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id="toc-Combined_heat_and_power_district_heating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Combined_heat_and_power_district_heating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Combined heat and power district heating</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Combined_heat_and_power_district_heating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_CHP" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_CHP"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Industrial CHP</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_CHP-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Utility_pressures_versus_self_generated_industrial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Utility_pressures_versus_self_generated_industrial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Utility pressures versus self generated industrial</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Utility_pressures_versus_self_generated_industrial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heat_recovery_steam_generators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heat_recovery_steam_generators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Heat recovery steam generators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heat_recovery_steam_generators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cogeneration_using_biomass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cogeneration_using_biomass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Cogeneration using biomass</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cogeneration_using_biomass-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Cogeneration using biomass subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cogeneration_using_biomass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Power_cogeneration_in_the_sugar_and_alcohol_sector" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power_cogeneration_in_the_sugar_and_alcohol_sector"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Power cogeneration in the sugar and alcohol sector</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power_cogeneration_in_the_sugar_and_alcohol_sector-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advantages_of_the_cogeneration_using_sugarcane_bagasse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advantages_of_the_cogeneration_using_sugarcane_bagasse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Advantages of the cogeneration using sugarcane bagasse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advantages_of_the_cogeneration_using_sugarcane_bagasse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disadvantages_of_the_cogeneration_using_sugarcane_bagasse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disadvantages_of_the_cogeneration_using_sugarcane_bagasse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Disadvantages of the cogeneration using sugarcane bagasse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disadvantages_of_the_cogeneration_using_sugarcane_bagasse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_with_a_heat_pump" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_with_a_heat_pump"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Comparison with a heat pump</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_with_a_heat_pump-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distributed_generation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distributed_generation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Distributed generation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distributed_generation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermal_efficiency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal_efficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Thermal efficiency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal_efficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Costs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Costs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Costs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Costs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cogeneration_in_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cogeneration_in_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Cogeneration in Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cogeneration_in_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cogeneration_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cogeneration_in_the_United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Cogeneration in the United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cogeneration_in_the_United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cogeneration_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cogeneration_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Cogeneration in the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cogeneration_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications_in_power_generation_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications_in_power_generation_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Applications in power generation systems</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications_in_power_generation_systems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications in power generation systems subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications_in_power_generation_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fossil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fossil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Fossil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fossil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Nuclear</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renewable" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renewable"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Renewable</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renewable-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Cogeneration</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" 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Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%83" title="توليد مشترك – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="توليد مشترك" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Когенерация – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Когенерация" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogeneracija" title="Kogeneracija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kogeneracija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogeneraci%C3%B3" title="Cogeneració – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cogeneració" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogenerace" title="Kogenerace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kogenerace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraft-W%C3%A4rme-Kopplung" title="Kraft-Wärme-Kopplung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kraft-Wärme-Kopplung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soojuse_ja_elektri_koostootmine" title="Soojuse ja elektri koostootmine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Soojuse ja elektri koostootmine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogeneraci%C3%B3n" title="Cogeneración – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cogeneración" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baterako_sorkuntza" title="Baterako sorkuntza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Baterako sorkuntza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AF_%D9%87%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تولید هم‌زمان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تولید هم‌زمان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cog%C3%A9n%C3%A9ration" title="Cogénération – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cogénération" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coxeraci%C3%B3n" title="Coxeración – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Coxeración" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%B4%EB%B3%91%ED%95%A9" title="열병합 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="열병합" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%86%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Ջերմաֆիկացում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ջերմաֆիկացում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogeneracija" title="Kogeneracija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kogeneracija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogenerasi" title="Kogenerasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kogenerasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogenerazione" title="Cogenerazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cogenerazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94" title="קוגנרציה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קוגנרציה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kojenerasyon" title="Kojenerasyon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Kojenerasyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogeneracin%C4%97_elektrin%C4%97" title="Kogeneracinė elektrinė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kogeneracinė elektrinė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapcsolt_energiatermel%C3%A9s" title="Kapcsolt energiatermelés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kapcsolt energiatermelés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warmte-krachtkoppeling" title="Warmte-krachtkoppeling – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Warmte-krachtkoppeling" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A7%E3%83%8D%E3%83%AC%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A7%E3%83%B3" title="コジェネレーション – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コジェネレーション" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogenerasjon" title="Kogenerasjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kogenerasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogeneracja" title="Kogeneracja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kogeneracja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogera%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Cogeração – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cogeração" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogenerare" title="Cogenerare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cogenerare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Когенерация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Когенерация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrongroh%C3%ABsi" title="Hidrongrohësi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Hidrongrohësi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Cogeneration" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/El-v-01_ubt.jpeg/180px-El-v-01_ubt.jpeg" decoding="async" width="180" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/El-v-01_ubt.jpeg/270px-El-v-01_ubt.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/El-v-01_ubt.jpeg/360px-El-v-01_ubt.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="245" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#c8ffb8;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcology" title="Arcology">Arcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_insulation" title="Building insulation">Building insulation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cogeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compact_fluorescent_lamp" title="Compact fluorescent lamp">Compact fluorescent lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco_hotel" title="Eco hotel">Eco hotel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-cities" title="Eco-cities">Eco-cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecohouse" title="Ecohouse">Ecohouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecolabel" title="Ecolabel">Ecolabel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">Efficient energy use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_audit" title="Energy audit">Energy audit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_efficiency_implementation" title="Energy efficiency implementation">Energy efficiency implementation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_recovery" title="Energy recovery">Energy recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_recycling" title="Energy recycling">Energy recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_saving_lamp" title="Energy saving lamp">Energy saving lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_Star" title="Energy Star">Energy Star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">Energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_planning" title="Environmental planning">Environmental planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_technology" title="Environmental technology">Environmental technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_in_green_buildings" title="Glass in green buildings">Glass in green buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_building_and_wood" title="Green building and wood">Green building and wood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_building" title="Green building">Green building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_pump" title="Heat pump">Heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_low-energy_building_techniques" title="List of low-energy building techniques">List of low-energy building techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-energy_house" title="Low-energy house">Low-energy house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microgeneration" title="Microgeneration">Microgeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_house" title="Passive house">Passive house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_solar_building_design" title="Passive solar building design">Passive solar building design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_architecture" title="Sustainable architecture">Sustainable architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_city" title="Sustainable city">Sustainable city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_habitat" title="Sustainable habitat">Sustainable habitat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_refurbishment" title="Sustainable refurbishment">Sustainable refurbishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy_storage" title="Thermal energy storage">Thermal energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_green_building" title="Tropical green building">Tropical green building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste-to-energy" title="Waste-to-energy">Waste-to-energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_heating_building" title="Zero heating building">Zero heating building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-energy_building" title="Zero-energy building">Zero-energy building</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#c8ffb8;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_biofuel" title="Sustainable biofuel">Sustainable</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogas" title="Biogas">Biogas</a></li> 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power">Marine current power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_barrage" title="Tidal barrage">Tidal barrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_farm" title="Tidal farm">Tidal farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_stream_generator" title="Tidal stream generator">Tidal stream generator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal energy conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Renewable energy transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_heat" title="Renewable heat">Renewable heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community_wind_energy" title="Community wind energy">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_farm" title="Wind farm">Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_wind_turbine" title="Floating wind turbine">Floating wind turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power_forecasting" title="Wind power forecasting">Forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power_industry" title="Wind power industry">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_lens" title="Wind lens">Lens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_wind_energy" title="Outline of wind energy">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_rights" title="Wind rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine" title="Wind turbine">Turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windbelt" title="Windbelt">Windbelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windpump" title="Windpump">Windpump</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#c8ffb8;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Sustainable transport</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_vehicle" title="Green vehicle">Green vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">Electric vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_bicycle" title="Electric bicycle">Bicycle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_vehicle" title="Solar vehicle">Solar vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind-powered_vehicle" title="Wind-powered vehicle">Wind-powered vehicle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_vehicle" title="Hybrid vehicle">Hybrid vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93electric_hybrid_vehicle" title="Human–electric hybrid vehicle">Human-electric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twike" title="Twike">Twike</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug-in_hybrid" title="Plug-in hybrid">Plug-in</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human-powered_transport" title="Human-powered transport">Human-powered transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human-powered_helicopter" title="Human-powered helicopter">Helicopter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human-powered_hydrofoil" title="Human-powered hydrofoil">Hydrofoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human-powered_land_vehicle" title="Human-powered land vehicle">Land vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bicycle" title="Bicycle">Bicycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycle_rickshaw" title="Cycle rickshaw">Cycle rickshaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kick_scooter" title="Kick scooter">Kick scooter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadracycle" title="Quadracycle">Quadracycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricycle" title="Tricycle">Tricycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velomobile" title="Velomobile">Velomobile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roller_skating" title="Roller skating">Roller skating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skateboarding" title="Skateboarding">Skateboarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walking" title="Walking">Walking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human-powered_watercraft" title="Human-powered watercraft">Watercraft</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_transporter" title="Personal transporter">Personal transporter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">Rail transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tram" title="Tram">Tram</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_transit" title="Rapid transit">Rapid transit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personal_rapid_transit" title="Personal rapid transit">Personal rapid transit</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/24px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/32px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Renewable_energy" title="Portal:Renewable energy">Renewable energy portal</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sustainable_energy" title="Template:Sustainable energy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sustainable_energy" title="Template talk:Sustainable energy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sustainable_energy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sustainable energy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Cogeneration</b> or <b>combined heat and power</b> (<b>CHP</b>) is the use of a <a href="/wiki/Heat_engine" title="Heat engine">heat engine</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Power_station" title="Power station">power station</a> to <a href="/wiki/Electricity_generation" title="Electricity generation">generate electricity</a> and useful heat at the same time. </p><p>Cogeneration is a more efficient use of fuel or heat, because otherwise-<a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">wasted heat</a> from electricity generation is put to some productive use. Combined heat and power (CHP) plants recover otherwise wasted <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">thermal energy</a> for <a href="/wiki/HVAC#heating" class="mw-redirect" title="HVAC">heating</a>. This is also called combined heat and power district heating. Small CHP plants are an example of <a href="/wiki/Distributed_generation" title="Distributed generation">decentralized energy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By-product heat at moderate temperatures (100–180 °C (212–356 °F) can also be used in <a href="/wiki/Absorption_refrigerator" title="Absorption refrigerator">absorption refrigerators</a> for cooling. </p><p>The supply of high-temperature heat first drives a <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas</a> or <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a>-powered generator. The resulting low-temperature waste heat is then used for water or space heating. At smaller scales (typically below 1 MW), a <a href="/wiki/Gas_engine" title="Gas engine">gas engine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Diesel_engine" title="Diesel engine">diesel engine</a> may be used. Cogeneration is also common with <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal power plant">geothermal power plants</a> as they often produce relatively <a href="/wiki/Low_grade_heat" class="mw-redirect" title="Low grade heat">low grade heat</a>. <a href="/wiki/Binary_cycle" title="Binary cycle">Binary cycles</a> may be necessary to reach acceptable <a href="/wiki/Thermal_efficiency" title="Thermal efficiency">thermal efficiency</a> for electricity generation at all. Cogeneration is less commonly employed in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plants</a> as <a href="/wiki/NIMBY" title="NIMBY">NIMBY</a> and safety considerations have often kept them further from population centers than comparable chemical power plants and <a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">district heating</a> is less efficient in lower population density areas due to transmission losses. </p><p>Cogeneration was practiced in some of the earliest installations of electrical generation. Before central stations distributed power, industries generating their own power used exhaust steam for process heating. Large office and apartment buildings, hotels, and stores commonly generated their own power and used waste steam for building heat. Due to the high cost of early purchased power, these CHP operations continued for many years after utility electricity became available.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Masned%C3%B8_power_station.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Masned%C3%B8_power_station.jpg/300px-Masned%C3%B8_power_station.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Masned%C3%B8_power_station.jpg/450px-Masned%C3%B8_power_station.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Masned%C3%B8_power_station.jpg/600px-Masned%C3%B8_power_station.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2003" data-file-height="677" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Masned%C3%B8" title="Masnedø">Masnedø</a> CHP power station in <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>. This station burns straw as fuel. The adjacent greenhouses are heated by <a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">district heating</a> from the plant.</figcaption></figure> <p>Many process industries, such as <a href="/wiki/Chemical_plant" title="Chemical plant">chemical plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">oil refineries</a> and pulp and <a href="/wiki/Paper_mill" title="Paper mill">paper mills</a>, require large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Process_heat" title="Process heat">process heat</a> for such operations as <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reactor" title="Chemical reactor">chemical reactors</a>, distillation columns, steam driers and other uses. This heat, which is usually used in the form of steam, can be generated at the typically low pressures used in heating, or can be generated at much higher pressure and passed through a turbine first to generate electricity. In the turbine the steam pressure and temperature is lowered as the internal energy of the steam is converted to work. The lower-pressure steam leaving the turbine can then be used for process heat. </p><p>Steam turbines at <a href="/wiki/Thermal_power_station" title="Thermal power station">thermal power stations</a> are normally designed to be fed high-pressure steam, which exits the turbine at a condenser operating a few degrees above ambient temperature and at a few millimeters of mercury absolute pressure. (This is called a <i>condensing</i> turbine.) For all practical purposes this steam has negligible useful energy before it is condensed. Steam turbines for cogeneration are designed for <i>extraction</i> of some steam at lower pressures after it has passed through a number of turbine stages, with the un-extracted steam going on through the turbine to a condenser. In this case, the extracted steam causes a mechanical <a href="/wiki/Power_loss_factor" title="Power loss factor">power loss</a> in the downstream stages of the turbine. Or they are designed, with or without extraction, for final exhaust at <i>back pressure</i> (non-condensing).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Steam-its_generation_and_use_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steam-its_generation_and_use-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The extracted or exhaust steam is used for process heating. Steam at ordinary process heating conditions still has a considerable amount of <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">enthalpy</a> that could be used for power generation, so cogeneration has an <a href="/wiki/Opportunity_cost" title="Opportunity cost">opportunity cost</a>. </p><p>A typical power generation turbine in a <a href="/wiki/Paper_mill" title="Paper mill">paper mill</a> may have extraction pressures of 160 and 60 psi (1.10 and 0.41 MPa). A typical back pressure may be 60 psi (0.41 MPa). In practice these pressures are custom designed for each facility. Conversely, simply generating process steam for industrial purposes instead of high enough pressure to generate power at the top end also has an opportunity cost (See: <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine#Steam_supply_and_exhaust_conditions" title="Steam turbine">Steam supply and exhaust conditions</a>). The capital and operating cost of high-pressure boilers, turbines, and generators is substantial. This equipment is normally operated <a href="/wiki/Continuous_production" title="Continuous production">continuously</a>, which usually limits self-generated power to large-scale operations. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg/220px-Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg/330px-Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg/440px-Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="519" /></a><figcaption>A cogeneration plant in <a href="/wiki/Metz" title="Metz">Metz</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>. The 45 MW boiler uses waste wood <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> as an energy source, providing electricity and heat for 30,000 <a href="/wiki/Dwelling" title="Dwelling">dwellings</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined cycle">combined cycle</a> (in which several thermodynamic cycles produce electricity), may also be used to extract heat using a heating system as <a href="/wiki/Condenser_(heat_transfer)" title="Condenser (heat transfer)">condenser</a> of the power plant's <a href="/wiki/Bottoming_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottoming cycle">bottoming cycle</a>. For example, the RU-25 <a href="/wiki/MHD_generator" class="mw-redirect" title="MHD generator">MHD generator</a> in <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> heated a boiler for a conventional steam powerplant, whose condensate was then used for space heat. A more modern system might use a <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas turbine</a> powered by <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>, whose exhaust powers a steam plant, whose condensate provides heat. Cogeneration plants based on a combined cycle power unit can have thermal efficiencies above 80%. </p><p>The viability of CHP (sometimes termed utilisation factor), especially in smaller CHP installations, depends on a good baseload of operation, both in terms of an on-site (or near site) electrical demand and heat demand. In practice, an exact match between the heat and electricity needs rarely exists. A CHP plant can either meet the need for heat (<i>heat driven operation</i>) or be run as a <a href="/wiki/Power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Power plant">power plant</a> with some use of its waste heat, the latter being less advantageous in terms of its utilisation factor and thus its overall efficiency. The viability can be greatly increased where opportunities for trigeneration exist. In such cases, the heat from the CHP plant is also used as a primary energy source to deliver cooling by means of an <a href="/wiki/Absorption_chiller" class="mw-redirect" title="Absorption chiller">absorption chiller</a>. </p><p>CHP is most efficient when heat can be used on-site or very close to it. Overall efficiency is reduced when the heat must be transported over longer distances. This requires heavily insulated pipes, which are expensive and inefficient; whereas electricity can be transmitted along a comparatively simple wire, and over much longer distances for the same energy loss. </p><p>A car engine becomes a CHP plant in winter when the reject heat is useful for warming the interior of the vehicle. The example illustrates the point that deployment of CHP depends on heat uses in the vicinity of the heat engine. </p><p>Thermally <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_oil_recovery" title="Enhanced oil recovery">enhanced oil recovery</a> (TEOR) plants often produce a substantial amount of excess electricity. After generating electricity, these plants pump leftover steam into heavy oil wells so that the oil will flow more easily, increasing production. </p><p>Cogeneration plants are commonly found in <a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">district heating</a> systems of cities, <a href="/wiki/Central_heating" title="Central heating">central heating</a> systems of larger buildings (e.g. hospitals, hotels, prisons) and are commonly used in the industry in thermal production processes for process water, cooling, steam production or <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a> fertilization. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rostock_Power_Station,_SW_view.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Rostock_Power_Station%2C_SW_view.jpg/220px-Rostock_Power_Station%2C_SW_view.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Rostock_Power_Station%2C_SW_view.jpg/330px-Rostock_Power_Station%2C_SW_view.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Rostock_Power_Station%2C_SW_view.jpg/440px-Rostock_Power_Station%2C_SW_view.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5028" data-file-height="3353" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rostock_Power_Station" title="Rostock Power Station">Rostock Power Station</a>, a bituminous coal-fired combined heat and power plant in Germany</figcaption></figure> <p><i>Trigeneration</i> or <i>combined cooling, heat and power</i> (<i>CCHP</i>) refers to the simultaneous generation of electricity and useful heating and cooling from the combustion of a fuel or a solar heat collector. The terms <i>cogeneration</i> and <i>trigeneration</i> can also be applied to the power systems simultaneously generating electricity, heat, and industrial chemicals (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle#Natural_gas_integrated_power_&_syngas_(hydrogen)_generation_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined cycle">syngas</a>). Trigeneration differs from cogeneration in that the <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">waste heat</a> is used for both heating and cooling, typically in an absorption refrigerator. Combined cooling, heat, and power systems can attain higher overall efficiencies than cogeneration or traditional power plants. In the United States, the application of trigeneration in buildings is called building cooling, heating, and power. Heating and cooling output may operate concurrently or alternately depending on need and system construction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_plants">Types of plants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Types of plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hanasaari_B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Hanasaari_B.jpg/220px-Hanasaari_B.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Hanasaari_B.jpg/330px-Hanasaari_B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Hanasaari_B.jpg/440px-Hanasaari_B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1979" data-file-height="1484" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hanasaari_Power_Plant" title="Hanasaari Power Plant">Hanasaari Power Plant</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal-fired</a> cogeneration power plant in <a href="/wiki/Helsinki" title="Helsinki">Helsinki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Topping cycle plants primarily produce electricity from a steam turbine. Partly expanded steam is then condensed in a heating condensor at a temperature level that is suitable e.g. <a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">district heating</a> or <a href="/wiki/Water_desalination" class="mw-redirect" title="Water desalination">water desalination</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bottoming_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottoming cycle">Bottoming cycle</a> plants produce high temperature heat for industrial processes, then a <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat_recovery_unit" title="Waste heat recovery unit">waste heat recovery</a> boiler feeds an electrical plant. Bottoming cycle plants are only used in industrial processes that require very high temperatures such as furnaces for glass and metal manufacturing, so they are less common. </p><p>Large cogeneration systems provide heating water and power for an industrial site or an entire town. Common CHP plant types are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">Gas turbine</a> CHP plants using the waste heat in the flue gas of gas turbines. The fuel used is typically <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_engine" title="Gas engine">Gas engine</a> CHP plants use a reciprocating gas engine, which is generally more competitive than a gas turbine up to about 5 MW. The gaseous fuel used is normally <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>. These plants are generally manufactured as fully packaged units that can be installed within a plantroom or external plant compound with simple connections to the site's gas supply, electrical distribution network and heating systems. Typical outputs and efficiencies see <sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typical large example see <sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel engine</a> CHP plants use an adapted reciprocating gas engine or <a href="/wiki/Diesel_engine" title="Diesel engine">diesel engine</a>, depending upon which biofuel is being used, and are otherwise very similar in design to a Gas engine CHP plant. The advantage of using a biofuel is one of reduced <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuel</a> consumption and thus reduced carbon emissions. These plants are generally manufactured as fully packaged units that can be installed within a plantroom or external plant compound with simple connections to the site's electrical distribution and heating systems. Another variant is the <a href="/wiki/Wood_gasifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood gasifier">wood gasifier</a> CHP plant whereby a wood pellet or wood chip biofuel is <a href="/wiki/Gasified" class="mw-redirect" title="Gasified">gasified</a> in a zero oxygen high temperature environment; the resulting gas is then used to power the gas engine.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined cycle">Combined cycle</a> power plants adapted for CHP</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-carbonate_fuel_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten-carbonate fuel cell">Molten-carbonate fuel cells</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solid_oxide_fuel_cell" title="Solid oxide fuel cell">solid oxide fuel cells</a> have a hot exhaust, very suitable for heating.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">Steam turbine</a> CHP plants that use the heating system as the <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a> condenser for the steam turbine</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">plants</a>, similar to other steam turbine power plants, can be fitted with extractions in the turbines to bleed partially expanded steam to a heating system. With a heating system temperature of 95 °C it is possible to extract about 10 MW heat for every MW electricity lost. With a temperature of 130 °C the gain is slightly smaller, about 7 MW for every MWe lost.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A review of cogeneration options is in <sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Czech research team proposed a "Teplator" system where heat from spent fuel rods is recovered for the purpose of residential heating.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Smaller cogeneration units may use a <a href="/wiki/Reciprocating_engine" title="Reciprocating engine">reciprocating engine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Stirling_engine" title="Stirling engine">Stirling engine</a>. The heat is removed from the exhaust and radiator. The systems are popular in small sizes because small gas and diesel engines are less expensive than small gas- or oil-fired steam-electric plants. </p><p>Some cogeneration plants are fired by <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or industrial and <a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">municipal solid waste</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Incineration" title="Incineration">incineration</a>). Some CHP plants use waste gas as the fuel for electricity and heat generation. Waste gases can be gas from <a href="/wiki/Animal_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal waste">animal waste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landfill_gas" title="Landfill gas">landfill gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Firedamp" title="Firedamp">gas from coal mines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sewage_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sewage gas">sewage gas</a>, and combustible industrial waste gas.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some cogeneration plants combine gas and solar <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> generation to further improve technical and environmental performance.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such hybrid systems can be scaled down to the building level<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even individual homes.<sup id="cite_ref-Energy_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Energy-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="MicroCHP">MicroCHP</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: MicroCHP"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Micro_combined_heat_and_power" title="Micro combined heat and power">Micro combined heat and power</a> or 'Micro cogeneration" is a so-called <a href="/wiki/Distributed_Energy_Resource" class="mw-redirect" title="Distributed Energy Resource">distributed energy resource</a> (DER). The installation is usually less than 5 <a href="/wiki/Watt#Conventions_in_the_electric_power_industry" title="Watt">kW<sub>e</sub></a> in a house or small business. Instead of burning fuel to merely heat space or water, some of the energy is converted to electricity in addition to heat. This electricity can be used within the home or business or, if permitted by the grid management, sold back into the electric power grid. </p><p>Delta-ee consultants stated in 2013 that with 64% of global sales the <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">fuel cell</a> micro-combined heat and power passed the conventional systems in sales in 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 20,000 units were sold in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> in 2012 overall within the Ene Farm project. With a <a href="/wiki/Service_life" title="Service life">Lifetime</a> of around 60,000 hours. For <a href="/wiki/PEM_fuel_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="PEM fuel cell">PEM fuel cell</a> units, which shut down at night, this equates to an estimated lifetime of between ten and fifteen years.<sup id="cite_ref-fuelcelltoday.com_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fuelcelltoday.com-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a price of $22,600 before installation.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For 2013 a state subsidy for 50,000 units is in place.<sup id="cite_ref-fuelcelltoday.com_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fuelcelltoday.com-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>MicroCHP installations use five different technologies: <a href="/wiki/Microturbines" class="mw-redirect" title="Microturbines">microturbines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal combustion">internal combustion</a> engines, <a href="/wiki/Stirling_engine" title="Stirling engine">stirling engines</a>, closed-cycle <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engines</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">fuel cells</a>. One author indicated in 2008 that MicroCHP based on Stirling engines is the most cost-effective of the so-called microgeneration technologies in abating carbon emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2013 UK report from Ecuity Consulting stated that MCHP is the most cost-effective method of using gas to generate energy at the domestic level.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, advances in reciprocation engine technology are adding efficiency to CHP plants, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Biogas" title="Biogas">biogas</a> field.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As both MiniCHP and CHP have been shown to reduce emissions <sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they could play a large role in the field of CO<sub>2</sub> reduction from buildings, where more than 14% of emissions can be saved using CHP in buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The University of Cambridge reported a cost-effective steam engine MicroCHP prototype in 2017 which has the potential to be commercially competitive in the following decades.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quite recently, in some private homes, <a href="/wiki/Micro_combined_heat_and_power#Fuel_cells" title="Micro combined heat and power">fuel cell micro-CHP plants</a> can now be found, which can operate on hydrogen, or other fuels as natural gas or LPG.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When running on natural gas, it relies on <a href="/wiki/Methane_reformer" title="Methane reformer">steam reforming</a> of natural gas to convert the natural gas to hydrogen prior to use in the fuel cell. This hence still emits CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> (see reaction) but (temporarily) running on this can be a good solution until the point where the hydrogen is starting to be distributed through the (natural gas) piping system. </p><p>Another MicroCHP example is a natural gas or propane fueled Electricity Producing Condensing Furnace. It combines the fuel saving technique of cogeneration meaning producing electric power and useful heat from a single source of combustion. The condensing <a href="/wiki/Furnace_(central_heating)" title="Furnace (central heating)">furnace</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Forced-air_gas" title="Forced-air gas">forced-air gas</a> system with a secondary heat exchanger that allows heat to be extracted from combustion products down to the ambient temperature along with recovering heat from the water vapor. The chimney is replaced by a water drain and vent to the side of the building. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trigeneration">Trigeneration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Trigeneration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trigeneration_Cycle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Trigeneration_Cycle.jpg/300px-Trigeneration_Cycle.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Trigeneration_Cycle.jpg/450px-Trigeneration_Cycle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Trigeneration_Cycle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="452" /></a><figcaption>Trigeneration cycle</figcaption></figure> <p>A plant producing electricity, heat and cold is called a trigeneration<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or polygeneration plant. Cogeneration systems linked to <a href="/wiki/Absorption_refrigerator" title="Absorption refrigerator">absorption chillers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Adsorption_refrigeration" title="Adsorption refrigeration">adsorption chillers</a> use waste heat for <a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">refrigeration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Combined_heat_and_power_district_heating">Combined heat and power district heating</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Combined heat and power district heating"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">District heating</a></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Consolidated_Edison" title="Consolidated Edison">Consolidated Edison</a> distributes 66 billion kilograms of 350 °F (177 °C) steam each year through its seven cogeneration plants to 100,000 buildings in <a href="/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan</a>—the biggest steam district in the United States. The peak delivery is 10 million pounds per hour (or approximately 2.5 GW).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_CHP">Industrial CHP</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Industrial CHP"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cogeneration is still common in <a href="/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulp and paper mill">pulp and paper mills</a>, refineries and chemical plants. In this "industrial cogeneration/CHP", the heat is typically recovered at higher temperatures (above 100 °C) and used for process steam or drying duties. This is more valuable and flexible than low-grade waste heat, but there is a slight loss of power generation. The increased focus on <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a> has made industrial CHP more attractive, as it substantially reduces <a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">carbon footprint</a> compared to generating steam or burning fuel on-site and importing electric power from the grid. </p><p>Smaller industrial co-generation units have an output capacity of 5–25 MW and represent a viable off-grid option for a variety of remote applications to reduce carbon emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Utility_pressures_versus_self_generated_industrial">Utility pressures versus self generated industrial</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Utility pressures versus self generated industrial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Industrial cogeneration plants normally operate at much lower boiler pressures than utilities. Among the reasons are: </p> <ol><li>Cogeneration plants face possible contamination of returned condensate. Because boiler feed water from cogeneration plants has much lower return rates than 100% condensing power plants, industries usually have to treat proportionately more boiler make up water. Boiler feed water must be completely oxygen free and de-mineralized, and the higher the pressure the more critical the level of purity of the feed water.<sup id="cite_ref-Steam-its_generation_and_use_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steam-its_generation_and_use-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Utilities are typically larger scale power than industry, which helps offset the higher capital costs of high pressure.</li> <li>Utilities are less likely to have sharp load swings than industrial operations, which deal with shutting down or starting up units that may represent a significant percent of either steam or power demand.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heat_recovery_steam_generators">Heat recovery steam generators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Heat recovery steam generators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Heat_recovery_steam_generator" title="Heat recovery steam generator">heat recovery steam generator</a> (HRSG) is a steam boiler that uses hot <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">exhaust gases</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas turbines</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reciprocating_engine" title="Reciprocating engine">reciprocating engines</a> in a CHP plant to heat up water and generate <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a>. The steam, in turn, drives a <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a> or is used in industrial processes that require heat. </p><p>HRSGs used in the CHP industry are distinguished from conventional steam generators by the following main features: </p> <ul><li>The HRSG is designed based upon the specific features of the gas turbine or reciprocating engine that it will be coupled to.</li> <li>Since the exhaust gas temperature is relatively low, heat transmission is accomplished mainly through <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a>.</li> <li>The exhaust gas velocity is limited by the need to keep head losses down. Thus, the transmission coefficient is low, which calls for a large heating surface area.</li> <li>Since the temperature difference between the hot gases and the fluid to be heated (steam or water) is low, and with the heat transmission coefficient being low as well, the evaporator and economizer are designed with plate fin heat exchangers.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cogeneration_using_biomass">Cogeneration using biomass</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Cogeneration using biomass"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a> refers to any plant or animal matter in which it is possible to be reused as a source of heat or electricity, such as <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a>, vegetable oils, wood, organic waste and residues from the food or <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> industries. Brazil is now considered a world reference in terms of energy generation from biomass.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A growing sector in the use of biomass for power generation is the sugar and alcohol sector, which mainly uses sugarcane bagasse as fuel for <a href="/wiki/Thermal_power_station" title="Thermal power station">thermal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">electric power</a> generation.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power_cogeneration_in_the_sugar_and_alcohol_sector">Power cogeneration in the sugar and alcohol sector</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Power cogeneration in the sugar and alcohol sector"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the sugarcane industry, cogeneration is fueled by the <a href="/wiki/Bagasse" title="Bagasse">bagasse</a> residue of sugar refining, which is burned to produce steam. Some steam can be sent through a <a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">turbine</a> that turns a generator, producing electric power.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Energy cogeneration in sugarcane industries located in Brazil is a practice that has been growing in last years. With the adoption of energy cogeneration in the sugar and alcohol sector, the sugarcane industries are able to supply the electric energy demand needed to operate, and generate a surplus that can be commercialized.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advantages_of_the_cogeneration_using_sugarcane_bagasse">Advantages of the cogeneration using sugarcane bagasse</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Advantages of the cogeneration using sugarcane bagasse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In comparison with the electric power generation by means of fossil fuel-based <a href="/wiki/Thermoelectric" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermoelectric">thermoelectric</a> plants, such as <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>, the energy generation using sugarcane bagasse has environmental advantages due to the reduction of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub></a> emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-RefA_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RefA-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to the environmental advantages, cogeneration using sugarcane bagasse presents advantages in terms of efficiency comparing to thermoelectric generation, through the final destination of the energy produced. While in thermoelectric generation, part of the heat produced is lost, in cogeneration this heat has the possibility of being used in the production processes, increasing the overall efficiency of the process.<sup id="cite_ref-RefA_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RefA-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disadvantages_of_the_cogeneration_using_sugarcane_bagasse">Disadvantages of the cogeneration using sugarcane bagasse</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Disadvantages of the cogeneration using sugarcane bagasse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In sugarcane cultivation, is usually used potassium source's containing high concentration of <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Potassium_chloride" title="Potassium chloride">potassium chloride</a> (KCl). Considering that KCl is applied in huge quantities, sugarcane ends up absorbing high concentrations of chlorine.<sup id="cite_ref-RefB_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RefB-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to this absorption, when the sugarcane bagasse is burned in the power cogeneration, dioxins <sup id="cite_ref-RefB_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RefB-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and methyl chloride <sup id="cite_ref-RefC_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RefC-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ends up being emitted. In the case of dioxins, these substances are considered very toxic and cancerous.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the case of methyl chloride, when this substance is emitted and reaches the <a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a>, it ends up being very harmful for the <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a> layer, since chlorine when combined with the ozone molecule generates a catalytic reaction leading to the breakdown of ozone links.<sup id="cite_ref-RefC_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RefC-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After each reaction, chlorine starts a destructive cycle with another ozone molecule. In this way, a single chlorine atom can destroy thousands of ozone molecules. As these molecules are being broken, they are unable to absorb the <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet rays">ultraviolet rays</a>. As a result, the <a href="/wiki/UV_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="UV radiation">UV radiation</a> is more intense on Earth and there is a worsening of <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RefC_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RefC-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison_with_a_heat_pump">Comparison with a heat pump</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Comparison with a heat pump"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Heat_pump" title="Heat pump">heat pump</a> may be compared with a CHP unit as follows. If, to supply thermal energy, the exhaust steam from the turbo-generator must be taken at a higher temperature than the system would produce most electricity at, the lost electrical generation is <i>as if</i> a heat pump were used to provide the same heat by taking electrical power from the generator running at lower output temperature and higher efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically for every unit of electrical power lost, then about 6 units of heat are made available at about 90 °C (194 °F). Thus CHP has an effective <a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_performance" title="Coefficient of performance">Coefficient of Performance (COP)</a> compared to a heat pump of 6.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, for a remotely operated heat pump, losses in the electrical distribution network would need to be considered, of the order of 6%. Because the losses are proportional to the square of the current, during peak periods losses are much higher than this and it is likely that widespread (i.e. citywide application of heat pumps) would cause overloading of the distribution and transmission grids unless they were substantially reinforced. </p><p>It is also possible to run a heat driven operation combined with a heat pump, where the excess electricity (as heat demand is the defining factor on se<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (April 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup>) is used to drive a heat pump. As heat demand increases, more electricity is generated to drive the heat pump, with the waste heat also heating the heating fluid. </p><p>As the efficiency of heat pumps depends on the difference between hot end and cold end temperature (efficiency rises as the difference decreases) it may be worthwhile to combine even relatively low grade waste heat otherwise unsuitable for home heating with heat pumps. For example, a large enough reservoir of cooling water at 15 °C (59 °F) can significantly improve efficiency of heat pumps drawing from such a reservoir compared to <a href="/wiki/Air_source_heat_pump" title="Air source heat pump">air source heat pumps</a> drawing from cold air during a −20 °C (−4 °F) night. In the summer when there's both demand for <a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">air conditioning</a> and warm water, the same water may even serve as both a "dump" for the waste heat rejected by a/c units and as a "source" for heat pumps providing warm water. Those considerations are behind what is sometimes called "cold district heating" using a "heat" source whose temperature is well below those usually employed in district heating.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distributed_generation">Distributed generation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Distributed generation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most industrial countries generate the majority of their electrical power needs in large centralized facilities with capacity for large electrical power output. These plants benefit from economy of scale, but may need to transmit electricity across long distances causing transmission losses. Cogeneration or trigeneration production is subject to limitations in the local demand and thus may sometimes need to reduce (e.g., heat or cooling production to match the demand). An example of cogeneration with trigeneration applications in a major city is the <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_steam_system" title="New York City steam system">New York City steam system</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Thermal_efficiency">Thermal efficiency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Thermal efficiency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Every heat engine is subject to the theoretical efficiency limits of the <a href="/wiki/Carnot_cycle" title="Carnot cycle">Carnot cycle</a> or subset <a href="/wiki/Rankine_cycle" title="Rankine cycle">Rankine cycle</a> in the case of steam turbine power plants or <a href="/wiki/Brayton_cycle" title="Brayton cycle">Brayton cycle</a> in gas turbine with steam turbine plants. Most of the efficiency loss with steam power generation is associated with the <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_vaporization" title="Enthalpy of vaporization">latent heat of vaporization</a> of steam that is not recovered when a turbine exhausts its low temperature and pressure steam to a condenser. (Typical steam to condenser would be at a few millimeters absolute pressure and on the order of 5 °C (41 °F) hotter than the cooling water temperature, depending on the condenser capacity.) In cogeneration this steam exits the turbine at a higher temperature where it may be used for process heat, building heat or cooling with an <a href="/wiki/Absorption_chiller" class="mw-redirect" title="Absorption chiller">absorption chiller</a>. The majority of this heat is from the <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_vaporization" title="Enthalpy of vaporization">latent heat of vaporization</a> when the steam condenses. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thermal_efficiency" title="Thermal efficiency">Thermal efficiency</a> in a cogeneration system is defined as: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{th}\equiv {\frac {W_{out}}{Q_{in}}}\equiv {\frac {\text{Electrical power output + Heat output}}{\text{Total heat input}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> <mi>h</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>≡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>W</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>≡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mtext>Electrical power output + Heat output</mtext> <mtext>Total heat input</mtext> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{th}\equiv {\frac {W_{out}}{Q_{in}}}\equiv {\frac {\text{Electrical power output + Heat output}}{\text{Total heat input}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fcc889bc2afc849abe107f762daadc10e79dc0a1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:54.484ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{th}\equiv {\frac {W_{out}}{Q_{in}}}\equiv {\frac {\text{Electrical power output + Heat output}}{\text{Total heat input}}}}"></span> </p><p>Where: </p> <ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> <mi>h</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a7f49a8790992ff5da3e0f4766b1722301f0fce1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.928ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}"></span> = Thermal efficiency</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle W_{out}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>W</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle W_{out}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0b268f9b2a16d3e3e32de585eb140111f92f71fc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.757ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle W_{out}}"></span> = Total work output by all systems</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q_{in}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q_{in}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/515dc23886db2c8ddb69a53b3aebef426872c1cb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.624ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Q_{in}}"></span> = Total heat input into the system</li></ul> <p>Heat output may also be used for cooling (for example, in summer), thanks to an absorption chiller. If cooling is achieved in the same time, <a href="/wiki/Thermal_efficiency" title="Thermal efficiency">thermal efficiency</a> in a trigeneration system is defined as: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{th}\equiv {\frac {W_{out}}{Q_{in}}}\equiv {\frac {\text{Electrical power output + Heat output + Cooling output}}{\text{Total heat input}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> <mi>h</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>≡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>W</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>≡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mtext>Electrical power output + Heat output + Cooling output</mtext> <mtext>Total heat input</mtext> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{th}\equiv {\frac {W_{out}}{Q_{in}}}\equiv {\frac {\text{Electrical power output + Heat output + Cooling output}}{\text{Total heat input}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8b1522d19b6b642b21c092ea63e0f6b035ded66d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:72.635ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{th}\equiv {\frac {W_{out}}{Q_{in}}}\equiv {\frac {\text{Electrical power output + Heat output + Cooling output}}{\text{Total heat input}}}}"></span> </p><p>Where: </p> <ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> <mi>h</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a7f49a8790992ff5da3e0f4766b1722301f0fce1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.928ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}"></span> = Thermal efficiency</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle W_{out}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>W</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle W_{out}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0b268f9b2a16d3e3e32de585eb140111f92f71fc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.757ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle W_{out}}"></span> = Total work output by all systems</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q_{in}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q_{in}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/515dc23886db2c8ddb69a53b3aebef426872c1cb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.624ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Q_{in}}"></span> = Total heat input into the system</li></ul> <p>Typical cogeneration models have losses as in any system. The energy distribution below is represented as a percent of total input energy:<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Electricity = 45%</li> <li>Heat + Cooling = 40%</li> <li>Heat losses = 13%</li> <li>Electrical line losses = 2%</li></ul> <p>Conventional central coal- or nuclear-powered power stations convert about 33–45% of their input heat to electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-energy.gov_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-energy.gov-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Steam-its_generation_and_use_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steam-its_generation_and_use-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Brayton_cycle" title="Brayton cycle">Brayton cycle</a> power plants operate at up to 60% efficiency. In the case of conventional power plants, approximately 10-15% of this heat is lost up the stack of the boiler. Most of the remaining heat emerges from the turbines as low-grade waste heat with no significant local uses, so it is usually rejected to the environment, typically to cooling water passing through a condenser.<sup id="cite_ref-Steam-its_generation_and_use_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steam-its_generation_and_use-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because turbine exhaust is normally just above ambient temperature, some potential power generation is sacrificed in rejecting higher-temperature steam from the turbine for cogeneration purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For cogeneration to be practical power generation and end use of heat must be in relatively close proximity (<2 km typically). Even though the efficiency of a small distributed electrical generator may be lower than a large central power plant, the use of its waste heat for local heating and cooling can result in an overall use of the primary fuel supply as great as 80%.<sup id="cite_ref-energy.gov_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-energy.gov-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This provides substantial financial and environmental benefits. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Costs">Costs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Costs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">Cost of electricity by source</a></div> <p>Typically, for a gas-fired plant the fully installed cost per kW electrical is around £400/kW (US$577), which is comparable with large central power stations.<sup id="cite_ref-claverton-energy.com_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-claverton-energy.com-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cogeneration_in_Europe">Cogeneration in Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Cogeneration in Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Power_plant_at_sunset.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Power_plant_at_sunset.jpg/220px-Power_plant_at_sunset.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Power_plant_at_sunset.jpg/330px-Power_plant_at_sunset.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Power_plant_at_sunset.jpg/440px-Power_plant_at_sunset.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>A cogeneration thermal power plant in <a href="/wiki/Ferrera_Erbognone" title="Ferrera Erbognone">Ferrera Erbognone</a> (<a href="/wiki/Province_of_Pavia" title="Province of Pavia">PV</a>), <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></figcaption></figure><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be <b>updated</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a> has actively incorporated cogeneration into its energy policy via the <a href="/wiki/CHP_Directive" title="CHP Directive">CHP Directive</a>. In September 2008 at a hearing of the European Parliament's Urban Lodgment Intergroup, Energy Commissioner Andris Piebalgs is quoted as saying, “security of supply really starts with <a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">energy efficiency</a>.”<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Energy efficiency and cogeneration are recognized in the opening paragraphs of the European Union's Cogeneration Directive 2004/08/EC. This directive intends to support cogeneration and establish a method for calculating cogeneration abilities per country. The development of cogeneration has been very uneven over the years and has been dominated throughout the last decades by national circumstances. </p><p>The European Union generates 11% of its electricity using cogeneration.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there is large difference between Member States with variations of the energy savings between 2% and 60%. Europe has the three countries with the world's most intensive cogeneration economies: Denmark, the Netherlands and Finland.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the 28.46 TWh of electrical power generated by conventional thermal power plants in Finland in 2012, 81.80% was cogeneration.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other European countries are also making great efforts to increase efficiency. Germany reported that at present, over 50% of the country's total electricity demand could be provided through cogeneration. So far, Germany has set the target to double its electricity cogeneration from 12.5% of the country's electricity to 25% of the country's electricity by 2020 and has passed supporting legislation accordingly.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The UK is also actively supporting combined heat and power. In light of UK's goal to achieve a 60% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 2050, the government has set the target to source at least 15% of its government electricity use from CHP by 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other UK measures to encourage CHP growth are financial incentives, grant support, a greater regulatory framework, and government leadership and partnership. </p><p>According to the IEA 2008 modeling of cogeneration expansion for the G8 countries, the expansion of cogeneration in France, Germany, Italy and the UK alone would effectively double the existing primary fuel savings by 2030. This would increase Europe's savings from today's 155.69 Twh to 465 Twh in 2030. It would also result in a 16% to 29% increase in each country's total cogenerated electricity by 2030. </p><p>Governments are being assisted in their CHP endeavors by organizations like <a href="/wiki/COGEN_Europe" title="COGEN Europe">COGEN Europe</a> who serve as an information hub for the most recent updates within Europe's energy policy. COGEN is Europe's umbrella organization representing the interests of the cogeneration industry. </p><p>The European <a href="/wiki/Public%E2%80%93private_partnership" title="Public–private partnership">public–private partnership</a> <a href="/wiki/Fuel_Cells_and_Hydrogen_Joint_Technology_Initiative" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative">Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking</a> <a href="/wiki/Framework_Programmes_for_Research_and_Technological_Development" title="Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development">Seventh Framework Programme</a> project ene.field deploys in 2017<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> up 1,000 residential fuel cell Combined Heat and Power (<a href="/wiki/Micro-CHP" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-CHP">micro-CHP</a>) installations in 12 states. Per 2012 the first 2 installations have taken place.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cogeneration_in_the_United_Kingdom">Cogeneration in the United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Cogeneration in the United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, the <i>Combined Heat and Power Quality Assurance</i> scheme regulates the combined production of heat and power. It was introduced in 1996. It defines, through calculation of inputs and outputs, "Good Quality CHP" in terms of the achievement of primary energy savings against conventional separate generation of heat and electricity. Compliance with Combined Heat and Power Quality Assurance is required for cogeneration installations to be eligible for government subsidies and tax incentives.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cogeneration_in_the_United_States">Cogeneration in the United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Cogeneration in the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mirant_Kendall_Cogeneration_Station.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Mirant_Kendall_Cogeneration_Station.jpg/220px-Mirant_Kendall_Cogeneration_Station.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Mirant_Kendall_Cogeneration_Station.jpg/330px-Mirant_Kendall_Cogeneration_Station.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Mirant_Kendall_Cogeneration_Station.jpg/440px-Mirant_Kendall_Cogeneration_Station.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2468" data-file-height="1974" /></a><figcaption>The 250 <a href="/wiki/Megawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Megawatt">MW</a> <a href="/wiki/Kendall_Cogeneration_Station" title="Kendall Cogeneration Station">Kendall Cogeneration Station</a> plant in <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Perhaps the first modern use of <a href="/wiki/Energy_recycling" title="Energy recycling">energy recycling</a> was done by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a>. His 1882 <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Street_Station" title="Pearl Street Station">Pearl Street Station</a>, the world's first commercial power plant, was a combined heat and power plant, producing both electricity and thermal energy while using waste heat to warm neighboring buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recycling allowed Edison's plant to achieve approximately 50 percent efficiency. </p><p>By the early 1900s, regulations emerged to promote rural electrification through the construction of centralized plants managed by regional utilities. These regulations not only promoted electrification throughout the countryside, but they also discouraged decentralized power generation, such as cogeneration. </p><p>By 1978, Congress recognized that efficiency at central power plants had stagnated and sought to encourage improved efficiency with the <a href="/wiki/Public_Utility_Regulatory_Policies_Act" title="Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act">Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act</a> (PURPA), which encouraged utilities to buy power from other energy producers. </p><p>Cogeneration plants proliferated, soon producing about 8% of all energy in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-localpower_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-localpower-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the bill left implementation and enforcement up to individual states, resulting in little or nothing being done in many parts of the country.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> has an aggressive goal of having CHP constitute 20% of generation capacity by 2030.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Eight Clean Energy Application Centers<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have been established across the nation. Their mission is to develop the required technology application knowledge and educational infrastructure necessary to lead "clean energy" (combined heat and power, waste heat recovery, and district energy) technologies as viable energy options and reduce any perceived risks associated with their implementation. The focus of the Application Centers is to provide an outreach and technology deployment program for end users, policymakers, utilities, and industry stakeholders. </p><p>High electric rates in New England and the Middle Atlantic make these areas of the United States the most beneficial for cogeneration.<sup id="cite_ref-electricitydata_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-electricitydata-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-energysaving_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-energysaving-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications_in_power_generation_systems">Applications in power generation systems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Applications in power generation systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fossil">Fossil</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Fossil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Any of the following conventional power plants may be converted to a combined cooling, heat and power system:<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine#Microturbines" title="Gas turbine">Microturbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">Small gas turbine</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear">Nuclear</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Nuclear"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal power</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_heating" title="Geothermal heating">geothermal heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric generators</a> often double as <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_heater_unit" title="Radioisotope heater unit">Radioisotope heater units</a> partially offsetting their low (single digit percent) efficiency in converting thermal to electric energy</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renewable">Renewable</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Renewable"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_energy" title="Solar thermal energy">Solar thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_heating_system#Combined_heat_and_power" title="Biomass heating system">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">fuel cell</a> (using <a href="/wiki/Green_hydrogen" title="Green hydrogen">green hydrogen</a>)</li> <li>Any type of <a href="/wiki/Gas_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas compressor">compressor</a> or <a href="/wiki/Turboexpander" title="Turboexpander">turboexpander</a>, such as in <a href="/wiki/Compressed_air_energy_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Compressed air energy storage">compressed air energy storage</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_energy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/29px-Crystal_energy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="29" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/44px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/59px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="124" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_separation" title="Air separation">Air separation</a> – Chemical process</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnot_cycle" title="Carnot cycle">Carnot cycle</a> – Idealized thermodynamic cycle</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnot_method" title="Carnot method">Carnot method</a> – Energy allocation procedure</li> <li><a href="/wiki/CHP_Directive" title="CHP Directive">CHP Directive</a> – EU Directive on cogeneration of heat and power</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">Cost of electricity by source</a> – Comparison of costs of different electricity generation sources</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_generation" title="Distributed generation">Distributed generation</a> – Decentralised electricity generation (more general term encompassing CHP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">District heating</a> – Centralized heat distribution system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_generation" title="Electricity generation">Electricity generation</a> – Process of generating electrical power</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">Electrification</a> – Process of changing something to use electricity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_European_Union" title="Energy policy of the European Union">Energy policy of the European Union</a> – Legislation in the area of energetics in the European Union</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_electricity_generation" title="Environmental impact of electricity generation">Environmental impact of electricity generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Biomass_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="European Biomass Association">European Biomass Association</a> – European bioenergy organisation<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_gas" title="Industrial gas">Industrial gas</a> – Gaseous materials produced for use in industry</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micro_combined_heat_and_power" title="Micro combined heat and power">Micro combined heat and power</a> – Small-scale generation of heat and power</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_steam_system" title="New York City steam system">New York City steam system</a> – District heating system in New York City</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankine_cycle" title="Rankine cycle">Rankine cycle</a> – Model that is used to predict the performance of steam turbine systems</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_Rankine_cycle" title="Organic Rankine cycle">Organic Rankine cycle</a> – Variation on the Rankine thermodynamic cycle</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stirling_engine" title="Stirling engine">Stirling engine</a> – Closed-cycle regenerative heat engine</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absorption_refrigerator" title="Absorption refrigerator">Absorption refrigerator</a> – Refrigerator that uses a heat source</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiler" title="Boiler">Boiler</a> – Closed vessel in which fluid is heated</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/steamitsgenerat00compgoog"><i>Steam, Its Generation and Use</i></a> (35 ed.). Babcock & Wilson Company. 1913.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Steam%2C+Its+Generation+and+Use&rft.edition=35&rft.pub=Babcock+%26+Wilson+Company&rft.date=1913&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsteamitsgenerat00compgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-does-cogeneration-provide-heat-power/">"How Does Cogeneration Provide Heat and Power?"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191127205316/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-does-cogeneration-provide-heat-power/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-11-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-11-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=How+Does+Cogeneration+Provide+Heat+and+Power%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fhow-does-cogeneration-provide-heat-power%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dekb.co.uk/home/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=82&Itemid=93">"What is Decentralised Energy?"</a>. The Decentralised Energy Knowledge Base. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081210123230/http://www.dekb.co.uk/home/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=82&Itemid=93">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-12-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+Decentralised+Energy%3F&rft.pub=The+Decentralised+Energy+Knowledge+Base&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dekb.co.uk%2Fhome%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26view%3Dcategory%26id%3D82%26Itemid%3D93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunterBryant,_Lynwood1991" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Louis C.; Bryant, Lynwood (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofindustr00hunt"><i>A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730-1930, Vol. 3: The Transmission of Power</i></a></span>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Finning+Caterpillar+Gas+Engine+CHP+Ratings&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.claverton-energy.com%2Ffinning-caterpillar-gas-engine-chp-ratings-and-thermal-outputs.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.claverton-energy.com/first-energy-offer-excellent-condition-complete-gas-engined-chp-system-for-sale-and-installation.html">"Complete 7 MWe Deutz ( 2 x 3.5MWe) gas engine CHP power plant for sale"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dioxins+%26+Furans%3A+The+Most+Toxic+Chemicals+Known+to+Science&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ejnet.org%2Fdioxin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.orchardpartners.co.uk/Docs/IAEEVilniusPaperWhyHeatFromCHPisRenewableMarginalExergyAnalysis2011-09-14.pdf">"Why Heat From CHP is Renewable - based on paper presented at IAEE Vilnius (2010)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 2011-09-14. p. 4 paragraph 4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170921204903/http://www.orchardpartners.co.uk/Docs/IAEEVilniusPaperWhyHeatFromCHPisRenewableMarginalExergyAnalysis2011-09-14.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2017-09-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-12-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+Heat+From+CHP+is+Renewable+-+based+on+paper+presented+at+IAEE+Vilnius+%282010%29&rft.pages=4+paragraph+4&rft.date=2011-09-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.orchardpartners.co.uk%2FDocs%2FIAEEVilniusPaperWhyHeatFromCHPisRenewableMarginalExergyAnalysis2011-09-14.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowe2011" class="citation journal cs1">Lowe, R. (2011). 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(Update)"</a>. 17 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Was+bedeutet+kalte+Nahw%C3%A4rme%3F+%28Update%29&rft.date=2018-01-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.energynet.de%2F2018%2F01%2F17%2Fkalte-nahwaerme%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icrepq.com/icrepq-08/245-san-martin.pdf">"Trigeneration Systems with Fuel Cells"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Research Paper</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111006064857/http://www.icrepq.com/icrepq-08/245-san-martin.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 6 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Research+Paper&rft.atitle=Trigeneration+Systems+with+Fuel+Cells&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icrepq.com%2Ficrepq-08%2F245-san-martin.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-energy.gov-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-energy.gov_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-energy.gov_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100527095840/http://fossil.energy.gov/programs/powersystems/turbines/turbines_howitworks.html">"DOE – Fossil Energy: How Turbine Power Plants Work"</a>. Fossil.energy.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fossil.energy.gov/programs/powersystems/turbines/turbines_howitworks.html">the original</a> on May 27, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-09-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=DOE+%E2%80%93+Fossil+Energy%3A+How+Turbine+Power+Plants+Work&rft.pub=Fossil.energy.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffossil.energy.gov%2Fprograms%2Fpowersystems%2Fturbines%2Fturbines_howitworks.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Mechanical or Chemical Engineering texts on Thermodynamics.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-claverton-energy.com-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-claverton-energy.com_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190819175323/https://claverton-energy.com/38-hhv-caterpillar-bio-gas-engine-fitted-to-long-reach-sewage-works.html">"38% HHV Caterpillar Bio-gas Engine Fitted to Sewage Works - Claverton Group"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.claverton-energy.com/38-hhv-caterpillar-bio-gas-engine-fitted-to-long-reach-sewage-works.html">the original</a> on 19 August 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=38%25+HHV+Caterpillar+Bio-gas+Engine+Fitted+to+Sewage+Works+-+Claverton+Group&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.claverton-energy.com%2F38-hhv-caterpillar-bio-gas-engine-fitted-to-long-reach-sewage-works.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cogeneurope.eu/Downloadables/Publications/230908_Energy_Efficiency_Industrial_Forum_Security_of_Supply.pdf">"Energy Efficiency Industrial Forum Position Paper: energy efficiency – a vital component of energy security"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Energy+Efficiency+Industrial+Forum+Position+Paper%3A+energy+efficiency+%E2%80%93+a+vital+component+of+energy+security&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cogeneurope.eu%2FDownloadables%2FPublications%2F230908_Energy_Efficiency_Industrial_Forum_Security_of_Supply.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cogeneurope.eu/medialibrary/2011/04/21/2bc24419/240311%20COGEN%20Europe%20press%20release.pdf">"2011 - Cogen -Experts discuss the central role cogeneration has to play in shaping EU energy policy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>cogeneurope.eu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170620044706/http://www.cogeneurope.eu/medialibrary/2011/04/21/2bc24419/240311%20COGEN%20Europe%20press%20release.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 20 June 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cogeneurope.eu&rft.atitle=2011+-+Cogen+-Experts+discuss+the+central+role+cogeneration+has+to+play+in+shaping+EU+energy+policy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cogeneurope.eu%2Fmedialibrary%2F2011%2F04%2F21%2F2bc24419%2F240311%2520COGEN%2520Europe%2520press%2520release.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cogeneurope.eu/Downloadables/Publications/Cogeneration_Europe_Draft_paper_on_Security_of_Supply_in_EU_energy_policy.pdf">"COGEN Europe: Cogeneration in the European Union's Energy Supply Security"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 16 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=COGEN+Europe%3A+Cogeneration+in+the+European+Union%27s+Energy+Supply+Security&rft.date=2017-10-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cogeneurope.eu%2FDownloadables%2FPublications%2FCogeneration_Europe_Draft_paper_on_Security_of_Supply_in_EU_energy_policy.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140220125742/http://energia.fi/tilastot-ja-julkaisut/sahkotilastot/sahkontuotanto/sahkon-hankinta-energialahteittain">"Electricity Generation by Energy Source"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://energia.fi/tilastot-ja-julkaisut/sahkotilastot/sahkontuotanto/sahkon-hankinta-energialahteittain">the original</a> on 2014-02-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Electricity+Generation+by+Energy+Source&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenergia.fi%2Ftilastot-ja-julkaisut%2Fsahkotilastot%2Fsahkontuotanto%2Fsahkon-hankinta-energialahteittain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140202095900/http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/kwkg_2002/__1.html">"KWKG 2002"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/kwkg_2002/__1.html">the original</a> on 2014-02-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=KWKG+2002&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gesetze-im-internet.de%2Fkwkg_2002%2F__1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100612100647/http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/climatechange/uk/energy/chp/index.htm">"DEFRA Action in the UK - Combined Heat and Power"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/climatechange/uk/energy/chp/index.htm">the original</a> on 2010-06-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=DEFRA+Action+in+the+UK+-+Combined+Heat+and+Power&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.defra.gov.uk%2Fenvironment%2Fclimatechange%2Fuk%2Fenergy%2Fchp%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fch-ju.eu/sites/default/files/documents/sga2012/Presentation%20Fiona%20Riddoch-%20Session%20II.pdf">"5th stakeholders general assembly of the FCH JU"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>fch-ju.eu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131110030750/http://www.fch-ju.eu/sites/default/files/documents/sga2012/Presentation%20Fiona%20Riddoch-%20Session%20II.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 10 November 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=fch-ju.eu&rft.atitle=5th+stakeholders+general+assembly+of+the+FCH+JU&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fch-ju.eu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2Fsga2012%2FPresentation%2520Fiona%2520Riddoch-%2520Session%2520II.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://enefield.eu/">"ene.field"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161002024915/http://enefield.eu/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ene.field&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenefield.eu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h2fc-fair.com/hm13/images/ppt/10we/1420-1.pdf">European-wide field trials for residential fuel cell micro-CHP</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161109221035/http://www.h2fc-fair.com/hm13/images/ppt/10we/1420-1.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-11-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://enefield.eu/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Progress-Report-1-M1-M6-Final.pdf">ene.field Grant No 303462</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131110070103/http://enefield.eu/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Progress-Report-1-M1-M6-Final.pdf">Archived</a> November 10, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chpqa.decc.gov.uk">"Combined Heat and Power Quality Assurance Programme"</a>. <i>decc.gov.uk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141030232902/http://chpqa.decc.gov.uk/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-06-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World%27s+First+Commercial+Power+Plant+Was+a+Cogeneration+Plant&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cogeneration.net%2FThomasEdisonsCogenPlant.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-localpower-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-localpower_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.localpower.org/documents/report_worldsurvey06.pdf">"World Survey of Decentralized Energy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. May 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090106073319/http://www.localpower.org/documents/report_worldsurvey06.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2009-01-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-07-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+Survey+of+Decentralized+Energy&rft.date=2006-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.localpower.org%2Fdocuments%2Freport_worldsurvey06.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130415062907/http://www.gulfcoastcleanenergy.org/WhatisCHP/StateInformation/OtherStates/tabid/1349/Default.aspx">"Eight Clean Energy Application Centers"</a>. Archived from the original on 2013-04-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-02-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Eight+Clean+Energy+Application+Centers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gulfcoastcleanenergy.org%2FWhatisCHP%2FStateInformation%2FOtherStates%2Ftabid%2F1349%2FDefault.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-electricitydata-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-electricitydata_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/epm_table_grapher.cfm?t=epmt_5_6_a">"Electricity Data"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150531215733/http://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/epm_table_grapher.cfm?t=epmt_5_6_a">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-05-31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Electricity+Data&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eia.gov%2Felectricity%2Fmonthly%2Fepm_table_grapher.cfm%3Ft%3Depmt_5_6_a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-energysaving-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-energysaving_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newenglandcondo.com/articles/773/1/Energy-Saving-Incentives/Page1.html">"New England Energy"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150123213042/http://newenglandcondo.com/articles/773/1/Energy-Saving-Incentives/Page1.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-01-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+England+Energy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnewenglandcondo.com%2Farticles%2F773%2F1%2FEnergy-Saving-Incentives%2FPage1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasters2004" class="citation book cs1">Masters, Gilbert (2004). <i>Renewable and efficient electric power systems</i>. New York: Wiley-IEEE Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Renewable+and+efficient+electric+power+systems&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wiley-IEEE+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Masters&rft.aufirst=Gilbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Electricity_delivery" title="Template:Electricity delivery"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Electricity_delivery" title="Template talk:Electricity delivery"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Electricity_delivery" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Electricity delivery"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Electricity_delivery" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Electricity_delivery" title="Electricity delivery">Electricity delivery</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_generation_control" title="Automatic generation control">Automatic generation control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backfeeding" title="Backfeeding">Backfeeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Base_load" title="Base load">Base load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demand_factor" title="Demand factor">Demand factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droop_speed_control" title="Droop speed control">Droop speed control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">Electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_quality" title="Electric power quality">Electric power quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_fault" title="Electrical fault">Electrical fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_demand_management" title="Energy demand management">Energy demand management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_return_on_investment" title="Energy return on investment">Energy return on investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_code" title="Grid code">Grid code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_energy_storage" title="Grid energy storage">Grid energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Grid strength">Grid strength</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_energy_storage" title="Home energy storage">Home energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load-following_power_plant" title="Load-following power plant">Load-following</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_order" title="Merit order">Merit order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nameplate_capacity" title="Nameplate capacity">Nameplate capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_demand" title="Peak demand">Peak demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_factor" title="Power factor">Power factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power-flow_study" title="Power-flow study">Power-flow study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repowering" title="Repowering">Repowering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_frequency" title="Utility frequency">Utility frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_renewable_energy" title="Variable renewable energy">Variability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle-to-grid" title="Vehicle-to-grid">Vehicle-to-grid</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Abspannportal.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal pylons of Kriftel substation near Frankfurt"><img alt="Portal pylons of Kriftel substation near Frankfurt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Abspannportal.jpg/120px-Abspannportal.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Abspannportal.jpg/180px-Abspannportal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Abspannportal.jpg/240px-Abspannportal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">Non-renewable</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_station" title="Fossil fuel power station">Fossil fuel power station</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">Oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">Petroleum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogas" title="Biogas">Biogas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_current_power" title="Marine current power">Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmotic_power" title="Osmotic power">Osmotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_biofuel" title="Sustainable biofuel">Sustainable biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Power_station_technology" title="Category:Power station technology">Generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AC_power" title="AC power">AC power</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cogeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle_power_plant" title="Combined cycle power plant">Combined cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooling_tower" title="Cooling tower">Cooling tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_generator" title="Induction generator">Induction generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micro_combined_heat_and_power" title="Micro combined heat and power">Micro CHP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microgeneration" title="Microgeneration">Microgeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankine_cycle" title="Rankine cycle">Rankine cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-phase_electric_power" title="Three-phase electric power">Three-phase electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_power_plant" title="Virtual power plant">Virtual power plant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">Transmission</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">distribution</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand_response" title="Demand response">Demand response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_generation" title="Distributed generation">Distributed generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_demand_(electric_power)" title="Dynamic demand (electric power)">Dynamic demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">Electric power distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_system" title="Electric power system">Electric power system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">Electric power transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_busbar_system" title="Electrical busbar system">Electrical busbar system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">Electrical grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_substation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical substation">Electrical substation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_retailing" title="Electricity retailing">Electricity retailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-voltage_direct_current" title="High-voltage direct current">High-voltage direct current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-voltage_shore_connection" title="High-voltage shore connection">High-voltage shore connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interconnector" title="Interconnector">Interconnector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load_management" title="Load management">Load management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mains_electricity_by_country" title="Mains electricity by country">Mains electricity by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_station" title="Power station">Power station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity" title="Pumped-storage hydroelectricity">Pumped hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-wire_earth_return" title="Single-wire earth return">Single-wire earth return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">Smart grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_grid" title="Super grid">Super grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_system_operator" title="Transmission system operator">Transmission system operator</a> (TSO)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_tower" title="Transmission tower">Transmission tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_pole" title="Utility pole">Utility pole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Failure modes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_start" title="Black start">Black start</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brownout_(electricity)" title="Brownout (electricity)">Brownout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascading_failure" title="Cascading failure">Cascading failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_outage" title="Power outage">Power outage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_blackout" title="Rolling blackout">Rolling blackout</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Protective<br />devices</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arc-fault_circuit_interrupter" title="Arc-fault circuit interrupter">Arc-fault circuit interrupter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_breaker" title="Circuit breaker">Circuit breaker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth-leakage_circuit_breaker" title="Earth-leakage circuit breaker">Earth-leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_hexafluoride_circuit_breaker" title="Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker">Sulfur hexafluoride</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generator_interlock_kit" title="Generator interlock kit">Generator interlock kit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_relay" title="Numerical relay">Numerical relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_system_protection" title="Power system protection">Power system protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protective_relay" title="Protective relay">Protective relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residual-current_device" title="Residual-current device">Residual-current device</a> (GFI)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Economics<br />and policies</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Availability_factor" title="Availability factor">Availability factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">Capacity factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">Cost of electricity by source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_subsidy" title="Energy subsidy">Energy subsidies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_tax" title="Environmental tax">Environmental tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed-in_tariff" title="Feed-in tariff">Feed-in tariff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load_factor_(electrical)" title="Load factor (electrical)">Load factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_metering" title="Net metering">Net metering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigouvian_tax" title="Pigouvian tax">Pigouvian tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Certificate_(United_States)" title="Renewable Energy Certificate (United States)">Renewable Energy Certificates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Renewable energy commercialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Payments" title="Renewable Energy Payments">Renewable Energy Payments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spark_spread" title="Spark spread">Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Statistics and<br />production</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_energy_consumption" title="Electric energy consumption">Electric energy consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_electricity_sectors" 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