CINXE.COM

Mahayana - Wikipedia

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Mahayana - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"11dc4da9-9106-466b-8c01-55833e179160","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Mahayana","wgTitle":"Mahayana","wgCurRevisionId":1262156146,"wgRevisionId":1262156146,"wgArticleId":27937488,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 Japanese-language sources (ja)","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles containing Sanskrit-language text","Pages with Sanskrit IPA","Articles containing Chinese-language text","Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from January 2023","Articles with unsourced statements from June 2015", "Commons category link is on Wikidata","Mahayana","Buddhist philosophical concepts","Culture of India","History of religion in India","Nāstika","History of Buddhism in Asia"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Mahayana","wgRelevantArticleId":27937488,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition": "interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q48362","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=[ "ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&amp;modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&amp;only=styles&amp;skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&amp;modules=startup&amp;only=scripts&amp;raw=1&amp;skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&amp;modules=site.styles&amp;only=styles&amp;skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.6"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Detail.jpeg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1333"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Detail.jpeg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="889"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="711"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Mahayana - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Mahayana rootpage-Mahayana skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page&#039;s font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&amp;wmf_medium=sidebar&amp;wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&amp;uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&amp;returnto=Mahayana" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&amp;returnto=Mahayana" title="You&#039;re encouraged to log in; however, it&#039;s not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&amp;wmf_medium=sidebar&amp;wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&amp;uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&amp;returnto=Mahayana" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&amp;returnto=Mahayana" title="You&#039;re encouraged to log in; however, it&#039;s not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"><!-- CentralNotice --></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Etymology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Original_Sanskrit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Original_Sanskrit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Original Sanskrit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Original_Sanskrit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_translation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_translation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Chinese translation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_translation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Origin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Mahāyāna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Mahāyāna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Early Mahāyāna</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Mahāyāna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Growth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expansion_outside_of_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion_outside_of_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Expansion outside of India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expansion_outside_of_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Later developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Worldview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Worldview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Worldview</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Worldview-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Worldview subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Worldview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Buddhas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Buddhas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The Buddhas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Buddhas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Bodhisattvas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Bodhisattvas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>The Bodhisattvas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Bodhisattvas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Bodhisattva_Path" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Bodhisattva_Path"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>The Bodhisattva Path</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Bodhisattva_Path-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bodhisattva_levels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bodhisattva_levels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Bodhisattva levels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bodhisattva_levels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skillful_means_and_the_One_Vehicle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skillful_means_and_the_One_Vehicle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Skillful means and the One Vehicle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skillful_means_and_the_One_Vehicle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prajñāpāramitā_(Transcendent_Knowledge)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prajñāpāramitā_(Transcendent_Knowledge)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Prajñāpāramitā (Transcendent Knowledge)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prajñāpāramitā_(Transcendent_Knowledge)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Madhyamaka_(Centrism)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Madhyamaka_(Centrism)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Madhyamaka (Centrism)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Madhyamaka_(Centrism)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vijñānavāda_(The_Consciousness_doctrine)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vijñānavāda_(The_Consciousness_doctrine)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Vijñānavāda (The Consciousness doctrine)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vijñānavāda_(The_Consciousness_doctrine)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buddha-nature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddha-nature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Buddha-nature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddha-nature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arguments_for_authenticity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arguments_for_authenticity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Arguments for authenticity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arguments_for_authenticity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claims_of_superiority" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_superiority"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.11</span> <span>Claims of superiority</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_superiority-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Practice</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Practice-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Practice subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Devotion,_ritual_and_meritorious_practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Devotion,_ritual_and_meritorious_practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Devotion, ritual and meritorious practices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Devotion,_ritual_and_meritorious_practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_bodhisattva_perfections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_bodhisattva_perfections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>The bodhisattva perfections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_bodhisattva_perfections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meditation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meditation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Meditation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meditation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scripture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scripture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Scripture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scripture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Scripture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Scripture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mahāyāna_sutras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mahāyāna_sutras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Mahāyāna sutras</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mahāyāna_sutras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Other literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Classifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_with_the_early_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_with_the_early_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Relationship with the early texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_with_the_early_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_Mahāyāna_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_Mahāyāna_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary_Mahāyāna_Buddhism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_Mahāyāna_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chinese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Chinese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Korean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Korean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Korean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Korean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japanese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Japanese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vietnamese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vietnamese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Vietnamese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vietnamese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northern_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Northern Buddhism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theravāda_school" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theravāda_school"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Theravāda school</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theravāda_school-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theravāda school subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theravāda_school-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Role_of_the_Bodhisattva" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_the_Bodhisattva"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Role of the Bodhisattva</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_the_Bodhisattva-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theravāda_and_Hīnayāna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theravāda_and_Hīnayāna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Theravāda and Hīnayāna</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theravāda_and_Hīnayāna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Mahayana</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 97 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-97" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">97 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7" title="ماهايانا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ماهايانا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="মহাযান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মহাযান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="মহাযান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মহাযান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%81i-s%C4%93ng_Hu%CC%8Dt-k%C3%A0u" title="Tāi-sēng Hu̍t-kàu – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tāi-sēng Hu̍t-kàu" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="महायान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="महायान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Махаяна – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Махаяна" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%90%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%86%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8D" title="ཐེག་པ་ཆེན་པོ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཐེག་པ་ཆེན་པོ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C3%A1j%C3%A1na" title="Mahájána – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mahájána" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajaana" title="Mahajaana – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mahajaana" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B1%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B1" title="Μαχαγιάνα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μαχαγιάνα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Mahāyāna – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mahāyāna" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajano" title="Mahajano – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mahajano" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Mahāyāna – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mahāyāna" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="مهایانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مهایانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouddhisme_mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Bouddhisme mahāyāna – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Bouddhisme mahāyāna" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%EC%8A%B9%EB%B6%88%EA%B5%90" title="대승불교 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="대승불교" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="महायान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="महायान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajana" title="Mahajana – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Mahajana" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Mahāyāna – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mahāyāna" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Mahāyāna – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Mahāyāna" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddismo_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Buddismo Mahāyāna – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Buddismo Mahāyāna" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%94" title="מהאיאנה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מהאיאנה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="მაჰაიანა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მაჰაიანა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Махаяна – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Махаяна" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boudism_mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Boudism mahāyāna – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Boudism mahāyāna" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Махаяна – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Махаяна" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Mahāyāna – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Mahāyāna" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%AB%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99" title="ມະຫາຍານ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ມະຫາຍານ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81j%C4%81nas_budisms" title="Mahājānas budisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Mahājānas budisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajana" title="Mahajana – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mahajana" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C3%A1j%C3%A1na" title="Mahájána – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Mahájána" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Махајана – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Махајана" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodisma_mahaiana" title="Bodisma mahaiana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Bodisma mahaiana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="മഹായാനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മഹായാനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="महायान – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="महायान" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7" title="ماهايانا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ماهايانا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="مهایانه – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="مهایانه" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Махаяна – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Махаяна" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%9F%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%94" title="မဟာယာန – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မဟာယာန" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="महायान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="महायान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="महायान – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="महायान" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E4%B9%97%E4%BB%8F%E6%95%99" title="大乗仏教 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="大乗仏教" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Mahāyāna – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mahāyāna" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodisme_mahayana" title="Bodisme mahayana – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Bodisme mahayana" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AF%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8" title="ਮਹਾਯਾਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਹਾਯਾਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%81%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مہایان – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مہایان" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7" title="مهايانا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="مهايانا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayaana" title="Mahayaana – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Mahayaana" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%A0%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93" title="មហាយាន – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="មហាយាន" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajana" title="Mahajana – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mahajana" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maaiana" title="Maaiana – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Maaiana" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Mahāyāna – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Mahāyāna" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Махаяна – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Махаяна" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="महायानम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="महायानम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajana" title="Mahajana – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mahajana" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%84%E0%B6%B8" title="මහායාන බුදු දහම – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මහායාන බුදු දහම" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C3%A1j%C3%A1na" title="Mahájána – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Mahájána" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%BE%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7" title="ماھایانا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ماھایانا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Махајана – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Махајана" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajana" title="Mahajana – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mahajana" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajana" title="Mahajana – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Mahajana" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budismong_Mahayana" title="Budismong Mahayana – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Budismong Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8C%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மகாயான பௌத்தம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மகாயான பௌத்தம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%B9%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%82" title="మహాయానం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మహాయానం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99" title="มหายาน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="มหายาน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Махаяна – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Махаяна" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%81%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مہایان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مہایان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_th%E1%BB%ABa" title="Đại thừa – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đại thừa" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E4%B9%98%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99" title="大乘佛教 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="大乘佛教" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E4%B9%98%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99" title="大乘佛教 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="大乘佛教" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E4%B9%98%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99" title="大乘佛教 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="大乘佛教" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q48362#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Mahayana" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Mahayana"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Mahayana"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Mahayana" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Mahayana" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;oldid=1262156146" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&amp;page=Mahayana&amp;id=1262156146&amp;wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlQ%C4%B1sald%C4%B1c%C4%B1s%C4%B1&amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMahayana"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrKodu&amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMahayana"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&amp;page=Mahayana&amp;action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mahayana" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q48362" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of Buddhism</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Detail.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Detail.jpeg/260px-Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Detail.jpeg" decoding="async" width="260" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Detail.jpeg/390px-Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Detail.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Detail.jpeg/520px-Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Detail.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>An illustration in a manuscript of the <i><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADas%C4%81hasrik%C4%81_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra">Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a></i> from <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a>, depicting the bodhisattva <a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a>, an important figure in Mahāyāna</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shishoin_temple_shibamata_Five_Tathagatas_2020.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Shishoin_temple_shibamata_Five_Tathagatas_2020.jpg/260px-Shishoin_temple_shibamata_Five_Tathagatas_2020.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Shishoin_temple_shibamata_Five_Tathagatas_2020.jpg/390px-Shishoin_temple_shibamata_Five_Tathagatas_2020.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Shishoin_temple_shibamata_Five_Tathagatas_2020.jpg/520px-Shishoin_temple_shibamata_Five_Tathagatas_2020.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Five_Tath%C4%81gatas" title="Five Tathāgatas">Five Tathāgatas</a> in Shishoin Temple (Tokyo). A unique feature of Mahāyāna is the belief that there are multiple Buddhas which are currently teaching the Dharma.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="border-collapse:collapse"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#FFD700;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Mahayana" title="Category:Mahayana">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFD700;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#A0522D">Mahāyāna Buddhism</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Lotus, one of the eight auspicious symbols in Mahāyāna"><img alt="A Lotus, one of the eight auspicious symbols in Mahāyāna" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg/150px-Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg/225px-Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg/300px-Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="527" data-file-height="576" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD700;;background:#FFD700;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Teachings</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">Mind of Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upaya" title="Upaya">Skillful Means</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Transcendent Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Transcendent Virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81#Mahayana_Buddhism" title="Śūnyatā">Emptiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara#The_doctrine_of_Vijñapti-mātra" title="Yogachara">Consciousness-only</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trikaya" title="Trikaya">Three bodies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yana_(Buddhism)" title="Yana (Buddhism)">Three vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)#Apratiṣṭhita_nirvāna" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">Non-abiding Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekay%C4%81na" title="Ekayāna">One Vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_Precepts" title="Bodhisattva Precepts">Bodhisattva Precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">Bodhisattva vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bh%C5%ABmi_(Buddhism)" title="Bhūmi (Buddhism)">Bodhisattva stages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_land" title="Pure land">Pure Lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminous_mind" title="Luminous mind">Luminous mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharani" title="Dharani">Dharani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Turnings_of_the_Wheel_of_Dharma" title="Three Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma">Three Turnings</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD700;;background:#FFD700;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattvas</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Shakyamuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi-Buddha" title="Adi-Buddha">Adi-Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akshobhya" title="Akshobhya">Akshobhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_Dev%C4%AB" title="Prajñāpāramitā Devī">Prajñāpāramitā Devī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaisajyaguru" title="Bhaisajyaguru">Bhaiṣajyaguru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vairocana" title="Vairocana">Vairocana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrapani" title="Vajrapani">Vajrapāṇi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrasattva" title="Vajrasattva">Vajrasattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha" title="Kṣitigarbha">Kṣitigarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80k%C4%81%C5%9Bagarbha" title="Ākāśagarbha">Ākāśagarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Bodhisattva)" title="Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrathful_deities" title="Wrathful deities">Wrathful deities</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD700;;background:#FFD700;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñāpāramitā sūtras</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra"><i>Lotus Sūtra</i></a></li> <li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Avatamsaka_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Avatamsaka Sutra">Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81ratnak%C5%AB%E1%B9%ADa_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra">Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mahasamnipata_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahasamnipata Sutra">Mahāsaṃnipāta Sūtra</a></i></li> <li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><i><a href="/wiki/Vimalakirti-nirdesa" class="mw-redirect" title="Vimalakirti-nirdesa">Vimalakirtinirdeśa</a></i></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism#Key_Mahayana_sources" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land Sutras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lalitavistara_S%C5%ABtra" title="Lalitavistara Sūtra">Lalitavistara Sūtra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samadhiraja_Sutra" title="Samadhiraja Sutra">Samādhirāja Sūtra</a></i></li> <li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra" title="Sandhinirmocana Sutra"><i>Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra</i></a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gatagarbha_s%C5%ABtras" title="Tathāgatagarbha sūtras">Tathāgatagarbha sūtras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%ABm%C4%81l%C4%81dev%C4%AB_Si%E1%B9%83han%C4%81da_S%C5%ABtra" title="Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra">Śrīmālādevī Sūtra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Mah%C4%81parinirv%C4%81%E1%B9%87a_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra">Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra</a></i></li> <li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABra%E1%B9%85gama_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra" title="Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra">Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra</a></i></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lankavatara_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Lankavatara Sutra">Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ghanavy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra" title="Ghanavyūha Sūtra">Ghanavyūha sūtra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Golden_Light_Sutra" title="Golden Light Sutra">Golden Light Sutra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gataguhyaka_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Tathāgataguhyaka Sūtra">Tathāgataguhyaka Sūtra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/K%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Davy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra" title="Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra">Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD700;;background:#FFD700;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism#Mahāyāna_schools" title="Schools of Buddhism">Major schools</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Mādhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogācāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tendai" title="Tendai">Tendai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Huayan school">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fo_Guang_Shan" title="Fo Guang Shan">Fo Guang Shan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzu_Chi" title="Tzu Chi">Tzu Chi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma_Drum_Mountain" title="Dharma Drum Mountain">Dharma Drum Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chung_Tai_Shan" title="Chung Tai Shan">Chung Tai Shan</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD700;;background:#FFD700;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Key figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nāgārjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Ashvaghosha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryadeva" title="Aryadeva">Āryadeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lokaksema_(Buddhist_monk)" title="Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)">Lokakṣema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sthiramati" title="Sthiramati">Sthiramati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81viveka" title="Bhāviveka">Bhāvaviveka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakīrti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandrakirti" title="Chandrakirti">Candrakīrti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huineng" title="Huineng">Huineng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fazang" title="Fazang">Fazang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoghavajra" title="Amoghavajra">Amoghavajra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saich%C5%8D" title="Saichō">Saichō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C5%ABkai" title="Kūkai">Kūkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shantideva" title="Shantideva">Shāntideva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81ntarak%E1%B9%A3ita" title="Śāntarakṣita">Shāntarakshita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wonhyo" title="Wonhyo">Wohnyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazu_Daoyi" title="Mazu Daoyi">Mazu Daoyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinul" title="Jinul">Jinul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahui_Zonggao" title="Dahui Zonggao">Dahui Zonggao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongzhi_Zhengjue" title="Hongzhi Zhengjue">Hongzhi Zhengjue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen" title="Dōgen">Dōgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren" title="Nichiren">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aa%E1%B9%85karanandana" title="Śaṅkaranandana">Śaṅkaranandana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vir%C5%ABpa" title="Virūpa">Virūpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratn%C4%81kara%C5%9B%C4%81nti" title="Ratnākaraśānti">Ratnākaraśānti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhayakaragupta" title="Abhayakaragupta">Abhayākaragupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naropa" title="Naropa">Nāropā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakya_Pandita" title="Sakya Pandita">Sakya Pandita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolpopa_Sherab_Gyaltsen" title="Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen">Dolpopa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangjung_Dorje,_3rd_Karmapa_Lama" class="mw-redirect" title="Rangjung Dorje, 3rd Karmapa Lama">Rangjung Dorje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Je_Tsongkhapa" title="Je Tsongkhapa">Tsongkhapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longchenpa" title="Longchenpa">Longchenpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakuin_Ekaku" title="Hakuin Ekaku">Hakuin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanshan_Deqing" title="Hanshan Deqing">Hanshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taixu" title="Taixu">Taixu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._T._Suzuki" title="D. T. Suzuki">D. T. Suzuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheng-yen" title="Sheng-yen">Sheng-yen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">14th Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD700;;background:#FFD700;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Regional traditions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Han Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism in Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newar_Buddhism" title="Newar Buddhism">Newar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">West</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Buddhism" title="Template:Mahāyāna Buddhism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Buddhism" title="Template talk:Mahāyāna Buddhism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Buddhism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mahāyāna Buddhism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:16.0em;border-collapse:collapse; text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#FFD068">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhism" title="Category:Buddhism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFD068"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/90px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/135px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/180px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="697" data-file-height="697" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Outline</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_councils" title="Buddhist councils">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline in the Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Later Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Concepts</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra">Dharma wheel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Five Aggregates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anicca" class="mw-redirect" title="Anicca">Impermanence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">Not-self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Dependent Origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Emptiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">Cosmology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhavacana" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhavacana">Buddhavacana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Buddhist Texts">Early Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Buddhist_literature" title="Sanskrit Buddhist literature">Sanskrit literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-canonical_Buddhist_texts" title="Post-canonical Buddhist texts">Post-canon</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Threefold_Training" title="Threefold Training">Practices</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Three Jewels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Paths_to_liberation" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist Paths to liberation">Buddhist Paths to liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Perfections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Philosophical reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotional practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">Merit making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Recollections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Mindfulness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Sublime abidings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Aids to Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">Lay life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_chant" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist chant">Buddhist chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_pilgrimage" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">Nirvāṇa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_awakening" title="Four stages of awakening">Four Stages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratyekabuddha">Pratyekabuddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddha</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Traditions</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mahāyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newar_Buddhism" title="Newar Buddhism">Newar</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Buddhism by country</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Brazil" title="Buddhism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_New_Zealand" title="Buddhism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/16px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/24px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/32px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="697" data-file-height="697" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Buddhism" title="Portal:Buddhism">Buddhism&#32;portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Buddhism" title="Template:Buddhism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Buddhism" title="Template talk:Buddhism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Buddhism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Buddhism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Mahāyāna</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="&#39;m&#39; in &#39;my&#39;">m</span><span title="/ɑː/: &#39;a&#39; in &#39;father&#39;">ɑː</span><span title="&#39;h&#39; in &#39;hi&#39;">h</span><span title="/ə/: &#39;a&#39; in &#39;about&#39;">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/j/: &#39;y&#39; in &#39;yes&#39;">j</span><span title="/ɑː/: &#39;a&#39; in &#39;father&#39;">ɑː</span><span title="&#39;n&#39; in &#39;nigh&#39;">n</span><span title="/ə/: &#39;a&#39; in &#39;about&#39;">ə</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">MAH</span>-hə-<span style="font-size:90%">YAH</span>-nə</i></a>; <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: <span lang="sa">महायान</span>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">pronounced</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="sa-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Sanskrit" title="Help:IPA/Sanskrit">&#91;mɐɦaːˈjaːnɐ&#93;</a></span>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;">&#8201;</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">Great Vehicle</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) is a term for a broad group of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> traditions, <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts#Mahāyāna_texts" title="Buddhist texts">texts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">philosophies</a>, and practices developed in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">ancient India</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;">&#8201;1st century BCE</span> onwards). It is considered one of the three main existing branches of Buddhism, the others being <a href="/wiki/Therav%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Theravāda">Theravāda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vajray%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Vajrayāna">Vajrayāna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Harvey-2013a_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvey-2013a-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Mahāyāna accepts the main scriptures and teachings of <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">early Buddhism</a> but also recognizes various doctrines and texts that are not accepted by Theravada Buddhism as original. These include the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_s%C5%ABtras" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahāyāna sūtras">Mahāyāna sūtras</a> and their emphasis on the <i>bodhisattva</i> path and <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita"><i>Prajñāpāramitā</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Vajrayāna or Mantra traditions are a subset of Mahāyāna which makes use of numerous <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">tantric</a> methods Vajrayānists consider to help achieve <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Harvey-2013a_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvey-2013a-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mahāyāna also refers to the path of the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva</a> striving to become a fully awakened Buddha for the benefit of all sentient beings, and is thus also called the "Bodhisattva Vehicle" (<i>Bodhisattvayāna</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated38_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated38-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Mahāyāna Buddhism generally sees the goal of becoming a Buddha through the bodhisattva path as being available to all and sees the state of the <a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">arhat</a> as incomplete.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Mahāyāna also includes numerous Buddhas and bodhisattvas that are not found in Theravada (such as <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vairocana" title="Vairocana">Vairocana</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008f_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008f-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy also promotes unique theories, such as the <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a> theory of emptiness (<i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">śūnyatā</a></i>), the <i><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Vijñānavāda</a></i> ("the doctrine of consciousness" also called "mind-only"), and the <i><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></i> teaching. </p><p>While initially a small movement in India, Mahāyāna eventually grew to become an influential force in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">Indian Buddhism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Woodhead_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woodhead-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Large scholastic centers associated with Mahāyāna such as <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vikramashila" title="Vikramashila">Vikramashila</a> thrived between the 7th and 12th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Woodhead_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woodhead-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In the course of its history, Mahāyāna Buddhism spread from <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a> to <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayan regions</a>. Various Mahāyāna traditions are the predominant forms of Buddhism found in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Since <a href="/wiki/Vajray%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Vajrayāna">Vajrayāna</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">tantric</a> form of Mahāyāna, Mahāyāna Buddhism is also dominant in <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, and other Himalayan regions. It has also been traditionally present elsewhere in Asia as a minority among Buddhist communities in <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> and regions with <a href="/wiki/Asian_diaspora" title="Asian diaspora">Asian diaspora</a> communities. </p><p>As of 2010, the Mahāyāna tradition was the largest major tradition of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, with 53% of Buddhists belonging to <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">East Asian Mahāyāna</a> and 6% to <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayāna</a>, compared to 36% to <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Original_Sanskrit">Original Sanskrit</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Original Sanskrit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BuddhistTriad.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/BuddhistTriad.JPG/220px-BuddhistTriad.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/BuddhistTriad.JPG/330px-BuddhistTriad.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/BuddhistTriad.JPG/440px-BuddhistTriad.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1587" data-file-height="970" /></a><figcaption>Mahāyāna Buddhist triad, including <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a> <a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a>, the Buddha, and Bodhisattva <a href="/wiki/Avalokitesvara" class="mw-redirect" title="Avalokitesvara">Avalokiteśvara</a>. 2nd–3rd century CE, <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhāra</a></figcaption></figure> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Jan_Nattier" title="Jan Nattier">Jan Nattier</a>, the term <i>Mahāyāna</i> ("Great Vehicle") was originally an honorary synonym for <i>Bodhisattvayāna</i> ("<a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a> Vehicle"),<sup id="cite_ref-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._174_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._174-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> the vehicle of a bodhisattva seeking <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">buddhahood</a> for the benefit of all sentient beings.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated38_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated38-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The term <i>Mahāyāna</i> (which had earlier been used simply as an epithet for Buddhism itself) was therefore adopted at an early date as a synonym for the path and the teachings of the bodhisattvas. Since it was simply an honorary term for <i>Bodhisattvayāna</i>, the adoption of the term <i>Mahāyāna</i> and its application to Bodhisattvayāna did not represent a significant turning point in the development of a Mahāyāna tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._174_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._174-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest Mahāyāna texts, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Lotus Sūtra</a></i>, often use the term <i>Mahāyāna</i> as a synonym for <i>Bodhisattvayāna</i>, but the term <i><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hīnayāna</a></i> is comparatively rare in the earliest sources. The presumed dichotomy between <i>Mahāyāna</i> and <i>Hīnayāna</i> can be deceptive, as the two terms were not actually formed in relation to one another in the same era.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the earliest and most important references to <i>Mahāyāna</i> are those that occur in the <i><a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Lotus Sūtra</a></i> (Skt. <i>Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra</i>) dating between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Seishi Karashima has suggested that the term first used in an earlier <a href="/wiki/G%C4%81ndh%C4%81r%C4%AB_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gāndhārī language">Gandhāri</a> <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> version of the <i>Lotus Sūtra</i> was not the term <i>mahāyāna</i> but the Prakrit word <i>mahājāna</i> in the sense of <i>mahājñāna</i> (great knowing).<sup id="cite_ref-Williams2004_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams2004-13"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> At a later stage when the early Prakrit word was converted into Sanskrit, this <i>mahājāna</i>, being phonetically ambivalent, may have been converted into <i>mahāyāna</i>, possibly because of what may have been a double meaning in the famous <a href="/wiki/Upaya#Parable_of_the_burning_house" title="Upaya">Parable of the Burning House</a>, which talks of three vehicles or carts (Skt: <i>yāna</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Williams2004_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams2004-13"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_translation">Chinese translation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Chinese translation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, Mahāyāna is called <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">大乘</span></span> (<i>dàshèng, or dàchéng</i>), which is a <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calque</a> of <i>maha</i> (great <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">大</span></span>) <i>yana</i> (vehicle <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">乘</span></span>). There is also the transliteration <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">摩诃衍那</span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The term appeared in some of the earliest Mahāyāna texts, including <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Ling_of_Han" title="Emperor Ling of Han">Emperor Ling of Han</a>'s translation of the Lotus Sutra.<sup id="cite_ref-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._193-1942_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._193-1942-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> It also appears in the Chinese <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Āgamas</a>, though scholars like Yin Shun argue that this is a later addition.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Some Chinese scholars also argue that the meaning of the term in these earlier texts is different from later ideas of Mahāyāna Buddhism.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seated_Avalokiteshvara._Gandharan,_from_Loriyan_Tangai._Kushan_period,_1st_-_3d_century_AD._Indian_Museum,_Calcutta_ei05-31.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Seated_Avalokiteshvara._Gandharan%2C_from_Loriyan_Tangai._Kushan_period%2C_1st_-_3d_century_AD._Indian_Museum%2C_Calcutta_ei05-31.jpg/220px-Seated_Avalokiteshvara._Gandharan%2C_from_Loriyan_Tangai._Kushan_period%2C_1st_-_3d_century_AD._Indian_Museum%2C_Calcutta_ei05-31.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Seated_Avalokiteshvara._Gandharan%2C_from_Loriyan_Tangai._Kushan_period%2C_1st_-_3d_century_AD._Indian_Museum%2C_Calcutta_ei05-31.jpg/330px-Seated_Avalokiteshvara._Gandharan%2C_from_Loriyan_Tangai._Kushan_period%2C_1st_-_3d_century_AD._Indian_Museum%2C_Calcutta_ei05-31.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Seated_Avalokiteshvara._Gandharan%2C_from_Loriyan_Tangai._Kushan_period%2C_1st_-_3d_century_AD._Indian_Museum%2C_Calcutta_ei05-31.jpg/440px-Seated_Avalokiteshvara._Gandharan%2C_from_Loriyan_Tangai._Kushan_period%2C_1st_-_3d_century_AD._Indian_Museum%2C_Calcutta_ei05-31.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Seated <a href="/wiki/Avalokiteshvara" class="mw-redirect" title="Avalokiteshvara">Avalokiteshvara</a> bodhisattva. <a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism" title="Gandharan Buddhism">Gandharan</a>, from Loriyan Tangai. <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a> period, 1st – 3rd century CE. Indian Museum, <a href="/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Calcutta</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karla_chaitya_stupa.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Karla_chaitya_stupa.JPG/220px-Karla_chaitya_stupa.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Karla_chaitya_stupa.JPG/330px-Karla_chaitya_stupa.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Karla_chaitya_stupa.JPG/440px-Karla_chaitya_stupa.JPG 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Cave complex associated with the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghika</a> sect. <a href="/wiki/Karla_Caves" title="Karla Caves">Karla Caves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Mahārāṣtra</a>, India</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin">Origin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The origins of Mahāyāna are still not completely understood and there are numerous competing theories.<sup id="cite_ref-Hirakawa_Akira_1993,_p._260_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hirakawa_Akira_1993,_p._260-24"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The earliest Western views of Mahāyāna assumed that it existed as a separate school in competition with the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hīnayāna</a>" schools. Some of the major theories about the origins of Mahāyāna include the following: </p><p><b>The lay origins theory</b> was first proposed by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Przyluski" title="Jean Przyluski">Jean Przyluski</a> and then defended by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Lamotte" title="Étienne Lamotte">Étienne Lamotte</a> and Akira Hirakawa. This view states that <a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81saka_and_Up%C4%81sik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upāsaka and Upāsikā">laypersons</a> were particularly important in the development of Mahāyāna and is partly based on some texts like the <a href="/wiki/Vimalakirti_Sutra" title="Vimalakirti Sutra"><i>Vimalakirti Sūtra</i></a>, which praise lay figures at the expense of monastics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1990271_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1990271-25"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> This theory is no longer widely accepted since numerous early Mahāyāna works promote monasticism and asceticism.<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2010a-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>The Mahāsāṃghika origin theory</b>, which argues that Mahāyāna developed within the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghika</a> tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2010a-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> This is defended by scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Johan_Hendrik_Caspar_Kern" title="Johan Hendrik Caspar Kern">Hendrik Kern</a>, <a href="/wiki/A.K._Warder" class="mw-redirect" title="A.K. Warder">A.K. Warder</a> and Paul Williams who argue that at least some Mahāyāna elements developed among Mahāsāṃghika communities (from the 1st century BCE onwards), possibly in the area along the <a href="/wiki/Krishna_River" title="Krishna River">Kṛṣṇa River</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh#Early_history" title="Andhra Pradesh">Āndhra</a> region of southern India.<sup id="cite_ref-Xing65-66_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xing65-66-28"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2009_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2009-29"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hirakawa_Akira_1993,_p._263_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hirakawa_Akira_1993,_p._263-30"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Warder-1999_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warder-1999-31"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The Mahāsāṃghika doctrine of the supramundane (<a href="/wiki/Lokottarav%C4%81da" title="Lokottaravāda"><i>lokottara</i></a>) nature of the Buddha is sometimes seen as a precursor to Mahāyāna views of the Buddha.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008f_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008f-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Some scholars also see Mahāyāna figures like <a href="/wiki/N%C4%81g%C4%81rjuna" class="mw-redirect" title="Nāgārjuna">Nāgārjuna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dignaga" class="mw-redirect" title="Dignaga">Dignaga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Candrak%C4%ABrti" class="mw-redirect" title="Candrakīrti">Candrakīrti</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C4%80ryadeva" class="mw-redirect" title="Āryadeva">Āryadeva</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bhavaviveka" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhavaviveka">Bhavaviveka</a> as having ties to the Mahāsāṃghika tradition of Āndhra.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> However, other scholars have also pointed to different regions as being important, such as <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> and northwest India.<sup id="cite_ref-Karashima-2013_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Karashima-2013-33"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Mahāsāṃghika origins theory has also slowly been shown to be problematic by scholarship that revealed how certain Mahāyāna sutras show traces of having developed among other <i><a href="/wiki/Nikaya_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikaya School">nikāyas</a></i> or monastic orders (such as the <a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Because of such evidence, scholars like Paul Harrison and Paul Williams argue that the movement was not sectarian and was possibly pan-buddhist.<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2010a-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> There is no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later doctrines, for aspiring bodhisattvas.<sup id="cite_ref-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._193-1942_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._193-1942-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>The "forest hypothesis"</b> meanwhile states that Mahāyāna arose mainly among "hard-core <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">ascetics</a>, members of the forest dwelling (<i>aranyavasin</i>) wing of the Buddhist Order", who were attempting to imitate the Buddha's forest living.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> This has been defended by Paul Harrison, <a href="/wiki/Jan_Nattier" title="Jan Nattier">Jan Nattier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reginald_Ray" title="Reginald Ray">Reginald Ray</a>. This theory is based on certain sutras like the <i><a href="/wiki/Ugraparip%E1%B9%9Bcch%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra">Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra</a></i> and the <i>Mahāyāna Rāṣṭrapālapaṛiprcchā</i> which promote ascetic practice in the wilderness as a superior and elite path. These texts criticize monks who live in cities and denigrate the forest life.<sup id="cite_ref-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._193-1942_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._193-1942-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jan Nattier's study of the <i>Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra, A few good men</i> (2003) argues that this sutra represents the earliest form of Mahāyāna, which presents the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva</a> path as a 'supremely difficult enterprise' of elite monastic forest asceticism.<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2010a-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Boucher's study on the <i>Rāṣṭrapālaparipṛcchā-sūtra</i> (2008) is another recent work on this subject.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>The cult of the book theory</b>, defended by <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Schopen" title="Gregory Schopen">Gregory Schopen</a>, states that Mahāyāna arose among a number of loosely connected book worshiping groups of monastics, who studied, memorized, copied and revered particular Mahāyāna sūtras. Schopen thinks they were inspired by cult shrines where Mahāyāna sutras were kept.<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2010a-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Schopen also argued that these groups mostly rejected <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">stupa</a> worship, or worshiping holy relics. </p><p>David Drewes has recently argued against all of the major theories outlined above. He points out that there is no actual evidence for the existence of book shrines, that the practice of sutra veneration was pan-Buddhist and not distinctly Mahāyāna. Furthermore, Drewes argues that "Mahāyāna sutras advocate mnemic/oral/aural practices more frequently than they do written ones."<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2010a-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Regarding the forest hypothesis, he points out that only a few Mahāyāna sutras directly advocate forest dwelling, while the others either do not mention it or see it as unhelpful, promoting easier practices such as "merely listening to the sutra, or thinking of particular Buddhas, that they claim can enable one to be reborn in special, luxurious '<a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">pure lands</a>' where one will be able to make easy and rapid progress on the bodhisattva path and attain Buddhahood after as little as one lifetime."<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2010a-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Drewes states that the evidence merely shows that "Mahāyāna was primarily a textual movement, focused on the revelation, preaching, and dissemination of <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahāyāna sutras</a>, that developed within, and never really departed from, traditional Buddhist social and institutional structures."<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2010_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2010-41"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Drewes points out the importance of <i>dharmabhanakas</i> (preachers, reciters of these sutras) in the early Mahāyāna sutras. This figure is widely praised as someone who should be respected, obeyed ('as a slave serves his lord'), and donated to, and it is thus possible these people were the primary agents of the Mahāyāna movement.<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2010_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2010-41"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early Mahayana came directly from "<a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">early Buddhist schools</a>" and was a successor to them.<sup id="cite_ref-Oliver-2019_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oliver-2019-42"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Acri-2018_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acri-2018-43"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Mahāyāna"><span id="Early_Mah.C4.81y.C4.81na"></span>Early Mahāyāna</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Early Mahāyāna"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Earliest Mahayana inscription</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:240px;max-width:240px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:88px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amitabha_Buddha_inscription_in_the_year_26_of_Huvishka.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Amitabha_Buddha_inscription_in_the_year_26_of_Huvishka.jpg/238px-Amitabha_Buddha_inscription_in_the_year_26_of_Huvishka.jpg" decoding="async" width="238" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Amitabha_Buddha_inscription_in_the_year_26_of_Huvishka.jpg/357px-Amitabha_Buddha_inscription_in_the_year_26_of_Huvishka.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Amitabha_Buddha_inscription_in_the_year_26_of_Huvishka.jpg/476px-Amitabha_Buddha_inscription_in_the_year_26_of_Huvishka.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4066" data-file-height="1507" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:240px;max-width:240px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:78px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amitabha_Buddha_inscription_in_the_year_26_of_Huvishka_Inscription_Buddhasya_Amitabhasya.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Amitabha_Buddha_inscription_in_the_year_26_of_Huvishka_Inscription_Buddhasya_Amitabhasya.jpg/238px-Amitabha_Buddha_inscription_in_the_year_26_of_Huvishka_Inscription_Buddhasya_Amitabhasya.jpg" decoding="async" width="238" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Amitabha_Buddha_inscription_in_the_year_26_of_Huvishka_Inscription_Buddhasya_Amitabhasya.jpg/357px-Amitabha_Buddha_inscription_in_the_year_26_of_Huvishka_Inscription_Buddhasya_Amitabhasya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Amitabha_Buddha_inscription_in_the_year_26_of_Huvishka_Inscription_Buddhasya_Amitabhasya.jpg/476px-Amitabha_Buddha_inscription_in_the_year_26_of_Huvishka_Inscription_Buddhasya_Amitabhasya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="971" data-file-height="320" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center">Inscribed pedestal with the first known occurrence of the name of "<a href="/wiki/Amitabha_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Amitabha Buddha">Amitabha Buddha</a>" in the "year 26 of <a href="/wiki/Huvishka" title="Huvishka">Huvishka</a>" (153 CE)<sup id="cite_ref-MMR_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MMR-44"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a> in the inscription:<br /><sub><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gupta_allahabad_bu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Gupta_allahabad_bu.jpg/14px-Gupta_allahabad_bu.jpg" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Gupta_allahabad_bu.jpg/21px-Gupta_allahabad_bu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Gupta_allahabad_bu.jpg/28px-Gupta_allahabad_bu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="323" data-file-height="464" /></a></span></sub><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gupta_ashoka_ddh.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Gupta_ashoka_ddh.jpg/12px-Gupta_ashoka_ddh.jpg" decoding="async" width="12" height="36" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Gupta_ashoka_ddh.jpg/18px-Gupta_ashoka_ddh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Gupta_ashoka_ddh.jpg/24px-Gupta_ashoka_ddh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="273" data-file-height="826" /></a></span><sub><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gupta_ashoka_sya.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Gupta_ashoka_sya.svg/25px-Gupta_ashoka_sya.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Gupta_ashoka_sya.svg/38px-Gupta_ashoka_sya.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Gupta_ashoka_sya.svg/50px-Gupta_ashoka_sya.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></a></span></sub> <sub><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gupta_ashoka_a.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Gupta_ashoka_a.svg/23px-Gupta_ashoka_a.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Gupta_ashoka_a.svg/35px-Gupta_ashoka_a.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Gupta_ashoka_a.svg/46px-Gupta_ashoka_a.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></a></span></sub><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gupta_ashoka_mi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Gupta_ashoka_mi.jpg/15px-Gupta_ashoka_mi.jpg" decoding="async" width="15" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Gupta_ashoka_mi.jpg/23px-Gupta_ashoka_mi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Gupta_ashoka_mi.jpg/30px-Gupta_ashoka_mi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="620" /></a></span><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gupta_ashoka_t.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Gupta_ashoka_t.svg/15px-Gupta_ashoka_t.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Gupta_ashoka_t.svg/23px-Gupta_ashoka_t.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Gupta_ashoka_t.svg/30px-Gupta_ashoka_t.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></a></span><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gupta_allahabad_bh.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Gupta_allahabad_bh.svg/15px-Gupta_allahabad_bh.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Gupta_allahabad_bh.svg/23px-Gupta_allahabad_bh.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Gupta_allahabad_bh.svg/30px-Gupta_allahabad_bh.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></a></span><sub><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gupta_ashoka_sya.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Gupta_ashoka_sya.svg/25px-Gupta_ashoka_sya.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Gupta_ashoka_sya.svg/38px-Gupta_ashoka_sya.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Gupta_ashoka_sya.svg/50px-Gupta_ashoka_sya.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></a></span></sub><br />"<i>Bu-ddha-sya A-mi-tā-bha-sya</i>"<br />"Of the Buddha Amitabha"<sup id="cite_ref-GS99_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GS99-45"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div> <p>The earliest textual evidence of "Mahāyāna" comes from <a href="/wiki/S%C5%ABtras" class="mw-redirect" title="Sūtras">sūtras</a> ("discourses", scriptures) originating around the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">the common era</a>. Jan Nattier has noted that some of the earliest Mahāyāna texts, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Ugrapariprccha_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Ugrapariprccha Sutra">Ugraparipṛccha Sūtra</a></i> use the term "Mahāyāna", yet there is no doctrinal difference between Mahāyāna in this context and the <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">early schools</a>. Instead, Nattier writes that in the earliest sources, "Mahāyāna" referred to the rigorous emulation of <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a>'s path to Buddhahood.<sup id="cite_ref-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._193-1942_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._193-1942-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some important evidence for early Mahāyāna Buddhism comes from the texts translated by the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Indoscythian</a> monk <a href="/wiki/Lokaksema_(Buddhist_monk)" title="Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)">Lokakṣema</a> in the 2nd century CE, who came to China from the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhāra</a>. These are some of the earliest known Mahāyāna texts.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Study of these texts by Paul Harrison and others show that they strongly promote <a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">monasticism</a> (contra the lay origin theory), acknowledge the legitimacy of <a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">arhatship</a>, and do not show any attempt to establish a new sect or order.<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2010a-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> A few of these texts often emphasize <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">ascetic</a> practices, forest dwelling, and deep states of meditative concentration (<i><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samadhi</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indian Mahāyāna never had nor ever attempted to have a separate <a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a> or ordination lineage from the early schools of Buddhism, and therefore each <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">bhikṣu</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhuni" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhikkhuni">bhikṣuṇī</a> adhering to the Mahāyāna formally belonged to one of the early Buddhist schools. Membership in these <i>nikāyas</i>, or monastic orders, continues today, with the <a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a> nikāya being used in East Asia, and the <a href="/wiki/Mulasarvastivada" title="Mulasarvastivada">Mūlasarvāstivāda</a> nikāya being used in <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a>. Therefore, Mahāyāna was never a separate monastic sect outside of the early schools.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dunhuang217.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Dunhuang217.jpg/220px-Dunhuang217.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Dunhuang217.jpg/330px-Dunhuang217.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Dunhuang217.jpg/440px-Dunhuang217.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2298" /></a><figcaption>Painting from the <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a> (Cave 217), <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a>, illustrating <a href="/wiki/Sukhavati" title="Sukhavati">Sukhavati</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pure_land" title="Pure land">buddhafield</a> of <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitabha Buddha</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jamal_garhi_bodhisattvas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Jamal_garhi_bodhisattvas.jpg/220px-Jamal_garhi_bodhisattvas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Jamal_garhi_bodhisattvas.jpg/330px-Jamal_garhi_bodhisattvas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Jamal_garhi_bodhisattvas.jpg/440px-Jamal_garhi_bodhisattvas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="658" data-file-height="620" /></a><figcaption>Photograph of three bodhisattva statues found at <a href="/wiki/Jamal_Garhi" title="Jamal Garhi">Jamal Garhi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa" title="Khyber Pakhtunkhwa">Khyber Pakhtunkhwa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>).</figcaption></figure> <p>Paul Harrison clarifies that while monastic Mahāyānists belonged to a nikāya, not all members of a nikāya were Mahāyānists.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> From Chinese monks visiting India, we now know that both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna monks in India often lived in the same monasteries side by side.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> It is also possible that, formally, Mahāyāna would have been understood as a group of monks or nuns within a larger monastery taking a vow together (known as a "<i>kriyākarma</i>") to memorize and study a Mahāyāna text or texts.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest stone inscription containing a recognizably Mahāyāna formulation and a mention of the Buddha <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a> (an important Mahāyāna figure) was found in the Indian subcontinent in <a href="/wiki/Mathura,_Uttar_Pradesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathura, Uttar Pradesh">Mathura</a>, and dated to around 180 CE. Remains of a statue of a Buddha bear the <a href="/wiki/Br%C4%81hm%C4%AB_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Brāhmī script">Brāhmī</a> inscription: "Made in the year 28 of the reign of King <a href="/wiki/Huvishka" title="Huvishka">Huviṣka</a>, ... for the Blessed One, the Buddha Amitābha."<sup id="cite_ref-GS99_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GS99-45"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> There is also some evidence that the Kushan Emperor Huviṣka himself was a follower of Mahāyāna. A Sanskrit manuscript fragment in the <a href="/wiki/Schoyen_Collection" class="mw-redirect" title="Schoyen Collection">Schøyen Collection</a> describes Huviṣka as having "set forth in the Mahāyāna."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Evidence of the name "Mahāyāna" in Indian inscriptions in the period before the 5th century is very limited in comparison to the multiplicity of Mahāyāna writings transmitted from <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> to <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>note 5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>note 6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>note 7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based on <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archeological</a> evidence, Gregory Schopen argues that Indian Mahāyāna remained "an extremely limited minority movement – if it remained at all – that attracted absolutely no documented public or popular support for at least two more centuries."<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2010a-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Likewise, Joseph Walser speaks of Mahāyāna's "virtual invisibility in the archaeological record until the fifth century".<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Schopen also sees this movement as being in tension with other Buddhists, "struggling for recognition and acceptance".<sup id="cite_ref-Walser-2005_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walser-2005-59"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Their "embattled mentality" may have led to certain elements found in Mahāyāna texts like <a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Lotus sutra</a>, such as a concern with preserving texts.<sup id="cite_ref-Walser-2005_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walser-2005-59"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p> Schopen, Harrison and Nattier also argue that these communities were probably not a single unified movement, but scattered groups based on different practices and sutras.<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2010a-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> One reason for this view is that Mahāyāna sources are extremely diverse, advocating many different, often conflicting doctrines and positions, as Jan Nattier writes:<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>Thus we find one scripture (the <i><a href="/wiki/Akshobhya" title="Akshobhya">Aksobhya</a>-vyuha</i>) that advocates both <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">srávaka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva</a> practices, propounds the possibility of rebirth in a pure land, and enthusiastically recommends the cult of the book, yet seems to know nothing of emptiness theory, the <a href="/wiki/Bh%C5%ABmi_(Buddhism)" title="Bhūmi (Buddhism)">ten bhumis</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Trikaya" title="Trikaya">trikaya</a>, while another (the <i>P'u-sa pen-yeh ching</i>) propounds the ten bhumis and focuses exclusively on the path of the bodhisattva, but never discusses the <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">paramitas</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamika</a> treatise (<a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/M%C5%ABlamadhyamakak%C4%81rik%C4%81" title="Mūlamadhyamakakārikā">Mulamadhyamika-karikas</a></i>) may enthusiastically deploy the rhetoric of <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">emptiness</a> without ever mentioning the bodhisattva path, while a <a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a> treatise (<a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Madhyanta-vibhaga-karika" title="Madhyanta-vibhaga-karika">Madhyanta-vibhaga-bhasya</a></i>) may delve into the particulars of the trikaya doctrine while eschewing the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Ekay%C4%81na" title="Ekayāna">ekayana</a>. We must be prepared, in other words, to encounter a multiplicity of Mahayanas flourishing even in India, not to mention those that developed in East Asia and Tibet.</p></blockquote><p>In spite of being a minority in India, Indian Mahāyāna was an intellectually vibrant movement, which developed various schools of thought during what Jan Westerhoff has been called "The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy" (from the beginning of the first millennium CE up to the 7th century).<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Some major Mahāyāna traditions are <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñāpāramitā</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Mādhyamaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogācāra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a> (<i>Tathāgatagarbha</i>), and the <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">school of Dignaga and Dharmakirti</a> as the last and most recent.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Major early figures include <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aryadeva" title="Aryadeva">Āryadeva</a>, <a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignaga</a>. Mahāyāna Buddhists seem to have been active in the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a> (30–375 CE), a period that saw great missionary and literary activities by Buddhists. This is supported by the works of the historian <a href="/wiki/Taranatha" title="Taranatha">Taranatha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dutt-1978_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dutt-1978-63"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growth">Growth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Growth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_view_of_Nalanda_University.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/A_view_of_Nalanda_University.jpg/220px-A_view_of_Nalanda_University.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/A_view_of_Nalanda_University.jpg/330px-A_view_of_Nalanda_University.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/A_view_of_Nalanda_University.jpg/440px-A_view_of_Nalanda_University.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of the <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda Mahavihara</a> (Great Monastery) in <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a>, a major center for the study of Mahāyāna Buddhism from the fifth century CE to <abbr>c.</abbr> 1200 CE</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddhist_Expansion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Buddhist_Expansion.svg/220px-Buddhist_Expansion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Buddhist_Expansion.svg/330px-Buddhist_Expansion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Buddhist_Expansion.svg/440px-Buddhist_Expansion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="473" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Buddhist expansion in Asia</a>, from Buddhist heartland in <a href="/wiki/Northern_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern India">northern India</a> (dark orange) starting 5th century BCE, to Buddhist majority realm (orange), and historical extent of Buddhism influences (yellow). Mahāyāna (red arrow), <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda</a> (green arrow), and <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantric</a>-<a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayāna</a> (blue arrow). The overland and <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia" title="Maritime Southeast Asia">maritime</a> "Silk Roads" were interlinked and complementary, forming what scholars have called the "great circle of Buddhism".<sup id="cite_ref-Acri-2018_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acri-2018-43"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The Mahāyāna movement (or movements) remained quite small until it experienced much growth in <a href="/wiki/5th_century" title="5th century">the fifth century</a>. Very few manuscripts have been found before the fifth century (the exceptions are from <a href="/wiki/Bamyan" title="Bamyan">Bamiyan</a>). According to Walser, "the fifth and sixth centuries appear to have been a watershed for the production of Mahāyāna manuscripts."<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Likewise it is only in the 4th and 5th centuries CE that epigraphic evidence shows some kind of popular support for Mahāyāna, including some possible royal support at the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Shanshan" title="Shanshan">Shan shan</a> as well as in <a href="/wiki/Bamyan" title="Bamyan">Bamiyan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathura" title="Mathura">Mathura</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Walser-2005a_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walser-2005a-65"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Still, even after the 5th century, the epigraphic evidence which uses the term Mahāyāna is still quite small and is notably mainly monastic, not lay.<sup id="cite_ref-Walser-2005a_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walser-2005a-65"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> By this time, Chinese pilgrims, such as <a href="/wiki/Faxian" title="Faxian">Faxian</a> (337–422 CE), <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> (602–664), <a href="/wiki/Yijing_(monk)" title="Yijing (monk)">Yijing</a> (635–713 CE) were traveling to India, and their writings do describe monasteries which they label 'Mahāyāna' as well as monasteries where both Mahāyāna monks and non-Mahāyāna monks lived together.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the fifth century, Mahāyāna Buddhism and its institutions slowly grew in influence. Some of the most influential institutions became massive monastic university complexes such as <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a> (established by the 5th-century CE <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a> emperor, <a href="/wiki/Kumaragupta_I" title="Kumaragupta I">Kumaragupta I</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Vikramashila" title="Vikramashila">Vikramashila</a> (established under <a href="/wiki/Dharmapala_(emperor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmapala (emperor)">Dharmapala</a> c. 783 to 820) which were centers of various branches of scholarship, including Mahāyāna philosophy. The Nalanda complex eventually became the largest and most influential Buddhist center in India for centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Even so, as noted by Paul Williams, "it seems that fewer than 50 percent of the monks encountered by Xuanzang (Hsüan-tsang; c. 600–664) on his visit to India actually were Mahāyānists."<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expansion_outside_of_India">Expansion outside of India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Expansion outside of India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddha_and_Bodhisattvas_Dunhuang_Mogao_Caves.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Buddha_and_Bodhisattvas_Dunhuang_Mogao_Caves.png/220px-Buddha_and_Bodhisattvas_Dunhuang_Mogao_Caves.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Buddha_and_Bodhisattvas_Dunhuang_Mogao_Caves.png/330px-Buddha_and_Bodhisattvas_Dunhuang_Mogao_Caves.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Buddha_and_Bodhisattvas_Dunhuang_Mogao_Caves.png/440px-Buddha_and_Bodhisattvas_Dunhuang_Mogao_Caves.png 2x" data-file-width="762" data-file-height="1014" /></a><figcaption>Recreation of a cave mural from the <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a> depicting the Buddha surrounded by bodhisattvas</figcaption></figure> <p>Over time Indian Mahāyāna texts and philosophy reached <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> through trade routes like the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>, later spreading throughout <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oliver-2019_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oliver-2019-42"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Over time, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia" title="Buddhism in Central Asia">Central Asian Buddhism</a> became heavily influenced by Mahāyāna and it was a major source for Chinese Buddhism. Mahāyāna works <a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts" title="Gandhāran Buddhist texts">have also been found in</a> <a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism" title="Gandharan Buddhism">Gandhāra</a>, indicating the importance of this region for the spread of Mahāyāna. Central Asian Mahāyāna scholars were very important in the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road Transmission of Buddhism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> They include translators like <a href="/wiki/Lokaksema_(Buddhist_monk)" title="Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)">Lokakṣema</a> (c. 167–186), <a href="/wiki/Dharmarak%E1%B9%A3a" title="Dharmarakṣa">Dharmarakṣa</a> (c. 265–313), <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a> (c. 401), and <a href="/wiki/Dharmak%E1%B9%A3ema" title="Dharmakṣema">Dharmakṣema</a> (385–433). The site of <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a> seems to have been a particularly important place for the study of Mahāyāna Buddhism.<sup id="cite_ref-Dutt-1978_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dutt-1978-63"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mahāyāna spread from China to <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, which (along with Korea) would later spread it to <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oliver-2019_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oliver-2019-42"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Acri-2018_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acri-2018-43"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Mahāyāna also spread from <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> to <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>, and then <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oliver-2019_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oliver-2019-42"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Acri-2018_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acri-2018-43"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Mahāyāna spread from Sumatra to other <a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Indonesia" title="List of islands of Indonesia">Indonesian islands</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a> and <a href="/wiki/Borneo" title="Borneo">Borneo</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, and eventually, Indonesian Mahāyāna traditions made it to China.<sup id="cite_ref-Oliver-2019_42-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oliver-2019-42"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Acri-2018_43-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acri-2018-43"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the fourth century, Chinese monks like <a href="/wiki/Faxian" title="Faxian">Faxian</a> (c. 337–422 CE) had also begun to travel to India (now dominated by the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Guptas</a>) to bring back Buddhist teachings, especially Mahāyāna works.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> These figures also wrote about their experiences in India and their work remains invaluable for understanding Indian Buddhism. In some cases Indian Mahāyāna traditions were directly transplanted, as with the case of the <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_M%C4%81dhyamaka" title="East Asian Mādhyamaka">East Asian Madhymaka</a> (by <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a>) and <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra" title="East Asian Yogācāra">East Asian Yogacara</a> (especially by <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a>). Later, new developments in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Mahāyāna</a> led to new Chinese Buddhist traditions like <a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan Buddhism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a>). These traditions would then spread to <a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a>. </p><p>Forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism which are mainly based on the doctrines of Indian Mahāyāna sutras are still popular in <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">East Asian Buddhism</a>, which is mostly dominated by various branches of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Paul Williams has noted that in this tradition in the Far East, primacy has always been given to the study of the Mahāyāna sūtras.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams,_Paul_1989_p.103_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams,_Paul_1989_p.103-71"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_developments">Later developments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Later developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chakrasamvara_Mandala.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Chakrasamvara_Mandala.jpg/200px-Chakrasamvara_Mandala.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Chakrasamvara_Mandala.jpg/300px-Chakrasamvara_Mandala.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Chakrasamvara_Mandala.jpg/400px-Chakrasamvara_Mandala.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2772" data-file-height="3740" /></a><figcaption>The use of <a href="/wiki/Mandalas" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandalas">mandalas</a> was one new feature of <a href="/wiki/Tantric_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantric Buddhism">Tantric Buddhism</a>, which also adopted new deities such as <a href="/wiki/Chakrasamvara" class="mw-redirect" title="Chakrasamvara">Chakrasamvara</a> (pictured)</figcaption></figure> <p>Beginning during the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a> (c. 3rd century CE–575 CE) period a new movement began to develop which drew on previous Mahāyāna doctrine as well as new Pan-Indian <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">tantric</a> ideas. This came to be known by various names such as <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayāna</a> (Tibetan: <i>rdo rje theg pa</i>), Mantrayāna, and Esoteric Buddhism or "Secret Mantra" (<i>Guhyamantra</i>). This new movement continued into the <a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala era</a> (8th century–12th century CE), during which it grew to dominate Indian Buddhism.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Possibly led by groups of wandering tantric yogis named <a href="/wiki/Mahasiddha" title="Mahasiddha">mahasiddhas</a>, this movement developed new <a href="/wiki/Tantra_techniques_(Vajrayana)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantra techniques (Vajrayana)">tantric spiritual practices</a> and also promoted new texts called the <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Tantras" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist Tantras">Buddhist Tantras</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philosophically, Vajrayāna Buddhist thought remained grounded in the Mahāyāna Buddhist ideas of Madhyamaka, <a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogacara</a> and Buddha-nature.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Tantric Buddhism generally deals with new forms of meditation and ritual which often makes use of the visualization of Buddhist deities (including Buddhas, bodhisattvas, <a href="/wiki/Dakini" title="Dakini">dakinis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fierce_deities" class="mw-redirect" title="Fierce deities">fierce deities</a>) and the use of mantras. Most of these practices are esoteric and require ritual initiation or introduction by a tantric master (<i>vajracarya</i>) or <a href="/wiki/Guru" title="Guru">guru</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The source and early origins of <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayāna</a> remain a subject of debate among scholars. Some scholars like <a href="/wiki/Alexis_Sanderson" title="Alexis Sanderson">Alexis Sanderson</a> argue that Vajrayāna derives its tantric content from <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> and that it developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Saivism</a>. Sanderson argues that Vajrayāna works like the <a href="/wiki/Cakrasa%E1%B9%83vara_Tantra" title="Cakrasaṃvara Tantra">Samvara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guhyasam%C4%81ja_tantra" class="mw-redirect" title="Guhyasamāja tantra">Guhyasamaja</a> texts show direct borrowing from <a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Agamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaiva Agamas">Shaiva tantric literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> However, other scholars such as Ronald M. Davidson question the idea that Indian <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">tantrism</a> developed in Shaivism first and that it was then adopted into Buddhism. Davidson points to the difficulties of establishing a chronology for the Shaiva tantric literature and argues that both traditions developed side by side, drawing on each other as well as on local Indian tribal religion.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whatever the case, this new tantric form of Mahāyāna Buddhism became extremely influential in India, especially in <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a> and in the lands of the <a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala Empire</a>. It eventually also spread north into <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau" title="Tibetan Plateau">Tibetan plateau</a> and to East Asia. Vajrayāna remains the dominant form of <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Buddhism in Tibet</a>, in surrounding regions like <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a>. Esoteric elements are also an important part of East Asian Buddhism where it is referred to by various terms. These include: <i><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Zhēnyán</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 真言, literally "true word", referring to mantra), <i>Mìjiao</i> (Chinese: 密教; Esoteric Teaching), <i>Mìzōng</i> (密宗; "Esoteric Tradition") or <i>Tángmì</i> (唐密; "Tang (Dynasty) Esoterica") in Chinese and <a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a>, Tomitsu, <a href="/wiki/Mikky%C5%8D" title="Mikkyō">Mikkyo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tendai" title="Tendai">Taimitsu</a> in Japanese. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Worldview">Worldview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Worldview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ming_Bronze_Vairocana_Buddha.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Ming_Bronze_Vairocana_Buddha.jpg/220px-Ming_Bronze_Vairocana_Buddha.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Ming_Bronze_Vairocana_Buddha.jpg/330px-Ming_Bronze_Vairocana_Buddha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Ming_Bronze_Vairocana_Buddha.jpg/440px-Ming_Bronze_Vairocana_Buddha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>A Ming bronze of the Buddha <a href="/wiki/Vairocana" title="Vairocana">Mahāvairocana</a> which depicts his body as being composed of numerous other Buddhas</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prajnaparamita_with_Devotees,_Folio_from_a_Shatasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_(The_Perfection_of_Wisdom_in_100,000_Verses)_LACMA_M.81.90.6_(3_of_6).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Prajnaparamita_with_Devotees%2C_Folio_from_a_Shatasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_%28The_Perfection_of_Wisdom_in_100%2C000_Verses%29_LACMA_M.81.90.6_%283_of_6%29.jpg/220px-Prajnaparamita_with_Devotees%2C_Folio_from_a_Shatasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_%28The_Perfection_of_Wisdom_in_100%2C000_Verses%29_LACMA_M.81.90.6_%283_of_6%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Prajnaparamita_with_Devotees%2C_Folio_from_a_Shatasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_%28The_Perfection_of_Wisdom_in_100%2C000_Verses%29_LACMA_M.81.90.6_%283_of_6%29.jpg/330px-Prajnaparamita_with_Devotees%2C_Folio_from_a_Shatasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_%28The_Perfection_of_Wisdom_in_100%2C000_Verses%29_LACMA_M.81.90.6_%283_of_6%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Prajnaparamita_with_Devotees%2C_Folio_from_a_Shatasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_%28The_Perfection_of_Wisdom_in_100%2C000_Verses%29_LACMA_M.81.90.6_%283_of_6%29.jpg/440px-Prajnaparamita_with_Devotees%2C_Folio_from_a_Shatasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_%28The_Perfection_of_Wisdom_in_100%2C000_Verses%29_LACMA_M.81.90.6_%283_of_6%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1569" /></a><figcaption>The female bodhisattva <a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_Devi" class="mw-redirect" title="Prajñāpāramitā Devi">Prajñaparamita Devi</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Few things can be said with certainty about Mahāyāna Buddhism in general other than that the Buddhism practiced in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongolian Buddhism">Mongolia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a> is Mahāyāna Buddhism.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>note 8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Mahāyāna can be described as a loosely bound collection of many teachings and practices (some of which are seemingly contradictory).<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>note 9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Mahāyāna constitutes an inclusive and broad set of traditions characterized by <a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">plurality</a> and the adoption of a vast number of new <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">sutras</a>, ideas and philosophical treatises in addition to the <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">earlier Buddhist texts</a>. </p><p>Broadly speaking, Mahāyāna Buddhists <a href="/wiki/Basic_Points_Unifying_the_Therav%C4%81da_and_the_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic Points Unifying the Theravāda and the Mahāyāna">accept the classic Buddhist doctrines found in early Buddhism</a> (i.e. the <i><a href="/wiki/Nik%C4%81ya" title="Nikāya">Nikāya</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Āgamas</a>), such as the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Dependent origination</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Refuge_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Refuge (Buddhism)">Three Jewels</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">Three marks of existence</a> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">bodhipakṣadharmas</a></i> (aids to awakening).<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Mahāyāna Buddhism further accepts some of the ideas found in Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a> thought. However, Mahāyāna also adds numerous Mahāyāna texts and doctrines, which are seen as definitive and in some cases superior teachings.<sup id="cite_ref-kwmorganp410_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kwmorganp410-83"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/D._T._Suzuki" title="D. T. Suzuki">D.T. Suzuki</a> described the broad range and doctrinal liberality of Mahāyāna as "a vast ocean where all kinds of living beings are allowed to thrive in a most generous manner, almost verging on a chaos".<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Paul Williams refers to the main impulse behind Mahāyāna as the vision which sees the motivation to achieve Buddhahood for sake of other beings as being the supreme religious motivation. This is the way that <a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atisha</a> defines Mahāyāna in his <i><a href="/wiki/Bodhipathaprad%C4%ABpa" title="Bodhipathapradīpa">Bodhipathapradipa</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> As such, according to Williams, "Mahāyāna is not as such an institutional identity. Rather, it is inner motivation and vision, and this inner vision can be found in anyone regardless of their institutional position."<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Thus, instead of a specific school or sect, Mahāyāna is a "family term" or a religious tendency, which is united by "a vision of the ultimate goal of attaining full Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings (the 'bodhisattva ideal') and also (or eventually) a belief that Buddhas are still around and can be contacted (hence the possibility of an ongoing revelation)."<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Buddhas">The Buddhas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: The Buddhas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amitayus_Buddha_in_His_Paradise.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Amitayus_Buddha_in_His_Paradise.jpg/220px-Amitayus_Buddha_in_His_Paradise.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Amitayus_Buddha_in_His_Paradise.jpg/330px-Amitayus_Buddha_in_His_Paradise.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Amitayus_Buddha_in_His_Paradise.jpg/440px-Amitayus_Buddha_in_His_Paradise.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2628" data-file-height="3800" /></a><figcaption>Tibetan depiction of Buddha <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitāyus</a> in his Pure Land of <a href="/wiki/Sukhavati" title="Sukhavati">Sukhavati</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vairocana,_Fengxian_Temple,_Longmen_Grottoes_(10240207654).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Vairocana%2C_Fengxian_Temple%2C_Longmen_Grottoes_%2810240207654%29.jpg/220px-Vairocana%2C_Fengxian_Temple%2C_Longmen_Grottoes_%2810240207654%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Vairocana%2C_Fengxian_Temple%2C_Longmen_Grottoes_%2810240207654%29.jpg/330px-Vairocana%2C_Fengxian_Temple%2C_Longmen_Grottoes_%2810240207654%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Vairocana%2C_Fengxian_Temple%2C_Longmen_Grottoes_%2810240207654%29.jpg/440px-Vairocana%2C_Fengxian_Temple%2C_Longmen_Grottoes_%2810240207654%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>The monumental sculpture of the <a href="/wiki/Longmen_Grottoes" title="Longmen Grottoes">Longmen Buddha Grottoes</a> contains a giant statue of <a href="/wiki/Vairocana" title="Vairocana">Vairocana Buddha</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattvas</a> (beings on their way to Buddhahood) are central elements of Mahāyāna. Mahāyāna has a vastly expanded <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">cosmology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_deities" title="Buddhist deities">theology</a>, with various Buddhas and powerful bodhisattvas residing in different worlds and buddha-fields (<i>buddha kshetra</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008f_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008f-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Buddhas unique to Mahāyāna include the Buddhas <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a> ("Infinite Light"), <a href="/wiki/Five_Wisdom_Buddhas" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Wisdom Buddhas">Akṣobhya</a> ("the Imperturbable"), <a href="/wiki/Bhaisajyaguru" title="Bhaisajyaguru">Bhaiṣajyaguru</a> ("Medicine guru") and <a href="/wiki/Vairocana" title="Vairocana">Vairocana</a> ("the Illuminator"). In Mahāyāna, a Buddha is seen as a being that has achieved the highest kind of awakening due to his superior compassion and wish to help all beings.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>An important feature of Mahāyāna is the way that it understands the nature of a Buddha, which differs from non-Mahāyāna understandings. Mahāyāna texts not only often depict numerous Buddhas besides <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Sakyamuni</a>, but see them as transcendental or supramundane (<i>lokuttara</i>) beings with great powers and huge lifetimes. The <i><a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">White Lotus Sutra</a></i> famously describes the lifespan of the Buddha as immeasurable and states that he actually achieved Buddhahood countless of eons (<i>kalpas</i>) ago and has been teaching the Dharma through his numerous avatars for an unimaginable period of time.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, Buddhas are active in the world, constantly devising ways to teach and help all sentient beings. According to Paul Williams, in Mahāyāna, a Buddha is often seen as "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for the world", rather than simply a teacher who after his death "has completely 'gone beyond' the world and its cares".<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008g_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008g-93"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha Sakyamuni</a>'s life and death on earth are then usually understood <a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">docetically</a> as a "mere appearance", his death is a show, while in actuality he remains out of compassion to help all sentient beings.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008g_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008g-93"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Similarly, Guang Xing describes the Buddha in Mahāyāna as an <a href="/wiki/Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence">omnipotent</a> and almighty <a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">divinity</a> "endowed with numerous supernatural attributes and qualities".<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Mahayana Buddhologies have often been compared to various types of <a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">theism</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">pantheism</a>) by different scholars, though there is disagreement among scholars regarding this issue as well on the general <a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">relationship between Buddhism and Theism.</a><sup id="cite_ref-Zappulli-2022_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zappulli-2022-95"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea that Buddhas remain accessible is extremely influential in Mahāyāna and also allows for the possibility of having a reciprocal relationship with a Buddha through prayer, visions, devotion and revelations.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Through the use of various practices, a Mahāyāna devotee can aspire to be reborn in a Buddha's pure land or buddha field (<i><a href="/wiki/Pure_land" title="Pure land">buddhakṣetra</a></i>), where they can strive towards Buddhahood in the best possible conditions. Depending on the sect, liberation into a buddha-field can be obtained by <a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">faith</a>, meditation, or sometimes even by the <a href="/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo">repetition of Buddha's name</a>. Faith-based devotional practices focused on rebirth in pure lands are common in East Asia <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land Buddhism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The influential Mahāyāna concept of <a href="/wiki/Trikaya" title="Trikaya">the three bodies</a> (<i>trikāya</i>) of a Buddha developed to make sense of the transcendental nature of the Buddha. This doctrine holds that the "bodies of magical transformation" (<i><a href="/wiki/Nirm%C4%81%E1%B9%87ak%C4%81ya" title="Nirmāṇakāya">nirmāṇakāyas</a></i>) and the "enjoyment bodies" (<i><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83bhogak%C4%81ya" title="Saṃbhogakāya">saṃbhogakāya</a></i>) are emanations from the ultimate Buddha body, the <i><a href="/wiki/Dharmak%C4%81ya" title="Dharmakāya">Dharmakaya</a>,</i> which is none other than the ultimate reality itself, i.e. <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">emptiness</a> or <i><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81t%C4%81" title="Tathātā">Thusness</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Bodhisattvas">The Bodhisattvas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: The Bodhisattvas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bodhi_Ajanta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Bodhi_Ajanta.jpg/220px-Bodhi_Ajanta.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Bodhi_Ajanta.jpg/330px-Bodhi_Ajanta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Bodhi_Ajanta.jpg/440px-Bodhi_Ajanta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1151" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a>, the bodhisattva of compassion. <a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajaṇṭā Caves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>, India</figcaption></figure> <p>The Mahāyāna bodhisattva path (<i>mārga</i>) or vehicle (<i><a href="/wiki/Yana_(Buddhism)" title="Yana (Buddhism)">yāna</a></i>) is seen as being the superior <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual path</a> by Mahāyānists, over and above the paths of those who seek <a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">arhatship</a> or "solitary buddhahood" for their own sake (<i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vakay%C4%81na" title="Śrāvakayāna">Śrāvakayāna</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na" title="Pratyekabuddhayāna">Pratyekabuddhayāna</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Mahāyāna Buddhists generally hold that pursuing only the personal release from suffering i.e. <a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">nirvāṇa</a> is a smaller or inferior aspiration (called "<i><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">hinayana</a></i>"), because it lacks the wish and resolve to liberate all other sentient beings from <a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">saṃsāra</a> (the round of <a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">rebirth</a>) by becoming a Buddha.<i><sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008e_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008e-100"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-huntingtonarchive.org_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-huntingtonarchive.org-101"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></i><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>This wish to help others by entering the Mahāyāna path is called <i><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">bodhicitta</a></i> and someone who engages in this path to complete buddhahood is a <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva</a>. High level bodhisattvas (with eons of practice) are seen as extremely powerful supramundane beings. They are objects of devotion and prayer throughout the Mahāyāna world.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-Tribe-2002a_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-Tribe-2002a-103"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Popular bodhisattvas which are revered across Mahāyāna include <a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteshvara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Manjushri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a>. Bodhisattvas <i>could</i> reach the personal nirvana of the <a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">arhats</a>, but they reject this goal and remain in saṃsāra to help others out of compassion.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008a_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008a-105"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Williams-Tribe-2002a_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-Tribe-2002a-103"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p> According to eighth-century Mahāyāna philosopher <a href="/wiki/Haribhadra_(Buddhist_philosopher)" title="Haribhadra (Buddhist philosopher)">Haribhadra</a>, the term "bodhisattva" can technically refer to those who follow any of the three vehicles, since all are working towards <i><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">bodhi</a></i> (awakening) and hence the technical term for a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is a <i>mahāsattva</i> (great being) <i>bodhisattva</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008b_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008b-106"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> According to Paul Williams, a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is best defined as:</p><blockquote><p>that being who has taken the vow to be reborn, no matter how many times this may be necessary, in order to attain the highest possible goal, that of Complete and Perfect Buddhahood. This is for the benefit of all sentient beings.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008b_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008b-106"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>There are two models for the nature of the bodhisattvas, which are seen in the various Mahāyāna texts. One is the idea that a bodhisattva must postpone their awakening until full Buddhahood is attained. This could take <a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(time)" title="Kalpa (time)">eons</a> and in the meantime, they will help countless beings. After reaching Buddhahood, they do pass on to nirvāṇa (after which they do not return). The second model is the idea that there are two kinds of nirvāṇa, the nirvāṇa of an arhat and a superior type of nirvāṇa called <i>apratiṣṭhita</i> (non-abiding, not-established) that allows a Buddha to remain forever engaged in the world. As noted by Paul Williams, the idea of <i>apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa</i> may have taken some time to develop and is not obvious in some of the early Mahāyāna literature.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008a_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008a-105"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goryeo-Illustrated_manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_c.1340_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Goryeo-Illustrated_manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_c.1340_%282%29.jpg/220px-Goryeo-Illustrated_manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_c.1340_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Goryeo-Illustrated_manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_c.1340_%282%29.jpg/330px-Goryeo-Illustrated_manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_c.1340_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Goryeo-Illustrated_manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_c.1340_%282%29.jpg/440px-Goryeo-Illustrated_manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_c.1340_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1393" data-file-height="658" /></a><figcaption>Illustrated Korean manuscript of the <a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Lotus Sutra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo">Goryeo Dynasty</a>, c. 1340. The three carts at the top which are symbolic of the three vehicles</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:China_-_Stone_carving_in_Leshan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/China_-_Stone_carving_in_Leshan.jpg/220px-China_-_Stone_carving_in_Leshan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/China_-_Stone_carving_in_Leshan.jpg/330px-China_-_Stone_carving_in_Leshan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/China_-_Stone_carving_in_Leshan.jpg/440px-China_-_Stone_carving_in_Leshan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2576" data-file-height="1932" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a> (Avalokiteśvara) with multiple arms symbolizing upaya and great compassion, <a href="/wiki/Leshan" title="Leshan">Leshan</a>, China</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:White_Lotus_pond_at_Sir_Seewoosagur_Ramgoolam_Botanical_Garden,_March_2020_(5).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/White_Lotus_pond_at_Sir_Seewoosagur_Ramgoolam_Botanical_Garden%2C_March_2020_%285%29.jpg/220px-White_Lotus_pond_at_Sir_Seewoosagur_Ramgoolam_Botanical_Garden%2C_March_2020_%285%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/White_Lotus_pond_at_Sir_Seewoosagur_Ramgoolam_Botanical_Garden%2C_March_2020_%285%29.jpg/330px-White_Lotus_pond_at_Sir_Seewoosagur_Ramgoolam_Botanical_Garden%2C_March_2020_%285%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/White_Lotus_pond_at_Sir_Seewoosagur_Ramgoolam_Botanical_Garden%2C_March_2020_%285%29.jpg/440px-White_Lotus_pond_at_Sir_Seewoosagur_Ramgoolam_Botanical_Garden%2C_March_2020_%285%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>The Lotus, especially the puṇḍarīka (white lotus), is used in Mahāyāna to symbolize the nature of bodhisattvas. The lotus is rooted in the earthly mud and yet flowers above the water in the open air. Similarly, the bodhisattva lives in the world but remains unstained by it<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Bodhisattva_Path">The Bodhisattva Path</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: The Bodhisattva Path"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In most classic Mahāyāna sources (as well as in non-Mahāyāna sources on the topic), the bodhisattva path is said to take three or four <a href="/wiki/Asa%E1%B9%83khyeya" title="Asaṃkhyeya"><i>asaṃkheyyas</i></a> ("incalculable eons"), requiring a huge number of lifetimes of practice to complete.<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2021_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2021-108"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WilliamsTribe_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WilliamsTribe-109"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> However, certain practices are sometimes held to provide shortcuts to Buddhahood (these vary widely by tradition). According to the <i><a href="/wiki/Bodhipathaprad%C4%ABpa" title="Bodhipathapradīpa">Bodhipathapradīpa</a></i> (<i>A Lamp for the Path to Awakening</i>) by the Indian master <a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atiśa</a>, the central defining feature of a bodhisattva's path is the universal aspiration to end suffering for themselves and all other beings, i.e. <i><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">bodhicitta</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008c_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008c-110"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The bodhisattva's spiritual path is traditionally held to begin with the revolutionary event called the "arising of the Awakening Mind" (<i>bodhicittotpāda</i>), which is the wish to become a Buddha in order to help all beings.<sup id="cite_ref-WilliamsTribe_109-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WilliamsTribe-109"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> This is achieved in different ways, such as the meditation taught by the Indian master <a href="/wiki/Shantideva" title="Shantideva">Shantideva</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattvacary%C4%81vat%C4%81ra" title="Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra">Bodhicaryavatara</a></i> called "equalising self and others and exchanging self and others". Other Indian masters like Atisha and <a href="/wiki/Kamala%C5%9B%C4%ABla" title="Kamalaśīla">Kamalashila</a> also teach a meditation in which we contemplate how <i>all</i> beings have been our close relatives or friends in past lives. This contemplation leads to the arising of deep love (<i><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">maitrī</a></i>) and compassion (<i><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">karuṇā</a></i>) for others, and thus bodhicitta is generated.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-Tribe-2002_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-Tribe-2002-111"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> According to the Indian philosopher <a href="/wiki/Shantideva" title="Shantideva">Shantideva</a>, when great compassion and bodhicitta arises in a person's heart, they cease to be an ordinary person and become a "son or daughter of the Buddhas".<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008c_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008c-110"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea of the bodhisattva is not unique to Mahāyāna Buddhism and it is found in Theravada and other <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">early Buddhist schools</a>. However, these schools held that becoming a bodhisattva required a prediction of one's future Buddhahood in the presence of a living Buddha.<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes7_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes7-112"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In Mahāyāna, the term bodhisattva is applicable to any person from the moment they intend to become a Buddha (i.e. the moment in which <a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">bodhicitta</a> arises in their mind) and without the requirement of a living Buddha being present.<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes7_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes7-112"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Some Mahāyāna sūtras like the <i>Lotus Sutra</i> promote the bodhisattva path as being universal and open to everyone. Other texts disagree with this and state that only some beings have the capacity for Buddhahood.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008-113"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The generation of bodhicitta may then be followed by the taking of the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">bodhisattva vows</a> (<i>praṇidhāna</i>) to "lead to Nirvana the whole immeasurable world of beings" as the <i>Prajñaparamita</i> <i>sutras</i> state. This compassionate commitment to help others is the central characteristic of the Mahāyāna bodhisattva.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008h_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008h-114"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> These vows may be accompanied by certain ethical guidelines called <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_Precepts" title="Bodhisattva Precepts">bodhisattva precepts</a>. Numerous sutras also state that a key part of the bodhisattva path is the practice of a set of virtues called <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā"><i>pāramitās</i></a> (transcendent or supreme virtues). Sometimes six are outlined: giving, ethical discipline, patient endurance, diligence, meditation and transcendent wisdom.<sup id="cite_ref-Nagarjuna-2009_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nagarjuna-2009-115"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008f_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008f-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other sutras (like the <i><a href="/wiki/Ten_Stages_Sutra" title="Ten Stages Sutra">Daśabhūmika</a></i>) give a list of ten, with the addition of <i><a href="/wiki/Upaya" title="Upaya">upāya</a></i> (skillful means), <i><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">praṇidhāna</a></i> (vow, resolution), <i><a href="/wiki/Five_Strengths" title="Five Strengths">Bala</a></i> (spiritual power) and <i><a href="/wiki/Jnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Jnana">Jñāna</a></i> (knowledge).<sup id="cite_ref-Buswell-2004_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buswell-2004-116"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)"><i>Prajñā</i></a> (transcendent knowledge or wisdom) is arguably the most important virtue of the bodhisattva. This refers to an understanding of the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">emptiness</a> of all phenomena, arising from study, deep consideration and meditation.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008h_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008h-114"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bodhisattva_levels">Bodhisattva levels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Bodhisattva levels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AMIDA-Chionin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/AMIDA-Chionin.jpg/220px-AMIDA-Chionin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/AMIDA-Chionin.jpg/330px-AMIDA-Chionin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/AMIDA-Chionin.jpg/440px-AMIDA-Chionin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1571" data-file-height="1426" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a> Descending with Twenty-five <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattvas</a></i> (13th century), <a href="/wiki/National_Treasure_(Japan)" title="National Treasure (Japan)">National Treasure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chion-in" title="Chion-in">Chion-in</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kyoto" title="Kyoto">Kyoto</a>, is regarded as a representative work of early <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land Buddhist</a> art in <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_art_in_Japan" title="Buddhist art in Japan">Japan</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Buddhism">Japanese Buddhism</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Ten_realms" title="Ten realms">Ten realms</a> in which <a href="/wiki/Sentient_beings_(Buddhism)" title="Sentient beings (Buddhism)">sentient beings</a> aspire to be <a href="/wiki/%C5%8Cj%C5%8D" title="Ōjō">reborn</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Sukhavati" title="Sukhavati">Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss</a> of Amitābha.</figcaption></figure> <p>Various <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahāyāna Buddhist scriptures</a> associate the beginning of the bodhisattva practice with what is called the "path of accumulation" or equipment (<i>saṃbhāra-mārga</i>), which is the first path of the classic <a href="/wiki/Bh%C5%ABmi_(Buddhism)#Five_Paths" title="Bhūmi (Buddhism)">five paths schema</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008d_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008d-117"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Ten_Stages_Sutra" title="Ten Stages Sutra">Daśabhūmika Sūtra</a></i> as well as other texts also outline a series of bodhisattva levels or spiritual stages (<a href="/wiki/Bh%C5%ABmi_(Buddhism)" title="Bhūmi (Buddhism)"><i>bhūmis</i></a> ) on the path to Buddhahood. The various texts disagree on the number of stages however, the <i>Daśabhūmika</i> giving ten for example (and mapping each one to the ten paramitas), the <i><a href="/wiki/Yogacarabhumi-sastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacarabhumi-sastra">Bodhisattvabhūmi</a></i> giving seven and thirteen and the <i><a href="/wiki/Avatamsaka_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Avatamsaka Sutra">Avatamsaka</a></i> outlining 40 stages.<sup id="cite_ref-Buswell-2004_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buswell-2004-116"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>In later Mahāyāna scholasticism, such as in the work of <a href="/wiki/Kamala%C5%9B%C4%ABla" title="Kamalaśīla">Kamalashila</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atiśa</a>, the five paths and ten <a href="/wiki/Bh%C5%ABmi_(Buddhism)" title="Bhūmi (Buddhism)"><i>bhūmi</i></a> systems are merged and this is the progressive path model that is used in <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a>. According to Paul Williams, in these systems, the first <a href="/wiki/Bh%C5%ABmi_(Buddhism)" title="Bhūmi (Buddhism)"><i>bhūmi</i></a> is reached once one attains "direct, nonconceptual and nondual insight into emptiness in meditative absorption", which is associated with the path of seeing (<i><a href="/wiki/Dar%C5%9Bana" class="mw-redirect" title="Darśana">darśana</a>-mārga</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008d_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008d-117"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> At this point, a bodhisattva is considered an <i><a href="/wiki/Arya_(Buddhism)" title="Arya (Buddhism)">ārya</a></i> (a noble being).<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skillful_means_and_the_One_Vehicle">Skillful means and the One Vehicle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: Skillful means and the One Vehicle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81ya" class="mw-redirect" title="Upāya">upāya</a></div> <p>Skillful means or Expedient techniques (Skt. <i><a href="/wiki/Upaya" title="Upaya">upāya</a></i>) is another important virtue and doctrine in Mahāyāna Buddhism.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The idea is most famously expounded in the <i><a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">White Lotus Sutra</a></i>, and refers to any effective method or technique that is conducive to spiritual growth and leads beings to awakening and <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">nirvana</a>. This doctrine states that, out of compassion, the Buddha adapts his teaching to whomever he is teaching. Because of this, it is possible that the Buddha may teach seemingly contradictory things to different people. This idea is also used to explain the vast textual corpus found in Mahāyāna.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._169_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._169-120"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>A closely related teaching is the doctrine of the One Vehicle (<i><a href="/wiki/Ekay%C4%81na" title="Ekayāna">ekayāna</a></i>). This teaching states that even though the Buddha is said to have taught three vehicles (the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vakay%C4%81na" title="Śrāvakayāna">disciples' vehicle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na" title="Pratyekabuddhayāna">the vehicle of solitary Buddhas</a> and the bodhisattva vehicle, which are accepted by all early Buddhist schools), these actually are all skillful means which lead to the same place: Buddhahood. Therefore, there really are not three vehicles in an ultimate sense, but one vehicle, the supreme vehicle of the Buddhas, which is taught in different ways depending on the faculties of individuals. Even those beings who think they have finished the path (i.e. the <a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">arhats</a>) are actually not done, and they will eventually reach Buddhahood.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._169_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._169-120"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>This doctrine was not accepted in full by all Mahāyāna traditions. The Yogācāra school famously defended an alternative theory that held that not all beings could become Buddhas. This became a subject of much debate throughout Mahāyāna Buddhist history.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prajñāpāramitā_(Transcendent_Knowledge)"><span id="Praj.C3.B1.C4.81p.C4.81ramit.C4.81_.28Transcendent_Knowledge.29"></span>Prajñāpāramitā (Transcendent Knowledge)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Prajñāpāramitā (Transcendent Knowledge)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prajnaparamita._Wall_painting,_Tholing_monastery,_Western_Tibet,_2nd_half_of_the_15th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Prajnaparamita._Wall_painting%2C_Tholing_monastery%2C_Western_Tibet%2C_2nd_half_of_the_15th_century.jpg/220px-Prajnaparamita._Wall_painting%2C_Tholing_monastery%2C_Western_Tibet%2C_2nd_half_of_the_15th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Prajnaparamita._Wall_painting%2C_Tholing_monastery%2C_Western_Tibet%2C_2nd_half_of_the_15th_century.jpg/330px-Prajnaparamita._Wall_painting%2C_Tholing_monastery%2C_Western_Tibet%2C_2nd_half_of_the_15th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Prajnaparamita._Wall_painting%2C_Tholing_monastery%2C_Western_Tibet%2C_2nd_half_of_the_15th_century.jpg/440px-Prajnaparamita._Wall_painting%2C_Tholing_monastery%2C_Western_Tibet%2C_2nd_half_of_the_15th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="1153" /></a><figcaption>Prajñāpāramitā is often personified by a female deity in Buddhist art</figcaption></figure> <p>Some of the key Mahāyāna teachings are found in the <i><a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñāpāramitā</a></i> ("Transcendent Knowledge" or "Perfection of Wisdom") texts, which are some of the earliest Mahāyāna works.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Prajñāpāramitā is a deep knowledge of reality which Buddhas and bodhisattvas attain. It is a transcendent, non-conceptual and <a href="/wiki/Nonduality_(spirituality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonduality (spirituality)">non-dual</a> kind of knowledge into the true nature of things.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> This wisdom is also associated with insight into the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">emptiness</a> (<i>śūnyatā</i>) of dharmas (phenomena) and their illusory nature (<i><a href="/wiki/Maya_(religion)" title="Maya (religion)">māyā</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> This amounts to the idea that all phenomena (<a href="/wiki/Dharma_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharma theory"><i>dharmas</i></a>) without exception have "no essential unchanging core" (i.e. they lack <i><a href="/wiki/Svabhava" title="Svabhava">svabhāva</a>,</i> an <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a> or inherent nature), and therefore have "no fundamentally real existence".<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> These empty phenomena are also said to be conceptual constructions.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._135_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._135-126"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because of this, all <i>dharmas</i> (things, phenomena), even the Buddha's Teaching, the Buddha himself, <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvāṇa</a> and all living beings, are like "illusions" or "magic" (<i>māyā</i>) and "dreams" (<i><a href="/wiki/Swapna_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Swapna (philosophy)">svapna</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._135_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._135-126"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> This emptiness or lack of real existence applies even to the apparent arising and ceasing of phenomena. Because of this, all phenomena are also described as unarisen (<i><a href="/wiki/Anutpada" title="Anutpada">anutpāda</a></i>), unborn (<i>ajata</i>), "beyond coming and going" in the Prajñāpāramitā literature.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Most famously, the <i><a href="/wiki/Heart_Sutra" title="Heart Sutra">Heart Sutra</a></i> states that "all phenomena are empty, that is, without characteristic, unproduced, unceased, stainless, not stainless, undiminished, unfilled".<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The Prajñāpāramitā texts also use various metaphors to describe the nature of things, for example, the <i><a href="/wiki/Diamond_Sutra" title="Diamond Sutra">Diamond Sutra</a></i> compares phenomena to: "A shooting star, a clouding of the sight, a lamp, an illusion, a drop of dew, a bubble, a dream, a lightning's flash, a thunder cloud."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> </p><p>Prajñāpāramitā is also associated with not grasping, not taking a stand on or "not taking up" (<i>aparigṛhīta</i>) anything in the world. The <i><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADas%C4%81hasrik%C4%81_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra">Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a></i> explains it as "not grasping at form, not grasping at sensation, perception, volitions and cognition".<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> This includes not grasping or taking up even correct Buddhist ideas or mental signs (such as "not-self", "emptiness", bodhicitta, vows), since these things are ultimately all empty concepts as well.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._135_126-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._135-126"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Attaining a state of fearless receptivity (<i><a href="/wiki/Kshanti" title="Kshanti">ksanti</a></i>) through the insight into the true nature of reality (<i><a href="/wiki/Dharmata" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmata">Dharmatā</a></i>) in an intuitive, non-conceptual manner is said to be the <i>prajñāpāramitā,</i> the highest spiritual wisdom. According to Edward Conze, the "patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas" (<i>anutpattika-dharmakshanti</i>) is "one of the most distinctive virtues of the Mahāyānistic saint."<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The Prajñāpāramitā texts also claim that this training is not just for Mahāyānists, but for all Buddhists following any of the three vehicles.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Madhyamaka_(Centrism)"><span id="Madhyamaka_.28Centrism.29"></span>Madhyamaka (Centrism)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Madhyamaka (Centrism)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="color: var(--color-base), #202122 ; background-color: var(--background-colour-base), #FFFFFF; border: 1px solid #DAA520"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dharma_Wheel.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.svg/25px-Dharma_Wheel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.svg/38px-Dharma_Wheel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.svg/50px-Dharma_Wheel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhist_philosophy" title="Category:Buddhist philosophy">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SeatedBuddha.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/SeatedBuddha.jpg/120px-SeatedBuddha.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/SeatedBuddha.jpg/180px-SeatedBuddha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/SeatedBuddha.jpg/240px-SeatedBuddha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="979" data-file-height="1430" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Traditions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vibhajyav%C4%81da" title="Vibhajyavāda">Vibhajyavāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therav%C4%81da_Abhidhamma_Tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Theravāda Abhidhamma Tradition">Theravāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaibh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ika" title="Vaibhāṣika">Vaibhāṣika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1aptiv%C4%81da" title="Prajñaptivāda">Prajñaptivāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lokottarav%C4%81da" title="Lokottaravāda">Lokottaravāda</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mahayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology#The_Dignāga-Dharmakīrti_tradition" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">Pramāṇavāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana#Philosophical_background" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiāntāi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen/Chán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Themes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">Buddhist logico-epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_psychology" title="Buddhism and psychology">Buddhism and psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Buddhist vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahimsa in Buddhism">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">Not-self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Interdependent origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Emptiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma#The_dharma_theory" title="Abhidharma">Dharma theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svabhava" title="Svabhava">Svabhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_atomism" title="Buddhist atomism">Buddhist atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Pre-modern philosophers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moggaliputta-Tissa" title="Moggaliputta-Tissa">Moggaliputta-Tissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma_Mah%C4%81vibh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3a_%C5%9A%C4%81stra#Abhidharma_Mahāvibhāṣa_Śāstra,_by_Katyāyāniputra" title="Abhidharma Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra">Katyāyāniputra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagasena" title="Nagasena">Nagasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryadeva" title="Aryadeva">Aryadeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tattvasiddhi" title="Tattvasiddhi">Harivarman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83ghabhadra" title="Saṃghabhadra">Saṃghabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhadatta" title="Buddhadatta">Buddhadatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhammap%C4%81la" title="Dhammapāla">Dhammapāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81viveka" title="Bhāviveka">Bhāviveka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmapala_of_Nalanda" title="Dharmapala of Nalanda">Dharmapala of Nalanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandrakirti" title="Chandrakirti">Chandrakirti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shantideva" title="Shantideva">Shantideva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sengzhao" title="Sengzhao">Sengzhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jizang" title="Jizang">Jizang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fazang" title="Fazang">Fazang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guifeng_Zongmi" title="Guifeng Zongmi">Guifeng Zongmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wonhyo" title="Wonhyo">Wonhyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinul" title="Jinul">Jinul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C5%ABkai" title="Kūkai">Kūkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen" title="Dōgen">Dōgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B1%C4%81nagarbha" title="Jñānagarbha">Jñānagarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81ntarak%E1%B9%A3ita" title="Śāntarakṣita">Śāntarakṣita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haribhadra_(Buddhist_philosopher)" title="Haribhadra (Buddhist philosopher)">Haribhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atiśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B1anasrimitra" title="Jñanasrimitra">Jñanasrimitra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratnak%C4%ABrti" title="Ratnakīrti">Ratnakīrti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratn%C4%81kara%C5%9B%C4%81nti" title="Ratnākaraśānti">Ratnākaraśānti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhayakaragupta" title="Abhayakaragupta">Abhayakaragupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakya_Pandita" title="Sakya Pandita">Sakya Pandita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rongzom_Ch%C3%B6kyi_Zangpo" title="Rongzom Chökyi Zangpo">Rongzom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidhammattha-sangaha" title="Abhidhammattha-sangaha">Acariya Anuruddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolpopa_Sherab_Gyaltsen" title="Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen">Dolpopa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Je_Tsongkhapa" title="Je Tsongkhapa">Je Tsongkhapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longchenpa" title="Longchenpa">Longchenpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorampa" title="Gorampa">Gorampa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakya_Chokden" title="Sakya Chokden">Sakya Chokden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miky%C3%B6_Dorje,_8th_Karmapa_Lama" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikyö Dorje, 8th Karmapa Lama">Mikyö Dorje</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Modern philosophers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anagarika_Dharmapala" title="Anagarika Dharmapala">Anagarika Dharmapala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ledi_Sayadaw" title="Ledi Sayadaw">Ledi Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taixu" title="Taixu">Taixu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yin_Shun" title="Yin Shun">Yin Shun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitaro_Nishida" title="Kitaro Nishida">Kitaro Nishida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keiji_Nishitani" title="Keiji Nishitani">Keiji Nishitani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajime_Tanabe" title="Hajime Tanabe">Hajime Tanabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masao_Abe" title="Masao Abe">Masao Abe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._T._Suzuki" title="D. T. Suzuki">D. T. Suzuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasi_Sayadaw" title="Mahasi Sayadaw">Mahasi Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K._N._Jayatilleke" title="K. N. Jayatilleke">K. N. Jayatilleke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Kalupahana" title="David Kalupahana">David Kalupahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katukurunde_Nyanananda_Thera" title="Katukurunde Nyanananda Thera">Ñāṇananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhadasa" title="Buddhadasa">Buddhadasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._A._Payutto" title="P. A. Payutto">P. A. Payutto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamyang_Khyentse_Wangpo" title="Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo">Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamgon_Kongtrul" title="Jamgon Kongtrul">Jamgon Kongtrul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamg%C3%B6n_Ju_Mipham_Gyatso" title="Jamgön Ju Mipham Gyatso">Ju Mipham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gend%C3%BCn_Ch%C3%B6phel" title="Gendün Chöphel">Gendün Chöphel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">14th Dalai Lama</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <p><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/16px-P_religion_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/24px-P_religion_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/32px-P_religion_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Religion&#32;portal</a> </p> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy&#32;portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Buddhist_Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Buddhist Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Buddhist_Philosophy_sidebar&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Buddhist Philosophy sidebar (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Buddhist_Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Buddhist Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nagardjuna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Nagardjuna.jpg/220px-Nagardjuna.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Nagardjuna.jpg/330px-Nagardjuna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Nagardjuna.jpg/440px-Nagardjuna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>A statue of the Mahāyāna philosopher <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a> school. Considered by some to be an <a href="/wiki/Arya_(Buddhism)" title="Arya (Buddhism)">Arya</a> (noble) bodhisattva or even the "second Buddha"<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The Mahāyāna philosophical school termed <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a> (Middle theory or Centrism, also known as <i>śūnyavāda,</i> 'the emptiness theory') was founded by the second-century figure of <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a>. This philosophical tradition focuses on refuting all theories which posit any kind of substance, inherent existence or intrinsic nature (<i><a href="/wiki/Svabhava" title="Svabhava">svabhāva</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his writings, Nagarjuna attempts to show that any theory of intrinsic nature is contradicted by the Buddha's theory of <a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">dependent origination</a>, since anything that has an independent existence cannot be dependently originated. The <i>śūnyavāda</i> philosophers were adamant that their denial of <a href="/wiki/Svabhava" title="Svabhava"><i>svabhāva</i></a> is not a kind of <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilism</a> (against protestations to the contrary by their opponents).<sup id="cite_ref-Tribe_2002_pp._70,_141_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tribe_2002_pp._70,_141-137"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Using the <a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">two truths theory</a>, Madhyamaka claims that while one can speak of things existing in a conventional, relative sense, they do not exist inherently in an ultimate sense. Madhyamaka also argues that emptiness itself is also "empty", it does not have an absolute inherent existence of its own. It is also not to be understood as a transcendental absolute reality. Instead, the emptiness theory is merely a useful concept that should not be clung to. In fact, for Madhyamaka, since everything is empty of true existence, all things are just conceptualizations (<i>prajñapti-matra</i>), including the theory of emptiness, and all concepts must ultimately be abandoned in order to truly understand the nature of things.<sup id="cite_ref-Tribe_2002_pp._70,_141_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tribe_2002_pp._70,_141-137"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vijñānavāda_(The_Consciousness_doctrine)"><span id="Vij.C3.B1.C4.81nav.C4.81da_.28The_Consciousness_doctrine.29"></span>Vijñānavāda (The Consciousness doctrine)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Vijñānavāda (The Consciousness doctrine)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Vijñānavāda</i> ("the doctrine of consciousness", a.k.a. <i>vijñapti-mātra,</i> "perceptions only" and <i>citta-mātra</i> "mind only") is another important doctrine promoted by some Mahāyāna sutras which later became the central theory of a major philosophical movement which arose during the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta period</a> called <a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogācāra</a>. The primary sutra associated with this school of thought is the <i><a href="/wiki/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra" title="Sandhinirmocana Sutra">Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra</a>,</i> which claims that <i>śūnyavāda</i> is not the final definitive teaching (<a href="/wiki/Buddhist_hermeneutics" title="Buddhist hermeneutics"><i>nītārtha</i></a>) of the Buddha. Instead, the ultimate truth (<i><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">paramārtha-satya</a></i>) is said to be the view that all things (<i>dharmas</i>) are only mind (<i><a href="/wiki/Citta" class="mw-redirect" title="Citta">citta</a></i>), consciousness (<i><a href="/wiki/Vij%C3%B1%C4%81na" title="Vijñāna">vijñāna</a></i>) or perceptions (<i>vijñapti</i>) and that seemingly "external" objects (or "internal" subjects) do not really exist apart from the <a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">dependently originated</a> flow of mental experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>When this flow of mentality is seen as being empty of the subject-object duality we impose upon it, one reaches the <a href="/wiki/Nonduality_(spirituality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonduality (spirituality)">non-dual</a> cognition of "Thusness" (<i>tathatā</i>), which is nirvana. This doctrine is developed through various theories, the most important being the <a href="/wiki/Eight_Consciousnesses" title="Eight Consciousnesses">eight consciousnesses</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Three_natures" class="mw-redirect" title="Three natures">three natures</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2002_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2002-139"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra" title="Sandhinirmocana Sutra">Saṃdhinirmocana</a></i> calls its doctrine the '<a href="/wiki/Three_Turnings_of_the_Wheel_of_Dharma" title="Three Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma">third turning of the dharma wheel</a>'. The <i><a href="/wiki/Pratyutpanna_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra" title="Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra">Pratyutpanna sutra</a></i> also mentions this doctrine, stating: "whatever belongs to this triple world is nothing but thought [<i>citta-mātra</i>]. Why is that? It is because however I imagine things, that is how they appear".<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2002_139-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2002-139"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most influential thinkers in this tradition were the Indian brothers <a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a>. <a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogācāra</a> philosophers developed their own <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81#Yogācāra_school" title="Śūnyatā">interpretation of the doctrine of emptiness</a> which also criticized Madhyamaka, in effect claiming it fell into nihilism.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: Buddha-nature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reliquary,_Kamakura_period,_13th-14th_century,_cintamani_(sacred_jewel)_in_flame_type,_gilt_bronze_-_Tokyo_National_Museum_-_DSC05173.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Reliquary%2C_Kamakura_period%2C_13th-14th_century%2C_cintamani_%28sacred_jewel%29_in_flame_type%2C_gilt_bronze_-_Tokyo_National_Museum_-_DSC05173.JPG/220px-Reliquary%2C_Kamakura_period%2C_13th-14th_century%2C_cintamani_%28sacred_jewel%29_in_flame_type%2C_gilt_bronze_-_Tokyo_National_Museum_-_DSC05173.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Reliquary%2C_Kamakura_period%2C_13th-14th_century%2C_cintamani_%28sacred_jewel%29_in_flame_type%2C_gilt_bronze_-_Tokyo_National_Museum_-_DSC05173.JPG/330px-Reliquary%2C_Kamakura_period%2C_13th-14th_century%2C_cintamani_%28sacred_jewel%29_in_flame_type%2C_gilt_bronze_-_Tokyo_National_Museum_-_DSC05173.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Reliquary%2C_Kamakura_period%2C_13th-14th_century%2C_cintamani_%28sacred_jewel%29_in_flame_type%2C_gilt_bronze_-_Tokyo_National_Museum_-_DSC05173.JPG/440px-Reliquary%2C_Kamakura_period%2C_13th-14th_century%2C_cintamani_%28sacred_jewel%29_in_flame_type%2C_gilt_bronze_-_Tokyo_National_Museum_-_DSC05173.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="5472" /></a><figcaption>A Kamakura period reliquary topped with a <a href="/wiki/Cintamani" title="Cintamani">cintamani</a> (wish fulfilling jewel). Buddha nature texts often use the metaphor of a jewel (i.e. buddha-nature) which all beings have but are unaware of</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></div> <p>The doctrine of <i><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata" title="Tathāgata">Tathāgata</a> embryo</i> or <i>Tathāgata womb (<a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Tathāgatagarbha</a>),</i> also known as <i>Buddha-nature, matrix</i> or <i>principle</i> (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Skt</a>: <i>Buddha-dhātu</i>) is important in all modern Mahāyāna traditions, though it is interpreted in many different ways. Broadly speaking, Buddha-nature is concerned with explaining what allows sentient beings to become Buddhas.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._160_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._160-141"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The earliest sources for this idea may include the <i><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gatagarbha_S%C5%ABtra" title="Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra">Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Mah%C4%81parinirv%C4%81%E1%B9%87a_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra">Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._160_141-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._160-141"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The <i>Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa</i> refers to "a sacred nature that is the basis for [beings] becoming buddhas",<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and it also describes it as the 'Self' (<i><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Buddhism)" title="Ātman (Buddhism)">atman</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-web.archive.org_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-web.archive.org-144"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/David_Seyfort_Ruegg" title="David Seyfort Ruegg">David Seyfort Ruegg</a> explains this concept as the base or support for the practice of the path, and thus it is the "cause" (<i>hetu</i>) for the fruit of Buddhahood.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._160_141-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._160-141"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The <i>Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra</i> states that within the defilements is found "the tathagata's wisdom, the tathagata's vision, and the tathagata's body...eternally unsullied, and...replete with virtues no different from my own...the tathagatagarbhas of all beings are eternal and unchanging".<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._162_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._162-145"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ideas found in the Buddha-nature literature are a source of much debate and disagreement among Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophers as well as modern academics.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Some scholars have seen this as an influence from Brahmanic <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, and some of these sutras admit that the use of the term 'Self' is partly done in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics (in other words, it is a skillful means).<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> According to some scholars, the Buddha-nature discussed in some Mahāyāna sūtras does not represent a substantial self (<i><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">ātman</a></i>) which the Buddha critiqued; rather, it is a positive expression of <a href="/wiki/Shunyata" class="mw-redirect" title="Shunyata">emptiness</a> (<i>śūnyatā</i>) and represents the potentiality to realize Buddhahood through Buddhist practices.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Similarly, Williams thinks that this doctrine was not originally dealing with ontological issues, but with "religious issues of realising one's spiritual potential, exhortation, and encouragement."<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._162_145-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._162-145"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Buddha-nature genre of sūtras can be seen as an attempt to state Buddhist teachings using positive language while also maintaining the middle way, to prevent people from being turned away from Buddhism by a false impression of nihilism.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> This is the position taken by the <i><a href="/wiki/La%E1%B9%85k%C4%81vat%C4%81ra_S%C5%ABtra" title="Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra">Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra</a></i>, which states that the Buddhas teach the doctrine of <i>tathāgatagarbha</i> (which sounds similar to an atman) in order to help those beings who are attached to the idea of anatman. However, the sutra goes on to say that the <i>tathāgatagarbha</i> is empty and is not actually a substantial self.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>A different view is defended by various modern scholars like Michael Zimmermann. This view is the idea that Buddha-nature sutras such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Mah%C4%81parinirv%C4%81%E1%B9%87a_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra">Mahāparinirvāṇa</a></i> and the <i>Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra</i> teach an affirmative vision of an eternal, indestructible Buddhic Self.<sup id="cite_ref-web.archive.org_144-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-web.archive.org-144"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Shenpen Hookham, a western scholar and lama sees Buddha-nature as a True Self that is real and permanent.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Similarly, C. D. Sebastian understands the <i><a href="/wiki/Ratnagotravibh%C4%81ga" title="Ratnagotravibhāga">Ratnagotravibhāga's</a></i> view of this topic as a transcendental self that is "the unique essence of the universe".<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arguments_for_authenticity">Arguments for authenticity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: Arguments for authenticity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Indian Mahāyāna Buddhists faced various criticisms from non-Mahāyānists regarding the authenticity of their teachings. The main critique they faced was that Mahāyāna teachings had not been taught by the Buddha, but were invented by later figures.<sup id="cite_ref-Sree_Padma_2008._p._68_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sree_Padma_2008._p._68-155"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Numerous Mahāyāna texts discuss this issue and attempt to defend the truth and authenticity of Mahāyāna in various ways.<sup id="cite_ref-Werner-2013_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Werner-2013-157"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>One idea that Mahāyāna texts put forth is that Mahāyāna teachings were taught later because most people were unable to understand the Mahāyāna sūtras at the time of the Buddha and that people were ready to hear the Mahāyāna only in later times.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Certain traditional accounts state that Mahāyāna sutras were hidden away or kept safe by divine beings like <a href="/wiki/N%C4%81ga" title="Nāga">Nagas</a> or bodhisattvas until the time came for their dissemination.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, some sources also state that Mahāyāna teachings were revealed by other Buddhas, bodhisattvas and <a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">devas</a> to a select number of individuals (often through visions or dreams).<sup id="cite_ref-Werner-2013_157-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Werner-2013-157"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Some scholars have seen a connection between this idea and Mahāyāna meditation practices which involve the visualization of Buddhas and their Buddha-lands.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another argument that Indian Buddhists used in favor of the Mahāyāna is that its teachings are true and lead to awakening since they are in line with the Dharma. Because of this, they can be said to be "well said" (<i>subhasita)</i>, and therefore, they can be said to be the word of the Buddha in this sense. This idea that whatever is "well spoken" is the Buddha's word can be traced to the earliest Buddhist texts, but it is interpreted more widely in Mahāyāna.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> From the Mahāyāna point of view, a teaching is the "word of the Buddha" because it is in accord with the <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a>, not because it was spoken by a specific individual (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> This idea can be seen in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Shantideva" title="Shantideva">Shantideva</a> (8th century), who argues that an "inspired utterance" is the Buddha word if it is "connected with the truth", "connected with the Dharma", "brings about renunciation of kleshas, not their increase" and "it shows the laudable qualities of nirvana, not those of samsara".<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The modern Japanese Zen Buddhist scholar <a href="/wiki/D._T._Suzuki" title="D. T. Suzuki">D. T. Suzuki</a> similarly argued that while the Mahāyāna sūtras may not have been directly taught by the historical Buddha, the "spirit and central ideas" of Mahāyāna derive from the Buddha. According to Suzuki, Mahāyāna evolved and adapted itself to suit the times by developing new teachings and texts, while maintaining the spirit of the Buddha.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claims_of_superiority">Claims of superiority</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: Claims of superiority"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mahāyāna often sees itself as penetrating further and more profoundly into the Buddha's <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a>. An Indian commentary on the <i><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81nasa%E1%B9%83graha" title="Mahāyānasaṃgraha">Mahāyānasaṃgraha</a></i>, gives a classification of teachings according to the capabilities of the audience:<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>According to disciples' grades, the Dharma is classified as inferior and superior. For example, the inferior was taught to the merchants <a href="/wiki/Trapusa_and_Bahalika" title="Trapusa and Bahalika">Trapuṣa and Ballika</a> because they were ordinary men; the middle was <a href="/wiki/Dhammacakkappavattana_Sutta" title="Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta">taught to the group of five</a> because they were at the stage of saints; the eightfold <i>Prajñāpāramitās</i> were taught to bodhisattvas, and [the <i>Prajñāpāramitās</i>] are superior in eliminating conceptually imagined forms. - <i>Vivṛtaguhyārthapiṇḍavyākhyā</i></p></blockquote> <p>There is also a tendency in Mahāyāna sūtras to regard adherence to these sūtras as generating spiritual benefits greater than those that arise from being a follower of the non-Mahāyāna approaches. Thus the <i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%ABm%C4%81l%C4%81dev%C4%AB_Si%E1%B9%83han%C4%81da_S%C5%ABtra" title="Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra">Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra</a></i> claims that the Buddha said that devotion to Mahāyāna is inherently superior in its virtues to following the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">śrāvaka</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratyekabuddha">pratyekabuddha</a> paths.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The commentary on the <i><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma-samuccaya" title="Abhidharma-samuccaya">Abhidharmasamuccaya</a></i> gives the following seven reasons for the "greatness" of the Mahayana:<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Greatness of support (ālambana): the path of the bodhisatva is supported by the limitless teachings of the <i>Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Verses</i> and other texts;</li> <li>Greatness of practice (pratipatti): the comprehensive practice for the benefit of self and others (sva-para-artha);</li> <li>Greatness of understanding (jñāna): from understanding the absence of self in persons and phenomena (pudgala-dharma-nairātmya);</li> <li>Greatness of energy (vīrya): from devotion to many hundreds of thousands of difficult tasks during three incalculable great aeons (mahākalpa);</li> <li>Greatness of resourcefulness (upāyakauśalya): because of not taking a stand in Saṃsāra or Nirvāṇa;</li> <li>Greatness of attainment (prāpti): because of the attainment of immeasurable and uncountable powers (bala), confidences (vaiśāradya), and dharmas unique to Buddhas ( āveṇika-buddhadharma);</li> <li>Greatness of deeds (karma): because of willing the performance of the deeds of a Buddha until the end of Saṃsāra by displaying awakening, etc.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practice">Practice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: Practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mahabodhi_Monlam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Mahabodhi_Monlam.jpg/220px-Mahabodhi_Monlam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Mahabodhi_Monlam.jpg/330px-Mahabodhi_Monlam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Mahabodhi_Monlam.jpg/440px-Mahabodhi_Monlam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="856" /></a><figcaption>Tibetan Buddhist prayer festival (<a href="/wiki/Monlam_Prayer_Festival" title="Monlam Prayer Festival">monlam</a>) at <a href="/wiki/Bodh_Gaya" title="Bodh Gaya">Bodh Gaya</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Mahāyāna Buddhist practice is quite varied. A common set of virtues and practices which is shared by all Mahāyāna traditions are the six perfections or transcendent virtues (<i><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">pāramitā</a></i>). Another central practice advocated by numerous Mahāyāna sources is focused around "the acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">merit</a>, the universal currency of the Buddhist world, a vast quantity of which was believed to be necessary for the attainment of Buddhahood".<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2016_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2016-169"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Devotion,_ritual_and_meritorious_practices"><span id="Devotion.2C_ritual_and_meritorious_practices"></span>Devotion, ritual and meritorious practices</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: Devotion, ritual and meritorious practices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:An_elderly_Tibetan_women_holding_a_prayer_wheel_on_Lhasa,_Barkhor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/An_elderly_Tibetan_women_holding_a_prayer_wheel_on_Lhasa%2C_Barkhor.jpg/220px-An_elderly_Tibetan_women_holding_a_prayer_wheel_on_Lhasa%2C_Barkhor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/An_elderly_Tibetan_women_holding_a_prayer_wheel_on_Lhasa%2C_Barkhor.jpg/330px-An_elderly_Tibetan_women_holding_a_prayer_wheel_on_Lhasa%2C_Barkhor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/An_elderly_Tibetan_women_holding_a_prayer_wheel_on_Lhasa%2C_Barkhor.jpg/440px-An_elderly_Tibetan_women_holding_a_prayer_wheel_on_Lhasa%2C_Barkhor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1333" /></a><figcaption>An elderly <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibetan</a> woman with a <a href="/wiki/Prayer_wheel" title="Prayer wheel">prayer wheel</a> inscribed with mantras</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Longshan_Temple_(40842755631).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Longshan_Temple_%2840842755631%29.jpg/220px-Longshan_Temple_%2840842755631%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Longshan_Temple_%2840842755631%29.jpg/330px-Longshan_Temple_%2840842755631%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Longshan_Temple_%2840842755631%29.jpg/440px-Longshan_Temple_%2840842755631%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Devotees chanting before an image of <a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a> (a feminine form of <a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteshvara</a>), at <a href="/wiki/Longshan_Temple_metro_station" title="Longshan Temple metro station">Longshan Temple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Indian Mahayana Buddhist practice included numerous elements of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">devotion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">ritual</a>, which were considered to generate much <a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">merit (punya)</a> and to allow the devotee to obtain the <a href="/wiki/Other_power#Indian_precedents" title="Other power">power or spiritual blessings</a> of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas. These elements remain a key part of Mahayana Buddhism today. Some key Mahayana practices in this vein include: </p> <ol><li><b>Devotion to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas</b>: Mahayana bodhisattvas like <a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a> Buddha are central objects of devotion. Practitioners may recite their names or mantras, bow in front of their statues and offer prayers and physical offerings like flowers and incense to receive their blessings, guidance, or assistance in achieving enlightenment or rebirth in a <a href="/wiki/Pure_land" title="Pure land">pure land</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-171"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-172"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In temples and monasteries, offering ceremonies (<a href="/wiki/P%C5%ABj%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Pūjā">pūjās</a>) are performed by monks in specific shrines with Buddha statues and other artwork. Donating or contributing money to the building of a <a href="/wiki/Buddha_in_art" title="Buddha in art">Buddha statue</a> or shrine is also another way to practice devotion to these figures.</li> <li><b>Formally taking <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">bodhisattva vows</a></b> (<i><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">praṇidhāna</a></i>) which entails formally reciting several vows or resolutions to follow the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva</a> path.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Text focused practices</b>: The reading, listening to, recitation, memorization, and study of <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a>, as well as the teaching of their content to others, was major practice in Indian Mahayana and remains influential today.<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes,_David_2010_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes,_David_2010-174"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Sutra_copying" title="Sutra copying">sutra copying</a>, the handwriting of Mahayana sūtra manuscripts (or funding such a project) is also considered a very meritorious act.<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes,_David_20102_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes,_David_20102-175"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Sūtra veneration was also practiced, with the physical text treated as a sacred object, often placed on altars, adorned with offerings and communally recited.<sup id="cite_ref-:92_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:92-176"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Chanting:</b> <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Buddhist chanting</a> or recitation of sutras, prayers, mantras, and <a href="/wiki/Dharani" title="Dharani">dhāraṇīs</a> is another major ritual element in Mahayana.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> One text which seems to have been popular in India was the <i>Aspiration Prayer for Good Conduct</i> (Bhadracaryā-praṇidhāna or Samantabhadra-caryā-praṇidhāna).<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In East Asian Mahayana, one of the most widely chanted texts is the <i><a href="/wiki/Heart_Sutra" title="Heart Sutra">Heart Sutra</a></i>.</li> <li><b>Holy sites and temples</b>: Indian Mahayana Buddhists often performed devotional practices in specific holy sites, which often included <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">stupas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temple" title="Temple">temples</a>, shrines (<a href="/wiki/Chaitya" title="Chaitya">chaitya</a>) with Buddha statues and other shrines and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_caves_in_India" title="Buddhist caves in India">Buddhist caves</a>. Mahayana temples which focused on housing a central Buddha image became the norm during the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-179"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Pilgrims would often circumambulate the sites, make offerings of flowers, incense, and light, and engage in acts of reverence such as bowing or prostrating. <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temple" title="Buddhist temple">Buddhist temples</a>, stupas and shrines remain an important element of Mahayana Buddhism.</li> <li><b>"Seven part worship"</b> (<i>saptāṇgapūjā</i> or <i>saptavidhā anuttarapūjā</i>), an Indic Mahayana ritual formula which included: vandana (obeisance, bowing)&#160; puja (worship), going for refuge, confession of bad deeds (papadesana), rejoicing in merit of all good deeds (anumodana), prayer (adhyesana) and requesting Buddhas to teach (yacana), atmabhavadi-parityagah (surrender) and <a href="/wiki/Transfer_of_merit" title="Transfer of merit">pariṇāmanā</a> (the transfer of one's merit to others).<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> These ritual elements remain important in Mahayana Buddhist ritual practice. For example, these elements are incorporated into modern Tibetan Buddhist <a href="/wiki/S%C4%81dhan%C4%81" title="Sādhanā">sadhanas</a> (ritual recitions, meditation rituals) and they are also incorporated into East Asian Buddhist rituals (such as cofession rites, and refuge rituals).</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_bodhisattva_perfections">The bodhisattva perfections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section: The bodhisattva perfections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mahāyāna sūtras, especially those of the <i>Prajñāpāramitā</i> genre, teach the practice of the six transcendent virtues or perfections (<i><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">pāramitā</a></i>) as part of the path to <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a>. Special attention is given to transcendent knowledge (<i>prajñāpāramitā</i>), which is seen as a primary virtue.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Donald_S._Lopez_Jr." title="Donald S. Lopez Jr.">Donald S. Lopez Jr.</a>, the term <i>pāramitā</i> can mean "excellence" or "<a href="/wiki/Perfection" title="Perfection">perfection</a>" as well as "that which has gone beyond" or "<a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">transcendence</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita"><i>Prajñapāramitā sūtras</i></a>, and a large number of other Mahāyāna texts list six perfections:<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bodhi-2007_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bodhi-2007-184"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2016_169-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2016-169"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><i><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a> pāramitā</i>: generosity, charity, giving</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%ABla" class="mw-redirect" title="Śīla">Śīla</a> pāramitā</i>: virtue, discipline, proper conduct (see also: <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_Precepts" title="Bodhisattva Precepts">Bodhisattva precepts</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kshanti" title="Kshanti"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Kṣānti</i></span></a> pāramitā</i>: patience, tolerance, forbearance, acceptance, endurance</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a> pāramitā</i>: energy, diligence, vigour, effort</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Buddhism">Dhyāna</a> pāramitā</i>: one-pointed concentration, contemplation, meditation</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñā pāramitā</a></i>: transcendent wisdom, spiritual knowledge</li></ol> <p>This list is also mentioned by the Theravāda commentator <a href="/wiki/Dhammapala" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhammapala">Dhammapala</a>, who describes it as a categorization of the same ten perfections of Theravada Buddhism. According to Dhammapala, <i>Sacca</i> is classified as both <i>Śīla</i> and <i>Prajñā</i>, <i>Mettā</i> and <i>Upekkhā</i> are classified as <i>Dhyāna</i>, and <i>Adhiṭṭhāna</i> falls under all six.<sup id="cite_ref-Bodhi-2007_184-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bodhi-2007-184"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Bhikkhu Bodhi states that the correlations between the two sets show there was a shared core before the Theravada and Mahayana schools split.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <i><a href="/wiki/Ten_Stages_Sutra" title="Ten Stages Sutra">Ten Stages Sutra</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81ratnak%C5%AB%E1%B9%ADa_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra">Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra</a></i>, four more pāramitās are listed:<sup id="cite_ref-Buswell-2004_116-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buswell-2004-116"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>7. <i><a href="/wiki/Upaya" title="Upaya">Upāya</a> pāramitā</i>: skillful means</dd> <dd>8. <i><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">Praṇidhāna</a> pāramitā</i>: vow, resolution, aspiration, determination, this related to the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">bodhisattva vows</a></dd> <dd>9. <i><a href="/wiki/Five_Strengths" title="Five Strengths">Bala</a> pāramitā</i>: spiritual power</dd> <dd>10. <i><a href="/wiki/Jnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Jnana">Jñāna</a> pāramitā</i>: knowledge</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meditation">Meditation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section: Meditation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_buddhist_monk_by_Arashiyama_cut.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Japanese_buddhist_monk_by_Arashiyama_cut.jpg/220px-Japanese_buddhist_monk_by_Arashiyama_cut.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Japanese_buddhist_monk_by_Arashiyama_cut.jpg/330px-Japanese_buddhist_monk_by_Arashiyama_cut.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Japanese_buddhist_monk_by_Arashiyama_cut.jpg/440px-Japanese_buddhist_monk_by_Arashiyama_cut.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="1784" /></a><figcaption>Japanese <a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dt%C5%8D" title="Sōtō">Sōtō Zen</a> Buddhist monk meditating and begging for alms at Oigawa, <a href="/wiki/Kyoto" title="Kyoto">Kyoto</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BodhidharmaYoshitoshi1887.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/BodhidharmaYoshitoshi1887.jpg/220px-BodhidharmaYoshitoshi1887.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/BodhidharmaYoshitoshi1887.jpg/330px-BodhidharmaYoshitoshi1887.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/BodhidharmaYoshitoshi1887.jpg/440px-BodhidharmaYoshitoshi1887.jpg 2x" data-file-width="796" data-file-height="1148" /></a><figcaption>Zen master Bodhidharma meditating, Ukiyo-e woodblock print by <a href="/wiki/Yoshitoshi" class="mw-redirect" title="Yoshitoshi">Tsukioka Yoshitoshi</a>, 1887</figcaption></figure> <p>Mahāyāna Buddhism teaches a vast array of meditation practices. These include meditations which are shared with the early Buddhist traditions, including <a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">mindfulness of breathing</a>; <a href="/wiki/Patikulamanasikara" title="Patikulamanasikara">mindfulness of the unattractivenes of the body</a>; <a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">loving-kindness</a>; the contemplation of <a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">dependent origination</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81nusm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Buddhānusmṛti">mindfulness of the Buddha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Yuanci2_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yuanci2-186"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a>, these five practices are known as the "five methods for stilling or pacifying the mind" and support the development of the stages of <a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Buddhism"><i>dhyana</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Yogacarabhumi-sastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacarabhumi-sastra"><i>Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra</i></a> (compiled c. 4th century), which is the most comprehensive Indian treatise on Mahāyāna practice, discusses classic Buddhist numerous meditation methods and topics, including the four <a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Buddhism"><i>dhyānas</i></a>, the different kinds of <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi"><i>samādhi</i></a>, the development of insight (<i><a href="/wiki/Vipa%C5%9Byan%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipaśyanā">vipaśyanā</a></i>) and tranquility (<i><a href="/wiki/Samatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samatha">śamatha</a></i>), the <a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">four foundations of mindfulness</a> (<i>smṛtyupasthāna</i>), the five hindrances (<i><a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">nivaraṇa</a></i>), and classic Buddhist meditations such as the contemplation of unattractiveness, impermanence (<i><a href="/wiki/Impermanence" title="Impermanence">anitya</a></i>), suffering (<i><a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">duḥkha</a></i>), and contemplation death (<i><a href="/wiki/Mara%E1%B9%87asati" title="Maraṇasati">maraṇasaṃjñā</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other works of the <a href="/wiki/Yogacarabhumi-sastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacarabhumi-sastra">Yogācāra</a> school, such as <a href="/wiki/Asa%E1%B9%85ga" class="mw-redirect" title="Asaṅga">Asaṅga</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma-samuccaya" title="Abhidharma-samuccaya">Abhidharmasamuccaya</a>,</i> and Vasubandhu's <i><a href="/wiki/Madhyanta-vibhaga-karika" title="Madhyanta-vibhaga-karika">Madhyāntavibhāga</a>-bhāsya</i> also discuss meditation topics such as <a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">mindfulness</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">smṛtyupasthāna</a>,</i> the <a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">37 wings to awakening</a><i>,</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samadhi</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>A very popular Mahāyāna practice from very early times involved the visualization of a Buddha while practicing mindfulness of a Buddha (<i>buddhānusmṛti</i>) along with their Pure Land. This practice could lead the meditator to feel that they were in the presence of the Buddha and in some cases it was held that it could lead to visions of the Buddhas, through which one could receive teachings from them.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-Tribe-2002b_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-Tribe-2002b-191"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>This meditation is taught in numerous Mahāyāna sūtras such as the <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism#The_arrival_of_the_Pure_Land_sutras_in_China" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land sutras</a>, the <i>Akṣobhya-vyūha</i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Pratyutpanna_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra" title="Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra">Pratyutpanna Samādhi</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The <i>Pratyutpanna</i> states that through mindfulness of the Buddha meditation one may be able to meet this Buddha in a vision or a dream and learn from them.<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p> Similarly, the <i><a href="/wiki/Samadhiraja_Sutra" title="Samadhiraja Sutra">Samādhirāja Sūtra</a></i> for states that:<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>Those who, while walking, sitting, standing, or sleeping, recollect the moon-like Buddha, will always be in Buddha's presence and will attain the vast nirvāṇa. His pure body is the colour of gold, beautiful is the Protector of the World. Whoever visualizes him like this practises the meditation of the bodhisattvas.</p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schildering_uit_reeks_over_de_Sarvavid_Vairocana_Mandala_-_Licht,_anoniem,_ca_1799,_MAS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Schildering_uit_reeks_over_de_Sarvavid_Vairocana_Mandala_-_Licht%2C_anoniem%2C_ca_1799%2C_MAS.jpg/220px-Schildering_uit_reeks_over_de_Sarvavid_Vairocana_Mandala_-_Licht%2C_anoniem%2C_ca_1799%2C_MAS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Schildering_uit_reeks_over_de_Sarvavid_Vairocana_Mandala_-_Licht%2C_anoniem%2C_ca_1799%2C_MAS.jpg/330px-Schildering_uit_reeks_over_de_Sarvavid_Vairocana_Mandala_-_Licht%2C_anoniem%2C_ca_1799%2C_MAS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Schildering_uit_reeks_over_de_Sarvavid_Vairocana_Mandala_-_Licht%2C_anoniem%2C_ca_1799%2C_MAS.jpg/440px-Schildering_uit_reeks_over_de_Sarvavid_Vairocana_Mandala_-_Licht%2C_anoniem%2C_ca_1799%2C_MAS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1208" /></a><figcaption>An 18th century Mongolian miniature which depicts a monk generating a tantric visualization</figcaption></figure> <p>In the case of <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land Buddhism</a>, it is widely held that the practice of reciting the Buddha's name (called <i><a href="/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo">nianfo</a></i> in Chinese and <i>nembutsu</i> in Japanese) can lead to rebirth in a Buddha's Pure Land, as well as other positive outcomes. In East Asian Buddhism, the most popular Buddha used for this practice is <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitabha.</a><sup id="cite_ref-Williams-Tribe-2002b_191-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-Tribe-2002b-191"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>East Asian Mahāyāna Buddhism also teaches numerous unique meditation methods, including the Chan (Zen) practices of <a href="/wiki/Hua_Tou" title="Hua Tou">huatou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Koan" title="Koan">koan meditation</a>, and silent illumination (Chinese: <i>mòzhào,</i> which developed into the Japanese <i><a href="/wiki/Shikantaza" title="Shikantaza">shikantaza</a></i> method). Indo-Tibetan Buddhism also includes numerous unique forms of Mahāyāna contemplations, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Tonglen" title="Tonglen">tonglen</a></i> ("sending and receiving"), <i><a href="/wiki/Lojong" title="Lojong">lojong</a></i> ("mind training") and <a href="/wiki/Samatha-vipassana" class="mw-redirect" title="Samatha-vipassana">samatha-vipasyana</a>. </p><p>There are also numerous meditative practices that are generally considered to be part of a separate category rather than general or mainstream Mahāyāna meditation. These are the various practices associated with <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayāna</a> (also termed Mantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Buddhist Tantra, and Esoteric Buddhism). This family of practices, which include such varied forms as <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Tantric_Practice" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan Tantric Practice">Deity Yoga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mahamudra" title="Mahamudra">Mahamudra</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Six_Dharmas_of_Naropa" title="Six Dharmas of Naropa">Six Dharmas of Nāropa</a>, the recitation of <a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">mantras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dharani" title="Dharani">dharanis</a>, and the use of <a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">mudras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">mandalas</a>, are very important in Tibetan Buddhism as well as in some forms of East Asian Mantrayāna like <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese Esoteric Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tendai" title="Tendai">Tendai</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scripture">Scripture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Edit section: Scripture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Sutra_Manuscript_Two_Leaves.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Sutra_Manuscript_Two_Leaves.jpeg/220px-Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Sutra_Manuscript_Two_Leaves.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Sutra_Manuscript_Two_Leaves.jpeg/330px-Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Sutra_Manuscript_Two_Leaves.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Sutra_Manuscript_Two_Leaves.jpeg/440px-Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Sutra_Manuscript_Two_Leaves.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="363" /></a><figcaption><i>Astasahasrika <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñaparamita</a></i> Manuscript. Prajñaparamita and Scenes from the Buddha's Life (top), <a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a> and Scenes from the Buddha's Life (bottom), c. 1075</figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jingangjing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Jingangjing.jpg/220px-Jingangjing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Jingangjing.jpg/330px-Jingangjing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Jingangjing.jpg/440px-Jingangjing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4917" data-file-height="3438" /></a><figcaption>Frontispiece of the Chinese <i><a href="/wiki/Diamond_Sutra" title="Diamond Sutra">Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a></i>, the oldest known dated <a href="/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">printed</a> book in the world</figcaption></figure> <p>Mahāyāna Buddhism takes the basic teachings of the Buddha as recorded in <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Buddhist Texts">early scriptures</a> as the starting point of its teachings, such as those concerning <a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">karma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">rebirth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anatman" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatman">anātman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shunyata" class="mw-redirect" title="Shunyata">emptiness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dependent_origination" class="mw-redirect" title="Dependent origination">dependent origination</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a>. <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">Mahāyāna Buddhists in East Asia</a> have traditionally studied these teachings in the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Āgamas</a> preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a>. "Āgama" is the term used by those traditional Buddhist schools in India who employed Sanskrit for their basic canon. These correspond to the <a href="/wiki/Nik%C4%81ya" title="Nikāya">Nikāyas</a> used by the Theravāda school.<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The surviving Āgamas in Chinese translation belong to at least two schools. Most of the Āgamas were never translated into the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan canon</a>, which according to Hirakawa, only contains a few translations of early sutras corresponding to the <a href="/wiki/Nik%C4%81ya" title="Nikāya">Nikāyas</a> or Āgamas.<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> However, these basic doctrines are contained in Tibetan translations of later works such as the <a href="/wiki/Abhidharmako%C5%9Bak%C4%81rik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidharmakośakārikā"><i>Abhidharmakośa</i></a> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Yogacarabhumi-sastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacarabhumi-sastra">Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra</a>.</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mahāyāna_sutras"><span id="Mah.C4.81y.C4.81na_sutras"></span>Mahāyāna sutras</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="Edit section: Mahāyāna sutras"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a></div> <p>In addition to accepting the essential scriptures of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">early Buddhist schools</a> as valid, Mahāyāna Buddhism maintains large collections of sūtras that are not recognized as authentic by the modern <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda</a> school. The earliest of these sutras do not call themselves 'Mahāyāna', but use the terms <i>vaipulya</i> (extensive) sutras, or <i>gambhira</i> (profound) sutras.<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2010_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2010-41"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> These were also not recognized by some individuals in the early Buddhist schools. In other cases, Buddhist communities such as the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghika</a> school were divided along these doctrinal lines.<sup id="cite_ref-Sree_Padma_2008._p._68_155-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sree_Padma_2008._p._68-155"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahāyāna sūtras</a> are often given greater authority than the Āgamas. The first of these Mahāyāna-specific writings were written probably around the 1st century BCE or 1st-century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-Buddhism_2004,_page_293_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buddhism_2004,_page_293-199"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hirakawa_Akira_1993,_p._252_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hirakawa_Akira_1993,_p._252-200"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Some influential Mahāyāna sutras are the <i><a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñaparamita</a> sutras</i> such as the <i><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADas%C4%81hasrik%C4%81_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra">Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a>,</i> the <i><a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Lotus Sutra</a>,</i> the <i><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism#The_arrival_of_the_Pure_Land_sutras_in_China" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land sutras</a>,</i> the <i><a href="/wiki/Vimalakirti_Sutra" title="Vimalakirti Sutra">Vimalakirti Sutra</a>,</i> the <i><a href="/wiki/Golden_Light_Sutra" title="Golden Light Sutra">Golden Light Sutra</a>,</i> the <i><a href="/wiki/Avatamsaka_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Avatamsaka Sutra">Avatamsaka Sutra</a>,</i> the <i><a href="/wiki/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra" title="Sandhinirmocana Sutra">Sandhinirmocana Sutra</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gatagarbha_s%C5%ABtras" title="Tathāgatagarbha sūtras">Tathāgatagarbha sūtras</a>.</i> </p><p>According to David Drewes, Mahāyāna sutras contain several elements besides the promotion of the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva</a> ideal, including "expanded cosmologies and mythical histories, ideas of <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">purelands</a> and great, 'celestial' <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhas</a> and bodhisattvas, descriptions of powerful new religious practices, new ideas on the nature of the Buddha, and a range of new philosophical perspectives."<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2010_41-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2010-41"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> These texts present stories of revelation in which the Buddha teaches Mahāyāna sutras to certain bodhisattvas who vow to teach and spread these sutras after the Buddha's death.<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2010_41-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2010-41"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regarding religious praxis, David Drewes outlines the most commonly promoted practices in Mahāyāna sutras were seen as means to achieve Buddhahood quickly and easily and included "hearing the names of certain Buddhas or bodhisattvas, maintaining Buddhist precepts, and listening to, memorizing, and copying sutras, that they claim can enable rebirth in the <a href="/wiki/Pure_land" title="Pure land">pure lands</a> <a href="/wiki/Abhirati" title="Abhirati">Abhirati</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sukhavati" title="Sukhavati">Sukhavati</a>, where it is said to be possible to easily acquire the <a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">merit</a> and knowledge necessary to become a Buddha in as little as one lifetime."<sup id="cite_ref-Drewes-2010_41-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewes-2010-41"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Another widely recommended practice is <i>anumodana</i>, or rejoicing in the good deeds of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. </p><p>The practice of meditation and visualization of Buddhas has been seen by some scholars as a possible explanation for the source of certain Mahāyāna sutras which are seen traditionally as direct visionary revelations from the Buddhas in their pure lands. Paul Harrison has also noted the importance of dream revelations in certain Mahāyāna sutras such as the <i>Arya-svapna-nirdesa</i> which lists and interprets 108 dream signs.<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>As noted by Paul Williams, one feature of Mahāyāna sutras (especially earlier ones) is "the phenomenon of laudatory self-reference – the lengthy praise of the sutra itself, the immense merits to be obtained from treating even a verse of it with reverence, and the nasty penalties which will accrue in accordance with karma to those who denigrate the scripture."<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Some Mahāyāna sutras also warn against the accusation that they are not the word of the Buddha (<i><a href="/wiki/Buddhavacana" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhavacana">buddhavacana</a>),</i> such as the <i>Astasāhasrikā (8,000 verse) Prajñāpāramitā,</i> which states that such claims come from <a href="/wiki/Mara_(demon)" title="Mara (demon)">Mara</a> (the evil tempter).<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Some of these Mahāyāna sutras also warn those who would denigrate Mahāyāna sutras or those who preach it (i.e. the <i>dharmabhanaka</i>) that this action can lead to rebirth in <a href="/wiki/Naraka_(Buddhism)" title="Naraka (Buddhism)">hell</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another feature of some Mahāyāna sutras, especially later ones, is increasing sectarianism and animosity towards non-Mahāyāna practitioners (sometimes called <i>sravakas</i>, "hearers") which are sometimes depicted as being part of the '<a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">hīnayāna</a>' (the 'inferior way') who refuse to accept the 'superior way' of the Mahāyāna.<sup id="cite_ref-huntingtonarchive.org_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-huntingtonarchive.org-101"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008-113"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> As noted by Paul Williams, earlier Mahāyāna sutras like the <i><a href="/wiki/Ugraparip%E1%B9%9Bcch%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra">Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Ajitasena_Sutra" title="Ajitasena Sutra">Ajitasena sutra</a></i> do not present any antagonism towards the hearers or the ideal of <a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">arhatship</a> like later sutras do.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008_113-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008-113"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Regarding the bodhisattva path, some Mahāyāna sutras promote it as a universal path for everyone, while others like the <i><a href="/wiki/Ugraparip%E1%B9%9Bcch%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra">Ugraparipṛcchā</a></i> see it as something for a small elite of hardcore ascetics.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2008_113-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008-113"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 4th-century Mahāyāna Abhidharma work <i><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma-samuccaya" title="Abhidharma-samuccaya">Abhidharmasamuccaya</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asaṅga</a> refers to the collection which contains the āgamas as the <i>Śrāvakapiṭaka</i> and associates it with the <a href="/wiki/Sravaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Sravaka">śrāvakas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratyekabuddha">pratyekabuddhas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated199_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated199-205"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Asaṅga classifies the Mahāyāna sūtras as belonging to the <i>Bodhisattvapiṭaka</i>, which is designated as the collection of teachings for bodhisattvas.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated199_205-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated199-205"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_literature">Other literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28" title="Edit section: Other literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mahāyāna Buddhism also developed a massive commentarial and exegetical literature, many of which are called <a href="/wiki/Shastras" class="mw-redirect" title="Shastras"><i>śāstra</i></a> (treatises) or <i>vrittis</i> (commentaries). Philosophical texts were also written in verse form (<i>karikās</i>), such as in the case of the famous <i><a href="/wiki/Mulamadhyamakakarika" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulamadhyamakakarika">Mūlamadhyamika-karikā</a></i> (Root Verses on the Middle Way) by <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a>, the foundational text of <a href="/wiki/Madhyamika" class="mw-redirect" title="Madhyamika">Madhyamika</a> philosophy. Numerous later <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamika</a> philosophers like <a href="/wiki/Chandrakirti" title="Chandrakirti">Candrakirti</a> wrote commentaries on this work as well as their own verse works. </p><p>Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition also relies on numerous non-Mahayana commentaries (śāstra), a very influential one being the <i><a href="/wiki/Abhidharmako%C5%9Bak%C4%81rik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidharmakośakārikā">Abhidharmakosha</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a>, which is written from a non-Mahayana <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvastivada</a>–<a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrantika</a> perspective. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a> is also the author of various Mahāyāna <a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a> texts on the philosophical theory known as <i>vijñapti-matra</i> (conscious construction only). The Yogacara school philosopher <a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a> is also credited with numerous highly influential commentaries. In East Asia, the <a href="/wiki/Satyasiddhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Satyasiddhi"><i>Satyasiddhi śāstra</i></a> was also influential. </p><p>Another influential tradition is that of <a href="/wiki/Dignaga" class="mw-redirect" title="Dignaga">Dignāga</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist logic">Buddhist logic</a> whose work focused on <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>. He produced the <i><a href="/wiki/Pram%C4%81%E1%B9%87a-samuccaya" title="Pramāṇa-samuccaya">Pramānasamuccaya</a></i>, and later <a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a> wrote the <i><a href="/wiki/Pramanavarttika" title="Pramanavarttika">Pramānavārttikā</a></i>, which was a commentary and reworking of the Dignaga text. </p><p>Later Tibetan and Chinese Buddhists continued the tradition of writing commentaries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classifications">Classifications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29" title="Edit section: Classifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dating back at least to the <i><a href="/wiki/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra" title="Sandhinirmocana Sutra">Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra</a></i> is a classification of the corpus of Buddhism into three categories, based on ways of understanding the nature of reality, known as the "<a href="/wiki/Three_turnings_of_the_wheel_of_dharma" class="mw-redirect" title="Three turnings of the wheel of dharma">Three Turnings of the Dharma Wheel</a>". According to this view, there were three such "turnings":<sup id="cite_ref-Kitagawa80_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kitagawa80-206"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>In the first turning, the Buddha taught the <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a> at <a href="/wiki/Varanasi" title="Varanasi">Varanasi</a> for those in the <a href="/wiki/Shravaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Shravaka">śravaka</a> vehicle. It is described as marvelous and wonderful, but requires interpretation and occasioning controversy.<sup id="cite_ref-Samdhinirmocana_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Samdhinirmocana-207"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The doctrines of the first turning are exemplified in the <i><a href="/wiki/Dhammacakkapavattana_Sutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta">Dharmacakra Pravartana Sūtra</a></i>. This turning represents the earliest phase of the Buddhist teachings and the earliest period in the history of Buddhism.</li> <li>In the second turning, the Buddha taught the Mahāyāna teachings to the bodhisattvas, teaching that all phenomena have no-essence, no arising, no passing away, are originally quiescent, and essentially in cessation. This turning is also described as marvelous and wonderful, but requiring interpretation and occasioning controversy.<sup id="cite_ref-Samdhinirmocana_207-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Samdhinirmocana-207"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Doctrine of the second turning is established in the Prajñāpāramitā teachings, first put into writing around 100 BCE. In Indian philosophical schools, it is exemplified by the Mādhyamaka school of <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nāgārjuna</a>.</li> <li>In the third turning, the Buddha taught similar teachings to the second turning, but for everyone in the three vehicles, including all the śravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas. These were meant to be completely explicit teachings in their entire detail, for which interpretations would not be necessary, and controversy would not occur.<sup id="cite_ref-Samdhinirmocana_207-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Samdhinirmocana-207"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> These teachings were established by the <i><a href="/wiki/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra" title="Sandhinirmocana Sutra">Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra</a></i> as early as the 1st or 2nd century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-Powers_1993_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Powers_1993-208"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In the Indian philosophical schools, the third turning is exemplified by the <a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogācāra</a> school of Asaṅga and <a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a>.</li></ol> <p>Some traditions of <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a> consider the teachings of Esoteric Buddhism and <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayāna</a> to be the third turning of the Dharma Wheel.<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Tibetan teachers, particularly of the <a href="/wiki/Gelug" title="Gelug">Gelugpa</a> school, regard the second turning as the highest teaching, because of their particular interpretation of Yogācāra doctrine. The <a href="/wiki/Tathagatagarbha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tathagatagarbha">Buddha Nature</a> teachings are normally included in the third turning of the wheel.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> </p><p>The different <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhist</a> traditions have different schemes of doctrinal periodization called <i><a href="/wiki/Three_Turnings_of_the_Wheel_of_Dharma#Other_similar_classifications" title="Three Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma">panjiao</a></i> which they use to organize the sometimes bewildering array of texts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_with_the_early_texts">Relationship with the early texts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30" title="Edit section: Relationship with the early texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scholars have noted that many key Mahāyāna ideas are closely connected to the <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Buddhist Texts">earliest texts of Buddhism</a>. The seminal work of Mahāyāna philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nāgārjuna's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Mulamadhyamakakarika" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulamadhyamakakarika">Mūlamadhyamakakārikā</a></i>, mentions the canon's <i>Katyāyana Sūtra</i> (SA 301) by name, and may be an extended commentary on that work.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Nāgārjuna systematized the <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Mādhyamaka</a> school of Mahāyāna philosophy. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the canon. In his eyes, the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Mādhyamaka system.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Nāgārjuna also referred to a passage in the canon regarding "<a href="/wiki/Nirvana#Luminous_consciousness" title="Nirvana">nirvanic consciousness</a>" in two different works.<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogācāra</a>, the other prominent Mahāyāna school in dialectic with the Mādhyamaka school, gave a special significance to the canon's <i>Lesser Discourse on Emptiness</i> (MA 190).<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> A passage there (which the discourse itself emphasizes) is often quoted in later Yogācāra texts as a true definition of <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">emptiness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Walpola_Rahula" class="mw-redirect" title="Walpola Rahula">Walpola Rahula</a>, the thought presented in the Yogācāra school's <i><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma-samuccaya" title="Abhidharma-samuccaya">Abhidharma-samuccaya</a></i> is undeniably closer to that of the Pali <a href="/wiki/Nikayas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikayas">Nikayas</a> than is that of the Theravadin <a href="/wiki/Abhidhamma" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidhamma">Abhidhamma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both the Mādhyamikas and the Yogācārins saw themselves as preserving the Buddhist Middle Way between the extremes of nihilism (everything as unreal) and substantialism (substantial entities existing). The Yogācārins criticized the Mādhyamikas for tending towards nihilism, while the Mādhyamikas criticized the Yogācārins for tending towards substantialism.<sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Key Mahāyāna texts introducing the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">bodhicitta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddha_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha nature">Buddha nature</a> also use language parallel to passages in the canon containing the Buddha's description of "<a href="/wiki/Luminous_mind" title="Luminous mind">luminous mind</a>" and appear to have evolved from this idea.<sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-217"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_Mahāyāna_Buddhism"><span id="Contemporary_Mah.C4.81y.C4.81na_Buddhism"></span>Contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31" title="Edit section: Contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddhist_sects.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Buddhist_sects.png/220px-Buddhist_sects.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Buddhist_sects.png/330px-Buddhist_sects.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Buddhist_sects.png/440px-Buddhist_sects.png 2x" data-file-width="1365" data-file-height="1249" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">three major Buddhist divisions</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The main contemporary traditions of Mahāyāna in Asia are: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">East Asian Mahāyāna</a> traditions of China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam, also known as "Eastern Buddhism". <a href="/wiki/Peter_Harvey_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Harvey (Buddhism)">Peter Harvey</a> estimates that there are about 360 million Eastern Buddhists in Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-Harvey-2013_219-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvey-2013-219"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Indo-Tibetan tradition</a> (Vajrayana Buddhism, mainly found in Tibet, Inner Mongolia and elsewhere in Western China, Mongolia, Bhutan, parts of India, Nepal and Russia, also known as "Northern Buddhism". According to Harvey "the number of people belonging to Northern Buddhism totals only around 18.2 million."<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>There are also some minor Mahāyāna traditions practiced by minority groups, such as <a href="/wiki/Newar_Buddhism" title="Newar Buddhism">Newar Buddhism</a> practiced by the <a href="/wiki/Newar_people" title="Newar people">Newar people</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Azhaliism" title="Azhaliism">Azhaliism</a> practiced by the <a href="/wiki/Bai_people" title="Bai people">Bai people</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>). </p><p>Furthermore, there are also various <a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">new religious movements</a> which either see themselves as Mahāyāna or are strongly influenced by Mahāyāna Buddhism. Examples of these include <a href="/wiki/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o" title="Hòa Hảo">Hòa Hảo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Won_Buddhism" title="Won Buddhism">Won Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Triratna_Buddhist_Community" title="Triratna Buddhist Community">Triratna Buddhist Community</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soka_Gakkai" title="Soka Gakkai">Sōka Gakkai</a>. </p><p>Lastly, there are various <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian religious traditions</a> which are strongly influenced by Mahāyāna Buddhism, though they may not be considered as being "Buddhist" per se. These include: <a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shugend%C5%8D" title="Shugendō">Shugendo</a>, Mongolian <a href="/wiki/Yellow_shamanism" title="Yellow shamanism">Yellow shamanism</a>, Syncretized Shinto (<a href="/wiki/Shinbutsu-sh%C5%ABg%C5%8D" title="Shinbutsu-shūgō">shinbutsu-shūgō</a>) and some of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Chinese salvationist religions</a>. </p><p>Most of the major forms of contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism are also practiced by Asian immigrant populations in the West and also by western convert Buddhists. For more on this topic see: <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Buddhism in the West</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese">Chinese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32" title="Edit section: Chinese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fo_Guang_Shan_Buddha_Museum_%E4%BD%9B%E5%85%89%E5%B1%B1%E4%BD%9B%E9%99%80%E7%B4%80%E5%BF%B5%E9%A4%A8_.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Fo_Guang_Shan_Buddha_Museum_%E4%BD%9B%E5%85%89%E5%B1%B1%E4%BD%9B%E9%99%80%E7%B4%80%E5%BF%B5%E9%A4%A8_.jpg/250px-Fo_Guang_Shan_Buddha_Museum_%E4%BD%9B%E5%85%89%E5%B1%B1%E4%BD%9B%E9%99%80%E7%B4%80%E5%BF%B5%E9%A4%A8_.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Fo_Guang_Shan_Buddha_Museum_%E4%BD%9B%E5%85%89%E5%B1%B1%E4%BD%9B%E9%99%80%E7%B4%80%E5%BF%B5%E9%A4%A8_.jpg/375px-Fo_Guang_Shan_Buddha_Museum_%E4%BD%9B%E5%85%89%E5%B1%B1%E4%BD%9B%E9%99%80%E7%B4%80%E5%BF%B5%E9%A4%A8_.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Fo_Guang_Shan_Buddha_Museum_%E4%BD%9B%E5%85%89%E5%B1%B1%E4%BD%9B%E9%99%80%E7%B4%80%E5%BF%B5%E9%A4%A8_.jpg/500px-Fo_Guang_Shan_Buddha_Museum_%E4%BD%9B%E5%85%89%E5%B1%B1%E4%BD%9B%E9%99%80%E7%B4%80%E5%BF%B5%E9%A4%A8_.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fo_Guang_Shan_Buddha_Museum" title="Fo Guang Shan Buddha Museum">Fo Guang Shan Buddha Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Contemporary Han <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a> is practiced through many varied forms, such as <a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a> (Zen), <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure land</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">mantra practices</a>. This group is the largest population of Buddhists in the world. There are between 228 and 239 million Mahāyāna Buddhists in the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a>. This does not include the Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhists who practice Tibetan Buddhism.<sup id="cite_ref-Harvey-2013_219-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvey-2013-219"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Harvey gives the East Asian Mahāyāna Buddhist population in other countries as follows: <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwanese Buddhists</a>, 8 million; <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysian Buddhists</a>, 5.5 million; <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singaporean Buddhists</a>, 1.5 million; <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Buddhism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, 0.7 million; <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesian Buddhists</a>, 4 million, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Philippines" title="Buddhism in the Philippines">The Philippines</a>: 2.3 million.<sup id="cite_ref-Harvey-2013_219-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvey-2013-219"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Most of these are Han Chinese populations. </p><p>Chinese Buddhism can be divided into various different traditions (<i>zong</i>), such as <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_M%C4%81dhyamaka" title="East Asian Mādhyamaka">Sanlun</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra" title="East Asian Yogācāra">Faxiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Zhenyan</a>. However, historically, most temples, institutions and Buddhist practitioners usually did not belong to any single "sect" (as is common in Japanese Buddhism), but draw from the various different elements of Chinese Buddhist thought and practice. This non-sectarian and eclectic aspect of Chinese Buddhism as a whole has persisted from its historical beginnings into its modern practice.<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The modern development of an ideology called <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanistic Buddhism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 人間佛教; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i>rénjiān fójiào, more literally</i> "Buddhism for the Human World") has also been influential on Chinese Buddhist leaders and institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Chinese Buddhists may also practice some form of religious syncretism with other <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Chinese religions</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In modern China, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">reform and opening up period</a> in the late 20th century saw a particularly significant increase in the number of converts to Chinese Buddhism, a growth which has been called "extraordinary".<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Korean">Korean</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33" title="Edit section: Korean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korean Buddhism</a> is dominated by the Korean <a href="/wiki/Korean_Seon" title="Korean Seon">Seon</a> school (i.e. Zen), primarily represented by the <a href="/wiki/Jogye_Order" title="Jogye Order">Jogye Order</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Taego_Order" title="Taego Order">Taego Order</a>. Korean Seon also includes some Pure Land practice.<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> It is mainly practiced in <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>, with a rough population of about 10.9 million Buddhists.<sup id="cite_ref-Harvey-2013_219-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvey-2013-219"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> There are also some minor Korean schools, such as the <a href="/wiki/Cheontae" title="Cheontae">Cheontae</a> (i.e. Korean Tiantai), and the esoteric <a href="/wiki/Jingak_Order" title="Jingak Order">Jingak</a> and Chinŏn schools. </p><p>While <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarian</a> government remains repressive and ambivalent towards religion, at least 11 percent of the population is considered to be Buddhist according to Williams.<sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese">Japanese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=34" title="Edit section: Japanese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japanese Buddhism</a> is divided into numerous traditions which include various sects of <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism#Japanese_Pure_Land" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land Buddhism</a> (the largest being <a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Ddo_Shinsh%C5%AB" title="Jōdo Shinshū">Shin</a> and <a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Ddo-sh%C5%AB" title="Jōdo-shū">Jodo</a>), <a href="/wiki/Tendai" title="Tendai">Tendai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a> and three major sects of <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Zen" title="Japanese Zen">Zen</a> (<a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dt%C5%8D" title="Sōtō">Soto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rinzai_school" title="Rinzai school">Rinzai</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C5%8Cbaku" title="Ōbaku">Obaku</a>). There are also various Mahāyāna oriented <a href="/wiki/Japanese_new_religions" title="Japanese new religions">Japanese new religions</a> that arose in the <a href="/wiki/Post-war" title="Post-war">post-war period</a>. Many of these new religions are lay movements like <a href="/wiki/Soka_Gakkai" title="Soka Gakkai">Sōka Gakkai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rissh%C5%8D_K%C5%8Dsei_Kai" title="Risshō Kōsei Kai">Risshō Kōsei Kai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agon_Shu" title="Agon Shu">Agon Shū</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>An estimate of the Japanese Mahāyāna Buddhist population is given by Harvey as 52 million and a recent 2018 survey puts the number at 84 million.<sup id="cite_ref-Harvey-2013_219-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvey-2013-219"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ACA_Yearbook_229-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACA_Yearbook-229"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> It should also be noted that many Japanese Buddhists also participate in <a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a> practices, such as visiting shrines, collecting amulets and attending festivals.<sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vietnamese">Vietnamese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=35" title="Edit section: Vietnamese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnamese Buddhism</a> is strongly influenced by the Chinese tradition. It is a synthesis of numerous practices and ideas. Vietnamese Mahāyāna draws practices from <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Thi%E1%BB%81n" class="mw-redirect" title="Vietnamese Thiền">Vietnamese <i>Thiền</i></a> (Chan/Zen), <i>Tịnh độ</i> (Pure Land), and <i>Mật Tông</i> (Mantrayana) and its philosophy from <i>Hoa Nghiêm</i> (Huayan) and <i>Thiên Thai</i> (Tiantai).<sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> New Mahāyāna movements have also developed in the modern era, perhaps the most influential of which has been <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Plum_Village_Tradition" title="Plum Village Tradition">Plum Village Tradition</a>, which also draws from Theravada Buddhism. </p><p>Though Vietnamese Buddhism suffered extensively during the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam war</a> (1955-1975) and during subsequent <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">communist takeover of the south</a>, there has been a revival of the religion since the liberalization period following 1986. There are about 43 million Vietnamese Mahāyāna Buddhists.<sup id="cite_ref-Harvey-2013_219-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvey-2013-219"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Northern_Buddhism">Northern Buddhism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=36" title="Edit section: Northern Buddhism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dalai_Lama_and_Bishop_Tutu._Carey_Linde.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Dalai_Lama_and_Bishop_Tutu._Carey_Linde.jpg/220px-Dalai_Lama_and_Bishop_Tutu._Carey_Linde.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Dalai_Lama_and_Bishop_Tutu._Carey_Linde.jpg/330px-Dalai_Lama_and_Bishop_Tutu._Carey_Linde.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Dalai_Lama_and_Bishop_Tutu._Carey_Linde.jpg/440px-Dalai_Lama_and_Bishop_Tutu._Carey_Linde.jpg 2x" data-file-width="555" data-file-height="321" /></a><figcaption>The 14th <a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a> <a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">Tenzin Gyatso</a> with <a href="/wiki/Desmond_Tutu" title="Desmond Tutu">Desmond Tutu</a> in 2004. Due to his charisma, the Dalai Lama has become the international face of contemporary Tibetan Buddhism<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism or "Northern" Buddhism</a> derives from the Indian Vajrayana Buddhism that was adopted in medieval Tibet. Though it includes numerous <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Tantric_Practice" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan Tantric Practice">tantric Buddhist practices</a> not found in East Asian Mahāyāna, Northern Buddhism still considers itself as part of Mahāyāna Buddhism (albeit as one which also contains a more effective and distinct vehicle or <i>yana</i>). </p><p>Contemporary Northern Buddhism is traditionally practiced mainly in the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayan regions</a> and in some regions of North <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, including:<sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Tibet_Autonomous_Region" title="Tibet Autonomous Region">Tibet autonomous region</a> (PRC): 5.4 million</li> <li>North and North-east India (<a href="/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkhim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ladakh" title="Ladakh">Ladakh</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(state)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (state)">Jammu and Kashmir</a>): 0.4 million</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>: 0.16 million</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>: 2.9 million</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>: 0.49 million</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>: 2.7 million</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a> (PRC): 5 million</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buryatia" title="Buryatia">Buryatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tuva" title="Tuva">Tuva</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kalmykia" title="Kalmykia">Kalmykia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian Federation</a>): 0.7 million</li></ul> <p>As with Eastern Buddhism, the practice of northern Buddhism declined in Tibet, China and Mongolia during the communist takeover of these regions (Mongolia: 1924, Tibet: 1959). Tibetan Buddhism continued to be practiced among the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_diaspora" title="Tibetan diaspora">Tibetan diaspora</a> population, as well as by other Himalayan peoples in Bhutan, Ladakh and Nepal. Post-1980s though, Northern Buddhism has seen a revival in both Tibet and Mongolia due to more liberal government policies towards religious freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-234" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-234"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Northern Buddhism is also now practiced in the Western world by western convert Buddhists. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theravāda_school"><span id="Therav.C4.81da_school"></span>Theravāda school</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=37" title="Edit section: Theravāda school"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_of_the_Bodhisattva">Role of the Bodhisattva</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=38" title="Edit section: Role of the Bodhisattva"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early Buddhist texts, and as taught by the modern <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> school, the goal of becoming a teaching Buddha in a future life is viewed as the aim of a small group of individuals striving to benefit future generations after the current Buddha's teachings have been lost, but in the current age there is no need for most practitioners to aspire to this goal. Theravada texts do, however, hold that this is a more perfectly virtuous goal.<sup id="cite_ref-235" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-235"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Paul Williams writes that some modern Theravada meditation masters in <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> are popularly regarded as bodhisattvas.<sup id="cite_ref-236" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-236"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Cholvijarn observes that prominent figures associated with the <a href="/wiki/Dhammakaya_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhammakaya Movement">Self perspective</a> in Thailand have often been famous outside scholarly circles as well, among the wider populace, as Buddhist meditation masters and sources of miracles and sacred <a href="/wiki/Amulet" title="Amulet">amulets</a>. Like perhaps some of the early Mahāyāna forest hermit monks, or the later Buddhist Tantrics, they have become people of power through their meditative achievements. They are widely revered, worshipped, and held to be arhats or (note!) bodhisattvas.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theravāda_and_Hīnayāna"><span id="Therav.C4.81da_and_H.C4.ABnay.C4.81na"></span>Theravāda and Hīnayāna</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=39" title="Edit section: Theravāda and Hīnayāna"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 7th century, the Chinese Buddhist monk <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> describes the concurrent existence of the <a href="/wiki/Mahavihara" title="Mahavihara">Mahāvihara</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Abhayagiri_Dagaba" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhayagiri Dagaba">Abhayagiri</a> Vihara in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>. He refers to the monks of the Mahāvihara as the "Hīnayāna Sthaviras" (<i>Theras</i>), and the monks of the Abhayagiri Vihara as the "Mahāyāna Sthaviras".<sup id="cite_ref-237" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-237"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Xuanzang further writes:<sup id="cite_ref-238" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-238"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Mahāvihāravāsins reject the Mahāyāna and practice the Hīnayāna, while the Abhayagirivihāravāsins study both Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna teachings and propagate the <i><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></i>.</p></blockquote> <p>The modern Theravāda school is usually described as belonging to Hīnayāna.<sup id="cite_ref-239" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-239"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gombrich_240-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gombrich-240"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-241" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-241"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gellner_242-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gellner-242"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Some authors have argued that it should not be considered such from the Mahāyāna perspective. Their view is based on a different understanding of the concept of Hīnayāna. Rather than regarding the term as referring to any school of Buddhism that has not accepted the Mahāyāna canon and doctrines, such as those pertaining to the role of the bodhisattva,<sup id="cite_ref-gombrich_240-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gombrich-240"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gellner_242-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gellner-242"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> these authors argue that the classification of a school as "Hīnayāna" should be crucially dependent on the adherence to a specific <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_of_religion" title="Phenomenology of religion">phenomenological</a> position. They point out that unlike the now-extinct <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivāda</a> school, which was the primary object of Mahāyāna criticism, the Theravāda does not claim the existence of independent <a href="/wiki/Dharma#In_Buddhist_phenomenology" title="Dharma">entities</a> (<i>dharmas</i>); in this it maintains the attitude of early Buddhism.<sup id="cite_ref-244" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-244"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-245"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-246"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adherents of Mahāyāna Buddhism disagreed with the substantialist thought of the Sarvāstivādins and <a href="/wiki/Sautrantika" class="mw-redirect" title="Sautrantika">Sautrāntikas</a>, and in emphasizing the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Sunyata" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunyata">emptiness</a>, Kalupahana holds that they endeavored to preserve the early teaching.<sup id="cite_ref-247" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-247"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The Theravādins too refuted the Sarvāstivādins and Sautrāntikas (and other schools) on the grounds that their theories were in conflict with the non-substantialism of the canon. The Theravāda arguments are preserved in the <i><a href="/wiki/Kathavatthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kathavatthu">Kathāvatthu</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-248" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-248"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some contemporary Theravādin figures have indicated a sympathetic stance toward the Mahāyāna philosophy found in texts such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Heart_Sutra" title="Heart Sutra">Heart Sūtra</a></i> (Skt. <i>Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya</i>) and Nāgārjuna's <i><a href="/wiki/Mulamadhyamakakarika" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulamadhyamakakarika">Fundamental Stanzas on the Middle Way</a></i> (Skt. <i>Mūlamadhyamakakārikā</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-249" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-249"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-250" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-250"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=40" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_holidays" title="Buddhist holidays">Buddhist holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Creator in Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Faith in Buddhism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Golden_Light_Sutra" title="Golden Light Sutra">Golden Light Sutra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index of Buddhism-related articles</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Lotus Sutra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Mah%C4%81parinirv%C4%81%E1%B9%87a_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra">Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_land" title="Pure land">Pure land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Schools of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Buddhism" title="Secular Buddhism">Secular Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tendai" title="Tendai">Tendai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=41" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Mahayana, 'Great Vehicle' or 'Great Carriage' (for carrying all beings to nirvana), is also, and perhaps more correctly and accurately, known as the Bodhisattvayana, the bodhisattva's vehicle." Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999). <i>Indian Buddhism</i>: p. 338</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karashima: "I have assumed that, in the earliest stage of the transmission of <i>the Lotus Sūtra</i>, the Middle Indic forn <i>jāṇa</i> or *<i>jāna</i> (Pkt &lt; Skt <i>jñāna</i>, <i>yāna</i>) had stood in these places ... I have assumed, further, that the Mahāyānist terms <i>buddha-yānā</i> ("the Buddha-vehicle"), <i>mahāyāna</i> ("the great vehicle"), <i>hīnayāna</i> ("the inferior vehicle") meant originally <i>buddha-jñāna</i> ("buddha-knowledge"), <i>mahājñāna</i> ("great knowledge") and <i>hīnajñāna</i> ("inferior knowledge")." Karashima, Seishi (2001). Some features of the Language of the Saddharma-puṇḍarīka-sūtra, <i>Indo-Iranian Journal</i> 44: 207–230</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Warder: "The sudden appearance of large numbers of (Mahayana) teachers and texts (in North India in the second century AD) would seem to require some previous preparation and development, and this we can look for in the South." Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999). <i>Indian Buddhism</i>: p. 335.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The most important evidence&#160;– in fact the only evidence&#160;– for situating the emergence of the Mahayana around the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence at all, but came from China. Already by the last quarter of the 2nd century CE, there was a small, seemingly idiosyncratic collection of substantial Mahayana sutras translated into what Erik Zürcher calls 'broken Chinese' by an Indoscythian, whose Indian name has been reconstructed as Lokaksema." <i>Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism</i> (2004): p. 492</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Certainly, we have for this period an extensive body of inscriptions from virtually all parts of India. ... But nowhere in this extensive body of material is there any reference, prior to the fifth century, to a named Mahāyāna.", <i>Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism</i> (2004): p. 493</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"What is particularly disconcerting here is the disconnect between expectation and reality: We know from Chinese translations that large numbers of Mahāyāna sutras were being composed in the period between the beginning of the common era and the fifth century. But outside of texts, at least in India, at exactly the same period, very different&#160;– in fact seemingly older&#160;– ideas and aspirations appear to be motivating actual behavior, and old and established Hinayana groups appear to be the only ones that are patronized and supported., <i>Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism</i> (2004): p. 494</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"In other words, once nontextual evidence is taken into account the picture changes dramatically. Rather than being datable to the beginning of the common era, this strand of Mahayana Buddhism, at least, appeared to have no visible impact on Indian Buddhist cult practice until the 2nd century, and even then what impact it had was extremely isolated and marginal, and had no lasting or long-term consequences&#160;– there were no further references to Amitabha in Indian image inscriptions. Almost exactly the same pattern occurs (concerning Mahayana) on an even broader scale when nontextual evidence is considered." <i>Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism</i> (2004): p. 493</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"There are, it seems, very few things that can be said with certainty about Mahayana Buddhism...But apart from the fact that it can be said with some certainty that the Buddhism embedded in China, Korea, Tibet, and Japan is Mahayana Buddhism, it is no longer clear what else can be said with certainty about Mahayana Buddhism itself, and especially about its earlier, and presumably formative, period in India.", <i>Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism</i> (2004): p. 492</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"It has become increasingly clear that Mahayana Buddhism was never one thing, but rather, it seems, a loosely bound bundle of many, and&#160;– like Walt Whitman&#160;– was large and could contain, in both senses of the term, contradictions, or at least antipodal elements." <i>Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism</i> (2004): p. 492</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=42" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Harvey-2013a-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harvey-2013a_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvey-2013a_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey (2013), p. 189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey (2013), pp. 108-109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated38-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated38_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated38_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Damien_Keown" title="Damien Keown">Damien Keown</a> (2003), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=985a1M7L1NcC&amp;pg=PA38">A Dictionary of Buddhism</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, p. 38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey (2013), p. 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-2008f-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008f_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008f_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008f_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008f_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,</i> Routledge, 2008, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Woodhead-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Woodhead_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Woodhead_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWoodheadPartridgeKawanami2016" class="citation book cs1">Woodhead, Linda; Partridge, Christopher Hugh; Kawanami, Hiroko, eds. (2016). <i>Religions in the modern world: traditions and transformations</i> (Third&#160;ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-85880-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-85880-9"><bdi>978-0-415-85880-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/916409066">916409066</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Religions+in+the+modern+world%3A+traditions+and+transformations&amp;rft.place=Abingdon%2C+Oxon&amp;rft.edition=Third&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F916409066&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-415-85880-9&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoltz2013" class="citation book cs1">Foltz, Richard (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sZRGAQAAQBAJ&amp;q=buddhist+viharas+found+in+modern+day+iran&amp;pg=PA95"><i>Religions of Iran:From Prehistory to the Present</i></a>. Oneworld Publications. p.&#160;95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78074-309-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78074-309-7"><bdi>978-1-78074-309-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-12-18</span></span>. <q>In the centuries before the Arab conquests Buddhism was spread throughout the eastern Iranian world. Buddhist sites have been found in Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, as well as within Iran itself.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Religions+of+Iran%3AFrom+Prehistory+to+the+Present&amp;rft.pages=95&amp;rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-78074-309-7&amp;rft.aulast=Foltz&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsZRGAQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dbuddhist%2Bviharas%2Bfound%2Bin%2Bmodern%2Bday%2Biran%26pg%3DPA95&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnsonGrim2013" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Todd M.; Grim, Brian J. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131020100448/http://media.johnwiley.com.au/product_data/excerpt/47/04706745/0470674547-196.pdf"><i>The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. p.&#160;36. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.johnwiley.com.au/product_data/excerpt/47/04706745/0470674547-196.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 20 October 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+World%27s+Religions+in+Figures%3A+An+Introduction+to+International+Religious+Demography&amp;rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&amp;rft.pages=36&amp;rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.aulast=Johnson&amp;rft.aufirst=Todd+M.&amp;rft.au=Grim%2C+Brian+J.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedia.johnwiley.com.au%2Fproduct_data%2Fexcerpt%2F47%2F04706745%2F0470674547-196.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._174-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._174_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._174_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nattier, Jan (2003), <i>A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra</i>: p. 174</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nattier, Jan (2003), <i>A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra</i>: p. 172</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W. Rahula, (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.budsas.org/ebud/ebdha125.htm"><i>Theravada – Mahayana Buddhism</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190124041901/http://www.budsas.org/ebud/ebdha125.htm">Archived</a> 2019-01-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; in: "Gems of Buddhist Wisdom", Buddhist Missionary Society, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams2004-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams2004_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams2004_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul. <i>Buddhism. Vol. 3. The origins and nature of Mahāyāna Buddhism.</i> Routledge. 2004. p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karashima, Seishi (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070705053037/http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/orc/Publications/ARIRIAB/pdf/ARIRIAB-04.pdf">Who composed the Lotus Sutra?</a>, Annual Report of The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University 4, p. 170 (note 115)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karashima, Seishi (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150526143324/http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/orc/Publications/ARIRIAB/pdf/ARIRIAB-18.pdf">Vehicle (yāna) and Wisdom (jñāna) in the Lotus Sutra – the Origin of the Notion of yāna in Mahayāna Buddhism</a>, Annual Report of The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University 18, 163–196</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080618160109/http://library.ust.hk/info/catman/cjk/pinyinmistakes.html">"容易讀錯的字和詞"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.ust.hk/info/catman/cjk/pinyinmistakes.html">the original</a> on June 18, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%E5%AE%B9%E6%98%93%E8%AE%80%E9%8C%AF%E7%9A%84%E5%AD%97%E5%92%8C%E8%A9%9E&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.ust.hk%2Finfo%2Fcatman%2Fcjk%2Fpinyinmistakes.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">《<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%B0%E4%BB%A3%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD%E8%AF%8D%E5%85%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="现代汉语词典">现代汉语词典</a>》、《远东汉英大辞典》</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._193-1942-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._193-1942_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._193-1942_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._193-1942_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nattier,_Jan_2003_p._193-1942_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nattier, Jan (2003), <i>A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra</i>: pp. 193–194</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://agama.buddhason.org/SA/SA0769.htm">"北傳:雜阿含769經南傳:相應部45相應4經"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201123042214/http://agama.buddhason.org/SA/SA0769.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-11-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-06-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%E5%8C%97%E5%82%B3%EF%BC%9A%E9%9B%9C%E9%98%BF%E5%90%AB769%E7%B6%93%E5%8D%97%E5%82%B3%EF%BC%9A%E7%9B%B8%E6%87%89%E9%83%A845%E7%9B%B8%E6%87%894%E7%B6%93&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fagama.buddhason.org%2FSA%2FSA0769.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://agama.buddhason.org/DA/DA02.htm">"長阿含2經"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210208020304/http://agama.buddhason.org/DA/DA02.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-02-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-06-28</span></span>. <q>南傳對應經文「凡越渡海洋、湖泊者,他們造橋離沼澤,人們綁桴,有智慧的人已橫渡。」</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=%E9%95%B7%E9%98%BF%E5%90%AB2%E7%B6%93&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fagama.buddhason.org%2FDA%2FDA02.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A2%9E%E4%B8%80%E9%98%BF%E5%90%AB%E7%B6%93&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="增一阿含經 (page does not exist)">增一阿含經</a>·勸請品·八經》:「爾時,尊者拘絺羅便說此偈:『種種果不同,眾生趣亦然,<b>自覺覺人</b>者,我無此辯說。禪智解脫辯,憶本天眼通,能盡苦原本,我無此辯說。』爾時,須深女人便說此偈:『善逝有此智,質直無瑕穢,勇猛有所伏,求於<b>大乘</b>行。』」</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">印順〈雜阿含經部類之整編〉:「宋譯《雜阿含經》,譯出的時代遲了些,而譯者求那跋陀羅,是 – 位唯心大乘師,所以譯文中偶有大乘的名義。......「菩薩摩訶薩」的稱呼,受到了大乘的影響。不過,每成立 – 部派,就有部派所審定集成的經典,在傳承的同 – 宗派中,是不可能大事更張的。《雜阿含經》的「修多羅」部分,與『攝事分』所依經本 – 致,即可以證明。當然,經典在長期流傳中,會因時因地而有多少差別的。求那跋陀羅為唯心大乘師,所譯《雜阿含經》,就偶有 – 二大乘名義,然如依此而說宋譯《雜阿含經》,是大乘佛教時代所完成的,那就誤謬不經了!」</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%B3%E6%B1%9D%E9%88%9E&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="吳汝鈞 (page does not exist)">吳汝鈞</a>《印度大乘佛教思想的特色》:「『阿含經』用「大乘」之名,大扺指佛的教法,而含有尊崇之意。這「大乘」自不同於爾後大乘佛教的「大乘」,但亦非全不相通。大乘佛教自有其發展,但其基本教理,並不遠離佛的本意。」</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hirakawa_Akira_1993,_p._260-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hirakawa_Akira_1993,_p._260_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993. <i>A History of Indian Buddhism</i>. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: p. 260.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1990271-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1990271_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHirakawa1990">Hirakawa 1990</a>, p.&#160;271.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drewes-2010a-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2010a_26-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Drewes, David, <i>Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism I: Recent Scholarship</i>, Religion Compass 4/2 (2010): 55–65, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00195.x">10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00195.x</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"One of the most frequent assertions about the Mahayana is that it was a lay-influenced, or even lay-inspired and dominated, movement that arose in response to the increasingly closed, cold, and scholastic character of monastic Buddhism. This, however, now appears to be wrong on all counts...much of its [Hinayana's] program being in fact intended and designed to allow laymen and women and donors the opportunity and means to make religious merit." <i>Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism</i> (2004): p. 494</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Xing65-66-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Xing65-66_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guang Xing. <i>The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory.</i> 2004. pp. 65–66 "Several scholars have suggested that the Prajñāpāramitā probably developed among the Mahasamghikas in Southern India, in the Andhra country, on the Krishna River."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-2009-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2009_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul. <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations 2nd edition.</i> Routledge, 2009, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hirakawa_Akira_1993,_p._263-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hirakawa_Akira_1993,_p._263_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993. <i>A History of Indian Buddhism</i>. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: pp. 253, 263, 268</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Warder-1999-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Warder-1999_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in producing Mahayana Sutras"&#160;– Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999). <i>Indian Buddhism</i>: p. 335.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Padma, Sree. Barber, Anthony W. <i>Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra.</i> SUNY Press 2008, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Karashima-2013-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Karashima-2013_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karashima, 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walser, Joseph, <i>Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,</i> Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,</i> Routledge, 2008, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,</i> Routledge, 2008, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Drewes, David, The Forest Hypothesis in Paul Harrison, ed., <i>Setting Out on the Great Way</i>. Equinox, 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams (2008), pp. 33-34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boucher, Daniel, Bodhisattvas of the Forest and the Formation of the Mahāyāna: A Study and Translation of the.Rāṣṭrapālaparipṛcchā-sūtra. University of Hawaii Press, 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drewes-2010-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2010_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2010_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2010_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2010_41-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2010_41-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2010_41-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives, <i>Religion Compass</i> 4/2 (2010): 66–74, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00193.x">10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00193.x</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oliver-2019-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oliver-2019_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oliver-2019_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oliver-2019_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oliver-2019_42-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oliver-2019_42-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOliver2019" class="citation book cs1">Oliver, Joan Duncan (April 2019). <i>Buddhism: An Introduction to the Buddha's Life, Teachings, and Practices</i> (1st&#160;ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">St. Martin's Essentials</a>. p.&#160;xi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-250-31368-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-250-31368-3"><bdi>978-1-250-31368-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Buddhism%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Buddha%27s+Life%2C+Teachings%2C+and+Practices&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pages=xi&amp;rft.edition=1st&amp;rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Essentials&amp;rft.date=2019-04&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-250-31368-3&amp;rft.aulast=Oliver&amp;rft.aufirst=Joan+Duncan&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Acri-2018-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Acri-2018_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Acri-2018_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Acri-2018_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Acri-2018_43-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Acri-2018_43-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAcri2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Acri, Andrea (20 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-638">"Maritime Buddhism"</a>. <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199340378.013.638">10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.638</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-934037-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-934037-8"><bdi>978-0-19-934037-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190219153342/https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-638">Archived</a> from the original on 19 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Maritime+Buddhism&amp;rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Religion&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2018-12-20&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199340378.013.638&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-934037-8&amp;rft.aulast=Acri&amp;rft.aufirst=Andrea&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Freligion%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199340378.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199340378-e-638&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MMR-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MMR_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhie2010" class="citation book cs1">Rhie, Marylin M. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ivE2mpfbNR0C&amp;pg=PR37"><i>Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia, Volume 3: The Western Ch'in in Kansu in the Sixteen Kingdoms Period and Inter-relationships with the Buddhist Art of Gandh?ra</i></a>. BRILL. p.&#160;xxxvii, Fig 6.17a. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18400-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18400-8"><bdi>978-90-04-18400-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Early+Buddhist+Art+of+China+and+Central+Asia%2C+Volume+3%3A+The+Western+Ch%27in+in+Kansu+in+the+Sixteen+Kingdoms+Period+and+Inter-relationships+with+the+Buddhist+Art+of+Gandh%3Fra&amp;rft.pages=xxxvii%2C+Fig+6.17a&amp;rft.pub=BRILL&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-90-04-18400-8&amp;rft.aulast=Rhie&amp;rft.aufirst=Marylin+M.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DivE2mpfbNR0C%26pg%3DPR37&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GS99-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GS99_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GS99_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchopen1987" class="citation journal cs1">Schopen, Gregory (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191207114137/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Articles/The-Inscription-on-the-Kusan-Image-of-Amitabha-and-and-the-Character-of-Early-Mahayana-in-India_Schopen.pdf">"The Inscription on the Kuṣān Image of Amitābha and the Charakter of the Early Mahāyāna in India"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies</i>. <b>10</b> (2): 99–138. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Articles/The-Inscription-on-the-Kusan-Image-of-Amitabha-and-and-the-Character-of-Early-Mahayana-in-India_Schopen.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on December 7, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+International+Association+of+Buddhist+Studies&amp;rft.atitle=The+Inscription+on+the+Ku%E1%B9%A3%C4%81n+Image+of+Amit%C4%81bha+and+the+Charakter+of+the+Early+Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na+in+India&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=99-138&amp;rft.date=1987&amp;rft.aulast=Schopen&amp;rft.aufirst=Gregory&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ahandfulofleaves.org%2Fdocuments%2FArticles%2FThe-Inscription-on-the-Kusan-Image-of-Amitabha-and-and-the-Character-of-Early-Mahayana-in-India_Schopen.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuswell2004" class="citation book cs1">Buswell, Robert E., ed. (2004). <i>Encyclopedia of Buddhism</i>. Macmillan Reference USA. p.&#160;492. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-865718-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-865718-7"><bdi>0-02-865718-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Buddhism&amp;rft.pages=492&amp;rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+USA&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=0-02-865718-7&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harrison, Paul 'Who Gets to Ride in the Great Vehicle? Self-image and Identity Among the Followers of Early Mahayana.' 1987.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul (2008) <i>Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations:</i> p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul (2008) <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations</i>: pp. 4–5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guang Xing. The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory. 2004. p. 115</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul (2000) <i>Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition</i>: p. 97</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walser, Joseph, <i>Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,</i> Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Neelis, Jason. <i>Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks.</i> 2010. p. 141</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walser, Joseph, <i>Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,</i> Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walser-2005-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Walser-2005_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walser-2005_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walser, Joseph, <i>Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,</i> Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walser, Joseph, <i>Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,</i> Columbia University Press, 2005, pp. 16–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Westerhoff, Jan (2018). <i>The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy</i>, p. 5. Oxford University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993. <i>A History of Indian Buddhism</i>. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: pp. 8–9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dutt-1978-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dutt-1978_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dutt-1978_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dutt, Nalinaksha (1978). <i>Mahāyāna Buddhism</i>, pp. 16-27. Delhi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walser, Joseph, <i>Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,</i> Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walser-2005a-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Walser-2005a_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walser-2005a_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walser, Joseph, <i>Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,</i> Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walser, Joseph, <i>Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,</i> Columbia University Press, 2005, pp. 40–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Gupta Empire by Radhakumud Mookerji <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC&amp;pg=PA133">p. 133 sq</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul (2008) <i>Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations:</i> p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zürcher, Erik (1972). <i>The Buddhist Conquest of China</i>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dutt, Nalinaksha (1978). <i>Mahāyāna Buddhism</i>, pp. 35-36. Delhi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams,_Paul_1989_p.103-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Williams,_Paul_1989_p.103_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul (1989). <i>Mahayana Buddhism</i>: p. 103</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 192-194.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ray, Reginald A.; <i>Indestructible Truth: The Living Spirituality of Tibetan Buddhism</i>, 2000</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wayman, Alex. <i>The Buddhist Tantras: Light on Indo-Tibetan Esotericism</i>, 2013, p 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Snellgrove, David. (1987) Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhists and their Tibetan successors. pp 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 195, 198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanderson2009" class="citation book cs1">Sanderson, Alexis (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iggRAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA144">"The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period"</a>. In Einoo, Shingo (ed.). <i>Genesis and Development of Tantra</i>. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo. pp.&#160;144–145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-88134-784-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-88134-784-0"><bdi>978-5-88134-784-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210311002212/https://books.google.com/books?id=iggRAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA144">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-03-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=The+%C5%9Aaiva+Age%3A+The+Rise+and+Dominance+of+%C5%9Aaivism+during+the+Early+Medieval+Period&amp;rft.btitle=Genesis+and+Development+of+Tantra&amp;rft.place=Tokyo&amp;rft.pages=144-145&amp;rft.pub=Institute+of+Oriental+Culture%2C+University+of+Tokyo&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-5-88134-784-0&amp;rft.aulast=Sanderson&amp;rft.aufirst=Alexis&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiggRAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA144&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuber2008" class="citation book cs1">Huber, Toni (2008). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/holylandrebornpi00hube"><i>The holy land reborn: pilgrimage &amp; the Tibetan reinvention of Buddhist India</i></a></span>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/holylandrebornpi00hube/page/n110">94</a>–95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-35648-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-35648-8"><bdi>978-0-226-35648-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+holy+land+reborn%3A+pilgrimage+%26+the+Tibetan+reinvention+of+Buddhist+India&amp;rft.place=Chicago&amp;rft.pages=94-95&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-226-35648-8&amp;rft.aulast=Huber&amp;rft.aufirst=Toni&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fholylandrebornpi00hube&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davidson, Ronald M. (2004) <i>Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement</i>, pp. 206-214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhelps2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norm_Phelps" title="Norm Phelps">Phelps, Norm</a> (2004). <i>The Great Compassion: Buddhism and Animal Rights</i>. Lantern Books. p.&#160;45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59056-069-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-59056-069-8"><bdi>1-59056-069-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Great+Compassion%3A+Buddhism+and+Animal+Rights&amp;rft.pages=45&amp;rft.pub=Lantern+Books&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=1-59056-069-8&amp;rft.aulast=Phelps&amp;rft.aufirst=Norm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kwmorganp410-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kwmorganp410_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenneth_W._Morgan1986" class="citation book cs1">Kenneth W. Morgan (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g6OHBCgmmGAC"><i>The Path of the Buddha: Buddhism Interpreted by Buddhists</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. p.&#160;410. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0030-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0030-4"><bdi>978-81-208-0030-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Path+of+the+Buddha%3A+Buddhism+Interpreted+by+Buddhists&amp;rft.pages=410&amp;rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft.isbn=978-81-208-0030-4&amp;rft.au=Kenneth+W.+Morgan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg6OHBCgmmGAC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFN._Ross_Reat1994" class="citation book cs1">N. Ross Reat (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/buddhismhistory00reat/"><i>Buddhism: A History</i></a>. Asian Humanities Press. pp.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/buddhismhistory00reat/page/19">19–20</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87573-001-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87573-001-1"><bdi>978-0-87573-001-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Buddhism%3A+A+History&amp;rft.pages=19-20&amp;rft.pub=Asian+Humanities+Press&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-87573-001-1&amp;rft.au=N.+Ross+Reat&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbuddhismhistory00reat%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro (1998). <i>Studies in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra,</i> p. 90. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-215-0833-9" title="Special:BookSources/81-215-0833-9">81-215-0833-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 101-102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 136-137, 185-186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hurvitz, Leon (2009), <i>Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma: The Lotus Sutra</i> (Rev. ed.), p. 239. New York: Columbia university press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14895-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14895-5">978-0-231-14895-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Teiser,_Stephen_F." class="mw-redirect" title="Teiser, Stephen F.">Teiser, Stephen F.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Stone,_Jacqueline_Ilyse" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone, Jacqueline Ilyse">Stone, Jacqueline Ilyse</a> (2009), <i>Interpreting the Lotus Sutra</i>; in: Teiser, Stephen F.; Stone, Jacqueline Ilyse; eds. <i>Readings of the Lotus Sutra</i>, New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 1–61, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14288-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14288-5">978-0-231-14288-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://read.84000.co/translation/toh113.html"><i>The Mahāyāna Sūtra "The White Lotus of the Good Dharma"</i> (Saddharmapuṇḍarīkanāmamahāyānasūtra, dam pa'i chos pad ma dkar po zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215828/https://read.84000.co/translation/toh113.html">Archived</a> 2021-06-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, "Introduction". Toh 113 Degé Kangyur, vol. 51 (mdo sde, ja), folios 1.b–180.b. Translated by Peter Alan Roberts under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha. First published 2018. Current version v 1.14.15 (2021).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-2008g-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008g_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008g_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,</i> Routledge, 2008, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guang Xing (2005). <i>The Three Bodies of the Buddha: The Origin and Development of the Trikaya Theory</i>. Oxford: Routledge Curzon: pp. 1, 85</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zappulli-2022-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zappulli-2022_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZappulli2022" class="citation journal cs1">Zappulli, Davide Andrea (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0034412522000725">"Towards a Buddhist theism"</a>. <i>Religious Studies</i>. <b>59</b> (4): 762–774. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0034412522000725">10.1017/S0034412522000725</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:254354100">254354100</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Religious+Studies&amp;rft.atitle=Towards+a+Buddhist+theism&amp;rft.volume=59&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=762-774&amp;rft.date=2022&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0034412522000725&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A254354100%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Zappulli&amp;rft.aufirst=Davide+Andrea&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0034412522000725&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dr. Guang Xing, <i>The Three Bodies of the Buddha: The Origin and Development of the Trikaya Theory</i>, Routledge Curzon, Oxford, 2005, p.&#160;1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 172-175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 136-137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-2008e-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008e_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams (2008), pp. 27-30, 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-huntingtonarchive.org-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-huntingtonarchive.org_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-huntingtonarchive.org_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Conze, Edward, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://huntingtonarchive.org/resources/downloads/sutras/02Prajnaparamita/Astasahasrika.pdf">The Perfection of Wisdom in eight thousand lines and its verse summary</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-Tribe-2002a-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-Tribe-2002a_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-Tribe-2002a_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 188-189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Xinru Liu, <i>The Silk Road in World History</i>, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-2008a-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008a_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008a_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,</i> Routledge, 2008, p. 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-2008b-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008b_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008b_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,</i> Routledge, 2008, p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reeves, Gene, trans. (2008). <i>The Lotus Sutra: A Contemporary Translation of a Buddhist Classic,</i> p. 1. Boston: Wisdom Publications, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86171-571-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86171-571-8">978-0-86171-571-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drewes-2021-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2021_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Drewes, David, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/34935437/Mahayana_Sutras_and_the_Opening_of_the_Bodhisattva_Path_Updated_2019_?email_work_card=title">Mahāyāna Sūtras and Opening of the Bodhisattva Path</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210305083827/https://www.academia.edu/34935437/Mahayana_Sutras_and_the_Opening_of_the_Bodhisattva_Path_Updated_2019_?email_work_card=title">Archived</a> 2021-03-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, Paper presented at the XVIII the IABS Congress, Toronto 2017, Updated 2019.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WilliamsTribe-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WilliamsTribe_109-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WilliamsTribe_109-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 176.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-2008c-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008c_110-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008c_110-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,</i> Routledge, 2008, pp. 195–196.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-Tribe-2002-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Williams-Tribe-2002_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 177-178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drewes7-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes7_112-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes7_112-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Drewes, David, <i>Mahayana Sutras</i>, forthcoming in Blackwell Companion to South and Southeast Asian Buddhism, Updated 2016</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-2008-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008_113-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008_113-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008_113-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008_113-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,</i> Routledge, 2008, pp. 29, 36, 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-2008h-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008h_114-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008h_114-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,</i> Routledge, 2008, p. 56, 200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nagarjuna-2009-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nagarjuna-2009_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nagarjuna, B. Dharmamitra (trans), <i>Nagarjuna on the Six Perfections</i>, Kalavinka Press, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buswell-2004-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Buswell-2004_116-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buswell-2004_116-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buswell-2004_116-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuswell2004" class="citation book cs1">Buswell, Robert E., ed. (2004). <i>Encyclopedia of Buddhism</i>. Macmillan Reference USA. p.&#160;59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-865718-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-865718-7"><bdi>0-02-865718-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Buddhism&amp;rft.pages=59&amp;rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+USA&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=0-02-865718-7&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-2008d-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008d_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2008d_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,</i> Routledge, 2008, pp. 200–201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pye, Michael (1978). <i>Skillful Means&#160;– A concept in Mahayana Buddhism</i>. London: Gerald Duckworth &amp; Co. Ltd. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7156-1266-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7156-1266-2">0-7156-1266-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._169-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._169_120-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._169_120-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lopez, Donald (2016), <i>The Lotus Sutra: A Biography</i>, pp. 37-40. Princeton University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15220-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15220-2">978-0-691-15220-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams (2008) pp. 49-50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,</i> Routledge, 2008, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._135-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._135_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._135_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._135_126-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shi Huifeng, Is <i>"Illusion" a Prajñāpāramitā Creation? The Birth and Death of a Buddhist Cognitive Metaphor</i>, Fo Guang University, Journal of Buddhist Philosophy, Vol. 2, 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. <i>"Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting Criticism &amp; Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra",</i> University of Hong Kong, 2012, page 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conze, Edward. <i>The Ontology of the Prajnaparamita</i>, Philosophy East and West Vol.3 (1953) PP.117-129, University of Hawaii Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lopez, Donald S. (1988). <i>The Heart Sutra Explained: Indian and Tibetan Commentaries</i>, p. 19. SUNY Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Orsborn, Matthew Bryan (2012). <i>"Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting Criticism &amp; Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra"</i>, University of Hong Kong, p. 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Orsborn, Matthew Bryan (2012). <i>"Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting Criticism &amp; Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra"</i>, University of Hong Kong, p. 180-181.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conze, Edward; <i>The Ontology of the Prajnaparamita,</i> Philosophy East and West Vol.3 (1953) pp. 117-129, University of Hawaii Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,</i> Routledge, 2008, p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Westerhoff, Jan (2009). <i>Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction</i>, Oxford University Press, pp. 12, 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tribe_2002_pp._70,_141-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tribe_2002_pp._70,_141_137-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tribe_2002_pp._70,_141_137-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 70, 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul (2004), <i>Mahayana Buddhism</i>, Bury St. Edmunds, England: Routledge, pp. 78–81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-2002-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2002_139-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2002_139-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2002, pp. 89–91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2002, pp. 85, 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._160-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._160_141-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._160_141-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._160_141-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Williams, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations</i>, Second Edition, Routledge, Oxford, 2009, p. 317</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kevin Trainor, <i>Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide</i>, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 207</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-web.archive.org-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-web.archive.org_144-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-web.archive.org_144-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Zimmermann, Michael (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131111023508/http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/orc/Publications/BPPB/pdf/BPPB-06.pdf"><i>A Buddha Within: The Tathāgatagarbhasūtra</i></a>, Biblotheca Philologica et Philosophica Buddhica VI, The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka University, pp. 82–83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._162-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._162_145-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_and_Tribe_2002,_p._162_145-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2002, pp. 103, 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2002, p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shiro Matsumoto, Critiques of Tathagatagarbha Thought and Critical Buddhism</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071023073728/http://zencomp.com/greatwisdom/ebud/ebdha191.htm">"The Significance Of 'Tathagatagarbha' --"</a>. October 23, 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zencomp.com/greatwisdom/ebud/ebdha191.htm">the original</a> on 2007-10-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Significance+Of+%27Tathagatagarbha%27+--&amp;rft.date=2007-10-23&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fzencomp.com%2Fgreatwisdom%2Febud%2Febdha191.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, Sallie B. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927131119/http://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/nlarc/pdf/Pruning%20the%20bodhi%20tree/Pruning%209.pdf"><i>The Doctrine of Buddha-Nature is impeccably Buddhist</i></a>. In: Jamie Hubbard (ed.), Pruning the Bodhi Tree: The Storm Over Critical Buddhism, Univ of Hawaii Press 1997, pp. 174–179. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-1949-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-1949-7">0-8248-1949-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daisetz T. Suzuki, tr. <i>The 'Lankavatara Sutra',</i> Parajna Press, Boulder, 1978, pp.69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hookham, Shenpen (1991). <i>The Buddha Within</i>. State University of New York Press: p.&#160;104, p.&#160;353</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sebastian, C.D. (2005), <i>Metaphysics and Mysticism in Mahayana Buddhism</i>. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications: p. 151; cf. also p. 110</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sree_Padma_2008._p._68-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sree_Padma_2008._p._68_155-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sree_Padma_2008._p._68_155-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sree Padma. Barber, Anthony W. <i>Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra.</i> 2008. p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Werner et al. (2013). <i>The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana.</i> pp. 89, 93. Buddhist Publication Society.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Werner-2013-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Werner-2013_157-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Werner-2013_157-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Werner et al. (2013). <i>The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana.</i> pp. 89-90, 211-212, 227. Buddhist Publication Society.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Though the Buddha had taught [the Mahayana sutras] they were not in circulation in the world of men at all for many centuries, there being no competent teachers and no intelligent enough students: the sutras were however preserved in the Dragon World and other non-human circles, and when in the 2nd century AD adequate teachers suddenly appeared in India in large numbers the texts were fetched and circulated. ... However, it is clear that the historical tradition here recorded belongs to North India and for the most part to Nalanda (in Magadha)." AK Warder, <i>Indian Buddhism</i>, 3rd edition, 1999</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2002" class="citation book cs1">Li, Rongxi (2002). <i>Lives of Great Monks and Nuns</i>. Berkeley, California: BDK. pp.&#160;23–4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Lives+of+Great+Monks+and+Nuns&amp;rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&amp;rft.pages=23-4&amp;rft.pub=BDK&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.aulast=Li&amp;rft.aufirst=Rongxi&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTārānātha2010" class="citation book cs1">Tārānātha (2010). <i>Tāranātha's History of Buddhism in India</i>. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p.&#160;90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0696-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0696-2"><bdi>978-81-208-0696-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1073573698">1073573698</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=T%C4%81ran%C4%81tha%27s+History+of+Buddhism+in+India.&amp;rft.pages=90&amp;rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1073573698&amp;rft.isbn=978-81-208-0696-2&amp;rft.au=T%C4%81r%C4%81n%C4%81tha&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, (2008), pp. 40–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, (2008), pp. 41-42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hsuan Hua. <i>The Buddha speaks of Amitabha Sutra: A General Explanation.</i> 2003. p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, (2008), p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki (1907). <i>Outlines of Mahaŷâna Buddhism</i>, pp. 13-16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hamar, Imre. <i>Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism.</i> 2007. p. 94</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hookham, Dr. Shenpen, trans. (1998). <i>The Shrimaladevi Sutra</i>. Oxford: Longchen Foundation: p. 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Werner, Karel; Samuels, Jeffrey; Bhikkhu Bodhi; Skilling, Peter; Bhikkhu Anālayo, McMahan, David (2013) <i>The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana,</i> p. 97. Buddhist Publication Society.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drewes-2016-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2016_169-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes-2016_169-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Drewes, David, Mahayana Sutras, forthcoming in Blackwell Companion to South and Southeast Asian Buddhism, Updated 2016</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dayal, Dar (1970). <i>The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature,</i> p. 36. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_171-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis, Todd T. (2000). <i>Popular Buddhist Texts from Nepal: Narratives and Rituals of Newar Buddhism,</i> p. 9. SUNY Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:2_172-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gokhale, Pradeep. "The Place of Bhakti in Buddhism", in <i>Illuminating the Dharma: Buddhist Studies in Honour of Venerable Professor KL Dhammajoti</i>, Edited by Toshiichi Endo, Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, 2021.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dayal, Har (1970). <i>The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature</i>, pp. 64-69. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drewes,_David_2010-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Drewes,_David_2010_174-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives, <i>Religion Compass</i> 4/2 (2010): 66–74, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00193.x">10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00193.x</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drewes,_David_20102-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Drewes,_David_20102_175-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives, <i>Religion Compass</i> 4/2 (2010): 66–74, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00193.x">10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00193.x</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:92-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:92_176-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Apple, James B. "Prajñaparamita", in <i>Encyclopedia of Indian Religions,</i> ed. by Arvind Sharma (2019). Springer.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davidson, Ronald M. (2009). "Studies in Dhāraṇī Literature I: Revisiting the Meaning of the Term Dhāraṇī". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 37 (2). Springer Nature: 97–147. doi:10.1007/s10781-008-9054-8. S2CID 171060516.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Osto, Douglas. "A New Translation of the Sanskrit Bhadracarī with Introduction and Notes." <i>New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies 12</i>, 2 (December 2010): 1-21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_179-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sukumar Dutt (1988). <i>Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India: Their History and Their Contribution to Indian Culture,</i> pp. 193-94. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dayal, Har (1970). <i>The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature</i>, pp. 54-57. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams (2008), pp. 50-51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lopez, Donald S. Jr. (1988). <i>The Heart Sutra Explained: Indian and Tibetan Commentaries,</i> p. 21, SUNY Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-589-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-589-7">978-0-88706-589-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2009" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Dale Stuart (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YeCAtSdxikYC"><i>The Six Perfections: Buddhism and the Cultivation of Character</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp.&#160;contents. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538201-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538201-3"><bdi>978-0-19-538201-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Six+Perfections%3A+Buddhism+and+the+Cultivation+of+Character&amp;rft.pages=contents&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-538201-3&amp;rft.aulast=Wright&amp;rft.aufirst=Dale+Stuart&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYeCAtSdxikYC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bodhi-2007-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bodhi-2007_184-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bodhi-2007_184-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodhi2007" class="citation book cs1">Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2007-12-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6ym-vC4nTsAC"><i>The Discourse on the All-embracing Net of Views: The Brahmajāla Sutta and Its Commentaries</i></a>. Buddhist Publication Society. p.&#160;300. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-955-24-0052-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-955-24-0052-0"><bdi>978-955-24-0052-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Discourse+on+the+All-embracing+Net+of+Views%3A+The+Brahmaj%C4%81la+Sutta+and+Its+Commentaries&amp;rft.pages=300&amp;rft.pub=Buddhist+Publication+Society&amp;rft.date=2007-12-01&amp;rft.isbn=978-955-24-0052-0&amp;rft.aulast=Bodhi&amp;rft.aufirst=Bhikkhu&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6ym-vC4nTsAC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodhi2007" class="citation book cs1">Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2007-12-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6ym-vC4nTsAC"><i>The Discourse on the All-embracing Net of Views: The Brahmajāla Sutta and Its Commentaries</i></a>. Buddhist Publication Society. p.&#160;44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-955-24-0052-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-955-24-0052-0"><bdi>978-955-24-0052-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Discourse+on+the+All-embracing+Net+of+Views%3A+The+Brahmaj%C4%81la+Sutta+and+Its+Commentaries&amp;rft.pages=44&amp;rft.pub=Buddhist+Publication+Society&amp;rft.date=2007-12-01&amp;rft.isbn=978-955-24-0052-0&amp;rft.aulast=Bodhi&amp;rft.aufirst=Bhikkhu&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6ym-vC4nTsAC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yuanci2-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Yuanci2_186-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ven. Dr. Yuanci, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.undv.org/vesak2012/iabudoc/31YuanciFINAL.pdf"><i>A Study of the Meditation Methods in the DESM and Other Early Chinese Texts</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130508164744/http://www.undv.org/vesak2012/iabudoc/31YuanciFINAL.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-05-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Buddhist Academy of China.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luk, Charles. <i>The Secrets of Chinese Meditation.</i> 1964. p. 125</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zhang, Shengyen; Dan Stevenson (2002). Hoofprint of the Ox: Principles of the Chan Buddhist Path as Taught by a Modern Chinese Master. Oxford University Press, pp. 27–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ulrich Timme Kragh (editor), <i>The Foundation for Yoga Practitioners</i>: <i>The Buddhist Yogācārabhūmi Treatise and Its Adaptation in India, East Asia, and Tibet, Volume 1</i> Harvard University, Department of South Asian studies, 2013, pp. 51, 60 - 230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSujato2012" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Bhante_Sujato" title="Bhante Sujato">Sujato, Bhante</a> (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://santifm.org/santipada/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/A_History_of_Mindfulness_Bhikkhu_Sujato.pdf"><i>A History of Mindfulness</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Santipada, pp.&#160;363–4, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-921842-10-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-921842-10-8"><bdi>978-1-921842-10-8</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181123134655/http://santifm.org/santipada/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/A_History_of_Mindfulness_Bhikkhu_Sujato.pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2018-11-23<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-07-05</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+History+of+Mindfulness&amp;rft.pages=363-4&amp;rft.pub=Santipada&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-921842-10-8&amp;rft.aulast=Sujato&amp;rft.aufirst=Bhante&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsantifm.org%2Fsantipada%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F08%2FA_History_of_Mindfulness_Bhikkhu_Sujato.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-Tribe-2002b-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-Tribe-2002b_191-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-Tribe-2002b_191-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 109-110</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Skilton, Andrew. <i>A Concise History of Buddhism.</i> 1997. p. 104</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrewes2010" class="citation journal cs1">Drewes, David (2010). "Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives". <i>Religion Compass</i>. <b>4</b> (2): 66–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00193.x">10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00193.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Religion+Compass&amp;rft.atitle=Early+Indian+Mahayana+Buddhism+II%3A+New+Perspectives&amp;rft.volume=4&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=66-74&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00193.x&amp;rft.aulast=Drewes&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul. <i>Mahayana Buddhism the doctrinal foundations, 2nd edition</i>, 2009, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/mipham/treasury-blessings-practice-buddha-shakyamuni"><i>The Treasury of Blessings: A Practice of Buddha Śākyamuni by Mipham Rinpoche.</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210612112053/https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/mipham/treasury-blessings-practice-buddha-shakyamuni">Archived</a> 2021-06-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Translated by Rigpa Translations. Lotsawa House.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luk, Charles. <i>The Secrets of Chinese Meditation.</i> 1964. p. 83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hirakawa, Akira, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/23030">A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308145824/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/23030">Archived</a> 2021-03-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1993, p. 74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hirakawa, Akira, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/23030">A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308145824/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/23030">Archived</a> 2021-03-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1993, p. 74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buddhism_2004,_page_293-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buddhism_2004,_page_293_199-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism</i> (2004): p. 293</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hirakawa_Akira_1993,_p._252-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hirakawa_Akira_1993,_p._252_200-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993). <i>A History of Indian Buddhism</i>. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: p. 252</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,</i> Routledge, 2008, pp. 40–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,</i> Routledge, 2008, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,</i> Routledge, 2008, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,</i> Routledge, 2008, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated199-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated199_205-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated199_205-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Boin-Webb, Sara (tr). Rahula, Walpola (tr). Asanga. <i>Abhidharma Samuccaya: The Compendium of Higher Teaching.</i> 2001. pp. 199–200</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kitagawa80-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kitagawa80_206-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kitagawa" title="Joseph Kitagawa">Kitagawa, Joseph Mitsuo</a> (2002). <i>The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture</i>. Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7007-1762-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7007-1762-5">0-7007-1762-5</a>: p. 80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Samdhinirmocana-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Samdhinirmocana_207-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Samdhinirmocana_207-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Samdhinirmocana_207-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Keenan, John (2000). <i>The Scripture on the Explication of the Underlying Meaning</i>. Numata Center. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-886439-10-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-886439-10-9">1-886439-10-9</a>: p. 49</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Powers_1993-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Powers_1993_208-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowers1993" class="citation cs2">Powers, John (1993), <i>Hermeneutics and tradition in the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra</i>, Brill Academic Publishers, pp.&#160;4–11, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09826-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09826-8"><bdi>978-90-04-09826-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Hermeneutics+and+tradition+in+the+Sa%E1%B9%83dhinirmocana-s%C5%ABtra&amp;rft.pages=4-11&amp;rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.isbn=978-90-04-09826-8&amp;rft.aulast=Powers&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walser, Joseph G. <i>Genealogies of Mahayana Buddhism: Emptiness, Power and the question of Origin</i> Routledge, 2018, chapter 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kalupahana, David (2006). <i>Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna.</i> Motilal Banarsidass: p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindtner, Christian (1997). <i>Master of Wisdom.</i> Dharma Publishing: p. 324.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindtner, Christian (1997). <i>Master of Wisdom.</i> Dharma Publishing: p. 322. Lindtner says that Nāgārjuna is referencing the DN.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nagao, Gadjin M.; Kawamura, Leslie S., trans. (1991). <i>Madhyamika and Yogachara.</i> Albany: SUNY Press: p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nagao, Gadjin M.; Kawamura, Leslie S., trans. (1991). <i>Madhyamika and Yogachara.</i> Albany: SUNY Press: p. 200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dan Lusthaus, <i>Buddhist Phenomenology.</i> Routledge, 2002, p. 44, note 5. Lusthaus draws attention to Rahula's <i>Zen and the Taming of the Bull.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey, Peter (1993). <i>An Introduction to Buddhism.</i> Cambridge University Press: p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Analayo "The Luminous Mind in Theravāda and Dharmaguptaka Discourses" Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, 2017, 13: 10–51;</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey, Peter (1989). Consciousness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Werner, Karel ed., <i>The Yogi and the Mystic.</i> Curzon Press: p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvey-2013-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harvey-2013_219-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvey-2013_219-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvey-2013_219-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvey-2013_219-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvey-2013_219-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvey-2013_219-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey, Peter (2013). <i>An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices</i>, p. 403.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey, Peter (2013). <i>An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices</i>, p. 413.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey, Peter (2013). <i>An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices</i>, pp. 213-218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_S._PrebishKenneth_Ken&#39;ichi_Tanaka2023" class="citation book cs1">Charles S. Prebish; Kenneth Ken'ichi Tanaka (15 November 2023). <i>The Faces of Buddhism in America</i>. Univ of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92065-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92065-1"><bdi>978-0-520-92065-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1224277904">1224277904</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Faces+of+Buddhism+in+America&amp;rft.pub=Univ+of+California+Press&amp;rft.date=2023-11-15&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1224277904&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-520-92065-1&amp;rft.au=Charles+S.+Prebish&amp;rft.au=Kenneth+Ken%27ichi+Tanaka&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bingenheimer, Marcus (2007). "Some Remarks on the Usage of Renjian Fojiao 人間佛教 and the Contribution of Venerable Yinshun to Chinese Buddhist Modernism". In Hsu, Mutsu; Chen, Jinhua; Meeks, Lori (eds.). <i>Development and Practice of Humanitarian Buddhism: Interdisciplinary Perspectives</i>. Hua-lien (Taiwan): Tzuchi University Press. pp. 141–161. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-986-7625-08-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-986-7625-08-3">978-986-7625-08-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Ching (2016). <i>Chinese Religions,</i> p. 205. Springer.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey, Peter (2013). <i>An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices</i>, p. 410.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carter J. Eckert (Author), Ki-Baik Lee, Young Ick Lew, Michael Robinson, Edward W. Wagner (1991). Korea Old And New: A History. Ilchokak Publishers. p. 94. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9627713-0-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-9627713-0-9">0-9627713-0-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams (2008), p. 412.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey, Peter (2013). <i>An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices</i>, pp. 404-406.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ACA_Yearbook-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ACA_Yearbook_229-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bunka.go.jp/tokei_hakusho_shuppan/hakusho_nenjihokokusho/shukyo_nenkan/pdf/r01nenkan.pdf#page=49"><i>宗教年鑑 令和元年版</i></a> &#91;<i>Religious Yearbook 2019</i>&#93; <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in Japanese). <a href="/wiki/Agency_for_Cultural_Affairs" title="Agency for Cultural Affairs">Agency for Cultural Affairs</a>, Government of Japan. 2019. p.&#160;35. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201225124108/https://www.bunka.go.jp/tokei_hakusho_shuppan/hakusho_nenjihokokusho/shukyo_nenkan/pdf/r01nenkan.pdf#page=49">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2020-12-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E5%B9%B4%E9%91%91+%E4%BB%A4%E5%92%8C%E5%85%83%E5%B9%B4%E7%89%88&amp;rft.pages=35&amp;rft.pub=Agency+for+Cultural+Affairs%2C+Government+of+Japan&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bunka.go.jp%2Ftokei_hakusho_shuppan%2Fhakusho_nenjihokokusho%2Fshukyo_nenkan%2Fpdf%2Fr01nenkan.pdf%23page%3D49&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey, Peter (2013). <i>An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices</i>, p. 408.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Prebish, Charles. Tanaka, Kenneth. <i>The Faces of Buddhism in America.</i> 1998. p. 134</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kapstein, Matthew T. <i>Tibetan Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey, Peter (2013). <i>An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices</i>, p. 414.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey, Peter (2013). <i>An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices</i>, pp. 414-416.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey, Peter (2000). <i>An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics</i>. Cambridge University Press: p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Williams, <i>Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations.</i> Taylor &amp; Francis, 1989, p. 328.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaruah2000" class="citation book cs1">Baruah, Bibhuti (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_s1PZAMD13SMC"><i>Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism</i></a>. Sarup &amp; Sons. p.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_s1PZAMD13SMC/page/n61">53</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7625-152-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7625-152-5"><bdi>978-81-7625-152-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Buddhist+Sects+and+Sectarianism&amp;rft.pages=53&amp;rft.pub=Sarup+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=978-81-7625-152-5&amp;rft.aulast=Baruah&amp;rft.aufirst=Bibhuti&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_s1PZAMD13SMC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hirakawa, Akira. Groner, Paul. <i>A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna.</i> 2007. p. 121</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonier-Williams1889" class="citation book cs1">Monier-Williams, Sir Monier (1889). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uiUVAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=Buddhism"><i>Buddhism in Its Connexion with Brāhmanism and Hindūism: And in Its Contrast with Christianity</i></a>. John Murray.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Buddhism+in+Its+Connexion+with+Br%C4%81hmanism+and+Hind%C5%ABism%3A+And+in+Its+Contrast+with+Christianity&amp;rft.pub=John+Murray&amp;rft.date=1889&amp;rft.aulast=Monier-Williams&amp;rft.aufirst=Sir+Monier&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuiUVAAAAYAAJ%26q%3DBuddhism&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gombrich-240"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gombrich_240-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gombrich_240-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGombrich2006" class="citation book cs1">Gombrich, Richard Francis (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n44jqZP8y7wC&amp;pg=PA83"><i>Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo</i></a>. Psychology Press. p.&#160;83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07585-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07585-5"><bdi>978-0-415-07585-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Therav%C4%81da+Buddhism%3A+A+Social+History+from+Ancient+Benares+to+Modern+Colombo&amp;rft.pages=83&amp;rft.pub=Psychology+Press&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-415-07585-5&amp;rft.aulast=Gombrich&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard+Francis&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn44jqZP8y7wC%26pg%3DPA83&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Collins, Steven. 1990. <i>Selfless Persons: Imagery and Thought in Theravāda Buddhism</i>. p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gellner-242"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gellner_242-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gellner_242-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeVineGellner2005" class="citation book cs1">LeVine, Sarah; Gellner, David N. (2005). <i>Rebuilding Buddhism: The Theravada Movement in Twentieth-Century Nepal</i>. Harvard University Press. p.&#160;14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04012-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04012-0"><bdi>978-0-674-04012-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Rebuilding+Buddhism%3A+The+Theravada+Movement+in+Twentieth-Century+Nepal&amp;rft.pages=14&amp;rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-674-04012-0&amp;rft.aulast=LeVine&amp;rft.aufirst=Sarah&amp;rft.au=Gellner%2C+David+N.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Swearer, Donald (2006). Theravada Buddhist Societies. In: Juergensmeyer, Mark (ed.) <i>The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions</i>: p. 83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoffman, Frank J. and Mahinda, Deegalle (1996). <i>Pali Buddhism.</i> Routledge Press: p. 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, Richard (1999). <i>Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought.</i> Edinburgh University Press: p. 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nyanaponika, Nyaponika Thera, Nyanaponika, Bhikkhu Bodhi (1998). <i>Abhidhamma Studies: Buddhist Explorations of Consciousness and Time.</i> Wisdom Publications: p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kalupahana, David (2006). <i>Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna.</i> Motilal Banarsidass: p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kalupahana, David (2006). <i>Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna.</i> Motilal Banarsidass: p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lopez, Donald S. and Dge-ʼdun-chos-ʼphel (2006). <i>The Madman's Middle Way: Reflections on Reality of the Tibetan Monk Gendun Chopel.</i> University of Chicago Press: p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFronsdal2007" class="citation web cs1">Fronsdal, Gil (8 November 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080225132521/http://www.tricycle.com/issues/web_exclusive/4218-1.html">"Tricycle Q &amp; A: Gil Fronsdal"</a>. <i>Tricycle</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tricycle.com/issues/web_exclusive/4218-1.html">the original</a> on 25 February 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Tricycle&amp;rft.atitle=Tricycle+Q+%26+A%3A+Gil+Fronsdal&amp;rft.date=2007-11-08&amp;rft.aulast=Fronsdal&amp;rft.aufirst=Gil&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tricycle.com%2Fissues%2Fweb_exclusive%2F4218-1.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=43" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirakawa1990" class="citation cs2">Hirakawa, Akira (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/23030"><i>A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna</i></a>, Edited and translated by Paul Groner, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawaii_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Hawaii Press">University of Hawaii Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10125%2F23030">10125/23030</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-1203-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-1203-4"><bdi>0-8248-1203-4</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308145824/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/23030">archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 January</span> 2021</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+History+of+Indian+Buddhism%3A+From+%C5%9A%C4%81kyamuni+to+Early+Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10125%2F23030&amp;rft.isbn=0-8248-1203-4&amp;rft.aulast=Hirakawa&amp;rft.aufirst=Akira&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu%2Fhandle%2F10125%2F23030&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Mahayana". <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Mahayana&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Beal (1871). <i>Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese</i>China, Trübner</li> <li>Harvey, Peter (2013). <i>An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices</i></li> <li>Karashima, Seishi, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/content/pdf/aririab/Vol.%20XVI%20(2013).pdf">Was the <i>Așțasāhasrikā Prajñāparamitā</i> Compiled in Gandhāra in Gandhārī?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180903182947/http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/content/pdf/aririab/Vol.%20XVI%20(2013).pdf">Archived</a> 2018-09-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" <i>Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology</i>, Soka University, vol. XVI (2013).</li> <li>Lowenstein, Tom (1996). <i>The Vision of the Buddha</i>, Boston: Little Brown, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-903296-91-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-903296-91-9">1-903296-91-9</a></li> <li>Schopen, G. "The inscription on the Kusan image of Amitabha and the character of the early Mahayana in India", <i>Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 10</i>, 1990</li> <li>Suzuki, D.T. (1918). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/the-development-of-mahayana-buddhism-the-monist-1914-10">"The Development of Mahayana Buddhism"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Monist" title="The Monist">The Monist</a></i> Volume 24, Issue 4, 1914, pp.&#160;565–581</li> <li>Suzuki, D.T. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/outlinesmahayan00suzugoog"><i>Outline of Mahayana Buddhism</i></a>, Open Court, Chicago</li> <li>Walser, Joseph (2025). <i>Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture</i>, Columbia University Press.</li> <li>Williams, Paul (2009). <i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundation</i>, Routledge.</li> <li>Williams, Paul (with Anthony Tribe) (2002)<i> Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition.</i> Routledge.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarel_WernerJeffrey_SamuelsBhikkhu_BodhiPeter_Skilling2013" class="citation book cs1">Karel Werner; Jeffrey Samuels; Bhikkhu Bodhi; Peter Skilling; Bhikkhu Anālayo; David McMahan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bps.lk/olib/bp/bp625s_The-Bodhisatva-Ideal.pdf"><i>The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Buddhist Publication Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-955-24-0396-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-955-24-0396-5"><bdi>978-955-24-0396-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archiveorg/web/20230401201516/https://www.bps.lk/olib/bp/bp625s_The-Bodhisatva-Ideal.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2023-04-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-03-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Bodhisattva+Ideal%3A+Essays+on+the+Emergence+of+Mahayana&amp;rft.pub=Buddhist+Publication+Society&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=978-955-24-0396-5&amp;rft.au=Karel+Werner&amp;rft.au=Jeffrey+Samuels&amp;rft.au=Bhikkhu+Bodhi&amp;rft.au=Peter+Skilling&amp;rft.au=Bhikkhu+An%C4%81layo&amp;rft.au=David+McMahan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbps.lk%2Folib%2Fbp%2Fbp625s_The-Bodhisatva-Ideal.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;action=edit&amp;section=44" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mahayana" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Mahayana">Mahayana</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the 1905 <i><a href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</a></i> article "<b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" class="extiw" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Mahāyāna">Mahāyāna</a></b>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.buddhism-dict.net/ddb/">Digital Dictionary of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://studybuddhism.com/web/x/nav/n.html_505172737.html">Comparison of Buddhist Traditions (Mahayana – Therevada – Tibetan)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.samyeling.org/buddhism-and-meditation/mahayana/">Introduction to Mahayana</a> on <a href="/wiki/Kagyu_Samye_Ling_Monastery_and_Tibetan_Centre" title="Kagyu Samye Ling Monastery and Tibetan Centre">Kagyu Samye Ling</a>'s website</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nirvanasutranet.com/">The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra: complete text and analysis</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cttbusa.org/buddhas_bodhisattvas.asp">Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://info-buddhism.com/Arahants-Buddhas-Bodhisattvas_Bhikkhu_Bodhi.html">Arahants, Buddhas and Bodhisattvas</a> by Bhikkhu Bodhi</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://info-buddhism.com/Bodhisattva-Ideal-Theravada_JeffreySamuels.html">The Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravāda Theory and Practice</a> by Jeffrey Samuel</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="25px&amp;#124;link=Dharmachakra_Topics_in_Buddhism_25px&amp;#124;link=Buddhist_flag" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD068;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Buddhism_topics" title="Template:Buddhism topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Buddhism_topics" title="Template talk:Buddhism topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Buddhism_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Buddhism topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="25px&amp;#124;link=Dharmachakra_Topics_in_Buddhism_25px&amp;#124;link=Buddhist_flag" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhism_Symbol.png/25px-Buddhism_Symbol.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhism_Symbol.png/38px-Buddhism_Symbol.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhism_Symbol.png/50px-Buddhism_Symbol.png 2x" data-file-width="267" data-file-height="278" /></a></span>&#160;&#160;&#160;Topics in <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>&#160;&#160;&#160;<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_flag" title="Buddhist flag"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/25px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/38px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/50px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD068;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Foundations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Three Jewels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangha" title="Sangha">Sangha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata" title="Tathāgata">Tathāgata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha%27s_Birthday" title="Buddha&#39;s Birthday">Birthday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_sights" title="Four sights">Four sights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eight_Great_Events_in_the_Life_of_Buddha" title="The Eight Great Events in the Life of Buddha">Eight Great Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Renunciation" title="Great Renunciation">Great Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_characteristics_of_the_Buddha" title="Physical characteristics of the Buddha">Physical characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Buddha_in_art" title="Life of Buddha in art">Life of Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_footprint" title="Buddha footprint">Footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relics_associated_with_Buddha" title="Relics associated with Buddha">Relics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconography_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_Laos_and_Thailand" title="Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand">Iconography in Laos and Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depictions_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_film" title="Depictions of Gautama Buddha in film">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Miracles of Gautama Buddha">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Family of Gautama Buddha">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Auddhodana" title="Śuddhodana">Suddhodāna <small>(father)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(mother_of_the_Buddha)" title="Maya (mother of the Buddha)">Māyā <small>(mother)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī<small> (aunt, adoptive mother)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%C5%9Bodhar%C4%81" title="Yaśodharā">Yaśodharā <small>(wife)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81hula" title="Rāhula">Rāhula <small>(son)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda <small>(cousin)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devadatta" title="Devadatta">Devadatta <small>(cousin)</small></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_where_Gautama_Buddha_stayed" title="List of places where Gautama Buddha stayed">Places where the Buddha stayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha_in_world_religions" title="Gautama Buddha in world religions">Buddha in world religions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattvas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasthamaprapta" title="Mahasthamaprapta">Mahāsthāmaprāpta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80k%C4%81%C5%9Bagarbha" title="Ākāśagarbha">Ākāśagarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha" title="Kṣitigarbha">Kṣitigarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Bodhisattva)" title="Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrapani" title="Vajrapani">Vajrapāṇi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skanda_(Buddhism)" title="Skanda (Buddhism)">Skanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tārā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Metteyya/Maitreya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Disciples_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Category:Disciples of Gautama Buddha">Disciples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaundinya" title="Kaundinya">Kaundinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assaji" title="Assaji">Assaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81riputra" title="Śāriputra">Sāriputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maudgalyayana" title="Maudgalyayana">Mahamoggallāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81k%C4%81%C5%9Byapa" title="Mahākāśyapa">Mahākassapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%85gulim%C4%81la" title="Aṅgulimāla">Aṅgulimāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuruddha" title="Anuruddha">Anuruddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katyayana_(Buddhist)" title="Katyayana (Buddhist)">Mahākaccana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_(half-brother_of_Buddha)" title="Nanda (half-brother of Buddha)">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subh%C5%ABti" title="Subhūti">Subhūti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%87a_Mant%C4%81n%C4%ABputta" title="Puṇṇa Mantānīputta">Puṇṇa Mantānīputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81li" title="Upāli">Upāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema" title="Khema">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uppalavanna" title="Uppalavanna">Uppalavanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asita" title="Asita">Asita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channa_(Buddhist)" title="Channa (Buddhist)">Channa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasa" title="Yasa">Yasa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Key concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">Avidyā (Ignorance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardo" title="Bardo">Bardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">Bodhicitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhamma theory">Dhamma theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">Five hindrances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indriya" title="Indriya">Indriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">Kleshas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_factors_(Buddhism)" title="Mental factors (Buddhism)">Mental factors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindstream" title="Mindstream">Mindstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">Parinirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%85kh%C4%81ra" title="Saṅkhāra">Saṅkhāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Skandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">Taṇhā (Craving)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81t%C4%81" title="Tathātā">Tathātā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetter_(Buddhism)" title="Fetter (Buddhism)">Ten Fetters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">Three marks of existence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impermanence_(Buddhism)" title="Impermanence (Buddhism)">Anicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">Dukkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">Anattā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">Cosmology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_realms" title="Ten realms">Ten spiritual realms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Paths" title="Six Paths">Six Paths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">Deva realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_beings_in_Buddhism" title="Human beings in Buddhism">Human realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asura_(Buddhism)" title="Asura (Buddhism)">Asura realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preta" title="Preta">Hungry Ghost realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Buddhism" title="Animals in Buddhism">Animal realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naraka_(Buddhism)" title="Naraka (Buddhism)">Naraka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailokya" title="Trailokya">Three planes of existence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chinese Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Zen" title="Japanese Zen">Japanese Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Seon" title="Korean Seon">Korean Seon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Vietnamese Thiền</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rissh%C5%AB_(Buddhism)" title="Risshū (Buddhism)">Risshū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese Esoteric Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_points_unifying_Therav%C4%81da_and_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna">Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern,_Eastern_and_Northern_Buddhism" title="Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism">Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhist_practices" title="Category:Buddhist practices">Practices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhavana" title="Bhavana">Bhavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyādhammā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Mudita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekkha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81bhi%E1%B9%A3eka" title="Buddhābhiṣeka">Buddhābhiṣeka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity_yoga" title="Deity yoga">Deity yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism" title="Dhyana in Buddhism">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Strengths" title="Five Strengths">Five Strengths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhipada" title="Iddhipada">Iddhipada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Meditation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mantra#Buddhism" title="Mantra">Mantras</a></li> <li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kamma%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Kammaṭṭhāna">Kammaṭṭhāna</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Recollection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simran" title="Simran">Smarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">Anapanasati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samatha-vipassan%C4%81" title="Samatha-vipassanā">Samatha-vipassanā</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikantaza" title="Shikantaza">Shikantaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">Zazen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukdam" title="Tukdam">Tukdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koan" title="Koan">Koan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganana" title="Ganana">Ganana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">Mandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonglen" title="Tonglen">Tonglen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tert%C3%B6n" title="Tertön">Tertön</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terma_(religion)" title="Terma (religion)">Terma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">Merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindful_Yoga" title="Mindful Yoga">Mindful Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">Satipatthana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekkhamma" title="Nekkhamma">Nekkhamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo">Nianfo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramitā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paritta" title="Paritta">Paritta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Puja</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offering_(Buddhism)" title="Offering (Buddhism)">Offerings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostration_(Buddhism)" title="Prostration (Buddhism)">Prostration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81dhu_(Pali_word)" title="Sādhu (Pali word)">Sādhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacca" title="Sacca">Sacca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Factors_of_Awakening" title="Seven Factors of Awakening">Seven Factors of Enlightenment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_vicaya" title="Dhamma vicaya">Dhamma vicaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%ABti" title="Pīti">Pīti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passaddhi" title="Passaddhi">Passaddhi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_precepts" title="Eight precepts">Eight precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">Bodhisattva vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratimok%E1%B9%A3a" title="Pratimokṣa">Pratimokṣa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threefold_Training" title="Threefold Training">Threefold Training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Right_Exertions" title="Four Right Exertions">Four Right Exertions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-two_vows_of_Ambedkar" title="Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar">Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na" title="Pratyekabuddhayāna">Pratyekabuddhayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_awakening" title="Four stages of awakening">Four stages of awakening</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sot%C4%81panna" title="Sotāpanna">Sotāpanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakadagami" title="Sakadagami">Sakadagami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C4%81g%C4%81mi" title="Anāgāmi">Anāgāmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Monasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Bhikkhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhun%C4%AB" title="Bhikkhunī">Bhikkhunī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇerī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anag%C4%81rika" title="Anagārika">Anagārika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn" title="Ajahn">Ajahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayadaw" title="Sayadaw">Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen_master" title="Zen master">Zen master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C5%8Dshi" title="Rōshi">Rōshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinpoche" title="Rinpoche">Rinpoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geshe" title="Geshe">Geshe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulku" title="Tulku">Tulku</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_tulku" title="Western tulku">Western tulku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kappiya" title="Kappiya">Kappiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donchee" title="Donchee">Donchee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">Householder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81saka_and_Up%C4%81sik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upāsaka and Upāsikā">Upāsaka and Upāsikā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achar_(Buddhism)" title="Achar (Buddhism)">Achar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">Śrāvaka</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_principal_disciples" title="Ten principal disciples">Ten principal disciples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaolin_Monastery" title="Shaolin Monastery">Shaolin Monastery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Major figures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagasena" title="Nagasena">Nagasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen of Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songtsen_Gampo" title="Songtsen Gampo">Songtsen Gampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmasambhava" title="Padmasambhava">Padmasambhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraha" title="Saraha">Saraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atiśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naropa" title="Naropa">Naropa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karmapa" title="Karmapa">Karmapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen" title="Dōgen">Dōgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren" title="Nichiren">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamarpa" title="Shamarpa">Shamarpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchen_Lama" title="Panchen Lama">Panchen Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Mun" title="Ajahn Mun">Ajahn Mun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Chah" title="Ajahn Chah">Ajahn Chah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">Early Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Madhyamak%C4%81la%E1%B9%83k%C4%81ra" title="Madhyamakālaṃkāra">Madhyamakālaṃkāra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharmad%C4%ABpa" title="Abhidharmadīpa">Abhidharmadīpa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bangladesh" title="Buddhism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Maldives" title="Buddhism in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Pakistan" title="Buddhism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Philippines" title="Buddhism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Buryatia" title="Buddhism in Buryatia">Buryatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Kalmykia" title="Buddhism in Kalmykia">Kalmykia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_in_Tuva&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Buddhism in Tuva (page does not exist)">Tuva</a> (<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D0%B2_%D0%A2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Буддизм в Тыве">ru</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Africa" title="Buddhism in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Senegal" title="Buddhism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_South_Africa" title="Buddhism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia" title="Buddhism in Central Asia">Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Uzbekistan" title="Buddhism in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Buddhism in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Iran" title="Buddhism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Buddhism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Western countries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Argentina" title="Buddhism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Australia" title="Buddhism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Brazil" title="Buddhism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Canada" title="Buddhism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Buddhism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Buddhism in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_France" title="Buddhism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Germany" title="Buddhism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Italy" title="Buddhism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mexico" title="Buddhism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_New_Zealand" title="Buddhism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Norway" title="Buddhism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Poland" title="Buddhism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sweden" title="Buddhism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Switzerland" title="Buddhism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Ukraine" title="Buddhism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Buddhism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Venezuela" title="Buddhism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_councils" title="Buddhist councils">Buddhist councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">History of Buddhism in India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline of Buddhism in India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichang_persecution_of_Buddhism" title="Huichang persecution of Buddhism">Huichang persecution of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism" title="Gandharan Buddhism">Gandharan Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts" title="Gandhāran Buddhist texts">Texts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander I</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_the_Roman_world" title="Buddhism and the Roman world">Buddhism and the Roman world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Buddhism in the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Persecution of Buddhists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">In Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_crisis" title="Buddhist crisis">In Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rim%C3%A9_movement" title="Rimé movement">Rimé movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banishment_of_Buddhist_monks_from_Nepal" title="Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal">Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit_Buddhist_movement" title="Dalit Buddhist movement">Dalit Buddhist movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Tibet_by_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Annexation of Tibet by the People&#39;s Republic of China">Chinese invasion of Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_Buddhist_nationalism" title="Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism">Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/969_Movement" title="969 Movement">969 Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Women in Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_atomism" title="Buddhist atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Creator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_democracy" title="Buddhism and democracy">Buddhism and democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Consciousnesses" title="Eight Consciousnesses">Eight Consciousnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism and evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality_in_Buddhism" title="Reality in Buddhism">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Buddhism" title="Secular Buddhism">Secular Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_socialism" title="Buddhist socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_unanswerable_questions" title="The unanswerable questions">The unanswerable questions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Buddhism" title="Culture of Buddhism">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_architecture" title="Buddhist architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temple" title="Buddhist temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vih%C4%81ra" title="Vihāra">Vihāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyaung" title="Kyaung">Kyaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wat" title="Wat">Wat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_hall" title="Ordination hall">Ordination hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">Stupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pagoda" title="Pagoda">Pagoda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_pagoda" title="Burmese pagoda">Burmese pagoda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">Candi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_architecture_in_China" title="List of Buddhist architecture in China">List of Buddhist architecture in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Buddhist_architecture" title="Japanese Buddhist architecture">Japanese Buddhist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temples_in_Korea" title="Buddhist temples in Korea">Buddhist temples in Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_temple_art_and_architecture" title="Thai temple art and architecture">Thai temple art and architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_architecture" title="Tibetan Buddhist architecture">Tibetan Buddhist architecture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_art" title="Buddhist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhi_Tree" title="Bodhi Tree">Bodhi Tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budai" title="Budai">Budai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_in_art" title="Buddha in art">Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_calendar" title="Buddhist calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cuisine" title="Buddhist cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_funeral" title="Buddhist funeral">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_holidays" title="Buddhist holidays">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vesak" title="Vesak">Vesak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uposatha" title="Uposatha">Uposatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81gha_P%C5%ABj%C4%81" title="Māgha Pūjā">Māgha Pūjā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asalha_Puja" title="Asalha Puja">Asalha Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassa" title="Vassa">Vassa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaya_Sri_Maha_Bodhi" title="Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi">Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasaya_(clothing)" title="Kasaya (clothing)">Kasaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabodhi_Temple" title="Mahabodhi Temple">Mahabodhi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">Mantra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Om_mani_padme_hum" title="Om mani padme hum">Om mani padme hum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">Mudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_pilgrimage_sites" title="Buddhist pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumbini" title="Lumbini">Lumbini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Devi_Temple,_Lumbini" title="Maya Devi Temple, Lumbini">Maya Devi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodh_Gaya" title="Bodh Gaya">Bodh Gaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnath" title="Sarnath">Sarnath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushinagar" title="Kushinagar">Kushinagar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_poetry" title="Buddhist poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japamala" title="Japamala">Prayer beads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hama_yumi" title="Hama yumi">Hama yumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_wheel" title="Prayer wheel">Prayer wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_symbolism" title="Buddhist symbolism">Symbolism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra">Dharmachakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_flag" title="Buddhist flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhavacakra" title="Bhavacakra">Bhavacakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">Swastika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">Thangka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_the_Tooth" title="Temple of the Tooth">Temple of the Tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Miscellaneous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhij%C3%B1%C4%81" title="Abhijñā">Abhijñā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahm%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Brahmā (Buddhism)">Brahmā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma_talk" title="Dharma talk">Dharma talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhi" title="Iddhi">Iddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(time)" title="Kalpa (time)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koliya" title="Koliya">Koliya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(Buddhism)" title="Lineage (Buddhism)">Lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mara_(demon)" title="Mara (demon)">Māra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhi" title="Siddhi">Siddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">Sacred languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pāḷi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Comparative_Buddhism" title="Category:Comparative Buddhism">Comparison</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_Buddhism" title="Baháʼí Faith and Buddhism">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Buddhism and Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_influences_on_Christianity" title="Buddhist influences on Christianity">Influences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Comparison of Buddhism and Christianity">Comparison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Eastern_religions" title="Buddhism and Eastern religions">East Asian religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Gnosticism" title="Buddhism and Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Hinduism" title="Buddhism and Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Jainism" title="Buddhism and Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Buddhist" title="Jewish Buddhist">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_psychology" title="Buddhism and psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_science" title="Buddhism and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Theosophy" title="Buddhism and Theosophy">Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_violence" title="Buddhism and violence">Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Western_philosophy" title="Buddhism and Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhism-related_lists" title="Category:Buddhism-related lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bodhisattvas" title="List of bodhisattvas">Bodhisattvas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Buddhas">Buddhas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_suttas" title="List of suttas">Suttas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_temples" title="List of Buddhist temples">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_festivals" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Buddhist festivals">Festivals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD068;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhism" title="Category:Buddhism">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/16px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/24px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/32px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="697" data-file-height="697" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Buddhism" title="Portal:Buddhism">Buddhism&#32;portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religion_topics" title="Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religion_topics" title="Template talk:Religion topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religion_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Religion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religious_groups_and_denominations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religious groups and denominations</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Church_of_the_East" title="Ancient Church of the East">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a>/<a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzenau_Brethren" title="Schwarzenau Brethren">Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterites" title="Hutterites">Hutterites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwenkfelder_Church" title="Schwenkfelder Church">Schwenkfelder Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Reformed_Protestantism" title="Continental Reformed Protestantism">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-charismatic_movement" title="Neo-charismatic movement">Neo-charismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Irvingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakerism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_Christianity" title="Esoteric Christianity">Esoteric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">Judaizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">Nontrinitarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement" title="Bible Student movement">Bible Students</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement#Associated_Bible_Students" title="Bible Student movement">Associated Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Bible_Students" title="Free Bible Students">Free Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_Man" title="Friends of Man">Friends of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah&#39;s Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo#Kitawala" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Kitawala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laymen%27s_Home_Missionary_Movement" title="Laymen&#39;s Home Missionary Movement">Laymen's Home Missionary Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism" title="Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneness_Pentecostalism" title="Oneness Pentecostalism">Oneness Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Christianity" title="Spiritual Christianity">Spiritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Church_(Swedenborgian)" title="The New Church (Swedenborgian)">Swedenborgianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolstoyan_movement" title="Tolstoyan movement">Tolstoyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunnism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash&#39;arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Modernist Salafism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'ism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali-Illahism" title="Ali-Illahism">Ali-Illahism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma&#39;ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi&#39;ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ishikism" title="Ishikism">Ishikism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Alevism" title="Kurdish Alevism">Kurdish Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdawi_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahdawi movement">Mahdavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milah_Abraham" title="Milah Abraham">Milah Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1bism" title="Bábism">Bábism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azali" title="Azali">Azalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm-e-Khshnoom" title="Ilm-e-Khshnoom">Ilm-e-Khshnoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazdaznan" title="Mazdaznan">Mazdaznan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Kurdish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shabakism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shabakism">Shabakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Assianism/Uatsdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roshani_movement" title="Roshani movement">Roshani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Manichaeism" title="Chinese Manichaeism">Chinese Manichaeism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazd%C3%A2nism" title="Yazdânism">Yazdânism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidism" title="Yazidism">Yazidism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_religions" title="Eastern religions">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_teaching" title="Luo teaching">Luoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuo_folk_religion" title="Nuo folk religion">Nuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Salvationist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiantiandao" title="Xiantiandao">Xiantiandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiguandao" title="Yiguandao">Yiguandao</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Folk Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_folk_religion" title="Yao folk religion">Yao Taoism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Shinto_sects_and_schools" title="Shinto sects and schools">list</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shugend%C5%8D" title="Shugendō">Shugendō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenrikyo" title="Tenrikyo">Tenrikyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_religion" title="Ryukyuan religion">Ryukyuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Korean shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheondoism" title="Cheondoism">Cheondoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeung_San_Do" title="Jeung San Do">Jeungsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnamese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Vietnamese folk religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_M%E1%BA%ABu" title="Đạo Mẫu">Đạo Mẫu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caodaism" title="Caodaism">Caodaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o" title="Hòa Hảo">Hoahaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_B%E1%BB%ADu_S%C6%A1n_K%E1%BB%B3_H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương">Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krishnaism" title="Krishnaism">Krishnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Vaishnavism" title="Sri Vaishnavism">Sri Vaishnavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sampradaya" title="Brahma Sampradaya">Brahma Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushtimarg" class="mw-redirect" title="Pushtimarg">Pushtimarg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahanubhava" title="Mahanubhava">Mahanubhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanandi_Sampradaya" title="Ramanandi Sampradaya">Ramanandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warkari" title="Warkari">Warkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan_Sampradaya" title="Swaminarayan Sampradaya">Swaminarayan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaiva Siddhanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganapatya" title="Ganapatya">Ganapatya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Shaivism" title="Kashmir Shaivism">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapalika" title="Kapalika">Kapalika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaumaram" title="Kaumaram">Kaumaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingayatism" title="Lingayatism">Lingayatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nath" class="mw-redirect" title="Nath">Nath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_Hinduism" title="Balinese Hinduism">Balinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smartism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saura_(Hinduism)" title="Saura (Hinduism)">Sauraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant_Mat" title="Sant Mat">Sant Mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Neo-Hinduism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Thiền</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Amidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Neo-Buddhism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayyavazhi" title="Ayyavazhi">Ayyavazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalash_people#Religion" title="Kalash people">Kalash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digambara" title="Digambara">Digambara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Avet%C4%81mbara" title="Śvetāmbara">Śvetāmbara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnaism" title="Sarnaism">Sarnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kirat Mundhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedda#Religion" title="Vedda">Vedda religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravidassia" title="Ravidassia">Ravidassia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khalsa" title="Khalsa">Khalsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sects_of_Sikhism" title="Sects of Sikhism">Sects</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turko</a>-<a href="/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism" title="Mongolian shamanism">Mongolic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burkhanism" title="Burkhanism">Burkhanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vattisen_Yaly" title="Vattisen Yaly">Vattisen Yaly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_creation_myth" title="Tungusic creation myth">Tungusic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenks#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenks">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarna_(place)" title="Sarna (place)">Sarnaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmalim" title="Parmalim">Batak Parmalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayak_people#Religion_and_festivals" title="Dayak people">Dayak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaharingan" title="Kaharingan">Kaharingan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Sabahan_religions" title="Traditional Sabahan religions">Traditional Sabahan religions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Indonesian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aliran_Kepercayaan" title="Aliran Kepercayaan">Aliran Kepercayaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kejaw%C3%A8n" title="Kejawèn">Kejawèn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapitayan" title="Kapitayan">Kapitayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pemena" title="Pemena">Karo Pemena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_folk_religion" title="Malaysian folk religion">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Philippine_folk_religions" title="Indigenous Philippine folk religions">Philippine Dayawism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religious_beliefs_of_the_Tagalog_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous religious beliefs of the Tagalog people">Tagalog</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_mythology" title="Polynesian mythology">Polynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_religion" title="Hawaiian religion">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_M%C4%81ori_people" title="Religion of Māori people">Māori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marapu" title="Marapu">Sumbese Marapu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Wiwitan" title="Sunda Wiwitan">Sundanese Wiwitan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native<br />American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abenaki_mythology" title="Abenaki mythology">Abenaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_religion" title="Alaska Native religion">Alaskan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe_traditional_beliefs" title="Anishinaabe traditional beliefs">Anishinaabe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe#Spiritual_beliefs" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midewiwin" title="Midewiwin">Midewiwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabunowin" title="Wabunowin">Wabunowin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache#Religion" title="Apache">Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_mythology" title="Blackfoot mythology">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_narratives_of_Indigenous_Californians" title="Traditional narratives of Indigenous Californians">Californian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuksu_(religion)" title="Kuksu (religion)">Kuksu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miwok_mythology" title="Miwok mythology">Miwok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohlone_mythology" title="Ohlone mythology">Ohlone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomo_religion" title="Pomo religion">Pomo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilote_mythology" title="Chilote mythology">Chilote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_mythology" title="Choctaw mythology">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_religion" title="Crow religion">Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance" title="Ghost Dance">Ghost Dance</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarani_mythology" title="Guarani mythology">Guarani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_mythology" title="Haida mythology">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk_mythology" title="Ho-Chunk mythology">Ho-Chunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_mythology" title="Iroquois mythology">Iroquois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_spiritual_beliefs" title="Cherokee spiritual beliefs">Cherokee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Mothers_Society" title="Four Mothers Society">Four Mothers Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_people#Religion" title="Mohawk people">Mohawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_mythology" title="Creek mythology">Muscogee Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_mythology" title="Seneca mythology">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyandot_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Wyandot religion">Wyandot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jivaroan_peoples#Religion" title="Jivaroan peoples">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw_mythology" title="Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology">Kwakwakaʼwakw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenape_mythology" title="Lenape mythology">Lenape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_religion" title="Mapuche religion">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_religion" title="Mesoamerican religion">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_religion" title="Purépecha religion">Purépecha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_mythology" title="Muisca mythology">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo#Spiritual_and_religious_beliefs" title="Navajo">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_mythology" title="Nuu-chah-nulth mythology">Nuu-chah-nulth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_mythology" title="Pawnee mythology">Pawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_religion" title="Pueblo religion">Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoma_Pueblo#Religion" title="Acoma Pueblo">Acoma Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopi_mythology" title="Hopi mythology">Hopi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_mythology" title="Zuni mythology">Zuni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux#Religion" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lakota_religion" title="Lakota religion">Lakota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wocekiye" title="Wocekiye">Wocekiye</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshian_mythology" title="Tsimshian mythology">Tsimshian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_mythology" title="Ute mythology">Ute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions#Washat_Dreamers_Religion" title="Native American religions">Washat Dreamers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui#Yaqui_cosmology_and_religion" title="Yaqui">Yaqui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples" title="Tai peoples">Tai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_religion" title="Ahom religion">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Hmongism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_(religion)" title="Mo (religion)">Mo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_folk_religion" title="Tai folk religion">Satsana Phi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burmese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_folk_religion" title="Burmese folk religion">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathouism" title="Bathouism">Bathouism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mun_(religion)" title="Mun (religion)">Bongthingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongba" title="Dongba">Dongba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donyi-Polo" title="Donyi-Polo">Donyi-Polo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurung_shamanism" title="Gurung shamanism">Gurung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraka" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraka">Heraka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kiratism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanamahism" title="Sanamahism">Sanamahism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">Traditional <br /> African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">North African</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Berber_religion" title="Traditional Berber religion">Berber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Guanche_People" title="Church of the Guanche People">Guanche church</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Sub-Saharan<br />African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kamba_people" title="Kamba people">Akamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akan_religion" title="Akan religion">Akan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baluba_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Baluba mythology">Baluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu mythology">Bantu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_traditional_religion" title="Zulu traditional religion">Zulu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushongo_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushongo mythology">Bushongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinka_religion" title="Dinka religion">Dinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogon_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogon religion">Dogon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efik_mythology" title="Efik mythology">Efik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahomean_religion" title="Dahomean religion">Fon and Ewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ik_people" title="Ik people">Ik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotuko_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotuko mythology">Lotuko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_mythology" title="Lozi mythology">Lozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugbara_mythology" title="Lugbara mythology">Lugbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maasai_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Maasai mythology">Maasai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbuti_mythology" title="Mbuti mythology">Mbuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odinala" title="Odinala">Odinala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_religion" title="San religion">San</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_religion" title="Serer religion">Serer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumbuka_mythology" title="Tumbuka mythology">Tumbuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urhobo_people" title="Urhobo people">Urhobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waaqeffanna" title="Waaqeffanna">Waaqeffanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_religion" title="Yoruba religion">Yoruba</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/If%C3%A1" title="Ifá">Ifá</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">Diasporic</a>:</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9" title="Candomblé">Candomblé</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Bantu" title="Candomblé Bantu">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Jej%C3%A9" title="Candomblé Jejé">Jejé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Ketu" title="Candomblé Ketu">Ketu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfa" title="Comfa">Comfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convince" title="Convince">Convince</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espiritismo" title="Espiritismo">Espiritismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumina" title="Kumina">Kumina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obeah" title="Obeah">Obeah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palo_(religion)" title="Palo (religion)">Palo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quimbanda" title="Quimbanda">Quimbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa" title="Santería">Santería</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambor_de_Mina" title="Tambor de Mina">Tambor de Mina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidad_Orisha" title="Trinidad Orisha">Trinidad Orisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbanda" title="Umbanda">Umbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Vodou" title="Haitian Vodou">Vodou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winti" title="Winti">Winti</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other ethnic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_religion_and_mythology" title="Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology">Aboriginal Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_religion" title="Inuit religion">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_mythology" title="Papuan mythology">Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_in_Siberia" title="Shamanism in Siberia">Siberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">New<br /> religious<br /> movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Syncretic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmoism" title="Brahmoism">Brahmoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coconut_Religion" title="Coconut Religion">Coconut Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_new_religions" title="Japanese new religions">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meivazhi" title="Meivazhi">Meivazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modekngei" title="Modekngei">Modekngei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Acropolis" title="New Acropolis">New Acropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Thought" title="New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajneesh_movement" title="Rajneesh movement">Rajneesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Sant_Mat_movements" title="Contemporary Sant Mat movements">Sant Mat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radha_Soami" title="Radha Soami">Radha Soami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subud" title="Subud">Subud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tensegrity_(Castaneda)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensegrity (Castaneda)">Tensegrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelema" title="Thelema">Thelema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy" title="Theosophy">Theosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Theosophy" title="Neo-Theosophy">Neo-Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni_Yoga" title="Agni Yoga">Agni Yoga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roerichism" title="Roerichism">Roerichism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_Meditation" title="Transcendental Meditation">Transcendental Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian Universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_White_Brotherhood" title="Universal White Brotherhood">White Brotherhood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Modern<br />paganism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>African <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godianism" title="Godianism">Godianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetanism" title="Hetanism">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_neopaganism" title="Baltic neopaganism">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dievtur%C4%ABba" title="Dievturība">Dievturība</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romuva_(religion)" title="Romuva (religion)">Romuva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_neopaganism" title="Caucasian neopaganism">Caucasian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abkhaz neopaganism">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_Xabze" title="Adyghe Xabze">Circassian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_neopaganism" title="Celtic neopaganism">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Druidry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heathenry_(new_religious_movement)" title="Heathenry (new religious movement)">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenism_(modern_religion)" title="Hellenism (modern religion)">Hellenism (modern religion)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoshamanism" title="Neoshamanism">Neoshamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Ossetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheistic_reconstructionism" title="Polytheistic reconstructionism">Polytheistic reconstructionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Roman_religion" title="Reconstructionist Roman religion">Italo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemetism" title="Kemetism">Kemetism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Native_Faith" title="Slavic Native Faith">Slavic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Authentism" title="Russian Authentism">Authentism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_neopaganism" title="Uralic neopaganism">Uralic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_neopaganism" title="Estonian neopaganism">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Finnish_paganism" title="Modern Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Native_Faith" title="Hungarian Native Faith">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari_religion" title="Mari religion">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzyan_native_religion" title="Erzyan native religion">Erzya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_shamanism" title="Sámi shamanism">Sámi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_Vos" title="Udmurt Vos">Udmurt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Zalmoxianism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_pagan_movements" title="List of modern pagan movements">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">De novo</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophy" title="Anthroposophy">Anthroposophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discordianism" title="Discordianism">Discordianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eckankar" title="Eckankar">Eckankar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Way" title="Fourth Way">Fourth Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jediism" title="Jediism">Jediism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satanism" title="Satanism">Satanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientology" title="Scientology">Scientology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UFO_religion" title="UFO religion">UFO religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABlism" title="Raëlism">Raëlism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Historical_religions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">Historical religions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_people#Religion" title="Ainu people">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_mythology" title="Prussian mythology">Old Prussian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_mythology" title="Basque mythology">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_mythology" title="Cook Islands mythology">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_folk_religion" title="Dravidian folk religion">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atenism" title="Atenism">Atenism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_mythology" title="Finnish mythology">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuegians#Spiritual_culture" title="Fuegians">Fuegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selk%27nam_mythology" title="Selk&#39;nam mythology">Selk'nam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_mythology" title="Georgian mythology">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_paganism" title="Frankish paganism">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">Mysteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphism_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Orphism (religion)">Orphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanches#System_of_beliefs" title="Guanches">Guanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Religion" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Harappan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_mythology" title="Hungarian mythology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_religion" title="Hurrian religion">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Confederacy#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Illinois Confederacy">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_mythology" title="Inca mythology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Maroon_religion" title="Jamaican Maroon religion">Jamaican Maroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_mythology" title="Melanesian mythology">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_religion" title="Babylonian religion">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_mythology" title="Micronesian mythology">Micronesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nauruan_Indigenous_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nauruan Indigenous religion">Nauruan Indigenous religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_religion" title="Olmec religion">Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_folk_beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian folk beliefs">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian mythology">Dacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian religion">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basketmaker_III_Era#Culture_and_religion" title="Basketmaker III Era">Ancestral Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_II_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo II Period">Pueblo II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_III_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo III Period">Pueblo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_IV_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo IV Period">Pueblo IV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_mythology" title="Rapa Nui mythology">Rapa Nui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cult of Magna Mater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Imperial cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">Mysteries of Isis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_religion" title="Punic religion">Punic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_mythology" title="Somali mythology">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongan_religion" title="Tongan religion">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu#Religion" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vainakh_religion" title="Vainakh religion">Vainakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization#Religion_and_Myth" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">Apostasy</a>&#160;/&#32;<a href="/wiki/Religious_disaffiliation" title="Religious disaffiliation">Disaffiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_behaviour" title="Religious behaviour">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">Beliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call_to_prayer" title="Call to prayer">Call to prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laicism" title="Laicism">Laicism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">Laity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_(religion)" title="Covenant (religion)">Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_denomination" title="Religious denomination">Denomination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">Entheogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship" title="Fire worship">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religion" title="Indigenous religion">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">Monk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novice" title="Novice">Novice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">Nun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_mythology" title="Religion and mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">Orthopraxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">Religious experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Ritual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_purification" title="Ritual purification">Purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">Sacrifice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_space" title="Sacred space">Sacred space</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_waters" title="Sacred waters">Bodies of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_mountains" title="Sacred mountains">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tree" title="Sacred tree">Trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">Spirituality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">Supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_symbol" title="Religious symbol">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_truth" title="Religious views on truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_and_religion" title="Water and religion">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">Worship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Worship_of_heavenly_bodies" title="Worship of heavenly bodies">Astral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_worship" title="Nature worship">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place_of_worship" title="Place of worship">Place</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheism" title="Transtheism">Transtheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion" title="Cognitive science of religion">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">Soteriology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">Salvation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religion" title="Theories about religion">Theories about religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_religion" title="Women and religion">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Religion_and_society" title="Category:Religion and society">Religion <br />and society</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_agriculture" title="Religion and agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_business" title="Religion and business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clericalism" title="Clericalism">Clericalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_assimilation" title="Religious assimilation">Assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">Missionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">Proselytism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_religion" title="Disability and religion">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_fanaticism" title="Religious fanaticism">Fanaticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">Syncretism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_religion" title="Growth of religion">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_happiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion and happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_religion" title="Homosexuality and religion">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_religion" title="Minority religion">Minorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_church" title="National church">National church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Importance_of_religion_by_country" title="Importance of religion by country">National religiosity levels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_politics" title="Religion in politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_populations" title="List of religious populations">Populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religiocentrism" title="Religiocentrism">Religiocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism_and_religion" title="Vegetarianism and religion">Vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_video_games" title="Religion and video games">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence" title="Sectarian violence">Sectarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth_and_religion" title="Wealth and religion">Wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a> <br />and <a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">irreligion</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deconstruction" title="Positive deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_theology" title="Secular theology">Secular theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">Secularization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Unaffiliated</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Overviews<br />and <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion-related_lists" title="Category:Religion-related lists">lists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Table_of_prophets_of_Abrahamic_religions" title="Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_who_have_been_considered_deities" title="List of people who have been considered deities">Deification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_deities" title="Lists of deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_founders_of_religious_traditions" title="List of founders of religious traditions">Founders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_religion-related_articles" title="Index of religion-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_peaceful_gatherings" title="List of largest peaceful gatherings">Mass gatherings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God" title="Names of God">Names of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_religious_movements" title="List of new religious movements">New religious movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_organizations" title="List of religious organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_religion" title="Outline of religion">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religions and spiritual traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_religion" title="Timeline of religion">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Algeria" title="Religion in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Angola" title="Religion in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Benin" title="Religion in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Botswana" title="Religion in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Religion in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burundi" title="Religion in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cameroon" title="Religion in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cape_Verde" title="Religion in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Religion in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chad" title="Religion in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Comoros" title="Religion in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Djibouti" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Egypt" title="Religion in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Religion in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eritrea" title="Religion in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eswatini" title="Religion in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ethiopia" title="Religion in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Gabon" title="Religion in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Gambia" title="Religion in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ghana" title="Religion in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea" title="Religion in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Religion in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Religion in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kenya" title="Religion in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lesotho" title="Religion in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liberia" title="Religion in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Libya" title="Religion in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Madagascar" title="Religion in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malawi" title="Religion in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mali" title="Religion in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritania" title="Religion in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritius" title="Religion in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Morocco" title="Religion in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mozambique" title="Religion in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Namibia" title="Religion in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Niger" title="Religion in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nigeria" title="Religion in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Rwanda" title="Religion in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Religion in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Senegal" title="Religion in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Seychelles" title="Religion in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Religion in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Somalia" title="Religion in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Africa" title="Religion in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Sudan" title="Religion in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sudan" title="Religion in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tanzania" title="Religion in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Togo" title="Religion in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tunisia" title="Religion in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uganda" title="Religion in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zambia" title="Religion in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zimbabwe" title="Religion in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Asia" title="Religion in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Afghanistan" title="Religion in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Armenia" title="Religion in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Azerbaijan" title="Religion in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bahrain" title="Religion in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bangladesh" title="Religion in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bhutan" title="Religion in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brunei" title="Religion in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cambodia" title="Religion in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cyprus" title="Religion in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_East_Timor" title="Religion in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Religion in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hong_Kong" title="Religion in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Indonesia" title="Religion in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iran" title="Religion in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Israel" title="Religion in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jordan" title="Religion in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kazakhstan" title="Religion in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Korea" title="Religion in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Korea" title="Religion in South Korea">South Korea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kuwait" title="Religion in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Religion in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Laos" title="Religion in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lebanon" title="Religion in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Macau" title="Religion in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malaysia" title="Religion in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Maldives" title="Religion in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mongolia" title="Religion in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Myanmar" title="Religion in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nepal" title="Religion in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oman" title="Religion in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Pakistan" title="Religion in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Philippines" title="Religion in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Qatar" title="Religion in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Religion in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Singapore" title="Religion in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Religion in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Taiwan" title="Religion in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tajikistan" title="Religion in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Thailand" title="Religion in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkey" title="Religion in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkmenistan" title="Religion in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Religion in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uzbekistan" title="Religion in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Yemen" title="Religion in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Europe" title="Religion in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Albania" title="Religion in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Andorra" title="Religion in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Austria" title="Religion in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belarus" title="Religion in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belgium" title="Religion in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bulgaria" title="Religion in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Croatia" title="Religion in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Religion in the Czech Republic">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Denmark" title="Religion in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Estonia" title="Religion in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Finland" title="Religion in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_France" title="Religion in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Germany" title="Religion in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Greece" title="Religion in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hungary" title="Religion in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iceland" title="Religion in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Religion in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kosovo" title="Religion in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Latvia" title="Religion in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liechtenstein" title="Religion in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lithuania" title="Religion in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Luxembourg" title="Religion in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malta" title="Religion in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Moldova" title="Religion in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Montenegro" title="Religion in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Religion in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Macedonia" title="Religion in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Norway" title="Religion in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Poland" title="Religion in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Portugal" title="Religion in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Romania" title="Religion in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Russia" title="Religion in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_San_Marino" title="Religion in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Serbia" title="Religion in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovakia" title="Religion in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovenia" title="Religion in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Spain" title="Religion in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sweden" title="Religion in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Switzerland" title="Religion in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ukraine" title="Religion in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Religion in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Religion in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_America" title="Religion in North America">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Religion in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Bahamas" title="Religion in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Barbados" title="Religion in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belize" title="Religion in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Canada" title="Religion in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Costa_Rica" title="Religion in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cuba" title="Religion in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Dominica" title="Religion in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Religion in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_El_Salvador" title="Religion in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Grenada" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guatemala" title="Religion in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Haiti" title="Religion in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Honduras" title="Religion in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jamaica" title="Religion in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mexico" title="Religion in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nicaragua" title="Religion in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Panama" title="Religion in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Religion in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oceania" title="Religion in Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Australia" title="Religion in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Fiji" title="Religion in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kiribati" title="Religion in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Religion in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Religion in the Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nauru" title="Religion in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_New_Zealand" title="Religion in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Palau" title="Religion in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Religion in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Samoa" title="Religion in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Solomon_Islands" title="Religion in Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tonga" title="Religion in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tuvalu" title="Religion in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vanuatu" title="Religion in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_America" title="Religion in South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Argentina" title="Religion in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bolivia" title="Religion in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brazil" title="Religion in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chile" title="Religion in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Colombia" title="Religion in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ecuador" title="Religion in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guyana" title="Religion in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Paraguay" title="Religion in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Peru" title="Religion in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Suriname" title="Religion in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uruguay" title="Religion in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Venezuela" title="Religion in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion" title="Category:Religion">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&amp;#124;text-top&amp;#124;10px&amp;#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&amp;#124;link=https&amp;#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48362#identifiers&amp;#124;class=noprint&amp;#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&amp;#124;text-top&amp;#124;10px&amp;#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&amp;#124;link=https&amp;#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48362#identifiers&amp;#124;class=noprint&amp;#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48362#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1005972/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4125803-4">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85079842">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Bouddhisme mahāyāna"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119420303">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Bouddhisme mahāyāna"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119420303">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="mahájánový buddhismus"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&amp;local_base=aut&amp;ccl_term=ica=ph122555&amp;CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&amp;authority_id=XX524557">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&amp;local_base=lnc10&amp;doc_number=000057045&amp;P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007543404805171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐web.codfw.main‐55db797859‐vxsxh Cached time: 20241218031922 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false Complications: [vary‐revision‐sha1, show‐toc] CPU time usage: 1.625 seconds Real time usage: 1.993 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 11910/1000000 Post‐expand include size: 430552/2097152 bytes Template argument size: 11778/2097152 bytes Highest expansion depth: 16/100 Expensive parser function count: 12/500 Unstrip recursion depth: 1/20 Unstrip post‐expand size: 354875/5000000 bytes Lua time usage: 0.707/10.000 seconds Lua memory usage: 21482595/52428800 bytes Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 1/400 --> <!-- Transclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template) 100.00% 1309.283 1 -total 32.73% 428.487 2 Template:Reflist 16.70% 218.614 3 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists 16.49% 215.878 24 Template:Cite_book 14.60% 191.115 1 Template:MahayanaBuddhism 8.46% 110.727 6 Template:IAST 8.27% 108.315 6 Template:Transliteration 5.23% 68.509 1 Template:Short_description 4.42% 57.870 1 Template:Sfn 4.15% 54.278 13 Template:ISBN --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:27937488:|#|:idhash:canonical and timestamp 20241218031922 and revision id 1262156146. Rendering was triggered because: page-view --> </div><!--esi <esi:include src="/esitest-fa8a495983347898/content" /> --><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&amp;type=1x1&amp;usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;oldid=1262156146">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;oldid=1262156146</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mahayana" title="Category:Mahayana">Mahayana</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhist_philosophical_concepts" title="Category:Buddhist philosophical concepts">Buddhist philosophical concepts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Culture_of_India" title="Category:Culture of India">Culture of India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_religion_in_India" title="Category:History of religion in India">History of religion in India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:N%C4%81stika" title="Category:Nāstika">Nāstika</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Buddhism_in_Asia" title="Category:History of Buddhism in Asia">History of Buddhism in Asia</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Japanese-language_sources_(ja)" title="Category:CS1 Japanese-language sources (ja)">CS1 Japanese-language sources (ja)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Sanskrit-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Sanskrit-language text">Articles containing Sanskrit-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_Sanskrit_IPA" title="Category:Pages with Sanskrit IPA">Pages with Sanskrit IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Chinese-language text">Articles containing Chinese-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_multiple_image_with_auto_scaled_images" title="Category:Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images">Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_January_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from January 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_June_2015" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2015">Articles with unsourced statements from June 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 9 December 2024, at 22:29<span class="anonymous-show">&#160;(UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mahayana&amp;mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-55db797859-n779s","wgBackendResponseTime":158,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.625","walltime":"1.993","ppvisitednodes":{"value":11910,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":430552,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":11778,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":12,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":354875,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1309.283 1 -total"," 32.73% 428.487 2 Template:Reflist"," 16.70% 218.614 3 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 16.49% 215.878 24 Template:Cite_book"," 14.60% 191.115 1 Template:MahayanaBuddhism"," 8.46% 110.727 6 Template:IAST"," 8.27% 108.315 6 Template:Transliteration"," 5.23% 68.509 1 Template:Short_description"," 4.42% 57.870 1 Template:Sfn"," 4.15% 54.278 13 Template:ISBN"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.707","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21482595,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAcri2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaruah2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBodhi2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBuswell2004\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCharles_S._PrebishKenneth_Ken\u0026#039;ichi_Tanaka2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrewes2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoltz2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFronsdal2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGombrich2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHirakawa1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuber2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnsonGrim2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarel_WernerJeffrey_SamuelsBhikkhu_BodhiPeter_Skilling2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenneth_W._Morgan1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeVineGellner2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMonier-Williams1889\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFN._Ross_Reat1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOliver2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhelps2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowers1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRhie2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanderson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchopen1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSujato2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTārānātha2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodheadPartridgeKawanami2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZappulli2022\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 3,\n [\"Buddhism\"] = 1,\n [\"Buddhism topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Buddhist Philosophy sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 3,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 24,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 5,\n [\"Cn\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Doi\"] = 4,\n [\"IAST\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 13,\n [\"Lang\"] = 4,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Literal translation\"] = 1,\n [\"MahayanaBuddhism\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 4,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"NIE Poster\"] = 1,\n [\"NoteFoot\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Refn\"] = 9,\n [\"Religion topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Respell\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 8,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-55db797859-vxsxh","timestamp":"20241218031922","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Mahayana","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mahayana","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q48362","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q48362","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-10-18T15:18:15Z","dateModified":"2024-12-09T22:29:08Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/1b\/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Maitreya_Detail.jpeg","headline":"a major branch of Buddhism"}</script> </body> </html>

Pages: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10