5N1 vaccine">Vaccine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H5N1_clinical_trials" class="mw-redirect" title="H5N1 clinical trials">clinical trials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mortality_from_H5N1" title="Human mortality from H5N1">Human mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_effects_of_H5N1" title="Social effects of H5N1">Social impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_pandemic#Government_preparations_for_a_potential_H5N1_pandemic_(2003–2009)" title="Influenza pandemic">Pandemic preparation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H5N8" title="Influenza A virus subtype H5N8">H5N8</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Outbreaks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932023_H5N8_outbreak" title="2020–2023 H5N8 outbreak">2020–2023</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Influenza_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Influenza treatment">Treatments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">Antiviral drugs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adamantane" title="Adamantane">Adamantane derivatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amantadine" title="Amantadine">Amantadine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rimantadine" title="Rimantadine">Rimantadine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuraminidase_inhibitor" title="Neuraminidase inhibitor">Neuraminidase inhibitor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oseltamivir" title="Oseltamivir">Oseltamivir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laninamivir" title="Laninamivir">Laninamivir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peramivir" title="Peramivir">Peramivir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanamivir" title="Zanamivir">Zanamivir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peramivir" title="Peramivir">Peramivir (experimental)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umifenovir" title="Umifenovir">Umifenovir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baloxavir_marboxil" title="Baloxavir marboxil">Baloxavir marboxil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Influenza_vaccine" title="Influenza vaccine">Vaccines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Live_attenuated_influenza_vaccine" title="Live attenuated influenza vaccine">Live attenuated influenza vaccine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_influenza_vaccine_brands" class="mw-redirect" title="Seasonal influenza vaccine brands">Brands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemrix" title="Pandemrix">Pandemrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audenz" class="mw-redirect" title="Audenz">Audenz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Pandemics and epidemics</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Influenza_pandemic" title="Influenza pandemic">Pandemics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1510_influenza_pandemic" title="1510 influenza pandemic">Influenza pandemic (1510)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1557_influenza_pandemic" title="1557 influenza pandemic">Influenza pandemic (1557)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1889%E2%80%931890_pandemic" title="1889–1890 pandemic">Russian flu (1889–1890)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1918_flu_pandemic" class="mw-redirect" title="1918 flu pandemic">Spanish flu (1918)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1957%E2%80%931958_influenza_pandemic" title="1957–1958 influenza pandemic">Asian flu (1957-1958)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_flu" title="Hong Kong flu">Hong Kong flu (1968)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Russian_flu" title="1977 Russian flu">1977 Russian flu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic" title="2009 swine flu pandemic">Swine flu (2009)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">Epidemics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fujian_flu" title="Fujian flu">Fujian flu (H3N2)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1989%E2%80%931990_flu_epidemic_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="1989–1990 flu epidemic in the United Kingdom">1989–1990 UK outbreak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Central_Luzon_H5N6_outbreak" title="2017 Central Luzon H5N6 outbreak">Central Luzon H5N6 (2017)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-human</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Mammals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canine_influenza" title="Canine influenza">Canine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_flu" title="Cat flu">Feline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equine_influenza" title="Equine influenza">Equine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2007_Australian_equine_influenza_outbreak" title="2007 Australian equine influenza outbreak">2007 Australian outbreak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swine_influenza" title="Swine influenza">Swine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Non-mammals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">Avian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fujian_flu" title="Fujian flu">Fujian (H5N1)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Complication_(medicine)" title="Complication (medicine)">Complications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_bronchitis" title="Acute bronchitis">Acute bronchitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronchiolitis" title="Bronchiolitis">Bronchiolitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croup" title="Croup">Croup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otitis_media" title="Otitis media">Otitis media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharyngitis" title="Pharyngitis">Pharyngitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">Pneumonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinusitis" title="Sinusitis">Sinusitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streptococcal_pharyngitis" title="Streptococcal pharyngitis">Strep throat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Influenza-like_illness" title="Influenza-like illness">Influenza-like illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017%E2%80%932018_United_States_flu_season" title="2017–2018 United States flu season">2017–2018 United States flu season</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US_influenza_statistics_by_flu_season" class="mw-redirect" title="US influenza statistics by flu season">US influenza statistics by flu season</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_War_I23293" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_War_I" title="Template:World War I"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_War_I" title="Template talk:World War I"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_War_I" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World War I"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_War_I23293" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_World_War_I" title="Outline of World War I">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_engagements_of_World_War_I" title="List of military engagements of World War I">Military engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I" title="Aftermath of World War I">Aftermath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Economic history of World War I">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_geography_in_World_War_I" title="Role of geography in World War I">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of World War I">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_I" title="Home front during World War I">Home fronts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_memorials" title="World War I memorials">Memorials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_I" title="Opposition to World War I">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_in_popular_culture" title="World War I in popular culture">Popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_World_War_I" title="Propaganda in World War I">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_I_puppet_states" title="List of World War I puppet states">Puppet states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_I" title="Technology during World War I">Technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">Theatres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="European theatre of World War I">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkans_theatre" title="Balkans theatre">Balkans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_campaign" title="Serbian campaign">Serbia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Eastern Front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_I" title="Romania in World War I">Romania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_front_(World_War_I)" title="Italian front (World War I)">Italian Front</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="Middle Eastern theatre of World War I">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign" title="Gallipoli campaign">Gallipoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_campaign" title="Sinai and Palestine campaign">Sinai and Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_campaign" title="Caucasus campaign">Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="Persian campaign (World War I)">Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaign" title="Mesopotamian campaign">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Hejaz & Levant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="African theatre of World War I">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Africa_campaign" title="South West Africa campaign">South West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_I)" title="East African campaign (World War I)">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamerun_campaign" title="Kamerun campaign">Kamerun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Togoland_campaign" title="Togoland campaign">Togoland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_operations_in_North_Africa_during_World_War_I" title="Military operations in North Africa during World War I">North</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Asian_and_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="Asian and Pacific theatre of World War I">Asian and Pacific</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tsingtao" title="Siege of Tsingtao">Tsingtao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_German_Samoa" title="Occupation of German Samoa">German Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_occupation_of_German_New_Guinea" title="Allied occupation of German New Guinea">German New Guinea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare_of_World_War_I" title="Naval warfare of World War I">Naval warfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U-boat_campaign" title="U-boat campaign">U-boat campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_U-boat_campaign_of_World_War_I" title="Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I">North Atlantic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare_in_the_Mediterranean_during_World_War_I" title="Naval warfare in the Mediterranean during World War I">Mediterranean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Principal participants</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Entente Powers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_leaders_of_World_War_I" title="Allied leaders of World War I">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_I" title="Belgium in World War I">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_during_World_War_I" title="Brazil during World War I">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_during_World_War_I" title="China during World War I">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Army_in_World_War_I" title="French Army in World War I">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece_during_World_War_I" title="Greece during World War I">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hejaz" title="Kingdom of Hejaz">Hejaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_I" title="Japan during World War I">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montenegro#World_War_I" title="History of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_I" title="Portugal during World War I">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_I" title="Romania in World War I">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia_in_the_First_World_War" title="Russia in the First World War">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1894%E2%80%931917)#Russia_at_war,_1914–1916" title="History of Russia (1894–1917)">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Russian Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbia#Serbia_in_World_War_I_(1914–1918)" title="History of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siam_in_World_War_I" title="Siam in World War I">Siam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaders_of_the_Central_Powers_of_World_War_I" title="Leaders of the Central Powers of World War I">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Austria-Hungary_during_World_War_I" title="History of Austria-Hungary during World War I">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire_in_World_War_I" title="Ottoman Empire in World War I">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_I" title="Bulgaria during World War I">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senussi_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Senussi Campaign">Senussi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritz_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritz Rebellion">South African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Darfur" title="Sultanate of Darfur">Darfur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_I" title="Timeline of World War I">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Pre-War conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> (1870–71)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> (1880–1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Moroccan_Crisis" title="First Moroccan Crisis">Tangier Crisis</a> (1905–06)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Crisis" title="Bosnian Crisis">Bosnian Crisis</a> (1908–09)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agadir_Crisis" title="Agadir Crisis">Agadir Crisis</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">Italo-Turkish War</a> (1911–12)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Balkan_War" title="First Balkan War">First Balkan War</a> (1912–13)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Balkan_War" title="Second Balkan War">Second Balkan War</a> (1913)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Prelude</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_I" title="Causes of World War I">Origins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of the causes of World War I">Historiography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand" title="Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand">Sarajevo assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_riots_in_Sarajevo" title="Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo">Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_Crisis" title="July Crisis">July Crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">1914</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1914)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1914)">German invasion of Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Frontiers" title="Battle of the Frontiers">Battle of the Frontiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cer" title="Battle of Cer">Battle of Cer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Galicia" title="Battle of Galicia">Battle of Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_East_Prussia_(1914)" title="Russian invasion of East Prussia (1914)">Russian invasion of East Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg" title="Battle of Tannenberg">Battle of Tannenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tsingtao" title="Siege of Tsingtao">Siege of Tsingtao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Masurian_Lakes" title="First Battle of the Masurian Lakes">First Battle of the Masurian Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Grand_Couronn%C3%A9" title="Battle of Grand Couronné">Battle of Grand Couronné</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Marne" title="First Battle of the Marne">First Battle of the Marne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Przemy%C5%9Bl" title="Siege of Przemyśl">Siege of Przemyśl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_to_the_Sea" title="Race to the Sea">Race to the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Ypres" title="First Battle of Ypres">First Battle of Ypres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_raid" title="Black Sea raid">Black Sea raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kolubara" title="Battle of Kolubara">Battle of Kolubara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sarikamish" title="Battle of Sarikamish">Battle of Sarikamish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_truce" title="Christmas truce">Christmas truce</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">1915</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Masurian_Lakes" title="Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes">Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_%C5%81om%C5%BCa" title="Battle of Łomża">Battle of Łomża</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Ypres" title="Second Battle of Ypres">Second Battle of Ypres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_the_RMS_Lusitania" title="Sinking of the RMS Lusitania">Sinking of the RMS Lusitania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign" title="Gallipoli campaign">Battle of Gallipoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Artois" title="Second Battle of Artois">Second Battle of Artois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_the_Isonzo" title="Battles of the Isonzo">Battles of the Isonzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorlice%E2%80%93Tarn%C3%B3w_offensive" title="Gorlice–Tarnów offensive">Gorlice–Tarnów offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Retreat_(Russia)" title="Great Retreat (Russia)">Great Retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bug%E2%80%93Narew_Offensive" title="Bug–Narew Offensive">Bug-Narew Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Novogeorgievsk" title="Siege of Novogeorgievsk">Siege of Novogeorgievsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Bug_offensive" title="Vistula–Bug offensive">Vistula–Bug offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Champagne" title="Second Battle of Champagne">Second Battle of Champagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo_offensive_(1915)" title="Kosovo offensive (1915)">Kosovo offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kut" title="Siege of Kut">Siege of Kut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Loos" title="Battle of Loos">Battle of Loos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Robat_Karim" title="Battle of Robat Karim">Battle of Robat Karim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">1916</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erzurum_offensive" title="Erzurum offensive">Erzurum offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun" title="Battle of Verdun">Battle of Verdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Naroch_offensive" title="Lake Naroch offensive">Lake Naroch offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Asiago" title="Battle of Asiago">Battle of Asiago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jutland" title="Battle of Jutland">Battle of Jutland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme" title="Battle of the Somme">Battle of the Somme</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_day_on_the_Somme" title="First day on the Somme">first day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brusilov_offensive" title="Brusilov offensive">Brusilov offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baranovichi_offensive" title="Baranovichi offensive">Baranovichi offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Romani" title="Battle of Romani">Battle of Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monastir_offensive" title="Monastir offensive">Monastir offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Transylvania" title="Battle of Transylvania">Battle of Transylvania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_I_(1917%E2%80%931918)" title="Timeline of World War I (1917–1918)">1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Baghdad_(1917)" title="Fall of Baghdad (1917)">Capture of Baghdad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimmermann_telegram" title="Zimmermann telegram">Zimmermann telegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_(1917)" title="Battle of Arras (1917)">Second battle of Arras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_battle_of_the_Aisne" class="mw-redirect" title="Second battle of the Aisne">Second battle of the Aisne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerensky_offensive" title="Kerensky offensive">Kerensky offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C4%83r%C4%83%C8%99ti" title="Battle of Mărăști">Battle of Mărăști</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Passchendaele" title="Battle of Passchendaele">Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C4%83r%C4%83%C8%99e%C8%99ti" title="Battle of Mărășești">Battle of Mărășești</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Battle_of_Oituz" title="Third Battle of Oituz">Third Battle of Oituz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Caporetto" title="Battle of Caporetto">Battle of Caporetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Palestine_offensive" title="Southern Palestine offensive">Southern Palestine offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_La_Malmaison" title="Battle of La Malmaison">Battle of La Malmaison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cambrai_(1917)" title="Battle of Cambrai (1917)">Battle of Cambrai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Foc%C8%99ani" title="Armistice of Focșani">Armistice of Focșani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_between_Russia_and_the_Central_Powers" title="Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers">Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_I_(1917%E2%80%931918)" title="Timeline of World War I (1917–1918)">1918</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Faustschlag" title="Operation Faustschlag">Operation Faustschlag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_spring_offensive" title="German spring offensive">German spring offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeebrugge_Raid" title="Zeebrugge Raid">Zeebrugge Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1918)" title="Treaty of Bucharest (1918)">Treaty of Bucharest of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Goychay" title="Battle of Goychay">Battle of Goychay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Piave_River" title="Second Battle of the Piave River">Second Battle of the Piave River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Marne" title="Second Battle of the Marne">Second Battle of the Marne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days_Offensive" title="Hundred Days Offensive">Hundred Days Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vardar_offensive" title="Vardar offensive">Vardar offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Megiddo_(1918)" title="Battle of Megiddo (1918)">Battle of Megiddo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Transjordan_attack" title="Third Transjordan attack">Third Transjordan attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meuse%E2%80%93Argonne_offensive" title="Meuse–Argonne offensive">Meuse–Argonne offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vittorio_Veneto" title="Battle of Vittorio Veneto">Battle of Vittorio Veneto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Salonica" title="Armistice of Salonica">Armistice of Salonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudros" title="Armistice of Mudros">Armistice of Mudros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Villa_Giusti" title="Armistice of Villa Giusti">Armistice of Villa Giusti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Romanian_campaign_of_World_War_I" title="Second Romanian campaign of World War I">Second Romanian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">Armistice with Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bollettino_della_Vittoria_Navale" title="Bollettino della Vittoria Navale">Naval Victory Bulletin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Belgrade" title="Armistice of Belgrade">Armistice of Belgrade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Co-belligerent conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somaliland_campaign" title="Somaliland campaign">Somaliland campaign</a> (1900–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican Revolution</a> (1910–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritz_rebellion" title="Maritz rebellion">Maritz rebellion</a> (1914–15)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat_rebellion" title="Muscat rebellion">Muscat rebellion</a> (1913–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaian_War" title="Zaian War">Zaian War</a> (1914–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_rebellions_during_World_War_I" title="Kurdish rebellions during World War I">Kurdish rebellions</a> (1914–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovambo_Uprising" title="Ovambo Uprising">Ovambo Uprising</a> (1914–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelantan_rebellion" title="Kelantan rebellion">Kelantan rebellion</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senussi_campaign" title="Senussi campaign">Senussi campaign</a> (1915–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volta-Bani_War" title="Volta-Bani War">Volta-Bani War</a> (1915–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">National Protection War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a> (1916–1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_revolt_of_1916" title="Central Asian revolt of 1916">Central Asian Revolt</a> (1916–17)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Darfur_(1916)" title="Invasion of Darfur (1916)">Invasion of Darfur</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easter_Rising" title="Easter Rising">Easter Rising</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaocen_revolt" title="Kaocen revolt">Kaocen revolt</a> (1916–17)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finnish Civil War</a> (1918)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Post-War conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> (1917–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Ukrainian–Soviet War">Ukrainian–Soviet War</a> (1917–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_war_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)">Armenian–Azerbaijani War</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armeno-Georgian_War" title="Armeno-Georgian War">Armeno-Georgian War</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution</a> (1918–19)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_and_interventions_in_Hungary_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Revolutions and interventions in Hungary (1918–1920)">Revolutions and interventions in Hungary</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian%E2%80%93Romanian_War" title="Hungarian–Romanian War">Hungarian–Romanian War</a> (1918–19)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_uprising_(1918%E2%80%931919)" title="Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919)">Greater Poland Uprising</a> (1918–19)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_War_of_Independence" title="Estonian War of Independence">Estonian War of Independence</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_War_of_Independence" title="Latvian War of Independence">Latvian War of Independence</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Wars_of_Independence" title="Lithuanian Wars of Independence">Lithuanian Wars of Independence</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War" title="Polish–Ukrainian War">Polish–Ukrainian War</a> (1918–19)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Third Anglo-Afghan War">Third Anglo-Afghan War</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1919_Egyptian_revolution" title="1919 Egyptian revolution">Egyptian Revolution</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_War" title="Polish–Lithuanian War">Polish–Lithuanian War</a> (1919–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> (1919–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence" title="Irish War of Independence">Irish War of Independence</a> (1919–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_during_the_Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="United Kingdom during the Turkish War of Independence">Anglo-Turkish War</a> (1918–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Turkish_War" title="Franco-Turkish War">Franco-Turkish War</a> (1918–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_(1919%E2%80%931922)" title="Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)">Greco-Turkish War</a> (1919–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish%E2%80%93Armenian_War" title="Turkish–Armenian War">Turkish–Armenian War</a> (1920)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Revolt" title="Iraqi Revolt">Iraqi Revolt</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vlora_War" title="Vlora War">Vlora War</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Syrian_War" title="Franco-Syrian War">Franco-Syrian War</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia" title="Red Army invasion of Georgia">Soviet–Georgian War</a> (1921)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Warfare</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_World_War_I" title="Aviation in World War I">Aviation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_I" title="Strategic bombing during World War I">Strategic bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapons_in_World_War_I" title="Chemical weapons in World War I">Chemical weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_cryptography" title="World War I cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_World_War_I" title="Horses in World War I">Horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistics_in_World_War_I" title="Logistics in World War I">Logistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare_of_World_War_I" title="Naval warfare of World War I">Naval warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convoys_in_World_War_I" title="Convoys in World War I">Convoy system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench warfare</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Conscription493" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Conscription</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_conscription_in_Australia" title="World War I conscription in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_Crisis_of_1917" title="Conscription Crisis of 1917">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seferberlik" title="Seferberlik">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_to_the_British_Army_during_World_War_I" title="Recruitment to the British Army during World War I">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_Crisis_of_1918" title="Conscription Crisis of 1918">Ireland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_Service_Act_of_1917" title="Selective Service Act of 1917">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_casualties" title="World War I casualties">Casualties</a> / Civilian impact</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>British casualties <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_parliamentarians_who_died_in_the_First_World_War" title="List of British parliamentarians who died in the First World War">Parliamentarians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_casualties_of_World_War_I" title="Ottoman casualties of World War I">Ottoman casualties</a></li> <li>Sports <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_rugby_union_players_killed_in_World_War_I" title="List of international rugby union players killed in World War I">Rugby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Olympians_killed_in_World_War_I" title="List of Olympians killed in World War I">Olympians</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Disease</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1899%E2%80%931923_cholera_pandemic" title="1899–1923 cholera pandemic">1899–1923 cholera pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1915_typhus_and_relapsing_fever_epidemic_in_Serbia" title="1915 typhus and relapsing fever epidemic in Serbia">1915 typhus epidemic in Serbia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spanish flu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_occupation_of_Serbia" title="Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia">Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia</a></li> <li>Bulgarian occupations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_occupation_of_Albania" title="Bulgarian occupation of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_occupation_of_Serbia_(World_War_I)" title="Bulgarian occupation of Serbia (World War I)">Serbia</a></li></ul></li> <li>German occupations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Belgium_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of Belgium during World War I">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Luxembourg_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_north-east_France_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of north-east France during World War I">Northeast France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ober_Ost" title="Ober Ost">Ober Ost</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupied_Enemy_Territory_Administration" title="Occupied Enemy Territory Administration">Occupied Enemy Territory Administration</a></li> <li>Russian occupations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Eastern_Galicia_(1914%E2%80%931915)" title="Russian occupation of Eastern Galicia (1914–1915)">Eastern Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Western_Armenia" title="Occupation of Western Armenia">Western Armenia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_I" title="Prisoners of war in World War I">POWs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Germans <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_States" title="German prisoners of war in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_I" title="Italian prisoners of war in World War I">Italians</a></li> <li>POW locations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_I_prisoner-of-war_camps_in_Canada" title="List of World War I prisoner-of-war camps in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_prisoners_of_war_in_Germany" title="World War I prisoners of war in Germany">Germany</a> / <a href="/wiki/German_prisoner-of-war_camps_in_World_War_I" title="German prisoner-of-war camps in World War I">camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war_camps_in_Switzerland_during_World_War_I" title="Prisoner of war camps in Switzerland during World War I">Switzerland</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_World_War_I" title="Refugees of World War I">Refugees</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Belgian refugees <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_refugees_in_the_Netherlands_during_the_First_World_War" title="Belgian refugees in the Netherlands during the First World War">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_refugees_in_Britain_during_the_First_World_War" title="Belgian refugees in Britain during the First World War">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_I" title="War crimes in World War I">War crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Allied blockades <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_the_Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Blockade of the Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon" title="Great Famine of Mount Lebanon">Mount Lebanon famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Germany_(1914%E2%80%931919)" title="Blockade of Germany (1914–1919)">Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportations_from_East_Prussia_during_World_War_I" title="Deportations from East Prussia during World War I">Deportations from East Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_Kalisz" title="Destruction of Kalisz">Destruction of Kalisz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Dinant" title="Sack of Dinant">Sack of Dinant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Assyrian genocide (Sayfo)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Pontic Greek genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_of_Belgium" title="Rape of Belgium">Rape of Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_revolt_of_1916" title="Central Asian revolt of 1916">Urkun (Kyrgyzstan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Albanians_in_World_War_I" title="Massacres of Albanians in World War I">Massacres of Albanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Canadian_internment" title="Ukrainian Canadian internment">Ukrainian Canadian internment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Diplomatic history of World War I">Diplomacy</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Entry into the war</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_entry_into_World_War_I" title="French entry into World War I">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_entry_into_World_War_I" title="German entry into World War I">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Japanese entry into World War I">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Ottoman entry into World War I">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Russian entry into World War I">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_entry_into_World_War_I" title="British entry into World War I">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_entry_into_World_War_I" title="American entry into World War I">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Declarations_of_war_during_World_War_I" title="Declarations of war during World War I">Declarations of war</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/To_my_peoples" title="To my peoples">Austria-Hungary against Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_declaration_of_war_upon_Germany_(1914)" title="United Kingdom declaration of war upon Germany (1914)">UK against Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire_in_World_War_I#Declaration_of_jihad" title="Ottoman Empire in World War I">Ottomans against the Triple Entente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1917)" title="United States declaration of war on Germany (1917)">USA against Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Austria-Hungary" title="United States declaration of war on Austria-Hungary">USA against Austria-Hungary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople_Agreement" title="Constantinople Agreement">Constantinople Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1915)" title="Treaty of London (1915)">Treaty of London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Protocol" title="Damascus Protocol">Damascus Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria%E2%80%93Germany_treaty_(1915)" title="Bulgaria–Germany treaty (1915)">Bulgaria–Germany treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Darin" title="Treaty of Darin">Treaty of Darin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sykes%E2%80%93Picot_Agreement" title="Sykes–Picot Agreement">Sykes–Picot Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sazonov%E2%80%93Pal%C3%A9ologue_Agreement" title="Sazonov–Paléologue Agreement">Sazonov–Paléologue Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Economy_Pact" title="Paris Economy Pact">Paris Economy Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1916)" title="Treaty of Bucharest (1916)">Treaty of Bucharest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agreement_of_Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne" title="Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne">Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Peace treaties</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modus_vivendi_of_Acroma" title="Modus vivendi of Acroma">Modus vivendi of Acroma</a></li> <li>Treaties of Brest-Litovsk <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Russia–Central Powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk_(Ukraine%E2%80%93Central_Powers)" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Ukraine–Central Powers)">Ukraine–Central Powers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1918)" title="Treaty of Bucharest (1918)">Treaty of Bucharest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_(1919)" title="Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)">Treaty of St. Germain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Neuilly-sur-Seine" title="Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine">Treaty of Neuilly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Trianon" title="Treaty of Trianon">Treaty of Trianon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres" title="Treaty of Sèvres">Treaty of Sèvres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne" title="Treaty of Lausanne">Treaty of Lausanne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrest_of_a_Suspect_in_Sarajevo" title="Arrest of a Suspect in Sarajevo">Arrest of a Suspect in Sarajevo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutilated_victory" title="Mutilated victory">Mutilated victory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Virgin" title="The Golden Virgin">The Golden Virgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/They_shall_not_pass" title="They shall not pass">They shall not pass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:World_War_I" title="Category:World War I">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_infectious_diseases155" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_infectious_diseases" title="Template:History of infectious diseases"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_infectious_diseases" title="Template talk:History of infectious diseases"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_infectious_diseases" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of infectious diseases"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_infectious_diseases155" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History of <a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">infectious diseases</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual diseases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cholera" title="History of cholera">Cholera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_HIV/AIDS" title="History of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_leprosy" title="History of leprosy">Leprosy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_malaria" title="History of malaria">Malaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plague" title="History of plague">Plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_polio" title="History of polio">Polio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_smallpox" title="History of smallpox">Smallpox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_syphilis" title="History of syphilis">Syphilis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_tuberculosis" title="History of tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_typhoid_fever" title="History of typhoid fever">Typhoid fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_yellow_fever" title="History of yellow fever">Yellow fever</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Hilleman" title="Maurice Hilleman">Maurice Hilleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Jenner" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Semmelweis" title="Ignaz Semmelweis">Ignaz Semmelweis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_Jacob_Kligler" title="Israel Jacob Kligler">Israel Jacob Kligler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">Major epidemics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> (1346–1353)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spanish flu</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS pandemic</a> (1981–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> (2019–present<abbr title="Peaked from 2020-2023">*</abbr>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_disease-causing_pathogens" title="Discovery of disease-causing pathogens">Discovery of disease-causing pathogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smallpox_eradication" class="mw-redirect" title="Smallpox eradication">Smallpox eradication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_viruses" title="Social history of viruses">Social history of viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pandemics,_epidemics_and_notable_disease_outbreaks123" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Epidemics" title="Template:Epidemics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epidemics" title="Template talk:Epidemics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epidemics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epidemics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pandemics,_epidemics_and_notable_disease_outbreaks123" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemics</a> and notable <a href="/wiki/Disease_outbreak" title="Disease outbreak">disease outbreaks</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">List of epidemics and pandemics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Local</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_plague" title="Hittite plague">Hittite plague</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1330 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Athens" title="Plague of Athens">Plague of Athens</a> (429–426 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonine_Plague" title="Antonine Plague">Antonine Plague</a> (165–180 AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian" title="Plague of Cyprian">Plague of Cyprian</a> (250–266)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post- classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a> (541–542)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Plague_of_590" title="Roman Plague of 590">Roman Plague</a> (590)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Sheroe" title="Plague of Sheroe">Plague of Sheroe</a> (627–628)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Amwas" title="Plague of Amwas">Plague of Amwas</a> (638–639)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_664" title="Plague of 664">Plague of 664</a> (664–689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/735%E2%80%93737_Japanese_smallpox_epidemic" title="735–737 Japanese smallpox epidemic">Japanese smallpox</a> (735–737)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> (1346–1353)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweating_sickness" title="Sweating sickness">Sweating sickness</a> (1485–1551)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">16th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1510_influenza_pandemic" title="1510 influenza pandemic">Influenza pandemic</a> (1510)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_smallpox_in_Mexico" title="History of smallpox in Mexico">Mexican smallpox</a> (1520)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocoliztli_epidemics" title="Cocoliztli epidemics">"Cocoliztli" epidemics in colonial Mexico</a> (1545, 1576)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1557_influenza_pandemic" title="1557 influenza pandemic">Influenza pandemic</a> (1557–1559)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1563_London_plague" title="1563 London plague">London plague</a> (1563–1564)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1592%E2%80%931593_Malta_plague_epidemic" title="1592–1593 Malta plague epidemic">Maltese plague</a> (1592–1593)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1592%E2%80%931593_London_plague" title="1592–1593 London plague">London plague</a> (1592–1593)</li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1603_London_plague" title="1603 London plague">London plague</a> (1603)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1623_Malta_plague_outbreak" title="1623 Malta plague outbreak">Maltese plague</a> (1623)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1629%E2%80%931631_Italian_plague" title="1629–1631 Italian plague">Italian plague</a> (1629–1631)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_smallpox_epidemic" title="Massachusetts smallpox epidemic">Massachusetts smallpox</a> (1633)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_in_the_late_Ming_dynasty" title="Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty">Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty</a> (1633–1644)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_Seville" title="Great Plague of Seville">Great Plague of Seville</a> (1647–1652)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1655_Malta_plague_outbreak" title="1655 Malta plague outbreak">Maltese plague</a> (1655)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naples_Plague_(1656)" title="Naples Plague (1656)">Naples Plague</a> (1656)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_London" title="Great Plague of London">Great Plague of London</a> (1665–1666)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1675%E2%80%931676_Malta_plague_epidemic" title="1675–1676 Malta plague epidemic">Maltese plague</a> (1675–1676)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_Vienna" title="Great Plague of Vienna">Great Plague of Vienna</a> (1679)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1707%E2%80%9308_Iceland_smallpox_epidemic" title="1707–08 Iceland smallpox epidemic">Iceland smallpox epidemic</a> (1707–1708)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War_plague_outbreak" title="Great Northern War plague outbreak">Great Northern War plague</a> (1710–1712)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_Marseille" title="Great Plague of Marseille">Great Plague of Marseille</a> (1720–1722)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_1738" title="Great Plague of 1738">Great Plague of 1738</a> (1738)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1770%E2%80%931772_Russian_plague" title="1770–1772 Russian plague">Russian plague</a> (1770–1772)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1772%E2%80%931773_Persian_Plague" title="1772–1773 Persian Plague">Persian Plague</a> (1772)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1775%E2%80%931782_North_American_smallpox_epidemic" title="1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic">North American smallpox</a> (1780–1782)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1793_Philadelphia_yellow_fever_epidemic" title="1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic">Philadelphia yellow fever</a> (1793–1798)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1812%E2%80%931819_Ottoman_plague_epidemic" title="1812–1819 Ottoman plague epidemic">Ottoman plague</a> (1812–1819)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1813%E2%80%931814_Malta_plague_epidemic" title="1813–1814 Malta plague epidemic">Maltese plague</a> (1813–1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caragea%27s_plague" title="Caragea's plague">Caragea's plague</a> (1813)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groningen_epidemic" title="Groningen epidemic">Groningen epidemic</a> (1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1837_Great_Plains_smallpox_epidemic" title="1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic">Great Plains smallpox</a> (1837–1838)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1847_North_American_typhus_epidemic" title="1847 North American typhus epidemic">Typhus</a> (1847–1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1853_Copenhagen_cholera_outbreak" title="1853 Copenhagen cholera outbreak">Copenhagen cholera</a> (1853)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1853_Stockholm_cholera_outbreak" title="1853 Stockholm cholera outbreak">Stockholm cholera</a> (1853)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1854_Broad_Street_cholera_outbreak" title="1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak">Broad Street cholera</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1856_Guam_smallpox_epidemic" title="1856 Guam smallpox epidemic">Guam smallpox</a> (1856)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1862_Pacific_Northwest_smallpox_epidemic" title="1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic">Pacific Northwest smallpox</a> (1862–1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_Barcelona_yellow_fever_epidemic" title="1870 Barcelona yellow fever epidemic">Barcelona yellow fever</a> (1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever_in_Buenos_Aires" title="Yellow fever in Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires yellow fever</a> (1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1875%E2%80%931876_Australia_scarlet_fever_epidemic" title="1875–1876 Australia scarlet fever epidemic">Australia scarlet fever</a> (1875–1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1894_Hong_Kong_plague" title="1894 Hong Kong plague">Hong Kong plague</a> (1894)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_plague_of_1900%E2%80%931904" class="mw-redirect" title="San Francisco plague of 1900–1904">San Francisco plague</a> (1900–1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchurian_plague" title="Manchurian plague">Manchurian plague</a> (1910–1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_Los_Angeles_pneumonic_plague_outbreak" title="1924 Los Angeles pneumonic plague outbreak">LA pneumonic plague</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croydon_typhoid_outbreak_of_1937" class="mw-redirect" title="Croydon typhoid outbreak of 1937">Croydon typhoid</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_New_York_City_smallpox_outbreak" title="1947 New York City smallpox outbreak">NYC smallpox</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_smallpox_epidemic_in_Wroc%C5%82aw" class="mw-redirect" title="1963 smallpox epidemic in Wrocław">Wrocław smallpox</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_Yugoslav_smallpox_outbreak" title="1972 Yugoslav smallpox outbreak">Yugoslav smallpox</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_flu" title="London flu">London flu</a> (1972–1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974_smallpox_epidemic_in_India" title="1974 smallpox epidemic in India">Indian smallpox</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1994_plague_in_India" title="1994 plague in India">Surat plague</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998%E2%80%931999_Malaysia_Nipah_virus_outbreak" title="1998–1999 Malaysia Nipah virus outbreak">Malaysian Nipah virus</a> (1998–1999)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2002%E2%80%932004_SARS_outbreak" title="2002–2004 SARS outbreak">SARS</a> (2002–2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_Midwest_monkeypox_outbreak" title="2003 Midwest monkeypox outbreak">Midwest monkeypox</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">Bird flu</a> (2003–2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_dengue_outbreak_in_Singapore" title="2005 dengue outbreak in Singapore">Singaporean dengue</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_dengue_outbreak_in_India" title="2006 dengue outbreak in India">Indian dengue</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_chikungunya" title="Epidemiology of chikungunya">Chikungunya outbreaks</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_dengue_outbreak_in_Pakistan" title="2006 dengue outbreak in Pakistan">Pakistani dengue</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_Iraq_cholera_outbreak" title="2007 Iraq cholera outbreak">Iraqi cholera</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Zimbabwean_cholera_outbreak" title="2008 Zimbabwean cholera outbreak">Zimbabwean cholera</a> (2008–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st_century_Madagascar_plague_outbreaks" class="mw-redirect" title="21st century Madagascar plague outbreaks">Madagascar plague</a> (2008–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Bolivian_dengue_fever_epidemic" title="2009 Bolivian dengue fever epidemic">Bolivian dengue</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Gujarat_hepatitis_outbreak" title="2009 Gujarat hepatitis outbreak">Gujarat hepatitis</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009%E2%80%932010_West_African_meningitis_outbreak" title="2009–2010 West African meningitis outbreak">Western African meningitis</a> (2009–2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010s_Haiti_cholera_outbreak" title="2010s Haiti cholera outbreak">Haiti cholera</a> (2010–2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_dengue_outbreak_in_Pakistan" title="2011 dengue outbreak in Pakistan">Pakistani dengue</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_yellow_fever_outbreak_in_Darfur,_Sudan" title="2012 yellow fever outbreak in Darfur, Sudan">Darfur yellow fever</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_MERS_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="2012 MERS outbreak">MERS</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_dengue_outbreak_in_Singapore" title="2013 dengue outbreak in Singapore">Singaporean dengue</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Swansea_measles_epidemic" title="2013 Swansea measles epidemic">Swansea measles</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013%E2%80%932014_chikungunya_outbreak" title="2013–2014 chikungunya outbreak">Chikungunya</a> (2013–2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_African_Ebola_virus_epidemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Western African Ebola virus epidemic">Western African Ebola</a> (2013–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_Ebola_virus_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="2014 Democratic Republic of the Congo Ebola virus outbreak">DR Congo Ebola</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st_century_Madagascar_plague_outbreaks" class="mw-redirect" title="21st century Madagascar plague outbreaks">Madagascar plague</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Odisha_hepatitis_outbreak" title="2014 Odisha hepatitis outbreak">Odisha hepatitis</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polio_eradication#2011–2015" title="Polio eradication">Polio declaration</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Indian_swine_flu_outbreak" title="2015 Indian swine flu outbreak">Indian swine flu</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_MERS_outbreak_in_South_Korea" title="2015 MERS outbreak in South Korea">South Korean MERS</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Zika_virus_epidemic" title="2015–16 Zika virus epidemic">Zika</a> (2015–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_Angola_and_DR_Congo_yellow_fever_outbreak" title="2016 Angola and DR Congo yellow fever outbreak">Angolan yellow fever</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016%E2%80%932022_Yemen_cholera_outbreak" title="2016–2022 Yemen cholera outbreak">Yemeni cholera</a> (2016–2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Gorakhpur_hospital_deaths" title="2017 Gorakhpur hospital deaths">Gorakhpur Japanese encephalitis</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_MERS_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="2018 MERS outbreak">Saudi Arabian MERS</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nipah_virus_outbreaks_in_Kerala#2018_outbreak" title="Nipah virus outbreaks in Kerala">Kerala Nipah virus</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_%C3%89quateur_province_Ebola_outbreak" title="2018 Équateur province Ebola outbreak">Équateur province Ebola</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kivu_Ebola_epidemic" title="Kivu Ebola epidemic">Kivu Ebola</a> (2018–2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_Madagascar_measles_outbreak" title="2018 Madagascar measles outbreak">Madagascar measles</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Samoa_measles_outbreak" title="2019 Samoa measles outbreak">Samoa measles</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_measles_outbreak_in_the_Philippines" title="2019 measles outbreak in the Philippines">Philippine measles</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Pacific_Northwest_measles_outbreak" title="2019 Pacific Northwest measles outbreak">Pacific NW measles</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_New_York_measles_outbreak" title="2019 New York measles outbreak">New York measles</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Kuala_Koh_measles_outbreak" title="2019 Kuala Koh measles outbreak">Kuala Koh measles</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Tonga_measles_outbreak" title="2019 Tonga measles outbreak">Tonga measles</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932020_measles_outbreak_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="2019–2020 measles outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">DRC measles</a> (2019–2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932020_New_Zealand_measles_outbreak" title="2019–2020 New Zealand measles outbreak">New Zealand measles</a> (2019–2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_dengue_outbreak_in_Singapore" title="2020 dengue outbreak in Singapore">Singaporean dengue</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022-2023_Uganda_Ebola_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="2022-2023 Uganda Ebola outbreak">Uganda Ebola</a> (2022–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_dengue_outbreak_in_Jamaica" title="2023 dengue outbreak in Jamaica">Jamaica dengue</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023%E2%80%932024_Bangsamoro_measles_outbreak" title="2023–2024 Bangsamoro measles outbreak">Bangsamoro measles</a> (2023–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_dengue_outbreak_in_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="2024 dengue outbreak in Latin America and the Caribbean">2024 Latin American dengue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2024_dengue_epidemic_in_Argentina" title="2024 dengue epidemic in Argentina">Argentina</a> (2024)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Global</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_plague_pandemic" title="First plague pandemic">First plague pandemic</a> (541–767)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_plague_pandemic" title="Second plague pandemic">Second plague pandemic</a> (1348–19th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1510_influenza_pandemic" title="1510 influenza pandemic">Influenza pandemic</a> (1510)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1557_influenza_pandemic" title="1557 influenza pandemic">Influenza pandemic</a> (1557–1559)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1817%E2%80%931824_cholera_pandemic" title="1817–1824 cholera pandemic">First cholera pandemic</a> (1816–1826)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1826%E2%80%931837_cholera_pandemic" title="1826–1837 cholera pandemic">Second cholera pandemic</a> (1829–1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1846%E2%80%931860_cholera_pandemic" title="1846–1860 cholera pandemic">Third cholera pandemic</a> (1852–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">Third plague pandemic</a> (1855–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863%E2%80%931875_cholera_pandemic" title="1863–1875 cholera pandemic">Fourth cholera pandemic</a> (1863–1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1881%E2%80%931896_cholera_pandemic" title="1881–1896 cholera pandemic">Fifth cholera pandemic</a> (1881–1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1889%E2%80%931890_pandemic" title="1889–1890 pandemic">Russian flu</a> (1889–1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1899%E2%80%931923_cholera_pandemic" title="1899–1923 cholera pandemic">Sixth cholera pandemic</a> (1899–1923)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spanish flu</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1919%E2%80%931930_encephalitis_lethargica_epidemic" title="1919–1930 encephalitis lethargica epidemic">encephalitis lethargica epidemic</a> (1919–1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1957%E2%80%931958_influenza_pandemic" title="1957–1958 influenza pandemic">Asian flu</a> (1957–1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_cholera_pandemic" title="Seventh cholera pandemic">Seventh cholera pandemic</a> (1961–1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_flu" title="Hong Kong flu">Hong Kong flu</a> (1968–1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Russian_flu" title="1977 Russian flu">Russian flu pandemic</a> (1977–1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a> (1981–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic" title="2009 swine flu pandemic">Swine flu</a> (2009–2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19</a> (2019–present<abbr title="Peaked during 2020-23">*</abbr>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022%E2%80%932023_mpox_outbreak" title="2022–2023 mpox outbreak">Mpox (clade II) outbreak</a> (2022–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023%E2%80%932024_mpox_epidemic" title="2023–2024 mpox epidemic">Mpox (clade Ib) epidemic</a> (2023–2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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</div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-55c98588c7-zbsdc","wgBackendResponseTime":217,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"4.243","walltime":"4.607","ppvisitednodes":{"value":32357,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1208893,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":15764,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":16,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1449788,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3957.526 1 -total"," 43.09% 1705.244 3 Template:Reflist"," 22.60% 894.258 160 Template:Cite_journal"," 12.94% 512.243 130 Template:Sfn"," 8.23% 325.545 80 Template:Cite_web"," 6.89% 272.578 59 Template:Cite_book"," 6.26% 247.625 1 Template:Infobox_pandemic"," 5.88% 232.661 59 Template:Cite_news"," 3.12% 123.287 11 Template:Lang"," 3.10% 122.571 3 Template:Side_box"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.777","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":20787528,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAfkhami2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAfkhami2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAfkhami2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlfeirán2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlitaLingBinXiao-ting2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlmond2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnderson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnsartPelatBoelleCarrat2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAntonovicsHoodBaker2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArnold2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArnold2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarry2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarry2004b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarry2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarry2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBax2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeachFerrieSaavedra2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeiner2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeiner2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeiner2022\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBellNicollFukudaHorby2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenedictBraithwaite2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBengtssonSafiAvrilFiedler2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBillings1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBirgeKärtner2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlakemore2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBootsmaFerguson2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBranswell2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBristow2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrownGoekjianPoulsonValeika2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrundageShanks2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFByerly2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFByerly2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCDC2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCalleja2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChandraChristensen2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChandraChristensenChandraPaneth2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChandraChristensenLikhtman2020\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFChandraKuljaninWray2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChengLeung2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFChodosh2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChowellErkorekaViboudEcheverri-Dávila2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChowellSimonsenFloresMiller2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChowellViboudSimonsenMiller2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCimino2023–2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCole1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollier1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConnor2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCorreiaLuckVerner2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCorrigan2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCotter2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoxGillCoxWorobey2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCristinaPolleroPellegrino2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrosby1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrosby2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCross2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCursonMcCracken2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaniels2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDennis_ShanksMackenzieWallerBrundage2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDenoon2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDionneTurkmen2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDorratoltaj2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuncan2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErkoreka2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFEwald1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFitri2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFitzGerald\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlecknoeCharles_WakefieldSimmons2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlynn2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFogarty_International_Center\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFottrell2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFox2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFox2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoxmanStorerFitzgeraldWasik2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoxmanStorerVanajaLevchenko2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGagnonMilleret_al2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalvin2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarret2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGetz2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGladwell1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrabowskiKosińskaKnapBrydak2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreat_Britain_Ministry_of_Health1920\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHakim2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHammondRollandShore1917\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHannoun1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHansen2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanssen1923\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarderOrtrud\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrisonClaiborne_JH_Jr1890\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHauckGellis2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHays1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeDushoffDayMa2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeDushoffDayMa2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoChow2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolbrook2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHong2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHonigsbaum2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHonigsbaum2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHonigsbaum2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoppe2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHsieh2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumphries2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumphries2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIijima1998\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFIijima2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIlling2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJilaniJamilSiddiqui2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson2003\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnsonMueller2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJordan1927\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJordanTumpeyJester\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoyce2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKemp2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenner2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKent2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKillingrayPhillips2003\"] = 5,\n [\"CITEREFKim2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlugmanChienMadhi2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnobler2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnoblerMackMahmoudLemon\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKobasaet_al.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKohn2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKolata1999\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKungJenYuanTien1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLandgrebe2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLangford2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindley\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinnanmäki2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLittle2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLowenSteel2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadhav2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMamelund2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarch1932\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarcus1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshall2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayer2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayor2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcClure2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCord1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMermel2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyer2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichaelisDoerrCinatl2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillsRobinsLipsitch2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoreLoveluckCliffordHandley2020\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMorensFauci2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorensTaubenbergerFauci2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorensTaubenbergerFauci2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorrisClearyClarke2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorrisey1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMueller1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurrayLopezChinFeehan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMüller2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNajera2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholsEwingGastonMarinari2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoymerCarreonJohnson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoymerGarenne2000\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFNunesSilvaRodriguesRoquette2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Reilly2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOxford2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOxfordGill2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOxfordLambkinSeftonDaniels2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOxfordSeftonJacksonInnes2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOxfordSeftonJacksonJohnson1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPankhurst1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaskoffSattenspiel2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPattersonPyle1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearcePallaghyMcCawMcVernon2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPettitJanice2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhilips2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips2014\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips2020\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPhillipsKillingray2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPorras-GalloDavis2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPotter2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowell2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrice-Smith2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQureshi2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRadusin2012\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFReweganBogaertYanGagnon2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReynolds1866\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRice2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiceBryder\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichardSugayaSimonsenMiller2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRistićMarinković2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodríguezPalomba2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenwald2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRozoGronvall2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRyan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaunders-HastingsKrewski2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSawchuk2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmittNordyke1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSegrave2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShanks\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShanks2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShanksBrundage2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSheidlower2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimonsenClarkeSchonbergerArden1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpinney2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpinney2018b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpreeuwenberg2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpreeuwenbergKronemanPaget2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpreeuwenbergKronemanPaget2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSreevatsan2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStarko2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoreyC2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTakon2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaubenbergerBaltimoreDohertyMarkel2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaubenbergerMorens2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaubenbergerMorens2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaubenbergerMorens2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaubenbergerReidJanczewskiFanning2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaubenbergerReidLourensWang2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTolfBengtssonRodriguesLatorre-Margalef2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrillaTrillaDaer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuckelSasslerMaiselLeykam2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuckerBöhning-GaeseFaganFryxell2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTumpeyGarcía-SastreMikulasovaTaubenberger2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States_Surgeon-General\u0026#039;s_Office1920\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUniversity_Libraries\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFValentine2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVanaWestover2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaughan1921\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFVergano\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVergano2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVilenskyFoleyGilman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVázquez-EspinosaLaganàVázquez2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWishart2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorld_Health2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorobeyCoxGill2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYangPetkovaShaman2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYuTsibaneMcGrawHouse2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhuangLiuLi2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFdos_ReisHayGoldstein2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÅman1990\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 5,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 59,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite episode\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 144,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 57,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 75,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 2,\n [\"Cs1 config\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 2,\n [\"Epidemics\"] = 1,\n [\"Flu\"] = 1,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 4,\n [\"History of infectious disease\"] = 1,\n [\"Influenza\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox pandemic\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 11,\n [\"Langx\"] = 9,\n [\"Lay source\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Notable flu pandemics\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Poem quote\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"R\"] = 6,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"SS\"] = 1,\n [\"Scholia\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 130,\n [\"SfnRef\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfnm\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sndash\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n [\"World War I\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","380","12.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","340","11.4"],["?","300","10.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","300","10.1"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","280","9.4"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","260","8.7"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","160","5.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","100","3.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","80","2.7"],["type","80","2.7"],["[others]","700","23.5"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-54bc5bdf84-2wlbs","timestamp":"20250217204129","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Spanish flu","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spanish_flu","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q178275","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q178275","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-03-19T21:28:58Z","dateModified":"2025-02-11T23:33:55Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/20\/Emergency_hospital_during_Influenza_epidemic%2C_Camp_Funston%2C_Kansas_-_NCP_1603.jpg","headline":"1918\u20131920 global influenza pandemic caused by the H1N1 influenza A virus"}</script> </body> </html>