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id="toc-History_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe,_Asia,_Africa_and_South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe,_Asia,_Africa_and_South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Europe, Asia, Africa and South America</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Europe,_Asia,_Africa_and_South_America-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Europe, Asia, Africa and South America subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Europe,_Asia,_Africa_and_South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sweden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sweden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Sweden</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sweden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Netherlands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Soviet_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.1</span> <span>Soviet era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1990s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1990s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.2</span> <span>1990s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1990s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2000s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2000s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.3</span> <span>2000s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2000s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brazil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brazil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Brazil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brazil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>New Zealand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philippines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philippines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Philippines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philippines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Television broadcaster</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86" title="شبكة تلفزيون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شبكة تلفزيون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadena_de_televisi%C3%B3n" title="Cadena de televisión – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cadena de televisión" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95" title="টেলিভিশন নেটওয়ার্ক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="টেলিভিশন নেটওয়ার্ক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80_(%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Телевизионен оператор (компания) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Телевизионен оператор (компания)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xarxa_de_televisi%C3%B3" title="Xarxa de televisió – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Xarxa de televisió" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televizn%C3%AD_s%C3%AD%C5%A5" title="Televizní síť – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Televizní síť" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tv-netv%C3%A6rk" title="Tv-netværk – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tv-netværk" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B7%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BF%CF%80%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%B4%CE%AF%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%85%CE%BF" title="Τηλεοπτικό δίκτυο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τηλεοπτικό δίκτυο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadena_de_televisi%C3%B3n" title="Cadena de televisión – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cadena de televisión" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televidkanalo" title="Televidkanalo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Televidkanalo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telebista-kate" title="Telebista-kate – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Telebista-kate" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A8%DA%A9%D9%87_%D8%AA%D9%84%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86" title="شبکه تلویزیون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شبکه تلویزیون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9seau_de_t%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision" title="Réseau de télévision – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Réseau de télévision" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telefyzjenetwurk" title="Telefyzjenetwurk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Telefyzjenetwurk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadea_de_televisi%C3%B3n" title="Cadea de televisión – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cadea de televisión" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%85%94%EB%A0%88%EB%B9%84%EC%A0%84_%EB%84%A4%ED%8A%B8%EC%9B%8C%ED%81%AC" title="텔레비전 네트워크 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="텔레비전 네트워크" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televizijska_mre%C5%BEa" title="Televizijska mreža – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Televizijska mreža" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaringan_televisi" title="Jaringan televisi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Jaringan televisi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangkaian_televisyen" title="Rangkaian televisyen – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Rangkaian televisyen" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisienetwerk" title="Televisienetwerk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Televisienetwerk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8D%E3%83%83%E3%83%88%E3%83%AF%E3%83%BC%E3%82%AF_(%E6%94%BE%E9%80%81)" title="ネットワーク (放送) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ネットワーク (放送)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B0" title="Телевизионан маша – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Телевизионан маша" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjernsynsnettverk" title="Fjernsynsnettverk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fjernsynsnettverk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sie%C4%87_telewizyjna" title="Sieć telewizyjna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Sieć telewizyjna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rede_de_televis%C3%A3o" title="Rede de televisão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Rede de televisão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Телевизионная сеть – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Телевизионная сеть" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_network" title="Television network – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Television network" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B0" title="Телевизијска мрежа – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Телевизијска мрежа" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televizijska_mre%C5%BEa" title="Televizijska mreža – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Televizijska mreža" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisioverkko" title="Televisioverkko – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Televisioverkko" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televizyon_a%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Televizyon ağı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Televizyon ağı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B0" title="Телевізійна мережа – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Телевізійна мережа" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">Television broadcasting</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Telecom network for TV programming</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Television_channel" title="Television channel">Television channel</a> or <a href="/wiki/Television_station" title="Television station">Television station</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Television broadcasting" redirects here. For the technology, see <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_television_systems" title="Broadcast television systems">Broadcast television systems</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Television_broadcaster" title="Special:EditPage/Television broadcaster">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Television+broadcaster%22">"Television broadcaster"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Television+broadcaster%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Television+broadcaster%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Television+broadcaster%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Television+broadcaster%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Television+broadcaster%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>A <b>television broadcaster</b> or <b>television network</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">telecommunications network</a> for the distribution of <a href="/wiki/Television_show" title="Television show">television content</a>, where a central operation provides programming to many <a href="/wiki/Television_station" title="Television station">television stations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pay_television" title="Pay television">pay television</a> providers or, in the United States, <a href="/wiki/Multichannel_television_in_the_United_States" title="Multichannel television in the United States">multichannel video programming distributors</a>. Until the mid-1980s, <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_programming" title="Broadcast programming">broadcast programming</a> on television in most countries of the world was dominated by a small number of <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_network" title="Broadcast network">terrestrial networks</a>. Many early television networks such as the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Canadian Broadcasting Corporation">CBC</a>, <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Television_Network" title="People's Television Network">PTV</a>, <a href="/wiki/NBC" title="NBC">NBC</a> or ABC <a href="/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company" title="American Broadcasting Company">in the US</a> and <a href="/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Australian Broadcasting Corporation">in Australia</a> evolved from earlier radio networks. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In countries where most networks broadcast identical, centrally originated content to all of their stations, and where most individual <a href="/wiki/Television_transmitter" title="Television transmitter">television transmitters</a> therefore operate only as large "<a href="/wiki/Broadcast_relay_station" title="Broadcast relay station">repeater stations</a>", the terms "television network", "<a href="/wiki/Television_channel" title="Television channel">television channel</a>" (a numeric identifier or <a href="/wiki/Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">radio frequency</a>) and "television station" have become mostly interchangeable in everyday language, with professionals in television-related occupations continuing to make a differentiation between them. Within the industry, a tiering is sometimes created among groups of networks based on whether their programming is simultaneously originated from a central point, and whether the network <a href="/wiki/Master_control" title="Master control">master control</a> has the technical and administrative capability to take over the programming of their <a href="/wiki/Network_affiliate" title="Network affiliate">affiliates</a> in real-time when it deems this necessary – the most common example being during national <a href="/wiki/Breaking_news" title="Breaking news">breaking news</a> events. </p><p>In North America in particular, many television networks available via <a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">cable</a> and satellite television are branded as "channels" because they are somewhat different from traditional networks in the sense defined above, as they are singular operations – they have no affiliates or component stations, but instead are distributed to the public via cable or <a href="/wiki/Direct-broadcast_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct-broadcast satellite">direct-broadcast satellite</a> providers. Such networks are commonly referred to by terms such as "<a href="/wiki/Specialty_channel" title="Specialty channel">specialty channels</a>" in Canada or "<a href="/wiki/Cable_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Cable channel">cable networks</a>" in the U.S. </p><p>A network may or may not produce all of its own programming. If not, <a href="/wiki/Production_company" title="Production company">production companies</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Warner_Bros._Television_Studios" title="Warner Bros. Television Studios">Warner Bros. Television</a>, <a href="/wiki/Universal_Television" title="Universal Television">Universal Television</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sony_Pictures_Television" title="Sony Pictures Television">Sony Pictures Television</a> and <a href="/wiki/TriStar_Television" title="TriStar Television">TriStar Television</a>) can distribute their content to the various networks, and it is common that a certain production firm may have programs that air on two or more rival networks. Similarly, some networks may import television programs from other countries, or use archived programming to help complement their schedules. </p><p>Some stations have the capability to interrupt the network through the <a href="/wiki/Local_insertion" title="Local insertion">local insertion</a> of television commercials, <a href="/wiki/Station_identification" title="Station identification">station identifications</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emergency_alert" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency alert">emergency alerts</a>. Others completely break away from the network for their own programming, a method known as <a href="/wiki/Regional_variation" title="Regional variation">regional variation</a>. This is common where small networks are members of larger networks. The majority of commercial television stations are self-owned, even though a variety of these instances are the property of an owned-and-operated television network. The commercial television stations can also be linked with a <a href="/wiki/Noncommercial_educational" class="mw-redirect" title="Noncommercial educational">noncommercial educational</a> broadcasting agency. Some countries have launched national television networks, so that individual television stations can act as common repeaters of nationwide programs. </p><p>On the other hand, television networks also undergo the impending experience of major changes related to cultural varieties. The emergence of cable television has made available in major media markets, programs such as those aimed at American bi-cultural Latinos. Such a diverse captive audience presents an occasion for the networks and affiliates to advertise the best programming that needs to be aired. </p><p>This is explained by author Tim P. Vos in his abstract <i>A Cultural Explanation of Early Broadcast</i>, where he determines targeted group/non-targeted group representations as well as the cultural specificity employed in the television network entity. Vos notes that policymakers did not expressly intend to create a broadcast order dominated by commercial networks. In fact, legislative attempts were made to limit the network's preferred position. </p><p>As to individual stations, modern <a href="/wiki/Network_operations_center" title="Network operations center">network operations centers</a> usually use <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_automation" title="Broadcast automation">broadcast automation</a> to handle most tasks. These systems are not only used for <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_programming" title="Broadcast programming">programming</a> and for <a href="/wiki/Video_server" title="Video server">video server</a> <a href="/wiki/Playout" title="Playout">playout</a>, but use exact <a href="/wiki/Atomic_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic time">atomic time</a> from <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning Systems</a> or other sources to maintain perfect <a href="/wiki/Synchronization" title="Synchronization">synchronization</a> with upstream and downstream systems, so that programming appears seamless to viewers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Global">Global</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Global"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A major international television broadcaster is the British Broadcasting Corporation (<a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>), which is perhaps most-well known for its news agency <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. Owned by <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">the Crown</a>, the BBC funds itself in two ways. UK services branded under BBC are funded by the <a href="/wiki/Television_licensing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Television licensing in the United Kingdom">television license</a> paid by British residents, as a result no advertising appears on these services. The advertising-funded arm (<a href="/wiki/BBC_Studios" title="BBC Studios">BBC Studios</a>) employs 23,000 people worldwide including the operation of broadcaster <a href="/wiki/UKTV" title="UKTV">UKTV</a> in the UK itself. Experimental television broadcasts were started in 1929, using an electromechanical 30-line system developed by <a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Limited regular broadcasts using this system began in 1934 and <a href="/wiki/First_day_of_television_programmes" class="mw-redirect" title="First day of television programmes">an expanded service</a> (now known as <a href="/wiki/BBC_Television" title="BBC Television">BBC Television</a>) started from <a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Palace" title="Alexandra Palace">Alexandra Palace</a> in November 1936.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_States">United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_over-the-air_television_networks" title="List of United States over-the-air television networks">List of United States over-the-air television networks</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_States" title="Television in the United States">Television in the United States</a> had long been dominated by the <a href="/wiki/Big_Three_television_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Three television networks">Big Three television networks</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company" title="American Broadcasting Company">American Broadcasting Company</a> (ABC), <a href="/wiki/CBS" title="CBS">CBS</a> (formerly the Columbia Broadcasting System) and the National Broadcasting Company (<a href="/wiki/NBC" title="NBC">NBC</a>); however, the <a href="/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company" title="Fox Broadcasting Company">Fox Broadcasting Company</a> (Fox), which launched in October 1986, has gained prominence and is now considered part of the "Big Four". The Big Three provide a significant number of programs to each of their affiliates, including <a href="/wiki/News_broadcasting" title="News broadcasting">newscasts</a>, prime time, <a href="/wiki/Daytime_television" title="Daytime television">daytime</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sports_television" class="mw-redirect" title="Sports television">sports</a> programming, but still reserve periods during each day where their affiliate can air <a href="/wiki/Local_programming" title="Local programming">local programming</a>, such as local news or <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_syndication" title="Broadcast syndication">syndicated programs</a>. Since the creation of Fox, the number of American television networks has increased, though the amount of programming they provide is often much less: for example, <a href="/wiki/The_CW" title="The CW">The CW</a> only provides fifteen hours of primetime programming each week (along with three hours on Saturdays), while <a href="/wiki/MyNetworkTV" title="MyNetworkTV">MyNetworkTV</a> only provides ten hours of primetime programming each week, leaving their affiliates to fill time periods where network programs are not broadcast with a large amount of syndicated programming. Other networks are dedicated to specialized programming, such as <a href="/wiki/Religious_broadcasting" title="Religious broadcasting">religious</a> content or programs presented in languages other than English, particularly Spanish. </p><p>The largest television network in the United States, however, is the Public Broadcasting Service (<a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>), a non-profit, publicly owned, <a href="/wiki/Non-commercial_educational" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-commercial educational">non-commercial educational</a> service. In comparison to the <a href="/wiki/Commercial_television" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial television">commercial television</a> networks, there is no central unified arm of broadcast programming, meaning that each PBS <a href="/wiki/Network_affiliate#member_stations" title="Network affiliate">member station</a> has a significant amount of freedom to schedule television shows as they consent to. Some public television outlets, such as PBS, carry separate <a href="/wiki/Digital_subchannel" title="Digital subchannel">digital subchannel</a> networks through their member stations (for example, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_Public_Broadcasting" title="Georgia Public Broadcasting">Georgia Public Broadcasting</a>; in fact, some programs airing on PBS were branded on other channels as coming from GPB Kids and <a href="/wiki/World_(TV_network)" class="mw-redirect" title="World (TV network)">PBS World</a>). </p><p>This works as each network sends its signal to many local affiliated television stations across the country. These local stations then carry the "network feed", which can be viewed by millions of households across the country. In such cases, the signal is sent to as many as 200+ stations or as little as just a dozen or fewer stations, depending on the size of the network. </p><p>With the adoption of <a href="/wiki/Digital_terrestrial_television" title="Digital terrestrial television">digital television</a>, television networks have also been created specifically for distribution on the digital subchannels of television stations (including networks focusing on classic television series and films operated by companies like <a href="/wiki/Weigel_Broadcasting" title="Weigel Broadcasting">Weigel Broadcasting</a> (owners of <a href="/wiki/Movies!" title="Movies!">Movies!</a> and <a href="/wiki/Me-TV" class="mw-redirect" title="Me-TV">Me-TV</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Nexstar_Media_Group" title="Nexstar Media Group">Nexstar Media Group</a> (owners of <a href="/wiki/Rewind_TV" title="Rewind TV">Rewind TV</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antenna_TV" title="Antenna TV">Antenna TV</a>), along with networks focusing on music, sports and other niche programming). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cable_television_in_the_United_States" title="Cable television in the United States">Cable</a> and satellite providers pay the networks a certain rate per subscriber (the highest charge being for <a href="/wiki/ESPN" title="ESPN">ESPN</a>, in which cable and satellite providers pay a rate of more than $5.00 per subscriber to ESPN). The providers also handle the sale of <a href="/wiki/Television_commercials" class="mw-redirect" title="Television commercials">advertising</a> inserted at the local level during national programming, in which case the broadcaster and the cable/satellite provider may <a href="/wiki/Revenue_sharing" title="Revenue sharing">share revenue</a>. Networks that maintain a <a href="/wiki/Home_shopping" title="Home shopping">home shopping</a> or <a href="/wiki/Infomercial" title="Infomercial">infomercial</a> format may instead pay the station or cable/satellite provider, in a <a href="/wiki/Brokered_programming" title="Brokered programming">brokered</a> carriage deal. This is especially common with <a href="/wiki/Low-power_broadcasting" title="Low-power broadcasting">low-power</a> television stations, and in recent years, even more so for stations that used this revenue stream to finance their conversion to digital broadcasts, which in turn provides them with several additional channels to transmit different programming sources. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_2">History</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Television broadcasting in the United States was heavily influenced by radio. Early individual experimental radio stations in the United States began limited operations in the 1910s. In November 1920, <a href="/wiki/Westinghouse_Broadcasting" title="Westinghouse Broadcasting">Westinghouse</a> signed on "the world's first commercially licensed radio station", <a href="/wiki/KDKA_(AM)" title="KDKA (AM)">KDKA</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a>, Pennsylvania.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other companies built early radio stations in Detroit, <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, New York City and other areas. Radio stations received permission to transmit through <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_license" title="Broadcast license">broadcast licenses</a> obtained through the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Radio_Commission" title="Federal Radio Commission">Federal Radio Commission</a> (FRC), a government entity that was created in 1926 to regulate the radio industry. With some exceptions, radio stations east of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> received official <a href="/wiki/Call_sign" title="Call sign">call signs</a> beginning with the letter "W"; those west of the Mississippi were assigned calls beginning with a "K". The number of programs that these early stations aired was often limited, in part due to the expense of program creation. The idea of a network system which would distribute programming to many stations simultaneously, saving each station the expense of creating all of their own programs and expandingus transmitted from station to station to listeners across the United States. Other companies, including <a href="/wiki/CBS" title="CBS">CBS</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mutual_Broadcasting_System" title="Mutual Broadcasting System">Mutual Broadcasting System</a>, soon followed suit, each network signed hundreds of individual stations on as affiliates: stations which agreed to broadcast programs from one of the networks. </p><p>As radio prospered throughout the 1920s and 1930s, experimental television stations, which broadcast both an audio and a video signal, began sporadic broadcasts. Licenses for these experimental stations were often granted to experienced radio broadcasters, and thus advances in television technology closely followed breakthroughs in radio technology. As interest in television grew, and as early television stations began regular broadcasts, the idea of networking television signals (sending one station's video and audio signal to outlying stations) was born. However, the signal from an electronic television system, containing much more information than a radio signal, required a broadband transmission medium. Transmission by a nationwide series of radio relay towers would be possible but extremely expensive. </p><p>Researchers at <a href="/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation" title="AT&T Corporation">AT&T</a> subsidiary <a href="/wiki/Bell_Telephone_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Telephone Laboratories">Bell Telephone Laboratories</a> patented <a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">coaxial cable</a> in 1929, primarily as a telephone improvement device. Its high capacity (transmitting 240 telephone calls simultaneously) also made it ideal for long-distance television transmission, where it could handle a frequency band of 1 MHz.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> German television first demonstrated such an application in 1936 by relaying televised telephone calls from <a href="/wiki/Berlin,_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin, Germany">Berlin</a> to <a href="/wiki/Leipzig,_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Leipzig, Germany">Leipzig</a>, 180 km (110 mi) away, by cable.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>AT&T laid the first <a href="/wiki/L-carrier" title="L-carrier">L-carrier</a> coaxial cable between New York City and <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, with automatic <a href="/wiki/Repeater" title="Repeater">signal booster stations</a> every 10 miles (16 km), and in 1937 it experimented with transmitting televised motion pictures over the line.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bell Labs gave demonstrations of the New York–Philadelphia television link in 1940 and 1941. AT&T used the coaxial link to transmit the <a href="/wiki/Republican_National_Convention" title="Republican National Convention">Republican National Convention</a> in June 1940 from Philadelphia to New York City, where it was televised to a few hundred receivers over the NBC station W2XBS (which evolved into <a href="/wiki/WNBC" title="WNBC">WNBC</a>) as well as seen in Schenectady, New York via W2XB (which evolved into <a href="/wiki/WRGB" title="WRGB">WRGB</a>) via off-air relay from the New York station.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>NBC had earlier demonstrated an inter-city television broadcast on 1 February 1940, from its station in New York City to another in <a href="/wiki/Schenectady,_New_York" title="Schenectady, New York">Schenectady</a>, New York by <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a> relay antennas, and began transmitting some programs on an irregular basis to Philadelphia and Schenectady in 1941. Wartime priorities suspended the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from 1 April 1942 to 1 October 1945, temporarily shutting down expansion of television networking. However, in 1944 a short film, "<a href="/wiki/Patrolling_the_Ether" title="Patrolling the Ether">Patrolling the Ether</a>", was broadcast simultaneously over three stations as an experiment. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DuMont_Affiliates_1949.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/DuMont_Affiliates_1949.png/300px-DuMont_Affiliates_1949.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/DuMont_Affiliates_1949.png/450px-DuMont_Affiliates_1949.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/DuMont_Affiliates_1949.png/600px-DuMont_Affiliates_1949.png 2x" data-file-width="882" data-file-height="574" /></a><figcaption>The DuMont Television Network in 1949. DuMont's network of stations stretched from Boston to St. Louis. These stations were linked together via AT&T's <a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">coaxial cable</a> feed, allowing the network to broadcast <a href="/wiki/Live_television" title="Live television">live television</a> programming to all the stations at the same time. Stations not yet connected received <a href="/wiki/Kinescope" title="Kinescope">kinescope</a> recordings via physical delivery.</figcaption></figure> <p>AT&T made its first postwar addition in February 1946, with the completion of a 225-mile (362 km) cable between New York City and Washington, D.C., although a blurry demonstration broadcast showed that it would not be in regular use for several months. The <a href="/wiki/DuMont_Television_Network" title="DuMont Television Network">DuMont Television Network</a>, which had begun experimental broadcasts before the war, launched what <i><a href="/wiki/Newsweek" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a></i> called "the country's first permanent commercial television network" on 15 August 1946, connecting New York City with Washington.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Weinstein_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weinstein-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not to be outdone, NBC launched what it called "the world's first regularly operating television network" on 27 June 1947, serving New York City, Philadelphia, Schenectady and Washington.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a> and Boston were added to the NBC television network in late 1947. DuMont and NBC would be joined by CBS and <a href="/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company" title="American Broadcasting Company">ABC</a> in 1948. </p><p>In the 1940s, the term "chain broadcasting" was used when discussing network broadcasts,<sup id="cite_ref-Yale_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yale-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as the television stations were linked together in long chains along the <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_(US)" class="mw-redirect" title="East Coast (US)">East Coast</a>. But as the television networks expanded westward, the interconnected television stations formed major networks of connected affiliate stations. In January 1949, with the sign-on of DuMont's <a href="/wiki/KDKA-TV" title="KDKA-TV">WDTV</a> in Pittsburgh, the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwest</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a> networks were finally connected by coaxial cable (with WDTV airing the best shows from all four networks).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1951, the four networks stretched from coast to coast, carried on the new <a href="/wiki/Microwave_radio_relay" class="mw-redirect" title="Microwave radio relay">microwave radio relay</a> network of <a href="/wiki/AT%26T_Long_Lines" class="mw-redirect" title="AT&T Long Lines">AT&T Long Lines</a>. Only a few local television stations remained <a href="/wiki/Independent_station_(North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent station (North America)">independent</a> of the networks. </p><p>Each of the four major television networks originally only broadcast a few hours of programs a week to their affiliate stations, mostly between 8:00 and 11:00 p.m. <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Time_Zone" title="Eastern Time Zone">Eastern Time</a>, when most viewers were watching television. Most of the programs broadcast by the television stations were still locally produced. As the networks increased the number of programs that they aired, however, officials at the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC) grew concerned that local television might disappear altogether. Eventually, the federal regulator enacted the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Time_Access_Rule" title="Prime Time Access Rule">Prime Time Access Rule</a>, which restricted the amount of time that the networks could air programs; officials hoped that the rules would foster the development of quality local programs, but in practice, most local stations did not want to bear the burden of producing many of their own programs, and instead chose to purchase programs from independent producers. Sales of television programs to individual local stations are done through a method called "broadcast syndication", and today nearly every television station in the United States obtains syndicated programs in addition to network-produced fare. </p><p>Late in the 20th century, cross-country microwave radio relays were replaced by fixed-service satellites. Some terrestrial radio relays remained in service for regional connections. </p><p>After the failure and shutdown of DuMont in 1956, several attempts at new networks were made between the 1950s and the 1970s, with little success. The <a href="/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company" title="Fox Broadcasting Company">Fox Broadcasting Company</a>, founded by the <a href="/wiki/Rupert_Murdoch" title="Rupert Murdoch">Rupert Murdoch</a>-owned <a href="/wiki/News_Corporation_(1980%E2%80%932013)" class="mw-redirect" title="News Corporation (1980–2013)">News Corporation</a> (now owned by <a href="/wiki/Fox_Corporation" title="Fox Corporation">Fox Corporation</a>), was launched on 9 October 1986 after the company purchased the television assets of <a href="/wiki/Metromedia" title="Metromedia">Metromedia</a>; it would eventually ascend to the status of the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_television_network" title="Fourth television network">fourth major network</a> by 1994. Two other networks launched within a week of one another in January 1995: <a href="/wiki/The_WB" title="The WB">The WB</a> Television Network, a joint venture between <a href="/wiki/Time_Warner" class="mw-redirect" title="Time Warner">Time Warner</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tribune_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribune Company">Tribune Company</a>, and the United Paramount Network (<a href="/wiki/UPN" title="UPN">UPN</a>), formed through a programming alliance between <a href="/wiki/Chris-Craft_Industries" title="Chris-Craft Industries">Chris-Craft Industries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paramount_Television" title="Paramount Television">Paramount Television</a> (whose parent, <a href="/wiki/Viacom_(original)" class="mw-redirect" title="Viacom (original)">Viacom</a>, would later acquire half and later all of the network over the course of its existence). In September 2006, <a href="/wiki/The_CW" title="The CW">The CW</a> was launched as a "merger" of The WB and UPN (in actuality, a consolidation of each respective network's higher-rated programs onto one schedule); <a href="/wiki/MyNetworkTV" title="MyNetworkTV">MyNetworkTV</a>, a network formed from affiliates of UPN and The WB that did not affiliate with The CW, launched at the same time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulation">Regulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>FCC regulations in the United States restricted the <a href="/wiki/Concentration_of_media_ownership" title="Concentration of media ownership">number of television stations that could be owned by any one network, company or individual</a>. This led to a system where most local television stations were independently owned, but received programming from the network through a <a href="/wiki/Franchising" title="Franchising">franchising</a> contract, except in a few major cities that had <a href="/wiki/Owned-and-operated_station" title="Owned-and-operated station">owned-and-operated stations</a> (O&O) of a network and independent stations. In the early days of television, when there were often only one or two stations broadcasting in a given market, the stations were usually affiliated with multiple networks and were able to choose which programs would air. Eventually, as more stations were licensed, it became common for each station to be exclusively affiliated with only one network and carry all of the "prime-time" programs that the network offered. Local stations occasionally break from regularly scheduled network programming however, especially when a <a href="/wiki/Breaking_news" title="Breaking news">breaking news</a> or <a href="/wiki/Severe_weather" title="Severe weather">severe weather</a> situation occurs in the viewing area. Moreover, when stations return to network programming from <a href="/wiki/Commercial_break" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial break">commercial breaks</a>, station identifications are displayed in the first few seconds before switching to the network's logo. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Canada">Canada</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Television_system" title="Television system">Television system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Television_in_Canada" title="Television in Canada">Television in Canada</a></div> <p>A number of different definitions of "network" are used by government agencies, industry, and the general public. Under the <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting_Act_(1991)" class="mw-redirect" title="Broadcasting Act (1991)">Broadcasting Act</a>, a network is defined as "any operation where control over all or any part of the programs or program schedules of one or more broadcasting undertakings is delegated to another undertaking or person",<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and must be licensed by the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Radio-television_and_Telecommunications_Commission" title="Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission">Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission</a> (CRTC). </p><p>Only three national over-the-air television networks are currently licensed by the CRTC: government-owned <a href="/wiki/CBC_Television" title="CBC Television">CBC Television</a> (English) and <a href="/wiki/Ici_Radio-Canada_T%C3%A9l%C3%A9" title="Ici Radio-Canada Télé">Ici Radio-Canada Télé</a> (French), French-language private network <a href="/wiki/TVA_(Canadian_TV_network)" title="TVA (Canadian TV network)">TVA</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Peoples_Television_Network" title="Aboriginal Peoples Television Network">APTN</a>, a network focused on <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Indigenous peoples in Canada">Indigenous peoples in Canada</a>. A third French-language service, <a href="/wiki/Noovo" title="Noovo">Noovo</a> (formerly V), is licensed as a provincial network within <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, but is not licensed or locally distributed (outside of carriage on the <a href="/wiki/Digital_cable" title="Digital cable">digital tiers</a> of pay television providers) on a national basis. </p><p>Currently, licensed national or provincial networks must be carried by all cable providers (in the country or province, respectively) with a service area above a certain population threshold, as well as all satellite providers. However, they are no longer necessarily expected to achieve over-the-air coverage in all areas (APTN, for example, only has terrestrial coverage in parts of northern Canada). </p><p>In addition to these licensed networks, the two main private English-language over-the-air services, <a href="/wiki/CTV_Television_Network" title="CTV Television Network">CTV</a> and <a href="/wiki/Global_Television_Network" title="Global Television Network">Global</a>, are also generally considered to be "networks" by virtue of their national coverage, although they are not officially licensed as such. CTV was previously a licensed network, but relinquished this license in 2001 after acquiring most of its affiliates, making operating a network license essentially redundant (per the above definition). </p><p>Smaller groups of stations with common branding are often categorized by industry watchers as <a href="/wiki/Television_system" title="Television system">television systems</a>, although the public and the broadcasters themselves will often refer to them as "networks" regardless. Some of these systems, such as <a href="/wiki/CTV_2" title="CTV 2">CTV 2</a> and the now-defunct <a href="/wiki/E!_(TV_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="E! (TV system)">E!</a>, essentially operate as mini-networks, but have reduced geographical coverage. Others, such as <a href="/wiki/Omni_Television" title="Omni Television">Omni Television</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Crossroads_Television_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Crossroads Television System">Crossroads Television System</a>, have similar branding and a common programming focus, but schedules may vary significantly from one station to the next. <a href="/wiki/Citytv" title="Citytv">Citytv</a> originally began operating as a television system in 2002 when <a href="/wiki/CKVU-DT" title="CKVU-DT">CKVU-TV</a> in Vancouver started to carry programs originating from <a href="/wiki/CITY-DT" title="CITY-DT">CITY-TV</a> in Toronto and adopted that station's "Citytv" branding, but gradually became a network by virtue of national coverage through expansions into other markets west of <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Canada" title="Atlantic Canada">Atlantic Canada</a> between 2005 and 2013. </p><p>Most local television stations in Canada are now owned and operated directly by their network, with only a small number of stations still operating as affiliates. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Europe,_Asia,_Africa_and_South_America"><span id="Europe.2C_Asia.2C_Africa_and_South_America"></span>Europe, Asia, Africa and South America</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Europe, Asia, Africa and South America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most television services outside North America are national networks established by a combination of publicly funded broadcasters and commercial broadcasters.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Most nations established television networks in a similar way: the first television service in each country was operated by a <a href="/wiki/Public_broadcasting" title="Public broadcasting">public broadcaster</a>, often funded by a television licensing fee, and most of them later established a second or even third station providing a greater variety of content. Commercial television services also became available when private companies applied for television broadcasting licenses. Often, each new network would be identified with their channel number, so that individual stations would often be numbered "One", "Two", "Three" and so forth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Television in the United Kingdom">Television in the United Kingdom</a></div> <p>The first television network in the United Kingdom was operated by the British Broadcasting Corporation (<a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>). On 2 November 1936 the BBC opened the world's first regular high-definition television service, from a 405 lines transmitter at Alexandra Palace. The BBC remained dominant until eventually on 22 September 1955, commercial broadcasting was established to create a second television network. Rather than creating a single network with local channels owned and operated by a single company (as is the case with the BBC), each local area had a separate television channel that was independently owned and operated, although most of these channels shared a number of programmes, particularly during peak evening viewing hours. These channels formed the <a href="/wiki/ITV_(TV_network)" title="ITV (TV network)">ITV network</a>. </p><p>When the advent of <a href="/wiki/Ultra_high_frequency" title="Ultra high frequency">UHF</a> broadcasting allowed a greater number of television channels to broadcast, the BBC launched a second channel, <a href="/wiki/BBC_Two" title="BBC Two">BBC 2</a> (with the original service being renamed <a href="/wiki/BBC_One" title="BBC One">BBC 1</a>). A second national commercial network was launched <a href="/wiki/Channel_4" title="Channel 4">Channel 4</a>, although <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> instead introduced a Welsh-language service, <a href="/wiki/S4C" title="S4C">S4C</a>. These were later followed by the launch of a third commercial network, <a href="/wiki/Channel_5_(UK)" class="mw-redirect" title="Channel 5 (UK)">Channel 5</a>. Since the introduction of digital television, the BBC, ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5 each introduced a number of digital-only channels. <a href="/wiki/Sky_Limited" class="mw-redirect" title="Sky Limited">Sky</a> operates a large number of channels, as does <a href="/wiki/UKTV" title="UKTV">UKTV</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sweden">Sweden</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sweden"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sweden had only one television network from 1956 until the early-1990s: the public broadcaster <a href="/wiki/Sveriges_Television" title="Sveriges Television">Sveriges Television</a> (SVT). Commercial companies such as <a href="/wiki/Modern_Times_Group" title="Modern Times Group">Modern Times Group</a>, <a href="/wiki/TV4_(Sweden)" class="mw-redirect" title="TV4 (Sweden)">TV4</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viasat_(Nordic_television_service)" title="Viasat (Nordic television service)">Viasat</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Discovery_Communications_Nordic" class="mw-redirect" title="Discovery Communications Nordic">SBS Discovery</a> have established TV networks since the 1980s although they initially aired exclusively on satellite. In 1991, TV4 became Sweden's first commercial television network to air terrestrially. Most television programming in Sweden is centralised except for local news updates that air on <a href="/wiki/SVT2" title="SVT2">SVT2</a> and TV4. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Netherlands">Netherlands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Netherlands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Until 1989, <a href="/wiki/Netherlands_Public_Broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Netherlands Public Broadcasting">Netherlands Public Broadcasting</a> was the only television network in the Netherlands, with three stations, <a href="/wiki/Nederland_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Nederland 1">Nederland 1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nederland_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Nederland 2">Nederland 2</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nederland_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Nederland 3">Nederland 3</a>. Rather than having a single production arm, there are a number of public broadcasting organizations that create programming for each of the three stations, each working relatively independently. Commercial broadcasting in the Netherlands is currently operated by two networks, <a href="/wiki/RTL_Nederland" title="RTL Nederland">RTL Nederland</a> and <a href="/wiki/SBS_Broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="SBS Broadcasting">SBS Broadcasting</a>, which together broadcast seven commercial stations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Television_in_Russia" title="Television in Russia">Television in Russia</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Soviet_era">Soviet era</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Soviet era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first television network in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> launched on 7 July 1938 when Petersburg – Channel 5 of Leningrad Television became a unionwide network. The second television network in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> launched on 22 March 1951 when Channel One of USSR Central Television became a unionwide network. Until 1989, there were six television networks, all owned by the USSR Gosteleradio. This changed during <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a> program, when the first independent television network, <a href="/wiki/2x2_(TV_channel)" class="mw-redirect" title="2x2 (TV channel)">2×2</a>, was launched. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1990s">1990s</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 1990s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the breakup of the Soviet Union, USSR Gosteleradio ceased to exist as well as its six networks. Only Channel One had a smooth transition and survived as a network, becoming <a href="/wiki/Channel_One_(Russia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Channel One (Russia)">Ostankino Channel One</a>. The other five networks were operated by Ground Zero. This free airwave space allowed many private television networks like <a href="/wiki/NTV_(Russia)" title="NTV (Russia)">NTV</a> and <a href="/wiki/TV-6_(Russia)" title="TV-6 (Russia)">TV-6</a> to launch in the mid-1990s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="2000s">2000s</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 2000s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 2000s were marked by the increased state intervention in Russian television. On 14 April 2001 NTV experienced management changes following the expulsion of former <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarch</a> and NTV founder <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Gusinsky" title="Vladimir Gusinsky">Vladimir Gusinsky</a>. As a result, most of the prominent reporters featured on NTV left the network. Later on 22 January 2002, the second largest private television network <a href="/wiki/TV-6_(Russia)" title="TV-6 (Russia)">TV-6</a>, where the former NTV staff took refuge, was shut down allegedly because of its editorial policy. Five months later on 1 June, <a href="/wiki/TVS_(Russia)" title="TVS (Russia)">TVS</a> was launched, mostly employing NTV/TV-6 staff, only to cease operations the following year. Since then, the four largest television networks (Channel One, Russia 1, NTV and Russia 2) have been state-owned. </p><p>Still, the 2000s saw a rise of several independent television networks such as <a href="/wiki/REN_(TV_channel)" class="mw-redirect" title="REN (TV channel)">REN</a> (its coverage increased vastly allowing it to become a federal network), Petersburg – Channel Five (overall the same), the relaunched <a href="/wiki/2x2_(TV_channel)" class="mw-redirect" title="2x2 (TV channel)">2×2</a>. The Russian television market is mainly shared today by five major companies: Channel One, Russia 1, NTV, TNT and CTC. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brazil">Brazil</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Brazil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Television_in_Brazil" title="Television in Brazil">Television in Brazil</a></div> <p>The major commercial television network in Brazil is <a href="/wiki/Rede_Globo" class="mw-redirect" title="Rede Globo">Rede Globo</a>, which was founded in 1965. It grew to become the largest and most successful media conglomerate in the country, having a dominating presence in various forms of media including television, radio, print (newspapers and magazines) and the Internet.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other networks include <a href="/wiki/Rede_Bandeirantes" title="Rede Bandeirantes">Rede Bandeirantes</a>, <a href="/wiki/RecordTV" class="mw-redirect" title="RecordTV">RecordTV</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sistema_Brasileiro_de_Televis%C3%A3o" title="Sistema Brasileiro de Televisão">SBT</a>, <a href="/wiki/RedeTV!" title="RedeTV!">RedeTV!</a>, <a href="/wiki/TV_Cultura" title="TV Cultura">TV Cultura</a>, and <a href="/wiki/TV_Brasil" title="TV Brasil">TV Brasil</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Australia">Australia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Television_in_Australia" title="Television in Australia">Television in Australia</a></div> <p>Australia has two national public networks, <a href="/wiki/ABC_Television_(Australian_TV_network)" title="ABC Television (Australian TV network)">ABC Television</a> and <a href="/wiki/SBS_Television" class="mw-redirect" title="SBS Television">SBS</a>. The ABC operates eight stations as part of its main network <a href="/wiki/ABC_TV_(Australian_TV_channel)" title="ABC TV (Australian TV channel)">ABC TV</a>, one for each <a href="/wiki/Australian_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian state">state</a> and territory, as well as three digital-only networks, <a href="/wiki/ABC_Kids_(Australia)" title="ABC Kids (Australia)">ABC Kids</a> / <a href="/wiki/ABC_TV_Plus" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC TV Plus">ABC TV Plus</a>, <a href="/wiki/ABC_Me" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC Me">ABC Me</a> and <a href="/wiki/ABC_News_(Australian_TV_channel)" title="ABC News (Australian TV channel)">ABC News</a>. SBS currently operates six stations, <a href="/wiki/SBS_(Australian_TV_channel)" title="SBS (Australian TV channel)">SBS</a>, <a href="/wiki/SBS_Viceland" title="SBS Viceland">SBS Viceland</a>, <a href="/wiki/SBS_World_Movies" title="SBS World Movies">SBS World Movies</a>, <a href="/wiki/SBS_Food" title="SBS Food">SBS Food</a>, <a href="/wiki/NITV" class="mw-redirect" title="NITV">NITV</a> and <a href="/wiki/SBS_WorldWatch" title="SBS WorldWatch">SBS WorldWatch</a>. </p><p>The first commercial networks in Australia involved commercial stations that shared programming in <a href="/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melbourne" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brisbane" title="Brisbane">Brisbane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adelaide" title="Adelaide">Adelaide</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Perth,_Western_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Perth, Western Australia">Perth</a>, with each network forming networks based on their allocated channel numbers: <a href="/wiki/TCN-9" class="mw-redirect" title="TCN-9">TCN-9</a> in Sydney, <a href="/wiki/GTV-9" class="mw-redirect" title="GTV-9">GTV-9</a> in Melbourne, <a href="/wiki/QTQ-9" class="mw-redirect" title="QTQ-9">QTQ-9</a> in Brisbane, <a href="/wiki/NWS-9" class="mw-redirect" title="NWS-9">NWS-9</a> in Adelaide and <a href="/wiki/STW-9" class="mw-redirect" title="STW-9">STW-9</a> in Perth together formed the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Network" title="Nine Network">Nine Network</a>; while their equivalents on <a href="/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">VHF</a> channels 7 and 10 respectively formed the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Network" title="Seven Network">Seven Network</a> and <a href="/wiki/Network_10" title="Network 10">Network 10</a>. Until 1989, areas outside these main cities had access to only a single commercial station, and these rural stations often formed small networks such as <a href="/wiki/Prime_Television" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Television">Prime Television</a>. Beginning in 1989, however, television markets in rural areas began to aggregate, allowing these rural networks to broadcast over a larger area, often an entire state, and become full-time affiliates to one specific metropolitan network. </p><p>As well as these <a href="/wiki/Free-to-air" title="Free-to-air">free-to-air</a> channels, there are others on Australia's <a href="/wiki/Pay_television" title="Pay television">Pay television</a> network <a href="/wiki/Foxtel" title="Foxtel">Foxtel</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: New Zealand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Television_in_New_Zealand" title="Television in New Zealand">Television in New Zealand</a></div> <p>New Zealand has one public network, <a href="/wiki/Television_New_Zealand" class="mw-redirect" title="Television New Zealand">Television New Zealand</a> (TVNZ), which consists of two main networks: <a href="/wiki/TVNZ_1" title="TVNZ 1">TVNZ 1</a> is the network's flagship network which carries news, current affairs and sports programming as well as the majority of the locally produced shows broadcast by TVNZ and imported shows. TVNZ's second network, <a href="/wiki/TV2_(New_Zealand)" class="mw-redirect" title="TV2 (New Zealand)">TV2</a>, airs mostly imported shows with some locally produced programs such as <i><a href="/wiki/Shortland_Street" title="Shortland Street">Shortland Street</a></i>. TVNZ also operates a network exclusive to pay television services, <a href="/wiki/TVNZ_Heartland" title="TVNZ Heartland">TVNZ Heartland</a>, available on providers such as <a href="/wiki/Sky_Network_Television" class="mw-redirect" title="Sky Network Television">Sky</a>. TVNZ previously operated a non-commercial public service network, <a href="/wiki/TVNZ_7" title="TVNZ 7">TVNZ 7</a>, which ceased operations in June 2012 and was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Timeshift_channel" title="Timeshift channel">timeshift channel</a> TV One Plus 1. The network operated by Television New Zealand has progressed from operating as four distinct local stations within the four main centers in the 1960s, to having the majority of the content produced from TVNZ's <a href="/wiki/Auckland" title="Auckland">Auckland</a> studios at present. </p><p>New Zealand also has several privately owned television networks with the largest being operated by <a href="/wiki/MediaWorks_New_Zealand" title="MediaWorks New Zealand">MediaWorks</a>. MediaWorks' flagship network is <a href="/wiki/TV3_(New_Zealand)" class="mw-redirect" title="TV3 (New Zealand)">TV3</a>, which competes directly with both TVNZ broadcast networks. MediaWorks also operates a second network, <a href="/wiki/Four_(New_Zealand)" class="mw-redirect" title="Four (New Zealand)">FOUR</a>, which airs mostly imported programmes with children's shows airing in the daytime and shows targeted at teenagers and adult between 15 and 39 years of age during prime time. MediaWorks also operates a timeshift network, TV3 + 1, and a 24-hour music network, <a href="/wiki/C4_(TV_channel)" class="mw-redirect" title="C4 (TV channel)">C4</a>. </p><p>All television networks in New Zealand air the same programming across the entire country with the only regional deviations being for local advertising; a regional news service existed in the 1980s, carrying a regional news programme from TVNZ's studios in New Zealand's four largest cities, Auckland, <a href="/wiki/Wellington" title="Wellington">Wellington</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christchurch" title="Christchurch">Christchurch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dunedin" title="Dunedin">Dunedin</a>. </p><p>In the 1960s, the service operated at the time by the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation was four separate television stations – AKTV2 in Auckland, WNTV1 in Wellington, CHTV3 in Christchurch and DNTV2 in Dunedin – which each ran their own newscast and produced some in-house programmes, with other shows being shared between the stations. Programmes and news footage were distributed via mail, with a programme airing in one region being mailed to another region for broadcast the following week. A network was finally established in 1969, with the same programmes being relayed to all regions simultaneously. From the 1970s to the 1990s, locally produced programmes that aired on TV One and TV2 were produced out of one of the four main studios, with TVNZ's network hub based in Wellington. Today, most locally produced programmes that are aired by both TVNZ and other networks are not actually produced in-house, instead they are often produced by a third party company (for example, the TV2 programme <i>Shortland Street</i> is produced by <a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_Pictures" title="South Pacific Pictures">South Pacific Pictures</a>). The networks produce their own news and current affairs programs, with most of the content filmed in Auckland. </p><p>New Zealand also operates several regional television stations, which are only available in individual markets. The regional stations will typically air a local news programme, produce some shows in-house and cover local sports events; the majority of programming on the regional stations will be imported from various sources. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philippines">Philippines</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Philippines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_Philippines" title="Television in the Philippines">Television in the Philippines</a></div> <p>In the Philippines, in practice, the terms "network", "station" and "channel" are used interchangeably as programming lineups are mostly centrally planned from the networks' main offices, and since provincial/regional stations usually just relay the broadcast from their <a href="/wiki/Parent_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Parent company">parent</a> network's <a href="/wiki/Flagship_(broadcasting)" title="Flagship (broadcasting)">flagship</a> station (usually based in the <a href="/wiki/Mega_Manila" title="Mega Manila">Mega Manila</a> area). As such, networks made up of VHF stations are sometimes informally referred to by their over-the-air channel number in the Mega Manila area (for example, Channel 4 or <i>Kwatro</i> for <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Television_Network" title="People's Television Network">People's Television Network</a>, Channel 2 or <i>Dos</i> for <a href="/wiki/ABS-CBN" title="ABS-CBN">ABS-CBN</a>, Channel 9 or <i>Nueve</i> for <a href="/wiki/Radio_Philippines_Network" title="Radio Philippines Network">Radio Philippines Network</a>, Channel 7 or <i>Siyete</i> for <a href="/wiki/GMA_Network" title="GMA Network">GMA Network</a>, Channel 13 or <i>Trese</i> for <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation">IBC</a> and Channel 5 or <i>Singko</i> for <a href="/wiki/TV5_(Philippines)" class="mw-redirect" title="TV5 (Philippines)">TV5</a>), while some incorporate their channel numbers in the network's name (for example, <a href="/wiki/Associated_Broadcasting_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Associated Broadcasting Company">TV5</a>, <a href="/wiki/Studio_23" title="Studio 23">Studio 23</a> and <a href="/wiki/Net_25" title="Net 25">Net 25</a>, which respectively broadcast on VHF channel 5, and UHF channels 23 and 25). </p><p>Unlike the United States, where networks receive programmes produced by various production companies, the two largest networks in the Philippines produce all of their prime time programmes. Other networks adopt block-time programming, which uses programming arrangements similar to the relationship between a U.S. network and station. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/television_broadcaster" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/television broadcaster">television broadcaster</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_network" title="Broadcast network">Broadcast network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_television_in_the_United_States" title="Cable television in the United States">Cable television in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_of_media_ownership" title="Concentration of media ownership">Concentration of media ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_television_networks_by_country" title="List of television networks by country">List of television networks by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holding_company" title="Holding company">Holding company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skypath" title="Skypath">Skypath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_system" title="Television system">Television system</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Television_broadcaster&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bbc.com/historyofthebbc//timelines/1920s">"1920s"</a>. <i>bbc.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200516200700/http://bbc.com/historyofthebbc//timelines/1920s">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bbc.com&rft.atitle=1920s&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbbc.com%2Fhistoryofthebbc%2F%2Ftimelines%2F1920s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelevision+broadcaster" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman,_Bruce1984" class="citation book cs1">Norman, Bruce (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hereslookingatyo0000norm/page/99"><i>Here's Looking at You: The Story of British Television 1908–1939</i></a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hereslookingatyo0000norm/page/99">99</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-563-20102-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-563-20102-1"><bdi>978-0-563-20102-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Here%27s+Looking+at+You%3A+The+Story+of+British+Television+1908%E2%80%931939&rft.pages=99&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-563-20102-1&rft.au=Norman%2C+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhereslookingatyo0000norm%2Fpage%2F99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelevision+broadcaster" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaudinoJohn_M._Kittross1977" class="citation journal cs1">Baudino, Joseph E; John M. Kittross (Winter 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080306145733/http://www.ieee.org/web/aboutus/history_center/kdka.html">"Broadcasting's Oldest Stations: An Examination of Four Claimants"</a>. <i>Journal of Broadcasting</i>. <b>21</b>: 61–82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08838157709363817">10.1080/08838157709363817</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieee.org/web/aboutus/history_center/kdka.html">the original</a> on 6 March 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Broadcasting&rft.atitle=Broadcasting%27s+Oldest+Stations%3A+An+Examination+of+Four+Claimants&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=61-82&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F08838157709363817&rft.aulast=Baudino&rft.aufirst=Joseph+E&rft.au=John+M.+Kittross&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ieee.org%2Fweb%2Faboutus%2Fhistory_center%2Fkdka.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelevision+broadcaster" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070305131809/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,755145,00.html">Coaxial Cable</a>", <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i>, 14 October 1935.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvhistory.tv/1936_German_Olympics_TV_Program_English.JPG">Television in Germany</a>, Berlin, 1936.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlytelevision.org/tv_piped.html">Television 'Piped' From New York to Philadelphia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120730121316/http://www.earlytelevision.org/tv_piped.html">Archived</a> 2012-07-30 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a>," <i>Short Wave & Television</i>, February 1938, pp. 534, 574–575.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ushistory.org/gop/convention_1940.htm">GOP Convention of 1940 in Philadelphia</a>, UShistory.org.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdgerton2007" class="citation book cs1">Edgerton, Gary (12 October 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x4p3XMOeq7oC&dq=the+country%27s+%22first+permanent+commercial+television+network%22&pg=PA84"><i>The Columbia History of American Television</i></a>. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Brazil+profile&rft.date=2016-05-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld-latin-america-18912764&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATelevision+broadcaster" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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aria-labelledby="Telecommunications" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Telecommunications" title="Template:Telecommunications"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Telecommunications" title="Template talk:Telecommunications"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Telecommunications" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Telecommunications"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Telecommunications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beacon#For_defensive_communications" title="Beacon">Beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_protection_system" title="Cable protection system">Cable protection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite#History" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_coding_format" title="Audio coding format">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">DCT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_coding_format" title="Video coding format">video</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">Digital media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_video" title="Internet video">Internet video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_video_platform" title="Online video platform">online video platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edholm%27s_law" title="Edholm's law">Edholm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fax#History" title="Fax">Fax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Information revolution">Information revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mobile phone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_telegraph" title="Optical telegraph">Optical telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pager" title="Pager">Pager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_prepaid_mobile_phones" title="History of prepaid mobile phones">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semaphore" title="Semaphore">Semaphore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phryctoria" title="Phryctoria">Phryctoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">transistor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">Telecommunications history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telautograph" title="Telautograph">Telautograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">Teleprinter</a> (teletype)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Telephone</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">Television</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_television" title="Streaming television">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistled_language" title="Whistled language">Whistled language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless revolution">Wireless revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_Ahmed_(engineer)" title="Nasir Ahmed (engineer)">Nasir Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emile_Berliner" title="Emile Berliner">Emile Berliner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Blake_(inventor)" title="Francis Blake (inventor)">Francis Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bourseul" title="Charles Bourseul">Charles Bourseul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogen_Dalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogen Dalal">Yogen Dalal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Davis_Jr." title="Daniel Davis Jr.">Daniel Davis Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Dolbear" title="Amos Dolbear">Amos Dolbear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver Heaviside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erna_Schneider_Hoover" title="Erna Schneider Hoover">Erna Schneider Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Hopkins_(physicist)" title="Harold Hopkins (physicist)">Harold Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardiner_Greene_Hubbard" title="Gardiner Greene Hubbard">Gardiner Greene Hubbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_pioneers" title="List of Internet pioneers">Internet pioneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Kahn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bob Kahn">Bob Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Charles K. Kao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narinder_Singh_Kapany" title="Narinder Singh Kapany">Narinder Singh Kapany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedy_Lamarr" title="Hedy Lamarr">Hedy Lamarr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Landell_de_Moura" title="Roberto Landell de Moura">Roberto Landell de Moura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocenzo_Manzetti" title="Innocenzo Manzetti">Innocenzo Manzetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Metcalfe" title="Robert Metcalfe">Robert Metcalfe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun-ichi_Nishizawa" title="Jun-ichi Nishizawa">Jun-ichi Nishizawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Grafton_Page" title="Charles Grafton Page">Charles Grafton Page</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radia_Perlman" title="Radia Perlman">Radia Perlman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tivadar_Pusk%C3%A1s" title="Tivadar Puskás">Tivadar Puskás</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almon_Brown_Strowger" title="Almon Brown Strowger">Almon Brown Strowger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sutton_(inventor)" title="Henry Sutton (inventor)">Henry Sutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner_Tainter" title="Charles Sumner Tainter">Charles Sumner Tainter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Tissot" title="Camille Tissot">Camille Tissot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Watson" title="Thomas A. Watson">Thomas A. Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission<br />media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic communication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_communication" title="Molecular communication">Molecular communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">wireless</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_line" title="Transmission line">Transmission line</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_circuit" title="Telecommunication circuit">telecommunication circuit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a><br />and switching</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">Bandwidth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Links</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunication)">terminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exchange</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space-division_multiple_access" title="Space-division multiple access">Space-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">Time-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access" title="Code-division multiple access">Code-division</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">Communication protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_communication" title="Data communication">Data transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Store_and_forward" title="Store and forward">Store and forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Types of network</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">Cellular network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated Services Digital Network">ISDN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">LAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Next-generation_network" title="Next-generation network">NGN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">WAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Notable networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet2" title="Internet2">Internet2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JANET" title="JANET">JANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NPL_network" title="NPL network">NPL network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toasternet" title="Toasternet">Toasternet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Africa" title="Category:Telecommunications in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li>Americas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_North_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in North America">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_South_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in South America">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Communications_in_Antarctica" title="Category:Communications in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Asia" title="Category:Telecommunications in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Europe" title="Category:Telecommunications in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Oceania" title="Category:Telecommunications in Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_telecommunications_regulatory_bodies" title="List of telecommunications regulatory bodies">Global telecommunications regulation bodies</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/16px-Telecom-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/24px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/32px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Telecommunication" title="Portal:Telecommunication">Telecommunication portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" title="Category:Telecommunications">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_telecommunication" title="Outline of telecommunication">Outline</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Telecommunications">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Television_production" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:TV_production" title="Template:TV production"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:TV_production" title="Template talk:TV production"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:TV_production" title="Special:EditPage/Template:TV production"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Television_production" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Television_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Television production">Television production</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Main / general</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audience" title="Audience">Audience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_network" title="Broadcast network">Broadcast network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">History of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_crew" title="Television crew">Television crew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_show" title="Television show">Television show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_studio" title="Television studio">Television studio</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_apparatus_room" title="Central apparatus room">Central apparatus room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changing_room" title="Changing room">Changing room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_control" title="Master control">Master control room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_operations_center" title="Network operations center">Network operations center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_control_room" title="Production control room">Production control room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stage_(theatre)" title="Stage (theatre)">Stage (theatre)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_control_room" title="Transmission control room">Transmission control room</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Profiles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celebrity" title="Celebrity">Celebrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Director_of_network_programming" title="Director of network programming">Director of network programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_host" class="mw-redirect" title="Television host">Host</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/News_presenter" title="News presenter">News presenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_commentator" title="Sports commentator">Sports commentator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_director" title="News director">News director</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Showrunner" title="Showrunner">Showrunner</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-production</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casting_director" class="mw-redirect" title="Casting director">Casting director</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costume_designer" title="Costume designer">Costume designer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_director" title="Television director">TV director</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistant_director" title="Assistant director">Assistant director</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Location_manager" title="Location manager">Location manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Make-up_artist" title="Make-up artist">Make-up artist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_designer" title="Production designer">Production designer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Researcher" class="mw-redirect" title="Researcher">Researcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_designer" class="mw-redirect" title="Set designer">Set designer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_producer" title="Television producer">TV producer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_program_creator" class="mw-redirect" title="Television program creator">Television program creator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_producer" title="Executive producer">Executive producer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Line_producer" title="Line producer">Line producer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_production_manager" title="Unit production manager">Production manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writer" title="Writer">Writer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_writer" title="Head writer">Head writer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screenwriter" title="Screenwriter">Screenwriter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Script_editor" title="Script editor">Script editor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Story_editor" title="Story editor">Story editor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Production</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_engineer" title="Audio engineer">Audio engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boom_operator_(media)" title="Boom operator (media)">Boom operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_operator" title="Camera operator">Camera operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinematographer" title="Cinematographer">Cinematographer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Videographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Videographer">Videographer</a></li> <li>Character generator (CG) <a href="/wiki/Operator_(profession)" title="Operator (profession)">operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Studio_floor_manager" title="Studio floor manager">Studio floor manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_coordinator" title="Graphics coordinator">Graphics coordinator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stage_manager" class="mw-redirect" title="Stage manager">Stage manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaffer_(motion_picture_industry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaffer (motion picture industry)">gaffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grip_(job)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grip (job)">grip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Key_grip" title="Key grip">Key grip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolly_grip" title="Dolly grip">Dolly grip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_production_manager" title="Unit production manager">Unit production manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_assistant" title="Production assistant">Production assistant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gofer" title="Gofer">Gofer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stunt_coordinator" title="Stunt coordinator">Stunt coordinator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_director" title="Technical director">Technical director</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_director" title="Television director">Television director</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_engineering" title="Broadcast engineering">Broadcast engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_director#Television" title="Technical director">Technical director</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-production</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sound_editor_(filmmaking)" title="Sound editor (filmmaking)">Sound editor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foley_artist" class="mw-redirect" title="Foley artist">Foley artist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composer" title="Composer">Composer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_grading" title="Color grading">Colorist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_editing" title="Film editing">Editor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publicist" title="Publicist">Publicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VFX" class="mw-redirect" title="VFX">Visual effects artist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Types, formats<br />and genres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beauty_pageant" title="Beauty pageant">Beauty pageant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadcasting_of_sports_events" title="Broadcasting of sports events">Broadcasting of sports events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TV_commercial" class="mw-redirect" title="TV commercial">TV commercials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_television" title="Event television">Event television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_show" title="Game show">Game show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Live_television" title="Live television">Live television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variety_show" title="Variety show">Variety show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_crime_drama" class="mw-redirect" title="Police crime drama">Police crime drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality_television" title="Reality television">Reality television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_film" title="Television film">Television film</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_film" title="Documentary film">Documentary film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mockumentary" title="Mockumentary">Mockumentary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_show" title="Television show">Television show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_special" title="Television special">Television special</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Series" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Series</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animated_series" title="Animated series">Animated series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited-run_series" title="Limited-run series">Limited-run series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miniseries" title="Miniseries">Miniseries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_drama" title="Procedural drama">Procedural drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_(radio_and_television)" title="Serial (radio and television)">Serial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitcom" title="Sitcom">Sitcom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soap_opera" title="Soap opera">Soap opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talk_show" title="Talk show">Talk show</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late-night_talk_show" title="Late-night talk show">Late-night talk show</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">News</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_news" title="Breaking news">Breaking news</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debate_show" title="Debate show">Debate show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_broadcasting" title="News broadcasting">News broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_commentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Political commentary">Political commentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Traffic reports">Traffic reports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_forecasts" class="mw-redirect" title="Weather forecasts">Weather forecasts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Valuation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audience_measurement" title="Audience measurement">Audience measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_television_awards" title="List of television awards">List of television awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_content_rating_system" title="Television content rating system">Television content rating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_criticism" title="Television criticism">Television criticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Technical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_reference_monitor" title="Broadcast reference monitor">Broadcast reference monitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Character_generator" title="Character generator">Character generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_on-screen_graphic" title="Digital on-screen graphic">Digital on-screen graphic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixing_console" title="Mixing console">Mixing console</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microphone" title="Microphone">Microphones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple-camera_setup" title="Multiple-camera setup">Multiple-camera setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outside_broadcasting" title="Outside broadcasting">Outside broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_truck" title="Production truck">Production truck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_video_camera" title="Professional video camera">Professional video camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stage_lighting" title="Stage lighting">Stage lighting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighting_control_console" title="Lighting control console">Lighting control console</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vision_mixer" title="Vision mixer">Vision mixer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agenda-setting_theory" title="Agenda-setting theory">Agenda-setting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_of_media_ownership" title="Concentration of media ownership">Concentration of media ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Freedom of the press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_mass_media" title="Influence of mass media">Influence of mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_activism" title="Media activism">Media activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion" title="Public opinion">Public opinion</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Regulation" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_law" title="Broadcast law">Broadcast law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleep_censor" title="Bleep censor">Bleep censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_law" title="Communications law">Communications law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_law" title="Entertainment law">Entertainment law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairness_Doctrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Fairness Doctrine">Fairness Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_policy" title="Media policy">Media policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_reform" title="Media reform">Media reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Media regulation">Media regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pixelization" title="Pixelization">Pixelization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Media_culture" title="Media culture">Media culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a 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