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classification</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Systems_of_classification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Systems of classification subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Systems_of_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Greek_logic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greek_logic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Greek logic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greek_logic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_logic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_logic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Indian logic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_logic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Whately's_grouping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Whately's_grouping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Whately's grouping</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Whately's_grouping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_systems_of_classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_systems_of_classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Other systems of classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_systems_of_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formal_fallacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formal_fallacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Formal fallacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Formal_fallacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Formal fallacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Formal_fallacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Common_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Common examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Common_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ecological_fallacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecological_fallacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Ecological fallacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecological_fallacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fallacy_fork" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fallacy_fork"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Fallacy fork</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fallacy_fork-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Informal_fallacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Informal_fallacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Informal fallacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Informal_fallacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Informal fallacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Informal_fallacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Faulty_generalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Faulty_generalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Faulty generalization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Faulty_generalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hasty_generalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hasty_generalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Hasty generalization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hasty_generalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relevance_fallacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relevance_fallacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Relevance fallacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relevance_fallacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Argument_from_silence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Argument_from_silence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Argument from silence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Argument_from_silence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_of_informal_fallacies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_informal_fallacies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Examples of informal fallacies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_informal_fallacies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Post_hoc_(false_cause)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post_hoc_(false_cause)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span><i>Post hoc</i> (false cause)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post_hoc_(false_cause)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slippery_slope" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slippery_slope"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Slippery slope</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slippery_slope-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-False_analogy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#False_analogy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.3</span> <span>False analogy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-False_analogy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Straw_man_fallacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Straw_man_fallacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.4</span> <span>Straw man fallacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Straw_man_fallacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurement_fallacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurement_fallacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Measurement fallacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Measurement_fallacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Measurement fallacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Measurement_fallacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Knowledge_value_measurement_fallacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Knowledge_value_measurement_fallacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Knowledge value measurement fallacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Knowledge_value_measurement_fallacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intentional_fallacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intentional_fallacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Intentional fallacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intentional_fallacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assessment:_pragmatic_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assessment:_pragmatic_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Assessment: pragmatic theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assessment:_pragmatic_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Historical texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Fallacy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 64 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-64" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">64 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A9" title="مغالطة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مغالطة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="ভ্ৰান্তি – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ভ্ৰান্তি" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B7" title="যুক্তিদোষ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="যুক্তিদোষ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su-l%C3%AD_g%C5%8D%CD%98-bi%C5%AB" title="Su-lí gō͘-biū – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Su-lí gō͘-biū" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Логическа грешка – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Логическа грешка" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fal%C2%B7l%C3%A0cia" title="Fal·làcia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fal·làcia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumenta%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_klam" title="Argumentační klam – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Argumentační klam" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fejlslutning" title="Fejlslutning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fejlslutning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fehlschluss" title="Fehlschluss – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Fehlschluss" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arutlusviga" title="Arutlusviga – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Arutlusviga" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B7" title="Λογική πλάνη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λογική πλάνη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falacia" title="Falacia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Falacia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralogismo" title="Paralogismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Paralogismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falazia" title="Falazia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Falazia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%87" title="مغالطه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مغالطه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raisonnement_fallacieux" title="Raisonnement fallacieux – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Raisonnement fallacieux" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falacia" title="Falacia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Falacia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A4%EB%A5%98_(%EB%85%BC%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99)" title="오류 (논리학) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="오류 (논리학)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BD%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Տրամաբանական սխալներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տրամաբանական սխալներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95" title="मिथ्या तर्क – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मिथ्या तर्क" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logi%C4%8Dka_pogre%C5%A1ka" title="Logička pogreška – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Logička pogreška" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofismo" title="Sofismo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Sofismo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesesatan" title="Kesesatan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kesesatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6kvilla" title="Rökvilla – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rökvilla" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallacia" title="Fallacia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fallacia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99" title="כשל לוגי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כשל לוגי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%95" title="ಕುತರ್ಕ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕುತರ್ಕ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0%D2%9B" title="Сандырақ – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сандырақ" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captio_(logica)" title="Captio (logica) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Captio (logica)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumentacijos_klaida" title="Argumentacijos klaida – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Argumentacijos klaida" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falasias" title="Falasias – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Falasias" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89rvel%C3%A9si_hiba" title="Érvelési hiba – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Érvelési hiba" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Логичка грешка – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Логичка грешка" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82" title="ഹേത്വാഭാസം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഹേത്വാഭാസം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE" title="तार्किक उणीवा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="तार्किक उणीवा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falasi" title="Falasi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Falasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drogreden" title="Drogreden – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Drogreden" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%A4%E8%AC%AC" title="誤謬 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="誤謬" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tankefeil" title="Tankefeil – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tankefeil" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofisme_(rasonament)" title="Sofisme (rasonament) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Sofisme (rasonament)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantiqiy_xatolar" title="Mantiqiy xatolar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Mantiqiy xatolar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86%D9%87_%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%BA%D9%84%D8%B7_%D9%81%D9%87%D9%85%D9%8A" title="تېروتنه یا غلط فهمي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="تېروتنه یا غلط فهمي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C5%82%C4%85d_logiczny" title="Błąd logiczny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Błąd logiczny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fal%C3%A1cia" title="Falácia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Falácia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eroare_logic%C4%83" title="Eroare logică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Eroare logică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D2%91%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%85%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Лоґічна хыба – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Лоґічна хыба" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Логическая ошибка – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Логическая ошибка" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Fallacy" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsiteti" title="Falsiteti – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Falsiteti" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Fallacy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logick%C3%BD_klam" title="Logický klam – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Logický klam" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%95%DA%BE%DB%95%DA%B5%DB%95%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%84%DB%86%DA%98%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="بەھەڵەبردنی لۆژیکی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بەھەڵەبردنی لۆژیکی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Логичка грешка – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Логичка грешка" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logi%C4%8Dka_gre%C5%A1ka" title="Logička greška – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Logička greška" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumentointivirhe" title="Argumentointivirhe – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Argumentointivirhe" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumentationsfel" title="Argumentationsfel – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Argumentationsfel" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palasya" title="Palasya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Palasya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%9C%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4" title="เหตุผลวิบัติ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เหตุผลวิบัติ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safsata" title="Safsata – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Safsata" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Логічна хиба – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Логічна хиба" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%E1%BB%A5y_bi%E1%BB%87n" title="Ngụy biện – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngụy biện" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B0%AC%E8%AF%AF" title="谬误 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="谬误" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AC%AC%E8%AB%96" title="謬論 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="謬論" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AC%AC%E8%AA%A4" title="謬誤 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="謬誤" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paralogism&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Paralogism">Paralogism</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Argument that uses faulty reasoning</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Rhetoric" title="Category:Rhetoric">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/150px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/225px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/300px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="962" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#History_and_development" title="Rhetoric">History</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Ancient_Greece" title="Rhetoric">Ancient Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic_style" title="Asiatic style">Asianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atticism" title="Atticism">Atticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_orators" title="Attic orators">Attic orators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calliope" title="Calliope">Calliope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Indian_rhetoric" title="Ancient Indian rhetoric">Ancient India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Rome" title="Rhetoric">Ancient Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature#The_age_of_Cicero" title="Latin literature">The age of Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Medieval_to_Enlightenment" title="Rhetoric">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_rhetoric" title="Byzantine rhetoric">Byzantine rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">Trivium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Sixteenth_century" title="Rhetoric">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Studia_humanitatis" class="mw-redirect" title="Studia humanitatis">Studia humanitatis</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_rhetoric" title="Modern rhetoric">Modern period</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Captatio_benevolentiae" title="Captatio benevolentiae">Captatio benevolentiae</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chironomia" title="Chironomia">Chironomia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decorum" title="Decorum">Decorum</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Delectare" class="mw-redirect" title="Delectare">Delectare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Docere" class="mw-redirect" title="Docere">Docere</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_device" title="Rhetorical device">Device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eloquence" title="Eloquence">Eloquence</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eloquentia_perfecta" title="Eloquentia perfecta">Eloquentia perfecta</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eunoia" title="Eunoia">Eunoia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthymeme" title="Enthymeme">Enthymeme</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Facilitas" title="Facilitas">Facilitas</a></i></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fallacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">Informal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figure_of_speech" title="Figure of speech">Figure of speech</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scheme_(rhetoric)" title="Scheme (rhetoric)">Scheme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trope_(literature)" title="Trope (literature)">Trope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Canons_of_Rhetoric" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Canons of Rhetoric">Five canons</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Inventio" title="Inventio">Inventio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dispositio" title="Dispositio">Dispositio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elocutio" title="Elocutio">Elocutio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Memoria" title="Memoria">Memoria</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pronuntiatio" title="Pronuntiatio">Pronuntiatio</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypsos" title="Hypsos">Hypsos</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dionysian_imitatio" title="Dionysian imitatio">Imitatio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kairos" title="Kairos">Kairos</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Method_of_loci" title="Method of loci">Method of loci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_modes" title="Rhetorical modes">Modes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_operations" title="Rhetorical operations">Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modes_of_persuasion" title="Modes of persuasion">Persuasion</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">Ethos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pathos" title="Pathos">Pathos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_situation" title="Rhetorical situation">Situation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(sociolinguistics)" title="Style (sociolinguistics)">Style</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_style_(rhetoric)" title="Grand style (rhetoric)">Grand</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sotto_voce" title="Sotto voce">Sotto voce</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Literary_topos" title="Literary topos">Topos</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Genres</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apologetics" title="Apologetics">Apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debate" title="Debate">Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declamation" title="Declamation">Declamation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Controversia" title="Controversia">Controversia</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_rhetoric" title="Deliberative rhetoric">Deliberative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demagogue" title="Demagogue">Demagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">Dialectic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dissoi_logoi" title="Dissoi logoi">Dissoi logoi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elocution" title="Elocution">Elocution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epideictic" title="Epideictic">Epideictic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Encomium" title="Encomium">Encomium</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panegyric" title="Panegyric">Panegyric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eulogy" title="Eulogy">Eulogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farewell_speech" title="Farewell speech">Farewell speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_rhetoric" title="Forensic rhetoric">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_oration_(ancient_Greece)" title="Funeral oration (ancient Greece)">Funeral oration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homiletics" title="Homiletics">Homiletics‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sermon" title="Sermon">Sermon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invitational_rhetoric" title="Invitational rhetoric">Invitational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lecture" title="Lecture">Lecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_lecture" title="Public lecture">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightning_talk" title="Lightning talk">Lightning talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maiden_speech" title="Maiden speech">Maiden speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">Oratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">Polemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diatribe" title="Diatribe">Diatribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eristic" title="Eristic">Eristic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippic" title="Philippic">Philippic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progymnasmata" title="Progymnasmata">Progymnasmata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suasoria" title="Suasoria">Suasoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resignation_speech" title="Resignation speech">Resignation speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stump_speech" title="Stump speech">Stump speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-war_rhetoric" title="Pro-war rhetoric">War-mongering</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_criticism" title="Rhetorical criticism">Criticism</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_criticism" title="Cluster criticism">Cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dramatistic_pentad" title="Dramatistic pentad">Pentadic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frame_analysis" title="Frame analysis">Frame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genre_criticism" title="Genre criticism">Genre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_criticism" title="Ideological criticism">Ideological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphoric_criticism" title="Metaphoric criticism">Metaphoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis_criticism" title="Mimesis criticism">Mimesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_criticism" title="Narrative criticism">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aristotelianism_(literature)" title="Neo-Aristotelianism (literature)">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Rhetoricians</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspasia" title="Aspasia">Aspasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakhtin" title="Mikhail Bakhtin">Bakhtin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayne_C._Booth" title="Wayne C. Booth">Booth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Brueggemann" title="Walter Brueggemann">Brueggemann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysias" title="Lysias">Lysias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Ong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Perelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_de_Pizan" title="Christine de Pizan">Pizan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Ramus" title="Petrus Ramus">Ramus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Toulmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver" title="Richard M. Weaver">Weaver</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Works</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)" title="Gorgias (dialogue)">Gorgias</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(380 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)#Discussion_of_rhetoric_and_writing_(257c–279c)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 370 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_to_Alexander" title="Rhetoric to Alexander">Rhetoric to Alexander</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">De Sophisticis Elenchis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Topics_(Aristotle)" title="Topics (Aristotle)">Topics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Inventione" title="De Inventione">De Inventione</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(84 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium" title="Rhetorica ad Herennium">Rhetorica ad Herennium</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(80 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Oratore" title="De Oratore">De Oratore</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(55 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Dialogue_Concerning_Oratorical_Partitions" title="A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions">A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Optimo_Genere_Oratorum" title="De Optimo Genere Oratorum">De Optimo Genere Oratorum</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(46 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orator_(Cicero)" title="Orator (Cicero)">Orator</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(46 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sublime" title="On the Sublime">On the Sublime</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Institutio_Oratoria" title="Institutio Oratoria">Institutio Oratoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(95)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Panegyrici_Latini" title="Panegyrici Latini">Panegyrici Latini</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(100–400)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogus_de_oratoribus" title="Dialogus de oratoribus">Dialogus de oratoribus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(102)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_doctrina_Christiana" title="De doctrina Christiana">De doctrina Christiana</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(426)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_vulgari_eloquentia" title="De vulgari eloquentia">De vulgari eloquentia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1305)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Copia:_Foundations_of_the_Abundant_Style" title="Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style">Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1521)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language_as_Symbolic_Action" title="Language as Symbolic Action">Language as Symbolic Action</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1966)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_General_Rhetoric" title="A General Rhetoric">A General Rhetoric</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1970)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Subfields</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">Argumentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_rhetoric" title="Cognitive rhetoric">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastive_rhetoric" title="Contrastive rhetoric">Contrastive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutive_rhetoric" title="Constitutive rhetoric">Constitutive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rhetoric" title="Digital rhetoric">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_rhetoric" title="Feminist rhetoric">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_rhetoric" title="Native American rhetoric">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_rhetorics" class="mw-redirect" title="New rhetorics">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_health_and_medicine" title="Rhetoric of health and medicine">Health and medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_rhetoric_and_composition_pedagogy" title="Theories of rhetoric and composition pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_rhetoric" title="Procedural rhetoric">Procedural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_technology" title="Rhetoric of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_therapy" title="Rhetoric of therapy">Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_rhetoric" title="Visual rhetoric">Visual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_rhetoric_and_composition" title="Visual rhetoric and composition">Composition</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ars_dictaminis" title="Ars dictaminis">Ars dictaminis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_studies" title="Composition studies">Composition studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxa" title="Doxa">Doxa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_rhetorical_terms" title="Glossary of rhetorical terms">Glossary of rhetorical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossophobia" title="Glossophobia">Glossophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_rhetoricians" title="List of feminist rhetoricians">List of feminist rhetoricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_speeches" title="List of speeches">List of speeches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_skills" title="Oral skills">Oral skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orator" title="Orator">Orator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pistis" title="Pistis">Pistis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_rhetoric" title="Public rhetoric">Public rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_social_intervention_model" title="Rhetoric of social intervention model">Rhetoric of social intervention model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetrickery" title="Rhetrickery">Rhetrickery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogerian_argument" title="Rogerian argument">Rogerian argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seduction" title="Seduction">Seduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speechwriter" title="Speechwriter">Speechwriting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talking_point" title="Talking point">Talking point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TED_(conference)" title="TED (conference)">TED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terministic_screen" title="Terministic screen">Terministic screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toulmin_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Toulmin model">Toulmin model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wooden_iron" title="Wooden iron">Wooden iron</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhetoric" title="Template:Rhetoric"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rhetoric" title="Template talk:Rhetoric"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rhetoric" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rhetoric"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>fallacy</b> is the use of <a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">invalid</a> or otherwise faulty <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reasoning</a> in the construction of an <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">argument</a><sup id="cite_ref-GenslerAZ_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GenslerAZ-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that may appear to be well-reasoned if unnoticed. The term was introduced in the Western intellectual tradition by the <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotelian</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">De Sophisticis Elenchis</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Downden_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Downden-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fallacies may be committed intentionally to <a href="/wiki/Psychological_manipulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological manipulation">manipulate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">persuade</a> by <a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">deception</a>, unintentionally because of human limitations such as <a href="/wiki/Carelessness" title="Carelessness">carelessness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biases_in_judgment_and_decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Biases in judgment and decision making">cognitive or social biases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ignorance" title="Ignorance">ignorance</a>, or potentially due to the limitations of language and understanding of language. These delineations include not only the ignorance of the right <a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_reasoning" title="Psychology of reasoning">reasoning standard</a> but also the ignorance of relevant properties of the <a href="/wiki/Context_(language_use)" class="mw-redirect" title="Context (language use)">context</a>. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Soundness" title="Soundness">soundness</a> of <a href="/wiki/Legal_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal argument">legal arguments</a> depends on the context in which they are made.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fallacies are commonly divided into "formal" and "informal". A <a href="/wiki/Formal_fallacy" title="Formal fallacy">formal fallacy</a> is a flaw in the structure of a <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive</a> <a href="/wiki/Logical_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical argument">argument</a> that renders the argument invalid, while an <a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">informal fallacy</a> originates in an error in reasoning other than an improper <a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">logical form</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-garns_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-garns-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arguments containing informal fallacies may be formally <a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">valid</a>, but still fallacious.<sup id="cite_ref-Downden_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Downden-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A special case is a <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_fallacy" title="Mathematical fallacy">mathematical fallacy</a>, an intentionally invalid <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_proof" title="Mathematical proof">mathematical proof</a> with a concealed, or subtle, error. Mathematical fallacies are typically crafted and exhibited for educational purposes, usually taking the form of false proofs of obvious <a href="/wiki/Contradiction" title="Contradiction">contradictions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fallacies are types of erroneous reasoning that render arguments <a href="/wiki/Soundness" title="Soundness">logically unsound</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to The New Handbook of Cognitive Therapy Techniques, they include "unsubstantiated assertions that are often delivered with a conviction that makes them sound as though they are proven facts".<sup id="cite_ref-The_new_handbook_of_cognitive..._8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_new_handbook_of_cognitive...-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Informal fallacies, in particular, are frequently found in mass media such as television and newspapers.<sup id="cite_ref-McMurty1990_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McMurty1990-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Understanding fallacies may allow one to recognize them in either one's own or others' writing. Avoiding fallacies may help improve one's ability to produce sound arguments.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It can be difficult to evaluate whether an argument is fallacious, as arguments exist along a continuum of soundness and an argument that has several stages or parts might have some sound sections and some fallacious ones.<sup id="cite_ref-DeLancey_Handout_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeLancey_Handout-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, whether a specific argument is fallacious often depends on the content rather than the form of the argument. An example is a <a href="/wiki/Validity_(statistics)" title="Validity (statistics)">probabilistically valid</a> instance of the formally invalid argument form of <a href="/wiki/Denying_the_antecedent" title="Denying the antecedent">denying the antecedent</a> or <a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">affirming the consequent</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, "fallacious arguments usually have the deceptive appearance of being good arguments, <sup id="cite_ref-Damer_2009_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Damer_2009-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because for most fallacious instances of an argument form, a similar but non-fallacious instance can be found". Evaluating an instance of an argument as fallacious is therefore often a matter of evaluating the context of the argument. </p><p>Recognizing fallacies in everyday arguments may be difficult since arguments are often embedded in <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetorical</a> patterns that obscure the logical connections between statements. Informal fallacies may also exploit the <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotional</a>, intellectual, or <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychological</a> weaknesses of the audience. Recognizing fallacies can develop reasoning skills to expose the weaker links between premises and conclusions to better discern between what appears to be true and what is true. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">Argumentation theory</a> provides a different approach to understanding and classifying fallacies. In the <a href="/wiki/Pragma-dialectics" title="Pragma-dialectics">pragma-dialectical theory</a>, for instance, an argument is regarded as an interactive protocol between individuals who attempt to resolve their disagreement on the merits of a case.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The protocol consists of <a href="/wiki/Pragma-dialectics" title="Pragma-dialectics">normative rules of interaction</a>, and violations of these rules are considered fallacies because they frustrate the attempt at resolving the disagreement. </p><p>Fallacies are used in place of valid reasoning to communicate a point with the intention to persuade. Examples in the <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">mass media</a> today include but are not limited to <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Advertisement" class="mw-redirect" title="Advertisement">advertisements</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, newspaper editorials, and opinion-based news shows.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Systems_of_classification"><span id="Material_fallacy"></span>Systems of classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Systems of classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fallacies are generally classified strictly by either their structure or their content, such as by classifying them as <a href="/wiki/Formal_fallacy" title="Formal fallacy">formal fallacies</a> or <a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">informal fallacies</a>, respectively. The classification of informal fallacies may be subdivided into categories such as linguistic, relevance through omission, relevance through intrusion, and relevance through presumption.<sup id="cite_ref-Pirie2006_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pirie2006-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternatively, fallacies may be classified by the process by which they occur, such as <a href="/wiki/Material_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Material fallacy">material fallacies</a> (content), <a href="/wiki/Verbal_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Verbal fallacy">verbal fallacies</a> (linguistic), and formal fallacies (error in inference). In turn, material fallacies may be placed into the more general category of informal fallacies. Verbal fallacies may be placed in either formal or informal classifications: Compare <a href="/wiki/Equivocation" title="Equivocation">equivocation</a>, which is a word- or phrase-based <a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">ambiguity</a>, to the <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_composition" title="Fallacy of composition">fallacy of composition</a>, which is premise- and inference-based ambiguity.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greek_logic"><span id="Verbal_fallacy"></span>Greek logic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Greek logic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BC) was the first to systematize logical errors into a list to make it easier to refute an opponent's thesis and thus win an argument.<sup id="cite_ref-eem_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eem-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup> Aristotle's <i><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">Sophistical Refutations</a></i> (<span title="Greek-language romanization"><i lang="el-Latn">De Sophisticis Elenchis</i></span>) identifies thirteen fallacies. He divided them up into two major types: linguistic fallacies and non-linguistic fallacies, some of which depend on language and others that do not.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These fallacies are called verbal fallacies and material fallacies, respectively. A <a href="/wiki/Material_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Material fallacy">material fallacy</a> is an error in what the arguer is talking about, while a <a href="/wiki/Verbal_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Verbal fallacy">verbal fallacy</a> is an error in how the arguer is talking. Verbal fallacies are those in which a conclusion is obtained by improper or ambiguous use of words.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of a language dependent fallacy is given as a debate as to who in humanity are learners: the wise or the ignorant.<sup id="cite_ref-eem_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eem-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 3">: 3 </span></sup> A language-independent fallacy is, for example: </p> <ol><li>"<a href="/wiki/Coriscus_of_Scepsis" title="Coriscus of Scepsis">Coriscus</a> is different from <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>."</li> <li>"Socrates is a man."</li> <li>"Therefore, Coriscus is different from a man."<sup id="cite_ref-eem_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eem-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 4">: 4 </span></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_logic"><span id="Verbal_fallacy"></span>Indian logic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Indian logic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Indian_logic" title="Indian logic">Indian logicians</a> took great pains to identify fallacies in arguments. An influential collection of texts on logic and reason, the <i><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i>, attributed to <a href="/wiki/Aksapada_Gautama" class="mw-redirect" title="Aksapada Gautama">Aksapada Gautama</a>, variously estimated to have been composed between the 6th century BCE and the 2nd century CE, lists in its theory of inference five such reasons used in an argument that was further developed by later logicians.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><i>Asiddha</i>: It is the unproved reason that results in this fallacy. [Paksadharmata]</li> <li><i>Savyabhichara</i>: This is the fallacy of irregular reason.</li> <li><i>Satpratipaksa</i>: Here the reason is contradicted by another reason. If both have equal force, then nothing follows. 'Sound is eternal, because it is audible', and 'Sound is non-eternal, because it is produced'. Here 'audible' is counterbalanced by 'produced' and both are of equal force.</li> <li><i>Badhita</i>: When another proof (as by perception) definitely contradicts and disproves the middle term (reason). 'Fire is cold because it is a substance'.</li> <li><i>Viruddha</i>: Instead of proving something it is proving the opposite. 'Sound is eternal because it is produced'.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Whately's_grouping"><span id="Whately.27s_grouping"></span>Whately's grouping</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Whately's grouping"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>English scholar and theologian <a href="/wiki/Richard_Whately" title="Richard Whately">Richard Whately</a> (1787–1863) defines a fallacy broadly as, "any argument, or apparent argument, which professes to be decisive of the matter at hand, while in reality it is not".<sup id="cite_ref-eem_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eem-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 8">: 8 </span></sup> </p><p>Whately divided fallacies into two groups: <i>logical</i> and <i>material</i>. According to Whately, logical fallacies are arguments where the conclusion does not follow from the premises. Material fallacies are not logical errors because the conclusion follows from the premises. He then divided the logical group into two groups: purely logical and semi-logical. The semi-logical group included all of Aristotle's <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sophisms&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sophisms (page does not exist)">sophisms</a> except <i><a href="/wiki/Ignoratio_elenchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignoratio elenchi">ignoratio elenchi</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Petitio_principii" class="mw-redirect" title="Petitio principii">petitio principii</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Non_causa_pro_causa" class="mw-redirect" title="Non causa pro causa">non causa pro causa</a></i>, which are in the material group.<sup id="cite_ref-Coffey1912_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coffey1912-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_systems_of_classification">Other systems of classification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Other systems of classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other famous methods of classifying fallacies are those of <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Bacon (philosopher)">Francis Bacon</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">J. S. Mill</a>. Bacon (<i><a href="/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum">Novum Organum</a></i>, Aph. 33, 38 sqq.) divided fallacies into four Idola (Idols, i.e. False Appearances), which summarize the various kinds of mistakes to which the human intellect is prone. J. S. Mill discussed the subject in book five of his Logic, and <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a>'s <i>Book of Fallacies</i> (1824) contains valuable remarks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formal_fallacy">Formal fallacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Formal fallacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Formal_fallacy" title="Formal fallacy">Formal fallacy</a></div> <p>A formal fallacy, deductive fallacy, <a href="/wiki/Logical_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical fallacy">logical fallacy</a> or <i>non sequitur</i> (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> for "it does not follow") is a flaw in the structure of a <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive</a> <a href="/wiki/Logical_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical argument">argument</a> that renders the argument <a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">invalid</a>. The flaw can be expressed in the standard system of logic.<sup id="cite_ref-GenslerAZ_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GenslerAZ-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such an argument is always considered to be wrong. The presence of the formal fallacy does not imply anything about the argument's <a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">premises</a> or its conclusion. Both may actually be true or may even be more probable as a result of the argument, but the deductive argument is still invalid because the conclusion does not follow from the premises in the manner described. </p><p>Even non-deductive arguments can be said to be fallacious: for example, an <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive</a> argument that incorrectly applies principles of probability or <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a>. But "since deductive arguments depend on formal properties and inductive arguments don't, formal fallacies apply only to deductive arguments".<sup id="cite_ref-garns_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-garns-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">logical form</a> such as "<i>A</i> and <i>B</i>" is independent of any particular conjunction of meaningful propositions. Logical form alone can guarantee that, given true premises, a true conclusion must follow. However, formal logic makes no such guarantee if any premise is false; the conclusion can be either true or false. Any formal error or logical fallacy similarly invalidates the deductive guarantee. Both the argument and all its premises must be true for a conclusion to be true. </p><p>The term <i>non sequitur</i> denotes a general formal fallacy, often meaning one that does not belong to any named subclass of formal fallacies, like <a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">affirming the consequent</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common_examples">Common examples</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Common examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies#Formal_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies § Formal fallacies</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ecological_fallacy">Ecological fallacy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ecological fallacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Ecological_fallacy" title="Ecological fallacy">ecological fallacy</a> is committed when one draws an inference from data based on the premise that qualities observed for groups necessarily hold for individuals; for example, "if countries with more Protestants tend to have higher suicide rates, then Protestants must be more likely to commit suicide".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fallacy_fork">Fallacy fork</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Fallacy fork"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Maarten_Boudry" title="Maarten Boudry">Maarten Boudry</a><sup id="cite_ref-Boudry_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boudry-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and others<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have argued that formal, deductive fallacies rarely occur in real life and that arguments that would be fallacious in formally deductive terms are not necessarily so when context and prior probabilities are taken into account, thus making the argument defeasible and/or inductive. Boudry coined the term <i>fallacy fork</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Boudry_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boudry-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a given fallacy, one must either characterize it by means of a deductive <a href="/wiki/Argumentation_scheme" title="Argumentation scheme">argumentation scheme</a>, which rarely applies (the first prong of the fork), or one must relax definitions and add nuance to take the actual intent and context of the argument into account (the other prong of the fork).<sup id="cite_ref-Boudry_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boudry-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To argue, for example, that one became nauseated after eating a mushroom because the mushroom was poisonous could be an example of the <i>post hoc ergo propter hoc</i> fallacy.<sup id="cite_ref-Boudry_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boudry-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Informal_fallacy">Informal fallacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Informal fallacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">Informal fallacy</a></div> <p>In contrast to a formal fallacy, an informal fallacy originates from a reasoning error other than a flaw in the logical form of the argument.<sup id="cite_ref-garns_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-garns-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Deductive_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Deductive argument">deductive argument</a> containing an informal fallacy may be formally <a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">valid</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Downden_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Downden-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but still remain rationally unpersuasive. Nevertheless, informal fallacies apply to both deductive and non-deductive arguments. </p><p>Though the form of the argument may be relevant, fallacies of this type are "types of mistakes in reasoning that arise from the mishandling of the <i>content</i> of the propositions constituting the argument".<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Faulty_generalization">Faulty generalization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Faulty generalization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A special subclass of the informal fallacies is the set of <a href="/wiki/Faulty_generalization" title="Faulty generalization">faulty generalizations</a>, also known as inductive fallacies. Here, the most important issue concerns inductive strength or methodology (for example, <a href="/wiki/Statistical_inference" title="Statistical inference">statistical inference</a>). In the absence of sufficient evidence, drawing conclusions based on induction is <a href="/wiki/Warrant_(rhetoric)" class="mw-redirect" title="Warrant (rhetoric)">unwarranted</a> and fallacious. With the backing of sufficient amounts of the right type of <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a>, however, the conclusions may become warranted and convincing (at which point the arguments are no longer considered fallacious).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hasty_generalization">Hasty generalization</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Hasty generalization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hasty_generalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasty generalization">Hasty generalization</a> is described as making assumptions about a whole group or range of cases based on a <a href="/wiki/Sample_(statistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample (statistics)">sample</a> that is inadequate (usually because it is atypical or just too small). Stereotypes about people ("frat boys are drunkards", "grad students are nerdy", "women don't enjoy sports", etc.) are common examples of the principle. </p><p>Hasty generalization often follows a pattern such as: </p> <dl><dd>X is true for A.</dd> <dd>X is true for B.</dd> <dd>Therefore, X is true for C, D, etc.</dd></dl> <p>While never a valid logical deduction, if such an inference can be made on statistical grounds, it may nonetheless be convincing. This is because with enough empirical evidence, the generalization is no longer a hasty one. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relevance_fallacy">Relevance fallacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Relevance fallacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_relevance" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacy of relevance">fallacies of relevance</a> are a broad class of informal fallacies, generically represented by <a href="/wiki/Missing_the_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Missing the point">missing the point</a>: presenting an argument that may be <a href="/wiki/Soundness" title="Soundness">sound</a> but fails to address the issue in question. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Argument_from_silence">Argument from silence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Argument from silence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Argument_from_silence" title="Argument from silence">argument from silence</a> is a faulty conclusion that is drawn based on the absence of evidence rather than on the presence of evidence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples_of_informal_fallacies">Examples of informal fallacies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Examples of informal fallacies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies#Informal_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies § Informal fallacies</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Post_hoc_(false_cause)"><span id="Post_hoc_.28false_cause.29"></span><i>Post hoc</i> (false cause)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Post hoc (false cause)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The post hoc fallacy assumes that because B comes after A, A caused B. It gets its name from the Latin phrase "<i>post hoc, ergo propter hoc</i>", which translates as "after this, therefore because of this". </p><p>Sometimes one event really does cause another one that comes later—for example, if one registers for a class and their name later appears on the roll, it's true that the first event caused the one that came later. But sometimes two events that seem related in time are not really related as cause and event. That is, <a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">temporal correlation does not necessarily entail causation</a>. For example, if one eats a sandwich and then gets food poisoning, that does not necessarily mean the sandwich caused the food poisoning. Something else eaten earlier might have caused the food poisoning. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Slippery_slope">Slippery slope</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Slippery slope"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For an argument to be a <a href="/wiki/Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">slippery slope</a> type of argument, it must meet the requirements of that <a href="/wiki/Argumentation_scheme" title="Argumentation scheme">argumentation scheme</a>. A slippery slope argument originates from a conversation or debate in which two actors take turns. It usually originates from one actor giving advice on a decision or act. Along the way, the actor must make additional choices on similar matters through which the actor enters the ‘grey area’ of the slippery slope. At this point, the actor potentially loses control over the direction of the arguments, thus leading to a ‘fatal’ outcome.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such an argument is built up according to the following argumentation scheme: initial premise, sequential premise, indeterminacy premise, control premise, loss of control premise, catastrophic outcome premise, and conclusion. Slippery slope arguments may be defeated by asking critical questions or giving counterarguments.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are several reasons for a slippery slope to be fallacious: for example, the argument is going too far into the future, it is a too complex argument whose structure is hard to identify, or the argument makes emotional appeals.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It may be that a slippery slope is not necessarily fallacious if context is taken into account and there is an effort to assess plausibility.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="False_analogy">False analogy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: False analogy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Informally known as the "<a href="/wiki/Apples_and_oranges" title="Apples and oranges">apples and oranges</a>" fallacy, a <a href="/wiki/False_analogy" class="mw-redirect" title="False analogy">false analogy</a> uses unsound comparisons.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Straw_man_fallacy">Straw man fallacy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Straw man fallacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Straw_man" title="Straw man">straw man</a> fallacy refers to the refutation of a standpoint in an argument that was never proposed. The fallacy usually occurs in the presentation of an opponent's standpoint as more extreme, distorted, or simplistic than it actually is. Compared to criticizing the opponent's actual standpoint, this allows the arguer to offer a seeming refutation of what is, however, not the actual standpoint.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such an argument involves two arguers, with one criticizing the other's perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reason for the straw man argument to be fallacious originates from the problem of how to deal with natural discourse. The opponent's argument is not reflected by the arguments that are proposed by the speaker.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement_fallacy">Measurement fallacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Measurement fallacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some of the fallacies described above may be committed in the context of measurement. Where <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_fallacies" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical fallacies">mathematical fallacies</a> are subtle mistakes in reasoning leading to invalid mathematical proofs, measurement fallacies are unwarranted inferential leaps involved in the extrapolation of raw data to a measurement-based value claim. The ancient Greek Sophist <a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a> was one of the first thinkers to propose that humans can generate reliable measurements through his "human-measure" principle and the practice of <i>dissoi logoi</i> (arguing multiple sides of an issue).<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This history helps explain why measurement fallacies are informed by <a href="/wiki/Informal_logic" title="Informal logic">informal logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">argumentation theory</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Knowledge_value_measurement_fallacy">Knowledge value measurement fallacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Knowledge value measurement fallacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The increasing availability and circulation of <a href="/wiki/Big_data" title="Big data">big data</a> are driving a proliferation of new metrics for scholarly authority,<sup id="cite_ref-Meho_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meho-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and there is lively discussion regarding the relative usefulness of such metrics for measuring the value of knowledge production in the context of an "information tsunami".<sup id="cite_ref-Baveye_2010_191–215_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baveye_2010_191–215-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, <a href="/wiki/Anchoring" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchoring">anchoring</a> fallacies can occur when unwarranted weight is given to data generated by metrics that the arguers themselves acknowledge are flawed. For example, the limitations of the <a href="/wiki/Journal_impact_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal impact factor">journal impact factor</a> (JIF) are well documented,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even JIF pioneer Eugene Garfield notes that, "while citation data create new tools for analyses of research performance, it should be stressed that they supplement rather than replace other quantitative and qualitative indicators".<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To the extent that arguers jettison the acknowledged limitations of JIF-generated data in evaluative judgments or leave behind Garfield's "supplement rather than replace" caveat, they commit anchoring fallacies. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_fallacy" title="Naturalistic fallacy">naturalistic fallacy</a> can occur, for example, in the case of sheer quantity metrics based on the premise "more is better"<sup id="cite_ref-Baveye_2010_191–215_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baveye_2010_191–215-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or, in the case of developmental assessment in the field of psychology, "higher is better".<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/False_analogy" class="mw-redirect" title="False analogy">false analogy</a> occurs when claims are supported by unsound comparisons between data points. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Scopus" title="Scopus">Scopus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Web_of_Science" title="Web of Science">Web of Science</a> bibliographic databases have difficulty distinguishing between citations of scholarly work that are arms-length endorsements, ceremonial citations, or negative citations (indicating the citing author withholds endorsement of the cited work).<sup id="cite_ref-Meho_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meho-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hence, measurement-based value claims premised on the uniform quality of all citations may be questioned on false analogy grounds. </p><p>As another example, consider the <a href="/wiki/Faculty_Scholarly_Productivity_Index" title="Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index">Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index</a> of Academic Analytics. This tool purports to measure overall faculty productivity, yet it does not capture data based on citations in books. This creates a possibility that low productivity measurements using the tool commit <a href="/wiki/Argument_from_silence" title="Argument from silence">argument from silence</a> fallacies, to the extent that such measurements are supported by the absence of book citation data. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ecological_fallacy" title="Ecological fallacy">Ecological fallacies</a> can be committed when one measures the scholarly productivity of a sub-group of individuals (e.g. "Puerto Rican" faculty) via reference to aggregate data about a larger and different group (e.g., "Hispanic" faculty).<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Intentional_fallacy">Intentional fallacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Intentional fallacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sometimes a speaker or writer uses a fallacy intentionally. In any context, including academic debate, a conversation among friends, political discourse, advertising, or comedic purposes, the arguer may use fallacious reasoning to try to persuade the listener or reader, by means other than offering relevant evidence, that the conclusion is true. </p><p>Examples of this include the speaker or writer:<sup id="cite_ref-Shewan_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shewan-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Diverting the argument to unrelated issues with a <a href="/wiki/Red_herring#Logical_fallacy" title="Red herring">red herring</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Ignoratio_elenchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignoratio elenchi">Ignoratio elenchi</a></i>)</li> <li>Insulting someone's character (<a href="/wiki/Ad_hominem" title="Ad hominem"><i>argumentum ad hominem</i></a>)</li> <li>Assuming the conclusion of an argument, a kind of <a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">circular reasoning</a>, also called "<a href="/wiki/Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question">begging the question</a>" (<i>petitio principii</i>)</li> <li>Making jumps in logic (<a href="/wiki/Non_sequitur_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Non sequitur (logic)"><i>non sequitur</i></a>)</li> <li>Identifying a false cause and effect (<i><a href="/wiki/Post_hoc_ergo_propter_hoc" title="Post hoc ergo propter hoc">post hoc ergo propter hoc</a></i>)</li> <li>Asserting that everyone agrees (<i><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_populum" title="Argumentum ad populum">argumentum ad populum</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Bandwagon_effect" title="Bandwagon effect">bandwagoning</a>)</li> <li>Creating a <a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">false dilemma</a> (either-or fallacy) in which the situation is oversimplified, also called <i>false dichotomy</i></li> <li>Selectively using facts (<a href="/wiki/Card_stacking" class="mw-redirect" title="Card stacking">card stacking</a>)</li> <li>Making false or misleading comparisons (<a href="/wiki/False_equivalence" title="False equivalence">false equivalence</a> or <a href="/wiki/False_analogy" class="mw-redirect" title="False analogy">false analogy</a>)</li> <li>Generalizing quickly and sloppily (<a href="/wiki/Hasty_generalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasty generalization">hasty generalization</a>) (<i><a href="/wiki/Secundum_quid" title="Secundum quid">secundum quid</a></i>)</li> <li>Using an argument's connections to other concepts or people to support or refute it, also called "guilt by association" (<a href="/wiki/Association_fallacy" title="Association fallacy">association fallacy</a>)</li> <li>Claiming that a lack of proof counts as proof (<a href="/wiki/Argument_from_ignorance" title="Argument from ignorance">appeal to ignorance</a>)</li></ol> <p>In humor, errors of reasoning are used for comical purposes. Groucho Marx used fallacies of <a href="/wiki/Amphiboly" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphiboly">amphiboly</a>, for instance, to make ironic statements; <a href="/wiki/Gary_Larson" title="Gary Larson">Gary Larson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scott_Adams" title="Scott Adams">Scott Adams</a> employed fallacious reasoning in many of their cartoons. Wes Boyer and Samuel Stoddard have written a humorous essay teaching students how to be persuasive by means of a whole host of informal and formal fallacies.<sup id="cite_ref-How_to_Be_Persuasive_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-How_to_Be_Persuasive-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When someone uses logical fallacies intentionally to mislead in academic, political, or other high-stakes contexts, the breach of trust calls into question <a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">the authority and intellectual integrity of that person</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Assessment:_pragmatic_theory">Assessment: pragmatic theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Assessment: pragmatic theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Argumentation_scheme" title="Argumentation scheme">Argumentation scheme</a></div> <p>According to the pragmatic theory,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a fallacy can be either a heuristic error or a ploy used intentionally to unfairly win an argument. There are always two parties to an argument containing a fallacy: the perpetrator and the intended victim. </p><p>The dialogue framework required to support the pragmatic theory of fallacy is built on the presumption that argumentative dialogue has both an adversarial component and a collaborative component. A dialogue has individual goals for each participant as well as shared goals that apply to all participants. A fallacy of the second kind is seen as more than simply a violation of the rule of reasonable dialogue. It is also a deceptive tactic of argumentation based on sleight-of-hand. Aristotle explicitly compared contentious reasoning to unfair fighting in athletic contests. But the roots of the pragmatic theory go back even further in history, to the Sophists. The pragmatic theory finds its roots in the Aristotelian conception of a fallacy as a sophistical refutation but also supports the view that many of the types of arguments traditionally labeled as fallacies are in fact reasonable techniques of argumentation that can be used, in many cases, to support legitimate goals of dialogue. Hence, under the pragmatic approach, each case needs to be analyzed individually to determine whether the argument is fallacious or reasonable. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;">Lists <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">List of cognitive biases</a> – Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memory_biases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of memory biases">List of memory biases</a> – Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_paradoxes" title="List of paradoxes">List of paradoxes</a> – List of statements that appear to contradict themselves</li> <li><span class="selfreference"><a href="/wiki/Special:Search/intitle:%22Fallacy%22" title="Special:Search/intitle:"Fallacy"">All pages with titles containing <i>Fallacy</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="selfreference"><a href="/wiki/Special:Search/intitle:%22Fallacious%22" title="Special:Search/intitle:"Fallacious"">All pages with titles containing <i>Fallacious</i></a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragma-dialectics#Rules_for_critical_discussion" title="Pragma-dialectics">Pragma-dialectics § Rules for critical discussion</a></li></ul> <p><b>Concepts</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aporia" title="Aporia">Aporia</a> – State of puzzlement or expression of doubt, in philosophy and rhetoric</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-pattern" title="Anti-pattern">Anti-pattern</a> – Common response to a recurring problem that is usually ineffective or counterproductive</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_map" title="Argument map">Argument map</a> – Visual representation of the structure of an argument</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">Argumentation theory</a> – Academic field of logic and rhetoric</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_fallacy" title="Association fallacy">Association fallacy</a> – Informal inductive fallacy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive bias</a> – Systematic pattern of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_distortion" title="Cognitive distortion">Cognitive distortion</a> – Exaggerated or irrational thought pattern</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a> – Analysis of facts to form a judgment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demagogue" title="Demagogue">Demagogue</a> – Politician or orator who panders to fears and emotions of the public</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a> – Material supporting an assertion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacies_of_definition" title="Fallacies of definition">Fallacies of definition</a> – Ways in which a term may be poorly defined</li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_(logic)" title="False (logic)">False (logic)</a> – Possessing negative truth value</li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_premise" title="False premise">False premise</a> – Incorrect proposition that forms the basis of an argument</li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_statement" title="False statement">False statement</a> – Statement contradicted by facts and reality</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusion" title="Illusion">Illusion</a> – Distortion of the perception of reality</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inference_objection" class="mw-redirect" title="Inference objection">Inference objection</a> – Reason arguing against a premise, argument, or conclusion; expression of disagreement<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a> – Any process that has the aim of augmenting knowledge, resolving doubt, or solving a problem</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jumping_to_conclusions" title="Jumping to conclusions">Jumping to conclusions</a> – Psychological term</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemma_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lemma (logic)">Lemma</a> – Theorem for proving more complex theorems<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lies,_damned_lies,_and_statistics" title="Lies, damned lies, and statistics">Lies, damned lies, and statistics</a> – Phrase criticising misuse of statistics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_fallacy" title="Mathematical fallacy">Mathematical fallacy</a> – Certain type of mistaken proof</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox" title="Paradox">Paradox</a> – Statement that apparently contradicts itself</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosecutor%27s_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosecutor's fallacy">Prosecutor's fallacy</a> – Logic error due to ignoring the base rate<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophist</a> – Teachers of 5th century BC Greece</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundness" title="Soundness">Soundness</a> – Term in logic and deductive reasoning</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a> – Being in accord with fact or reality</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">Validity</a> – Argument whose conclusion must be true if its premises are</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victim_blaming" title="Victim blaming">Victim blaming</a> – Social phenomenon</li></ul> <p><b>Works</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Attacking_Faulty_Reasoning" title="Attacking Faulty Reasoning">Attacking Faulty Reasoning</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Straight_and_Crooked_Thinking" title="Straight and Crooked Thinking">Straight and Crooked Thinking</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_E._Meehl#"Why_I_Do_Not_Attend_Case_Conferences"" title="Paul E. Meehl">"Why I Do Not Attend Case Conferences"</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-GenslerAZ-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GenslerAZ_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GenslerAZ_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGensler2010" class="citation book cs1">Gensler, Harry J. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 22,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Soundness+of+Argument&rft.btitle=Applications+of+Grammar%3A+Principles+of+Effective+Communication&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Christian+Liberty+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-930367-28-9&rft.aulast=Shewan&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D22s9JWeHJbAC%26pg%3DPA84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFallacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-How_to_Be_Persuasive-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-How_to_Be_Persuasive_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyerStoddard" class="citation web cs1">Boyer, Web; Stoddard, Samuel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180727043805/http://www.rinkworks.com/persuasive/">"How to Be Persuasive"</a>. <i>Rink Works</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rinkworks.com/persuasive/">the original</a> on July 27, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 5,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Rink+Works&rft.atitle=How+to+Be+Persuasive&rft.aulast=Boyer&rft.aufirst=Web&rft.au=Stoddard%2C+Samuel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rinkworks.com%2Fpersuasive%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFallacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Habick, Timothy, and Linda Cook. (2018) AICPA Test Development Fairness Guidelines. Association of International Certified Public Accounts, Ewing, NJ.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (December 2016)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalton1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Douglas_N._Walton" title="Douglas N. Walton">Walton, Douglas N.</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4uTWAAAAMAAJ"><i>A Pragmatic Theory of Fallacy</i></a>. Tuscaloosa: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama_Press" title="University of Alabama Press">University of Alabama Press</a>. p. 324. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0817307981" title="Special:BookSources/978-0817307981"><bdi>978-0817307981</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Pragmatic+Theory+of+Fallacy&rft.place=Tuscaloosa&rft.pages=324&rft.pub=University+of+Alabama+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0817307981&rft.aulast=Walton&rft.aufirst=Douglas+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4uTWAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFallacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/C._L._Hamblin" class="mw-redirect" title="C. L. Hamblin">C. L. Hamblin</a>, <i>Fallacies</i>, Methuen London, 1970. reprinted by Vale Press in 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0916475247" title="Special:BookSources/0916475247">0916475247</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHans_V._HansenRobert_C._Pinto1995" class="citation book cs1">Hans V. Hansen; Robert C. Pinto (1995). <i>Fallacies: classical and contemporary readings</i>. Penn State Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0271014173" title="Special:BookSources/978-0271014173"><bdi>978-0271014173</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fallacies%3A+classical+and+contemporary+readings&rft.pub=Penn+State+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0271014173&rft.au=Hans+V.+Hansen&rft.au=Robert+C.+Pinto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFallacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrans_van_EemerenBart_GarssenBert_Meuffels2009" class="citation book cs1">Frans van Eemeren; Bart Garssen; Bert Meuffels (2009). <i>Fallacies and Judgments of Reasonableness: Empirical Research Concerning the Pragma-Dialectical Discussion</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9048126132" title="Special:BookSources/978-9048126132"><bdi>978-9048126132</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fallacies+and+Judgments+of+Reasonableness%3A+Empirical+Research+Concerning+the+Pragma-Dialectical+Discussion&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-9048126132&rft.au=Frans+van+Eemeren&rft.au=Bart+Garssen&rft.au=Bert+Meuffels&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFallacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_N._Walton" title="Douglas N. Walton">Douglas N. Walton</a>, <i>Informal logic: A handbook for critical argumentation</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 1989. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas1987" class="citation book cs1">Douglas, Walton (1987). <i>Informal Fallacies</i>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Informal+Fallacies&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Douglas&rft.aufirst=Walton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFallacy" class="Z3988"></span> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalton1995" class="citation book cs1">Walton, Douglas (1995). <i>A Pragmatic Theory of Fallacy</i>. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Pragmatic+Theory+of+Fallacy&rft.place=Tuscaloosa&rft.pub=University+of+Alabama+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Walton&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFallacy" class="Z3988"></span> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalton2010" class="citation journal cs1">Walton, Douglas (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ojs.uwindsor.ca/ojs/leddy/index.php/informal_logic/article/download/2868/2407">"Why Fallacies Appear to Be Better Arguments than They Are"</a>. <i>Informal Logic</i>. <b>30</b> (2): 159–184. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.22329%2Fil.v30i2.2868">10.22329/il.v30i2.2868</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Informal+Logic&rft.atitle=Why+Fallacies+Appear+to+Be+Better+Arguments+than+They+Are&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=159-184&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.22329%2Fil.v30i2.2868&rft.aulast=Walton&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fojs.uwindsor.ca%2Fojs%2Fleddy%2Findex.php%2Finformal_logic%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F2868%2F2407&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFallacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Woods2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Woods_(logician)" title="John Woods (logician)">John Woods</a> (2004). <i>The death of argument: fallacies in agent based reasoning</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1402026638" title="Special:BookSources/978-1402026638"><bdi>978-1402026638</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+death+of+argument%3A+fallacies+in+agent+based+reasoning&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1402026638&rft.au=John+Woods&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFallacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Woods, John (2013). <i>Errors of Reasoning: Naturalizing the Logic of Inference</i>. London: College Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1848901148" title="Special:BookSources/978-1848901148">978-1848901148</a></li> <li>Fearnside, W. Ward and William B. Holther, Fallacy: The Counterfeit of Argument, 1959. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_F._Hendricks" title="Vincent F. Hendricks">Vincent F. Hendricks</a>, <i>Thought 2 Talk: A Crash Course in Reflection and Expression</i>, New York: Automatic Press / VIP, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8799101378" title="Special:BookSources/8799101378">8799101378</a></li> <li>D. H. Fischer, <i>Historians' Fallacies: Toward a Logic of Historical Thought</i>, Harper Torchbooks, 1970. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Warburton Nigel, <i>Thinking from A to Z</i>, Routledge 1998. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Sagan, Carl</a>, "<i><a href="/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World" title="The Demon-Haunted World">The Demon-Haunted World: Science As a Candle in the Dark</a></i>". <a href="/wiki/Ballantine_Books" title="Ballantine Books">Ballantine Books</a>, 1997 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0345409469" title="Special:BookSources/0345409469">0345409469</a>, 480 pgs. 1996 hardback edition: <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Random House</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/039453512X" title="Special:BookSources/039453512X">039453512X</a>, xv+457 pages plus addenda insert (some printings). Ch. 12.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_texts">Historical texts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Historical texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061004164921/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/sophistical/">On Sophistical Refutations</a>, <i>De Sophistici Elenchi</i>. library.adelaide.edu.au</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a>, <i>Summa of Logic</i> (c. 1323) Part III.4.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Buridan" class="mw-redirect" title="John Buridan">John Buridan</a>, <i>Summulae de dialectica</i> Book VII.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>, the doctrine of the idols in <i>Novum Organum Scientiarum</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fly.hiwaay.net/%7Epaul/bacon/organum/aphorisms1.html">Aphorisms concerning The Interpretation of Nature and the Kingdom of Man, xxiii ff</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200214120354/http://fly.hiwaay.net/~paul/bacon/organum/aphorisms1.html">Archived</a> 2020-02-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. fly.hiwaay.net</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/10731/10731-8.txt">The Art of Controversy</a> | <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coolhaus.de/art-of-controversy/"><i>Die Kunst, Recht zu behalten – The Art Of Controversy</i> (bilingual)</a>, (also known as "Schopenhauers 38 stratagems"). gutenberg.org</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.la.utexas.edu/research/poltheory/mill/sol/">A System of Logic – Raciocinative and Inductive</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.laits.utexas.edu/poltheory/mill/sol/sol.b05.c07.html">Book 5, Chapter 7, Fallacies of Confusion</a>. la.utexas.edu</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/40px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/60px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/80px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Recognizing_Fallacies" class="extiw" title="v:Recognizing Fallacies">Recognizing Fallacies</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/28px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/42px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/56px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansen" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hansen, Hans. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/">"Fallacies"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fallacies&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Ffallacies%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFallacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/#Fal/">"Informal logic"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Informal+logic&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Flogic-informal%2F%23Fal%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFallacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/fallacy">"Fallacy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fallacy&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Ffallacy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFallacy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/browse/fallacies">Fallacy</a> at <a href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/8009498/HUMBUG-eBook-by-Jef-Clark-and-Theo-Clark"><i>Humbug! The skeptic's field guide to spotting fallacies in thinking</i></a> – textbook on fallacies. scribd.com</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.infidels.org/library/modern/mathew/logic.html">List of fallacies with clear examples</a>, infidels.org</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150515000453/http://www.thefirstscience.org/syllogistic-machine">Interactive Syllogistic Machine</a> A web based syllogistic machine for exploring fallacies, figures, and modes of syllogisms.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csun.edu/~dgw61315/fallacies.html">Logical Fallacies and the Art of Debate</a>, csun.edu</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061006192956/http://onegoodmove.org/fallacy/welcome.htm">Stephen Downes Guide to the Logical Fallacies</a>, onegoodmove.org</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120609064101/http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/fallacies/">Explain fallacies, what they are and how to avoid them</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fallacyfiles.org/index.html">Fallacy Files</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fallacy"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Fallacy">"Fallacy" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 153–154.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fallacy&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=153-154&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFallacy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Common_fallacies_(list)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fallacies" title="Template:Fallacies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fallacies" title="Template talk:Fallacies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fallacies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fallacies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Common_fallacies_(list)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Common <a class="mw-selflink selflink">fallacies</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">list</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Formal_fallacy" title="Formal fallacy">Formal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Propositional_calculus" title="Propositional calculus">propositional logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_a_disjunct" title="Affirming a disjunct">Affirming a disjunct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">Affirming the consequent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denying_the_antecedent" title="Denying the antecedent">Denying the antecedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_fallacy" title="Argument from fallacy">Argument from fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masked-man_fallacy" title="Masked-man fallacy">Masked man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_fallacy" title="Mathematical fallacy">Mathematical fallacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">quantificational logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Existential_fallacy" title="Existential fallacy">Existential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">Illicit conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_by_example" title="Proof by example">Proof by example</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_shift" title="Quantifier shift">Quantifier shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Syllogistic_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllogistic fallacy">Syllogistic fallacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_conclusion_from_a_negative_premise" title="Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise">Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_conclusion_from_affirmative_premises" title="Negative conclusion from affirmative premises">Negative conclusion from affirmative premises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_exclusive_premises" title="Fallacy of exclusive premises">Exclusive premises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_fallacy" title="Existential fallacy">Existential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_scope_fallacy" title="Modal scope fallacy">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_four_terms" title="Fallacy of four terms">Four terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_major" title="Illicit major">Illicit major</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_minor" title="Illicit minor">Illicit minor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_the_undistributed_middle" title="Fallacy of the undistributed middle">Undistributed middle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">Informal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equivocation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equivocation" title="Equivocation">Equivocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_equivalence" title="False equivalence">False equivalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_attribution" title="False attribution">False attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quoting out of context</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loki%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Loki's Wager">Loki's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_true_Scotsman" title="No true Scotsman">No true Scotsman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(fallacy)" title="Reification (fallacy)">Reification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Question-begging</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">Circular reasoning</a> / <a href="/wiki/Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question">Begging the question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loaded_language" title="Loaded language">Loaded language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leading_question" title="Leading question">Leading question</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-barreled_question" title="Double-barreled question">Compound question</a> / <a href="/wiki/Loaded_question" title="Loaded question">Loaded question</a> / <a href="/wiki/Complex_question" title="Complex question">Complex question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_true_Scotsman" title="No true Scotsman">No true Scotsman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Correlative-based_fallacies" title="Correlative-based fallacies">Correlative-based</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">False dilemma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_fallacy" title="Nirvana fallacy">Perfect solution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denying_the_correlative" title="Denying the correlative">Denying the correlative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_correlative" title="Suppressed correlative">Suppressed correlative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fallacies_of_illicit_transference" title="Fallacies of illicit transference">Illicit transference</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_composition" title="Fallacy of composition">Composition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_division" title="Fallacy of division">Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_fallacy" title="Ecological fallacy">Ecological</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Secundum_quid" title="Secundum quid">Secundum quid</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accident_(fallacy)" title="Accident (fallacy)">Accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Converse_accident" title="Converse accident">Converse accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Faulty_generalization" title="Faulty generalization">Faulty generalization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">Anecdotal evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">Sampling bias</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">Cherry picking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McNamara_fallacy" title="McNamara fallacy">McNamara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Base_rate_fallacy" title="Base rate fallacy">Base rate</a> / <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_fallacy" title="Conjunction fallacy">Conjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_counting_(fallacy)" title="Double counting (fallacy)">Double counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_analogy" title="Argument from analogy">False analogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slothful_induction" title="Slothful induction">Slothful induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overwhelming_exception" title="Overwhelming exception">Overwhelming exception</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_accent" title="Fallacy of accent">Accent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_precision" title="False precision">False precision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moving_the_goalposts" title="Moving the goalposts">Moving the goalposts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quoting out of context</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">Slippery slope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorites_paradox" title="Sorites paradox">Sorites paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntactic_ambiguity" title="Syntactic ambiguity">Syntactic ambiguity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animistic_fallacy" title="Animistic fallacy">Animistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Furtive_fallacy" title="Furtive fallacy">Furtive</a></li></ul></li> <li>Correlation implies causation <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">Cum hoc</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Post_hoc_ergo_propter_hoc" title="Post hoc ergo propter hoc">Post hoc</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambler%27s_fallacy" title="Gambler's fallacy">Gambler's</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inverse_gambler%27s_fallacy" title="Inverse gambler's fallacy">Inverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_fallacy" title="Regression fallacy">Regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_the_single_cause" title="Fallacy of the single cause">Single cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">Slippery slope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_sharpshooter_fallacy" title="Texas sharpshooter fallacy">Texas sharpshooter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Appeals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_the_law" title="Appeal to the law">Law/Legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_the_stone" title="Appeal to the stone">Stone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Proof_by_assertion" title="Proof by assertion">Proof by assertion</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_consequences" title="Appeal to consequences">Consequences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_baculum" title="Argumentum ad baculum">Argumentum ad baculum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wishful_thinking" title="Wishful thinking">Wishful thinking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_emotion" title="Appeal to emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Think_of_the_children" title="Think of the children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_fear" title="Appeal to fear">Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_flattery" title="Appeal to flattery">Flattery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">Novelty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_pity" title="Appeal to pity">Pity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_ridicule" title="Appeal to ridicule">Ridicule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group favoritism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_here" title="Invented here">Invented here</a> / <a href="/wiki/Not_invented_here" title="Not invented here">Not invented here</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_mentality" title="Island mentality">Island mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_loyalty" title="Appeal to loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parade_of_horribles" title="Parade of horribles">Parade of horribles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_spite" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal to spite">Spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag-waving" title="Flag-waving">Stirring symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom_of_repugnance" title="Wisdom of repugnance">Wisdom of repugnance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetic_fallacy" title="Genetic fallacy">Genetic fallacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Ad_hominem" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Ad_hominem" title="Ad hominem">Ad hominem</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_motive" title="Appeal to motive">Appeal to motive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_fallacy" title="Association fallacy">Association</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_Hitlerum" title="Reductio ad Hitlerum">Reductio ad Hitlerum</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godwin%27s_law" title="Godwin's law">Godwin's law</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Red-baiting" title="Red-baiting">Reductio ad Stalinum</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulverism" title="Bulverism">Bulverism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poisoning_the_well" title="Poisoning the well">Poisoning the well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_policing" title="Tone policing">Tone</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tu_quoque" title="Tu quoque">Tu quoque</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whataboutism" title="Whataboutism">Whataboutism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_authority" title="Argument from authority">Authority</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_accomplishment" title="Appeal to accomplishment">Accomplishment</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ipse_dixit" title="Ipse dixit">Ipse dixit</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_lazarum" title="Argumentum ad lazarum">Poverty</a> / <a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_crumenam" title="Argumentum ad crumenam">Wealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymological_fallacy" title="Etymological fallacy">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_nature" title="Appeal to nature">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_tradition" title="Appeal to tradition">Tradition</a> / <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">Novelty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronological_snobbery" title="Chronological snobbery">Chronological snobbery</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_relevance" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacy of relevance">fallacies<br /> of relevance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Arguments" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Arguments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ad_nauseam" title="Ad nauseam">Ad nauseam</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sealioning" title="Sealioning">Sealioning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_anecdote" title="Argument from anecdote">Argument from anecdote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_silence" title="Argument from silence">Argument from silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_to_moderation" title="Argument to moderation">Argument to moderation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_populum" title="Argumentum ad populum">Argumentum ad populum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clich%C3%A9" title="Cliché">Cliché</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Four_Great_Errors" title="The Four Great Errors">The Four Great Errors</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%27m_entitled_to_my_opinion" title="I'm entitled to my opinion">I'm entitled to my opinion</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Irrelevant_conclusion" title="Irrelevant conclusion">Ignoratio elenchi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invincible_ignorance_fallacy" title="Invincible ignorance fallacy">Invincible ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moralistic_fallacy" title="Moralistic fallacy">Moralistic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_fallacy" title="Naturalistic fallacy">Naturalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_fallacy" title="Motte-and-bailey fallacy">Motte-and-bailey fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychologist%27s_fallacy" title="Psychologist's fallacy">Psychologist's fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(psychology)" title="Rationalization (psychology)">Rationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_herring" title="Red herring">Red herring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Two_wrongs_make_a_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Two wrongs make a right">Two wrongs make a right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_pleading" title="Special pleading">Special pleading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straw_man" title="Straw man">Straw man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Fallacies" title="Category:Fallacies">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Disinformation_and_misinformation" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Misinformation" title="Template:Misinformation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Misinformation" title="Template talk:Misinformation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Misinformation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Misinformation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Disinformation_and_misinformation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">Disinformation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation">misinformation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_radicalization" title="Algorithmic radicalization">Algorithmic radicalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_facts" title="Alternative facts">Alternative facts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_lie" title="Big lie">Big lie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">Cherry picking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_reporting" title="Circular reporting">Circular reporting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive bias</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">List of cognitive biases</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">Conspiracy theory</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_conspiracy_theories" title="List of conspiracy theories">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denialism" title="Denialism">Denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_attack" title="Disinformation attack">Disinformation attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublespeak" title="Doublespeak">Doublespeak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphemistic_misspeaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphemistic misspeaking">Euphemistic misspeaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factoid" title="Factoid">Factoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">Fake news</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_website" title="Fake news website">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fake_news_websites" title="List of fake news websites">list of websites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lying_press" title="Lying press">Lying press</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fallacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_accusation" title="False accusation">False accusation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">False dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">False flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear,_uncertainty,_and_doubt" title="Fear, uncertainty, and doubt">Fear, uncertainty, and doubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firehose_of_falsehood" title="Firehose of falsehood">Firehose of falsehood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgery_as_covert_operation" title="Forgery as covert operation">Forgery as covert operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaslighting" title="Gaslighting">Gaslighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-truth" title="Half-truth">Half-truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoax" title="Hoax">Hoax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infodemic" title="Infodemic">Infodemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_manipulation" title="Internet manipulation">Internet manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipulation_(psychology)" title="Manipulation (psychology)">Manipulation (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_culture" title="Media culture">Media culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potemkin_village" title="Potemkin village">Potemkin village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-truth_politics" title="Post-truth politics">Post-truth politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memetic_warfare" title="Memetic warfare">Memetic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Military deception</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_propaganda" title="Black propaganda">black propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterpropaganda" title="Counterpropaganda">counterpropaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-sponsored_Internet_propaganda" title="State-sponsored Internet propaganda">State-sponsored Internet propaganda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quote mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabrication_(science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fabrication (science)">Scientific fabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smear_campaign" title="Smear campaign">Smearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_bot" title="Social bot">Social bot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthiness" title="Truthiness">Truthiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_legends_and_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban legends and myths">Urban legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whataboutism" title="Whataboutism">Whataboutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_journalism" title="Yellow journalism">Yellow journalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Books_and_documentaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Books and documentaries</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_(book)" title="Disinformation (book)"><i>Disinformation</i> by Ion Mihai Pacepa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dezinformatsia_(book)" title="Dezinformatsia (book)"><i>Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_KGB_and_Soviet_Disinformation" title="The KGB and Soviet Disinformation">The KGB and Soviet Disinformation</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Who%27s_Who_in_the_CIA" title="Who's Who in the CIA">Who's Who in the CIA</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Merchants_of_Doubt" title="Merchants of Doubt">Merchants of Doubt</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/After_Truth:_Disinformation_and_the_Cost_of_Fake_News" title="After Truth: Disinformation and the Cost of Fake News">After Truth: Disinformation and the Cost of Fake News</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Examples" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Examples</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Triangle" title="Bermuda Triangle">Bermuda Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State_propaganda_war" title="Congo Free State propaganda war">Congo Free State propaganda war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_energy_suppression_conspiracy_theory" title="Free energy suppression conspiracy theory">Free energy suppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">Genocide denial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminati" title="Illuminati">Illuminati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Jewish_conspiracy" title="International Jewish conspiracy">International Jewish conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_in_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="Misinformation in the Israel–Hamas war">Misinformation in the Israel–Hamas war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Order (conspiracy theory)">New World Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_mercury" title="Red mercury">Red mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reptilian_conspiracy_theory" title="Reptilian conspiracy theory">Reptilians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rothschild_family#Conspiracy_theories" title="Rothschild family">Rothschilds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_tension" title="Strategy of tension">Strategy of tension</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Health" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_related_to_5G_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Misinformation related to 5G technology">5G</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_governments" title="COVID-19 misinformation by governments">by governments</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebola_misinformation" title="Ebola misinformation">Ebola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">HIV/AIDS denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_illness_denial" title="Mental illness denial">Mental illness denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_related_to_abortion" title="Misinformation related to abortion">Misinformation related to abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_health_care_misinformation" title="Transgender health care misinformation">Transgender health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation" title="Vaccine misinformation">Vaccines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-vaccine_activism" title="Anti-vaccine activism">anti-vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccines_and_autism" title="Vaccines and autism">autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy" title="COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy">COVID-19</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_fluoridation_controversy" title="Water fluoridation controversy">Water fluoridation controversy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Operations_and_events_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Operations and events by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Canada</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Jihadunspun.com" title="Jihadunspun.com">Jihadunspun.com</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">China</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_information_operations_and_information_warfare" title="Chinese information operations and information warfare">Chinese information operations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/50_Cent_Party" title="50 Cent Party">50 Cent Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare_by_China" title="Cyberwarfare by China">cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Pink" title="Little Pink">Little Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Water_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Water Army">Internet Water Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PLA_Unit_61398" title="PLA Unit 61398">PLA Unit 61398</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spamouflage" title="Spamouflage">Spamouflage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_China" title="COVID-19 misinformation by China">COVID-19</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Global_Times" title="Global Times">Global Times</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Czechoslovakia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Neptune_(espionage)" title="Operation Neptune (espionage)">Operation Neptune</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funkspiel" title="Funkspiel">Funkspiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Propaganda in Nazi Germany">Propaganda in Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth_of_the_clean_Wehrmacht" title="Myth of the clean Wehrmacht">Myth of the clean Wehrmacht</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">India</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_India" title="Fake news in India">Fake news in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godi-media" class="mw-redirect" title="Godi-media">Godi-media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paid_news_in_India" title="Paid news in India">Paid news in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpIndia" title="OpIndia">OpIndia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Israel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Team_Jorge" title="Team Jorge">Team Jorge</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Korea</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Agency_Network_of_Korea" title="Voluntary Agency Network of Korea">Voluntary Agency Network of Korea</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kuwait</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Fintas_Group" title="Fintas Group">Fintas Group</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mexico</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1abot" title="Peñabot">Peñabots</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philippines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_in_the_Philippines" title="COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines">COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines</a> (<a href="/wiki/ChinaAngVirus_disinformation_campaign" title="ChinaAngVirus disinformation campaign">ChinaAngVirus disinformation campaign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_the_Philippines" title="Fake news in the Philippines">Fake news in the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_distortion_regarding_Ferdinand_Marcos" title="Historical distortion regarding Ferdinand Marcos">Historical distortion regarding Ferdinand Marcos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_disinformation" title="Russian disinformation">Russia</a> /<br />Soviet Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_disinformation" title="Soviet disinformation">Soviet era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active Measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-1000_battleship" title="K-1000 battleship">K-1000 battleship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_INFEKTION" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation INFEKTION">Operation INFEKTION</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Toucan_(KGB)" title="Operation Toucan (KGB)">Operation Toucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seat_12" title="Seat 12">Seat 12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_influence_on_the_peace_movement" title="Soviet influence on the peace movement">Soviet influence on the peace movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Army_Field_Manual_30-31B" title="U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B">U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Useful_idiot" title="Useful idiot">Useful idiot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_disinformation_in_the_post-Soviet_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian disinformation in the post-Soviet era">Post-Soviet era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare_by_Russia" title="Cyberwarfare by Russia">Cyberwarfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2007_cyberattacks_on_Estonia" title="2007 cyberattacks on Estonia">on Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberattacks_during_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Cyberattacks during the Russo-Georgian War">during the Russo-Georgian War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_information_war_against_Ukraine" title="Russian information war against Ukraine">Information war against Ukraine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li>On US elections <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2016_United_States_elections" title="Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2018_United_States_elections" title="Russian interference in the 2018 United States elections">2018</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2020_United_States_elections" title="Russian interference in the 2020 United States elections">2020</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2016_Brexit_referendum" title="Russian interference in the 2016 Brexit referendum">2016 Brexit referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Institute_for_Strategic_Studies" title="Russian Institute for Strategic Studies">Russian Institute for Strategic Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Research_Agency" title="Internet Research Agency">Trolls from Olgino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_web_brigades" title="Russian web brigades">Web brigades</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism_in_South_Africa" title="HIV/AIDS denialism in South Africa">HIV/AIDS denialism</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turkey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_Turkey" title="Conspiracy theories in Turkey">Conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_censorship_and_disinformation_during_the_Gezi_Park_protests" title="Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests">Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AK_Trolls" title="AK Trolls">AK Trolls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United Kingdom</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bell_Pottinger" title="Bell Pottinger">Bell Pottinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-Cross_System" title="Double-Cross System">Double-Cross System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clockwork_Orange_(plot)" title="Clockwork Orange (plot)">Clockwork Orange plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euromyth" title="Euromyth">Euromyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancet_MMR_autism_fraud" title="Lancet MMR autism fraud"><i>Lancet</i> MMR autism fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Mass_Appeal" title="Operation Mass Appeal">Operation Mass Appeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_Warfare_Division" title="Psychological Warfare Division">Psychological Warfare Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinoviev_letter" title="Zinoviev letter">Zinoviev letter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1995_CIA_disinformation_controversy" title="1995 CIA disinformation controversy">1995 CIA disinformation controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempts_to_overturn_the_2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election">Attempts to overturn the 2020 election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_United_States_politics" title="Conspiracy theories in United States politics">Conspiracy theories</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/9/11_conspiracy_theories" title="9/11 conspiracy theories">9/11 conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_Kennedy_assassination_conspiracy_theory" title="CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory">CIA Kennedy assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QAnon" title="QAnon">QAnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting_conspiracy_theories" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting conspiracy theories">Sandy Hook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 misinformation by the United States">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_the_United_States" title="Fake news in the United States">Fake news</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_websites_in_the_United_States" title="Fake news websites in the United States">online</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_denial_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Election denial movement in the United States">Election denial movement in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freedom_Fighter%27s_Manual" title="The Freedom Fighter's Manual">The Freedom Fighter's Manual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habbush_letter" title="Habbush letter">Habbush letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Operations_Roadmap" title="Information Operations Roadmap">Information Operations Roadmap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter_boxes_in_schools_hoax" title="Litter boxes in schools hoax">Litter boxes in schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Atta%27s_alleged_Prague_connection" title="Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection">Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger_uranium_forgeries" title="Niger uranium forgeries">Niger uranium forgeries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_industry_playbook" title="Tobacco industry playbook">Tobacco industry playbook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Shocker" title="Operation Shocker">Operation Shocker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_rain" title="Yellow rain">Yellow rain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Venezuela</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Bolivarian_Army_of_Trolls" title="Bolivarian Army of Trolls">Bolivarian Army of Trolls</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vietnam</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_brigades" title="Public opinion brigades">Public opinion brigades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_47" class="mw-redirect" title="Force 47">Force 47</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Opposition" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Opposition</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fact-checking" title="Fact-checking">Fact-checking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fact-checking_website" class="mw-redirect" title="Fact-checking website">Fact-checking website</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active_Measures_Working_Group" title="Active Measures Working Group">Active Measures Working Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter_disinformation_unit" title="Counter disinformation unit">Counter disinformation unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter_Misinformation_Team" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter Misinformation Team">Counter Misinformation Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countering_Foreign_Propaganda_and_Disinformation_Act" title="Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act">Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Disinformation_Project" title="The Disinformation Project">The Disinformation Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_StratCom_Task_Force" title="East StratCom Task Force">East StratCom Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FactCheck.org" title="FactCheck.org">FactCheck.org</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Fact" title="Full Fact">Full Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logically_(company)" title="Logically (company)">Logically</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NewsGuard" title="NewsGuard">NewsGuard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PolitiFact" title="PolitiFact">PolitiFact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snopes" title="Snopes">Snopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/StopFake" title="StopFake">StopFake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Information_Agency" title="United States Information Agency">United States Information Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USAFacts" title="USAFacts">USAFacts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophical_logic" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophical_logic" title="Template:Philosophical logic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a 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title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Credibility" title="Credibility">Credibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">Dialectic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antithesis" title="Antithesis">Antithesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unity_of_opposites" title="Unity of opposites">Unity of opposites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanation" title="Explanation">Explanation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fallacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opinion" title="Opinion">Opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Parsimony (Occam's razor)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">Premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">Prudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevance" title="Relevance">Relevance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigour" title="Rigour">Rigor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagueness" title="Vagueness">Vagueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" 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