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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Linguistic_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistic_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Linguistic development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistic_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Description" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Description"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Description</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Description-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plan_of_forts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plan_of_forts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Plan of forts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Plan_of_forts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Plan of forts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Plan_of_forts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources_and_origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_and_origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Sources and origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources_and_origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Layout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Layout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Layout</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Layout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wall_and_ditch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wall_and_ditch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Wall and ditch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wall_and_ditch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intervallum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intervallum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Intervallum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intervallum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Streets,_gates_and_central_plaza" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Streets,_gates_and_central_plaza"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Streets, gates and central plaza</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Streets,_gates_and_central_plaza-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canteen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canteen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Canteen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canteen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_buildings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_buildings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Major buildings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_buildings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Barracks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barracks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Barracks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barracks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sanitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sanitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Sanitation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sanitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Territory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Territory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Territory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Territory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modifications_in_practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modifications_in_practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.11</span> <span>Modifications in practice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modifications_in_practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quadrangular_camps_in_later_times" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quadrangular_camps_in_later_times"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12</span> <span>Quadrangular camps in later times</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quadrangular_camps_in_later_times-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Camp_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Camp_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Camp life</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Camp_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Camp life subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Camp_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ordinary_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ordinary_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Ordinary life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ordinary_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Duties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Duties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Duties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Duties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Secondary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>General</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forts_and_fortifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forts_and_fortifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Forts and fortifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forts_and_fortifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Camp_life_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Camp_life_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Camp life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Camp_life_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><i>Castra</i></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="كاسترا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كاسترا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Каструм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Каструм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrum" title="Castrum – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Castrum" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrum" title="Castrum – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Castrum" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrum" title="Castrum – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Castrum" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caer_Rufeinig" title="Caer Rufeinig – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Caer Rufeinig" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castra" title="Castra – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Castra" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6misches_Milit%C3%A4rlager" title="Römisches Militärlager – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Römisches Militärlager" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrum" title="Castrum – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Castrum" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrum" title="Castrum – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Castrum" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castra" title="Castra – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Castra" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85" title="کاستروم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کاستروم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_romain" title="Camp romain – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Camp romain" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campamento_romano" title="Campamento romano – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Campamento romano" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B9%B4%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8%EB%9D%BC" title="카스트라 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="카스트라" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrum" title="Castrum – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Castrum" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrum" title="Castrum – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Castrum" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castra" title="Castra – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Castra" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9D" title="קסטרום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קסטרום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castra_Romana" title="Castra Romana – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Castra Romana" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrum" title="Castrum – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Castrum" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castra" title="Castra – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Castra" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrum" title="Castrum – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Castrum" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AB%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%A9" title="カストラ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="カストラ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrum" title="Castrum – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Castrum" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrum_Romanum" title="Castrum Romanum – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Castrum Romanum" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castro_(Roma_Antiga)" title="Castro (Roma Antiga) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Castro (Roma Antiga)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castru" title="Castru – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Castru" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Каструм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Каструм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kastrum" title="Kastrum – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kastrum" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kastrum" title="Kastrum – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kastrum" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Каструм – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Каструм" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kastrum" title="Kastrum – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kastrum" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castra" title="Castra – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Castra" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrum" title="Castrum – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Castrum" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castra" title="Castra – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Castra" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Каструм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Каструм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%BD%97%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%B5%E8%90%A5" title="古罗马兵营 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="古罗马兵营" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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base</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the Latin term. For the star system, see <a href="/wiki/Epsilon_Capricorni" title="Epsilon Capricorni">Epsilon Capricorni</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm/260px--Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="260" height="156" data-durationhint="87" data-mwtitle="Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6a/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="800" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6a/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1200" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8"" data-width="1280" data-height="768" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6a/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="400" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6a/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="600" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6a/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="600" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Templeborough" title="Templeborough">Templeborough</a> Roman fort in <a href="/wiki/South_Yorkshire" title="South Yorkshire">South Yorkshire</a> visualised 3D flythrough, produced for <a href="/wiki/Rotherham" title="Rotherham">Rotherham</a> Museums and Archives</figcaption></figure> <style 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</tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/40px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/60px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/120px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_military_sidebar" title="Template:Ancient Rome military sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_military_sidebar" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome military sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_military_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome military sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i><b>Castra</b></i> (<abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr>) is a <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> term used during the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> for a military 'camp', and <i><b>castrum</b></i> (<abbr title="singular form">sg.</abbr>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for a '<a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">fort</a>'.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Either could refer to a building or plot of land, used as a fortified <a href="/wiki/Military_base" title="Military base">military base</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CampbellP4_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CampbellP4-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> usage, <i>castrum</i> commonly translates to "Roman fort", "Roman camp" and "Roman fortress". Scholastic convention tends to translate <i>castrum</i> as "fort", "camp", "marching camp" or "fortress".<sup id="cite_ref-CampbellP4_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CampbellP4-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Romans used the term <i>castrum</i> for different sizes of camps – including large <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">legionary</a> fortresses, smaller forts for <a href="/wiki/Cohort_(military_unit)" title="Cohort (military unit)">cohorts</a> or for <a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">auxiliary</a> forces, <a href="/wiki/Military_camp" title="Military camp">temporary encampments</a>, and "marching" forts. The diminutive form <i><a href="/wiki/Castellum" title="Castellum">castellum</a></i> was used for fortlets,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> typically occupied by a detachment of a cohort or a <i><a href="/wiki/Centuria" title="Centuria">centuria</a></i>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Castrum</i> appears in <a href="/wiki/Oscan_language" title="Oscan language">Oscan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Umbrian_language" title="Umbrian language">Umbrian</a>, two other <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic languages</a>, suggesting an origin at least as old as <a href="/wiki/Proto-Italic_language" title="Proto-Italic language">Proto-Italic language</a>. <a href="/wiki/Julius_Pokorny" title="Julius Pokorny">Julius Pokorny</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> traces a probable derivation from *k̂es-, 'cut', in *k̂es-tro-m, 'cutting tool'. These Italic reflexes based on *kastrom include Oscan <span title="Oscan-language text"><i lang="osc">castrous</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive case</a>) and Umbrian <span title="Umbrian-language text"><i lang="xum">castruo</i></span>, <span title="Umbrian-language text"><i lang="xum">kastruvuf</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative case</a>). They have the same meaning, says Pokorny, as Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">fundus</i></span>, an estate, or tract of land. This is not any land but is a prepared or cultivated tract, such as a farm enclosed by a fence or a wooden or stone wall of some kind. <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a> uses Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">castrum</i></span> in that sense: when <a href="/wiki/Alcibiades" title="Alcibiades">Alcibiades</a> deserts to the Persians, <a href="/wiki/Pharnabazus_II" title="Pharnabazus II">Pharnabazus</a> gives him an estate (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">castrum</i></span>) worth 500 <a href="/wiki/Talent_(measurement)" title="Talent (measurement)">talents</a> in tax revenues.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a change of meaning from the reflexes in other languages, which still mean some sort of knife, axe, or spear. Pokorny explains it as "a camp, as a cut-off piece of land". </p><p>If this is the civilian interpretation, the military version must be "military reservation", a piece of land cut off from the common land around it and modified for military use. All castra must be defended by works, often no more than a <a href="/wiki/Stockade" title="Stockade">stockade</a>, for which the soldiers carried stakes, and a ditch. The <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">castra</i></span> could be prepared under attack within a <a href="/wiki/Hollow_square" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollow square">hollow square</a> or behind a <a href="/wiki/Battle_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle line">battle line</a>. Considering that the earliest military shelters were <a href="/wiki/Tent" title="Tent">tents</a> made of hide or cloth, and all but the most permanent bases housed the men in tents placed in quadrangles and separated by numbered streets, one <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">castrum</i></span> may well have acquired the connotation of tent.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linguistic_development">Linguistic development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Linguistic development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The commonest Latin <a href="/wiki/Syntagma_(linguistics)" title="Syntagma (linguistics)">syntagmata</a> (here phrases) for the term <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">castra</i></span> are: </p> <dl><dt><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">castra stativa</i></span></dt> <dd>Permanent camp/fortresses</dd> <dt><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">castra aestiva</i></span></dt> <dd>Summer camp/fortresses</dd> <dt><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">castra hiberna</i></span></dt> <dd>Winter camp/fortresses</dd> <dt><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">castra navalia</i></span> / <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">castra nautica</i></span></dt> <dd>Navy camp/fortresses</dd></dl> <p>In Latin the term <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">castrum</i></span> is much more frequently used as a proper name for geographical locations: e.g., <span title="Latin-language text"><span lang="la" style="font-style: normal;">Castrum Album</span></span>, <span title="Latin-language text"><span lang="la" style="font-style: normal;">Castrum <a href="/wiki/Inuus" title="Inuus">Inui</a></span></span>, <span title="Latin-language text"><span lang="la" style="font-style: normal;">Castrum Novum</span></span>, <span title="Latin-language text"><span lang="la" style="font-style: normal;">Castrum Truentinum</span></span>, <span title="Latin-language text"><span lang="la" style="font-style: normal;">Castrum Vergium</span></span>. The plural was also used as a place name, as <span title="Latin-language text"><span lang="la" style="font-style: normal;">Castra Cornelia</span></span>, and from this comes the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_toponymy" title="Welsh toponymy">Welsh place name</a> prefix <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy"><a href="/wiki/Caer" title="Caer">caer-</a></i></span> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Caerleon" title="Caerleon">Caerleon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caerwent" title="Caerwent">Caerwent</a>) and English suffixes <i><a href="/wiki/Chester_(placename_element)" title="Chester (placename element)">-caster<i> and </i>-chester</a></i> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lancaster,_Lancashire" title="Lancaster, Lancashire">Lancaster</a>). <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Castrorum Filius</i></span>, "son of the camps", was one of the names used by the emperor <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a> and then also by other emperors. </p><p><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Castro_(surname)" title="Castro (surname)">Castro</a></i></span>, also derived from <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Castrum</i></span>, is a common <a href="/wiki/Spanish_naming_customs" title="Spanish naming customs">Spanish family name</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Toponym" class="mw-redirect" title="Toponym">toponym</a> in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Hispanophone" title="Hispanophone">Hispanophone</a> countries, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, either by itself or in various compounds such as the <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a> of <span title="Albanian-language text"><span lang="sq" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gjirokast%C3%ABr" title="Gjirokastër">Gjirokastër</a></span></span> (earlier <span title="Albanian-language text"><span lang="sq" style="font-style: normal;">Argurokastro</span></span>). The terms <i><b><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc"><a href="/wiki/Towns_of_ancient_Greece#Military_settlements" title="Towns of ancient Greece">stratopedon</a></i></span></b></i> ("army camp") and <i><b><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc"><a href="/wiki/Towns_of_ancient_Greece#Military_settlements" title="Towns of ancient Greece">phrourion</a></i></span></b></i> ("<a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">fortification</a>") were used by <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a> authors to translate <span title="Latin-language text"><span lang="la" style="font-style: normal;">castrum</span></span> and <span title="Latin-language text"><span lang="la" style="font-style: normal;">castellum</span></span>, respectively. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Castra1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Castra1.png/195px-Castra1.png" decoding="async" width="195" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Castra1.png/293px-Castra1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Castra1.png/390px-Castra1.png 2x" data-file-width="458" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>Basic ideal plan of a Roman <i>castrum</i>. (1)<span class="nowrap"> </span>Principia; (2)<span class="nowrap"> </span>Via Praetoria; (3)<span class="nowrap"> </span>Via Principalis; (4)<span class="nowrap"> </span>Porta Principalis Dextra; (5)<span class="nowrap"> </span>Porta Praetoria (main gate); (6)<span class="nowrap"> </span>Porta Principalis Sinistra; (7)<span class="nowrap"> </span>Porta Decumana (back gate).</figcaption></figure> <p>A <i>castrum</i> was designed to house and protect the soldiers, their equipment and supplies when they were not fighting or marching. The most detailed description that survives about Roman military camps is <i><a href="/wiki/De_Munitionibus_Castrorum" title="De Munitionibus Castrorum">De Munitionibus Castrorum</a></i>, a manuscript of 11 pages that dates most probably from the late 1st to early 2nd century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regulations required a major unit in the field to retire to a properly constructed camp every day. "… as soon as they have marched into an enemy's land, they do not begin to fight until they have walled their camp about; nor is the fence they raise rashly made, or uneven; nor do they all abide ill it, nor do those that are in it take their places at random; but if it happens that the ground is uneven, it is first levelled: their camp is also four-square by measure, and carpenters are ready, in great numbers, with their tools, to erect their buildings for them."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To this end a marching column ported the equipment needed to build and stock the camp in a baggage train of wagons and on the backs of the soldiers. The camp allowed the Romans to keep a rested and supplied army in the field. Neither the Celtic nor Germanic armies had this capability: they found it necessary to disperse after only a few days. </p><p>Camps were the responsibility of engineering units to which specialists of many types belonged, officered by <i>architecti</i>, "chief engineers", who requisitioned manual labor from the soldiers at large as required. A unit could throw up a camp under enemy attack in as little as a few hours. Judging from the names, they probably used a repertory of camp plans, selecting the one appropriate to the length of time a legion would spend in it: <i>tertia castra</i>, <i>quarta castra</i>, etc. (<i>a camp of three days</i>, <i>four days</i>, etc.).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More permanent camps were <i>castra stativa</i> (<i>standing camps</i>). The least permanent of these were <i>castra aestiva</i> or <i>aestivalia</i>, "summer camps", in which the soldiers were housed <i>sub pellibus</i> or <i>sub tentoriis</i>, "under tents".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest castra were <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">legionary fortresses</a></i> built as bases for one or more whole legions.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Summer was the campaign season. For the winter the soldiers retired to <i>castra hiberna</i> containing barracks and other buildings of more solid materials, with timber construction gradually being replaced by stone.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Castra hibernas</i> held eight soldiers to a room, who slept on bunkbeds. The soldiers in each room were also required to cook their own meals and eat with their "roommates".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the time of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> more permanent castra with wooden or stone buildings and walls were introduced as the distant and hard-won boundaries of the expanding empire required permanent garrisons to control local and external threats from warlike tribes. Previously, legions were raised for specific military campaigns and subsequently disbanded, requiring only temporary castra. From then on many castra of various sizes were established, many of which became permanent settlements. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plan_of_forts">Plan of forts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Plan of forts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kastell_Theilenhofen_Iciniacum_(English).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Kastell_Theilenhofen_Iciniacum_%28English%29.png/220px-Kastell_Theilenhofen_Iciniacum_%28English%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Kastell_Theilenhofen_Iciniacum_%28English%29.png/330px-Kastell_Theilenhofen_Iciniacum_%28English%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Kastell_Theilenhofen_Iciniacum_%28English%29.png/440px-Kastell_Theilenhofen_Iciniacum_%28English%29.png 2x" data-file-width="4151" data-file-height="5686" /></a><figcaption>Plan of a typical Roman fort</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arbeia_Roman_Fort_reconstructed_gateway.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Arbeia_Roman_Fort_reconstructed_gateway.jpg/250px-Arbeia_Roman_Fort_reconstructed_gateway.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Arbeia_Roman_Fort_reconstructed_gateway.jpg/330px-Arbeia_Roman_Fort_reconstructed_gateway.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Arbeia_Roman_Fort_reconstructed_gateway.jpg/500px-Arbeia_Roman_Fort_reconstructed_gateway.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Reconstructed gateway of a <i>Castrum Stativum</i> at <a href="/wiki/Arbeia" title="Arbeia">Arbeia</a> (<a href="/wiki/South_Shields" title="South Shields">South Shields</a>), a supply depot for <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a>. Note the battlements, the Roman arches, the <i>turres</i>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Holzwachturm_am_r%C3%A4tischen_Limes_(Rekonstruktion)_-_Wp12_77.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Holzwachturm_am_r%C3%A4tischen_Limes_%28Rekonstruktion%29_-_Wp12_77.jpg/220px-Holzwachturm_am_r%C3%A4tischen_Limes_%28Rekonstruktion%29_-_Wp12_77.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Holzwachturm_am_r%C3%A4tischen_Limes_%28Rekonstruktion%29_-_Wp12_77.jpg/330px-Holzwachturm_am_r%C3%A4tischen_Limes_%28Rekonstruktion%29_-_Wp12_77.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Holzwachturm_am_r%C3%A4tischen_Limes_%28Rekonstruktion%29_-_Wp12_77.jpg/440px-Holzwachturm_am_r%C3%A4tischen_Limes_%28Rekonstruktion%29_-_Wp12_77.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of the <i>specula</i> or <i>vigilarium</i> (Germanic <i><a href="/wiki/Burgus" title="Burgus">burgus</a></i>), "watchtower", a type of <i>castrum</i>, at Rainau-Buch, Germany. An ancient watchtower would have been surrounded by wall and ditch.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources_and_origins">Sources and origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sources and origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the most ancient times Roman camps were constructed according to a certain ideal pattern, formally described in two main sources, the <i><a href="/wiki/De_Munitionibus_Castrorum" title="De Munitionibus Castrorum">De Munitionibus Castrorum</a></i> and the works of <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alan Richardson compares both original authors and concludes that "the Hyginian model greatly reduced the area and perimeter length for any given force."<sup id="cite_ref-richardson03a_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-richardson03a-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> P. Fl. Vegetius Renatus has a small section on entrenched camps as well. The terminology varies, but the basic plan is the same.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hypothesis of an <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan origin</a> is a viable alternative.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Layout">Layout</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Layout"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Porta_Praetoria_Kastell_Pf%C3%BCnz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Porta_Praetoria_Kastell_Pf%C3%BCnz.jpg/220px-Porta_Praetoria_Kastell_Pf%C3%BCnz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Porta_Praetoria_Kastell_Pf%C3%BCnz.jpg/330px-Porta_Praetoria_Kastell_Pf%C3%BCnz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Porta_Praetoria_Kastell_Pf%C3%BCnz.jpg/440px-Porta_Praetoria_Kastell_Pf%C3%BCnz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10738" data-file-height="4719" /></a><figcaption>The reconstructed <i>porta praetoria</i> of <i>Castrum Pfünz</i>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, near the <a href="/wiki/Rhaetian_Limes" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhaetian Limes">Rhaetian Limes</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kastell_Dajaniya,_Limes_Arabicus,_1989.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Kastell_Dajaniya%2C_Limes_Arabicus%2C_1989.svg/250px-Kastell_Dajaniya%2C_Limes_Arabicus%2C_1989.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Kastell_Dajaniya%2C_Limes_Arabicus%2C_1989.svg/330px-Kastell_Dajaniya%2C_Limes_Arabicus%2C_1989.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Kastell_Dajaniya%2C_Limes_Arabicus%2C_1989.svg/500px-Kastell_Dajaniya%2C_Limes_Arabicus%2C_1989.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2785" data-file-height="3029" /></a><figcaption>Late Roman fort of the <a href="/wiki/Limes_Arabicus" title="Limes Arabicus">Limes Arabicus</a> in Jordan</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kastell_Visegr%C3%A1d-Gizellamajor.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Kastell_Visegr%C3%A1d-Gizellamajor.png/220px-Kastell_Visegr%C3%A1d-Gizellamajor.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Kastell_Visegr%C3%A1d-Gizellamajor.png/330px-Kastell_Visegr%C3%A1d-Gizellamajor.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Kastell_Visegr%C3%A1d-Gizellamajor.png/440px-Kastell_Visegr%C3%A1d-Gizellamajor.png 2x" data-file-width="1459" data-file-height="1555" /></a><figcaption>Late Roman <i>quadriburgium</i> in Hungary</figcaption></figure> <p>The ideal enforced a linear plan for a camp or fort: a square for camps to contain one legion or smaller unit, a rectangle for two legions, each legion being placed back-to-back with headquarters next to each other.<sup id="cite_ref-richardson02a_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-richardson02a-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The religious devotion of the Romans to geometry caused them to build into their camps whole-numbered right triangles.<sup id="cite_ref-richardson05a_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-richardson05a-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Laying it out was a geometric exercise conducted by experienced officers called <i>metatores</i>, who used graduated measuring rods called <i>decempedae</i> ("10-footers") and <i>gromatici</i> who used a <a href="/wiki/Groma_surveying" class="mw-redirect" title="Groma surveying">groma</a>, a sighting device consisting of a vertical staff with horizontal cross pieces and vertical plumb-lines. Ideally the process started in the centre of the planned camp at the site of the headquarters tent or building (<i>principia</i>). Streets and other features were marked with coloured pennants or rods.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Richardson writes that from the aspect ratio of the castra one could determine the order of battle,<sup id="cite_ref-richardson01a_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-richardson01a-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the size of the legion it housed determined the area of the camp.<sup id="cite_ref-richardson03a_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-richardson03a-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Steinhoff theorizes that Richardson has identified a commonality and builds on the latter's detailed studies to suggest that North African encampments in the time of <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> were based on the same geometrical skill.<sup id="cite_ref-steinhoff19_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-steinhoff19-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The street plans of various present-day cities still retain traces of a Roman camp, for example <a href="/wiki/Marsala" title="Marsala">Marsala</a> in Sicily, the ancient Lilybaeum, where the name of the main street, the Cassaro, perpetuates the name "castrum". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wall_and_ditch">Wall and ditch</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Wall and ditch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Masada_Roman_Ruins_by_David_Shankbone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Masada_Roman_Ruins_by_David_Shankbone.jpg/250px-Masada_Roman_Ruins_by_David_Shankbone.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Masada_Roman_Ruins_by_David_Shankbone.jpg/330px-Masada_Roman_Ruins_by_David_Shankbone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Masada_Roman_Ruins_by_David_Shankbone.jpg/500px-Masada_Roman_Ruins_by_David_Shankbone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Castrum at <a href="/wiki/Masada" title="Masada">Masada</a>. Note the classical "playing-card" layout.</figcaption></figure> <p>The castrum's special structure also defended from attacks. The base (<i>munimentum</i>, "fortification") was placed entirely within the <i><a href="/wiki/Vallum" title="Vallum">vallum</a></i> ("wall"), which could be constructed under the protection of the legion in battle formation if necessary. The <i>vallum</i> was quadrangular, aligned on the cardinal points of the compass. </p><p>The construction crews dug a trench (<i>fossa</i>), throwing the excavated material inward, to be formed into the rampart (<i>agger</i>). On top of this a palisade of stakes (<i><a href="/wiki/Sudis_(stake)" title="Sudis (stake)">sudes</a></i> or <i>valli</i>) was erected. The soldiers had to carry these stakes on the march.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the course of time, the palisade might be replaced by a brick or stone wall, and the ditch served also as a <a href="/wiki/Moat" title="Moat">moat</a>. A legion-sized camp placed towers at intervals along the wall with positions between for the division artillery. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intervallum">Intervallum</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Intervallum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Around the inside periphery of the <i>vallum</i> was a clear space, the <i>intervallum</i>, which served to catch enemy missiles, as an access route to the <i>vallum</i> and as a storage space for cattle (<i>capita</i>) and plunder (<i>praeda</i>). The Romans were masters of geometry and showed it in their camps: a modern study shows that the intervallum "was 1/16th of the square root of the area it enclosed in the fort."<sup id="cite_ref-richardson02a_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-richardson02a-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Legionaries were quartered in a peripheral zone inside the <i>intervallum</i>, which they could rapidly cross to take up position on the <i>vallum</i>. Inside of the legionary quarters was a peripheral road, the <i>Via Sagularis</i>, probably a type of "service road", as the <i><a href="/wiki/Sagum" title="Sagum">sagum</a></i>, a kind of cloak, was the garment of soldiers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Streets,_gates_and_central_plaza"><span id="Streets.2C_gates_and_central_plaza"></span>Streets, gates and central plaza</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Streets, gates and central plaza"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ostkastell_Welzheim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Ostkastell_Welzheim.jpg/220px-Ostkastell_Welzheim.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Ostkastell_Welzheim.jpg/330px-Ostkastell_Welzheim.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Ostkastell_Welzheim.jpg/440px-Ostkastell_Welzheim.jpg 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="1187" /></a><figcaption>Reconstructed east gate of a <i>castrum stativum</i>, a more permanent base, at <a href="/wiki/Welzheim" title="Welzheim">Welzheim</a>, Germany</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Susa_PortaSavoia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Susa_PortaSavoia.jpg/250px-Susa_PortaSavoia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Susa_PortaSavoia.jpg/330px-Susa_PortaSavoia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Susa_PortaSavoia.jpg/500px-Susa_PortaSavoia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Porta called <i>Savoia</i>, <a href="/wiki/Susa,_Piedmont" title="Susa, Piedmont">Susa, Piedmont</a>, 275-290 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>Every camp included a "main street", which ran through the camp in a north–south direction and was very wide. The names of streets in many cities formerly occupied by the Romans suggest that the street was called <i><a href="/wiki/Cardo" title="Cardo">cardo</a></i> or <i>cardus maximus</i>. This name applies more to cities than it does to ancient camps.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically "main street" was the <i>via principalis</i>. The central portion was used as a parade ground and headquarters area. The "headquarters" building was called the <i><a href="/wiki/Praetorium" title="Praetorium">praetorium</a></i> because it housed the <i><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">praetor</a></i> or base commander ("first officer"), and his staff. In the camp of a full legion he held the rank of <i><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consul</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Proconsul" title="Proconsul">proconsul</a></i> but officers of lesser ranks might command. On one side of the <i>praetorium</i> was the <i>quaestorium</i>, the building of the <i><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">quaestor</a></i> (supply officer). On the other side was the <i><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">forum</a></i>, a small duplicate of an urban forum, where public business could be conducted. </p><p>The <i>Via Principalis</i> went through the <i>vallum</i> in the <i>Porta Principalis Dextra</i> ("right principal gate") and <i>Porta Principalis Sinistra</i> ("left, etc."), which were gates fortified with <i>turres</i> ("towers"). Which was on the north and which on the south depends on whether the praetorium faced east or west, which remains unknown. Along the <i>Via Principalis</i> were the homes or tents of the several <a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">tribunes</a> in front of the barracks of the units they commanded. The central region of the <i>Via Principalis</i> with the buildings for the command staff was called the <i>Principia</i> (plural of <i>principium</i>). It was actually a square, as across this at right angles to the <i>Via Principalis</i> was the <i>Via Praetoria</i>, so called because the <i>praetorium</i> interrupted it. The <i>Via Principalis</i> and the <i>Via Praetoria</i> offered another division of the camp into four quarters. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wei%C3%9Fenburg_Porta_decumana2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Wei%C3%9Fenburg_Porta_decumana2.jpg/250px-Wei%C3%9Fenburg_Porta_decumana2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Wei%C3%9Fenburg_Porta_decumana2.jpg/330px-Wei%C3%9Fenburg_Porta_decumana2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Wei%C3%9Fenburg_Porta_decumana2.jpg/500px-Wei%C3%9Fenburg_Porta_decumana2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2916" data-file-height="1980" /></a><figcaption><i>Porta decumana</i> at <a href="/wiki/Wei%C3%9Fenburg_in_Bayern" title="Weißenburg in Bayern">Weißenburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Across the central plaza (<i>principia</i>) to the east or west was the main gate, the <i>Porta Praetoria</i>. Marching through it and down "headquarters street" a unit ended up in formation in front of the headquarters. The standards of the legion were located on display there, very much like the flag of modern camps. On the other side of the praetorium the <i>Via Praetoria</i> continued to the wall, where it went through the <i>Porta Decumana</i>. In theory this was the back gate. Supplies were supposed to come in through it and so it was also called, descriptively, the <i>Porta Quaestoria</i>. The term Decumana, "of the 10th", came from the arranging of <i>manipuli</i> or <i>turmae</i> from the first to the 10th, such that the 10th was near the <i>intervallum</i> on that side. The <i>Via Praetoria</i> on that side might take the name <i>Via Decumana</i> or the entire <i>Via Praetoria</i> be replaced with <i><a href="/wiki/Decumanus_Maximus" class="mw-redirect" title="Decumanus Maximus">Decumanus Maximus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canteen">Canteen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Canteen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In peaceful times the camp set up a marketplace with the natives in the area. They were allowed into the camp as far as the units numbered 5 (half-way to the praetorium). There another street crossed the camp at right angles to the <i>Via Decumana</i>, called the <i>Via Quintana</i>, (English: 5th street<i>,</i> from Latin: <i>quintana</i>, the fifth). If the camp needed more gates, one or two of the <i>Porta Quintana</i> were built, presumably named <i>dextra</i> and <i>sinistra</i>. If the gates were not built, the <i>Porta Decumana</i> also became the <i>Porta Quintana</i>. At <i>Via Quintana</i> a public market was allowed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_buildings">Major buildings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Major buildings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DevaMinervaPlan(bq).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/DevaMinervaPlan%28bq%29.jpg/330px-DevaMinervaPlan%28bq%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/DevaMinervaPlan%28bq%29.jpg/500px-DevaMinervaPlan%28bq%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/DevaMinervaPlan%28bq%29.jpg/960px-DevaMinervaPlan%28bq%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="1176" /></a><figcaption>Model of the legionary fortress of <a href="/wiki/Deva_Victrix" title="Deva Victrix">Deva</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chester" title="Chester">Chester</a>) plus adjoining <a href="/wiki/Amphitheatre" title="Amphitheatre">amphitheatre</a> in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britannia</a> (reconstruction)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arbeia_Roman_Fort_grannaries.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Arbeia_Roman_Fort_grannaries.jpg/330px-Arbeia_Roman_Fort_grannaries.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Arbeia_Roman_Fort_grannaries.jpg/500px-Arbeia_Roman_Fort_grannaries.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Arbeia_Roman_Fort_grannaries.jpg/960px-Arbeia_Roman_Fort_grannaries.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Not much remains of these <i>horrea</i> (granaries) at <a href="/wiki/Arbeia" title="Arbeia">Arbeia</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/South_Shields" title="South Shields">South Shields</a> in north-east England), but the longitudinal supports for the floor can be seen.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <i>Via Quintana</i> and the <i>Via Principalis</i> divided the camp into three districts: the <i>Latera Praetorii</i>, the <i>Praetentura</i> and the <i>Retentura</i>. In the <i>latera</i> ("sides") were the <i>Arae</i> (sacrificial altars), the <i><a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">Auguratorium</a></i> (for <a href="/wiki/Auspice" class="mw-redirect" title="Auspice">auspices</a>), the <i>Tribunal</i>, where courts martial and arbitrations were conducted (it had a raised platform), the guardhouse, the quarters of various kinds of staff and the storehouses for grain (<i>horrea</i>) or meat (<i>carnarea</i>). Sometimes the <i>horrea</i> were located near the barracks and the meat was stored on the hoof. Analysis of sewage from latrines indicates the legionary diet was mainly grain. Also located in the <i>Latera</i> was the <i>Armamentarium</i>, a long shed containing any heavy weapons and artillery not on the wall. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Onager.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Roman_Onager.jpg/250px-Roman_Onager.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Roman_Onager.jpg/330px-Roman_Onager.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Roman_Onager.jpg/440px-Roman_Onager.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="338" /></a><figcaption>Roman artillery piece (<a href="/wiki/Onager_(siege_weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Onager (siege weapon)">onager</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <i>Praetentura</i> ("stretching to the front") contained the <i>Scamnum Legatorum</i>, the quarters of officers who were below general but higher than company commanders (<i>Legati</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Near the <i>Principia</i> were the <i>Valetudinarium</i> (hospital), <i>Veterinarium</i> (for horses), <i>Fabrica</i> ("workshop", metals and wood), and further to the front the quarters of special forces. These included <i><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Classici</a></i> ("marines", as most European camps were on rivers and contained a river naval command), <i>Equites</i> ("cavalry"), <i><a href="/wiki/Speculatores" title="Speculatores">Exploratores</a></i> ("scouts"), and <i>Vexillarii</i> (carriers of <a href="/wiki/Vexilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Vexilla">vexilla</a>, the official pennants of the legion and its units). Troops who did not fit elsewhere also were there. </p><p>The part of the <i>Retentura</i> ("stretching to the rear") closest to the <i>Principia</i> contained the <i>Quaestorium</i>. By the late empire it had developed also into a safekeep for plunder and a prison for hostages and high-ranking enemy captives. Near the <i>Quaestorium</i> were the quarters of the headquarters guard (<i>Statores</i>), who amounted to two <a href="/wiki/Centuria" title="Centuria">centuries</a> (companies). If the <i><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></i> was present they served as his bodyguard. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Barracks">Barracks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Barracks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2006_0602TurdaPotaissa0122.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/2006_0602TurdaPotaissa0122.jpg/220px-2006_0602TurdaPotaissa0122.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/2006_0602TurdaPotaissa0122.jpg/330px-2006_0602TurdaPotaissa0122.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/2006_0602TurdaPotaissa0122.jpg/440px-2006_0602TurdaPotaissa0122.jpg 2x" data-file-width="793" data-file-height="1031" /></a><figcaption>A sanitary channel at <a href="/wiki/Potaissa" class="mw-redirect" title="Potaissa">Potaissa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Dacia" title="Roman Dacia">Dacia</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>). It is placed cross-slope with a slight decline and then exits down-slope.</figcaption></figure> <p>Further from the <i>Quaestorium</i> were the tents of the <i>Nationes</i> ("natives"), who were auxiliaries of foreign troops, and the legionaries in double rows of tents or barracks (<i>Strigae</i>). One <i>Striga</i> was as long as required and 18 m wide. In it were two <i>Hemistrigia</i> of facing tents centered in its 9 m strip. Arms could be stacked before the tents and baggage carts kept there as well. Space on the other side of the tent was for passage. </p><p>In the northern places like Britain, where it got cold in the winter, they would make wood or stone barracks. The Romans would also put a fireplace in the barracks. They had about three bunk beds in it. They had a small room beside it where they put their armour; it was as big as the tents. They would make these barracks if the fort they had was going to stay there for good.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A tent was 3 by 3.5 metres (0.6 m for the aisle), ten men per tent. Ideally a company took 10 tents, arranged in a line of 10 companies, with the 10th near the <i>Porta Decumana</i>. Of the c. 9.2 square metres of bunk space each man received 0.9, or about 0.6 by 1.5 m, which was only practical if they slept with heads to the aisle. The single tent with its men was called <i><a href="/wiki/Contubernium_(Roman_army_unit)" title="Contubernium (Roman army unit)">contubernium</a></i>, also used for "squad". A squad during some periods was 8 men or fewer. The <i>centurion</i>, or company commander, had a double-sized tent for his quarters, which served also as official company area. Other than there, the men had to find other places to be. To avoid mutiny, it was important for the officers to keep them busy. </p><p>A covered portico might protect the walkway along the tents. If barracks had been constructed, one company was housed in one barracks building, with the arms at one end and the common area at the other. The company area was used for cooking and recreation such as gaming. The army provisioned the men and had their bread (<i>panis militaris</i>) baked in outdoor ovens, but the men were responsible for cooking and serving themselves. They could buy meals or supplementary foods at the canteen. The officers were allowed servants. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sanitation">Sanitation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Sanitation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For sanitary facilities, a camp had both public and private <a href="/wiki/Latrine" title="Latrine">latrines</a>. A public latrine consisted of a bank of seats situated over a channel of running water. One of the major considerations for selecting the site of a camp was the presence of running water, which the engineers diverted into the sanitary channels. Drinking water came from wells; however, the larger and more permanent bases featured the <i><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">aqueduct</a></i>, a structure running a stream captured from high ground (sometimes miles away) into the camp. The praetorium had its own latrine and probably the quarters of the high-ranking officers. In or near the <i>intervallum</i>, where they could easily be accessed, were the latrines of the soldiers. A public bathhouse for the soldiers, also containing a latrine, was located near or on the <i>Via Principalis</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Territory">Territory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Territory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arbeia_Roman_Fort_reconstructed_barracks.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Arbeia_Roman_Fort_reconstructed_barracks.jpg/250px-Arbeia_Roman_Fort_reconstructed_barracks.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Arbeia_Roman_Fort_reconstructed_barracks.jpg/330px-Arbeia_Roman_Fort_reconstructed_barracks.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Arbeia_Roman_Fort_reconstructed_barracks.jpg/500px-Arbeia_Roman_Fort_reconstructed_barracks.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Reconstructed barracks of a <i>castra hiberna</i>, or "winter camp", at <a href="/wiki/Arbeia" title="Arbeia">Arbeia</a> (<a href="/wiki/South_Shields" title="South Shields">South Shields</a>). Each doorway provides entry to a large room, the sleeping quarters of one <i>contubernium</i>, or "squad" of about 10 men.</figcaption></figure> <p>The influence of a base extended far beyond its walls. The total land required for the maintenance of a permanent base was called its <i>territoria</i>. In it were located all the resources of nature and the terrain required by the base: pastures, woodlots, water sources, stone quarries, mines, exercise fields and attached villages. The central castra might also support various fortified adjuncts to the main base, which were not self-sustaining as was the base. In this category were <i>speculae</i>, "watchtowers", <i>castella</i>, "small camps", and naval bases. </p><p>All the major bases near rivers featured some sort of fortified naval installation, one side of which was formed by the river or lake. The other sides were formed by a polygonal wall and ditch constructed in the usual way, with gates and watchtowers. The main internal features were the boat sheds and the docks. When not in use, the boats were drawn up into the sheds for maintenance and protection. Since the camp was placed to best advantage on a hill or slope near the river, the naval base was usually outside its walls. The <i>classici</i> and the <i>optiones</i> of the naval installation relied on the camp for its permanent defense. Naval personnel generally enjoyed better quarters and facilities. Many were civilians working for the military. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modifications_in_practice">Modifications in practice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Modifications in practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ideal plan was typically modified to suit the terrain and the circumstances. Each camp discovered by archaeology has its own specific layout and architectural features, which makes sense from a military point of view. If, for example, the camp was built on an outcrop, it followed the lines of the outcrop. The terrain for which it was best suited and for which it was probably designed in distant prehistoric times was the rolling plain. </p><p>The camp was best placed on the summit and along the side of a low hill, with spring water running in rivulets through the camp (<i>aquatio</i>) and pastureland to provide grazing (<i>pabulatio</i>) for the animals. In case of attack, arrows, javelins and sling missiles could be fired down at an enemy tiring himself to come up. For defence, troops could be formed in an <i>acies</i>, or "battle-line", outside the gates where they could be easily resupplied and replenished as well as being supported by archery from the palisade. </p><p>The streets, gates and buildings present depended on the requirements and resources of the camp. The gates might vary from two to six and not be centred on the sides. Not all the streets and buildings might be present. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quadrangular_camps_in_later_times">Quadrangular camps in later times</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Quadrangular camps in later times"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many settlements in Europe originated as Roman military camps and still show traces of their original pattern (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Castres" title="Castres">Castres</a> in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a> in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pattern was also used by <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonizers in America</a> following strict rules by the Spanish monarchy for founding new cities in the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>. </p><p>Many of the towns of England still retain forms of the word <i>castra</i> in their names, usually as the suffixes "-caster", "-cester" or "-chester" – <a href="/wiki/Lancaster,_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Lancaster, England">Lancaster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tadcaster" title="Tadcaster">Tadcaster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Worcester,_England" title="Worcester, England">Worcester</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gloucester" title="Gloucester">Gloucester</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mancetter" title="Mancetter">Mancetter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uttoxeter" title="Uttoxeter">Uttoxeter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colchester" title="Colchester">Colchester</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chester" title="Chester">Chester</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ribchester" title="Ribchester">Ribchester</a> for example. <a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">Castle</a> has the same derivation, from the diminutive <i>castellum</i> or "little fort", but does not usually indicate a former Roman camp. <a href="/wiki/Whitley_Castle" title="Whitley Castle">Whitley Castle</a> however is an exception, referring to the Roman fort of Epiacum in <a href="/wiki/Northumberland" title="Northumberland">Northumberland</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Camp_life">Camp life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Camp life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Activities conducted in a castra can be divided into ordinary and "the duty" or "the watch". Ordinary activity was performed during regular working hours. The duty was associated with operating the installation as a military facility. For example, none of the soldiers was required to man the walls all the time, but round-the-clock duty required a portion of the soldiers to be on duty at any time. </p><p>Duty time was divided into <i>vigilia</i>, the eight watches into which the 24-hour day was divided so they stood guard for three hours that day.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans used signals on brass instruments to mark time. These were mainly the <i><a href="/wiki/Buccina" title="Buccina">buccina</a></i> or <i>bucina</i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Cornu_(horn)" title="Cornu (horn)">cornu</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Roman_tuba" title="Roman tuba">tuba</a></i>. As they did not possess valves for regulating the pitch, the range of these instruments was somewhat limited. Nevertheless, the musicians (<i>aenatores</i>, "brassmen") managed to define enough signals for issuing commands. The instrument used to mark the passage of a watch was the <i>buccina</i>, from which the trumpet derives. It was sounded by a <i>buccinator</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ordinary_life">Ordinary life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ordinary life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Granary_at_Housesteads_Roman_Fort.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Granary_at_Housesteads_Roman_Fort.jpg/250px-Granary_at_Housesteads_Roman_Fort.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Granary_at_Housesteads_Roman_Fort.jpg/330px-Granary_at_Housesteads_Roman_Fort.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Granary_at_Housesteads_Roman_Fort.jpg/500px-Granary_at_Housesteads_Roman_Fort.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>The pillars supported a raised floor to keep food dry and free from vermin in the northern granary at <a href="/wiki/Housesteads_Roman_Fort#History" title="Housesteads Roman Fort">Housesteads Roman Fort</a> (<i>Vercovicium</i>) on <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Ordinary camp life began with a <i>buccina</i> call at daybreak, the first watch of the day. The soldiers arose at this time and shortly after gathered in the company area for breakfast and assembly. The <a href="/wiki/Centurion" title="Centurion">centurions</a> were up before them and off to the <i>principia</i> where they and the <i><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">equites</a></i> were required to assemble. The regimental commanders, the tribunes, were already converging on the <i>praetorium</i>. There the general staff planned the day. At a staff meeting the <i>tribunes</i> received the password and the orders of the day. They brought those back to the <i>centuriones</i>, who returned to their company areas to instruct the men. </p><p>For soldiers, the main agendum was a vigorous training session lasting about a watch long. Recruits received two, one in the morning and one in the afternoon.<sup id="cite_ref-vegI_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vegI-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Planning and supervision of training were under a general staff officer, who might manage training at several camps. According to Vegetius, the men might take a 32 kilometres (20 mi) hike or a 68 kilometres (42 mi) jog under full pack, or swim a river. Marching drill was always in order. </p><p>Each soldier was taught the use of every weapon and also was taught to ride. Seamanship was taught at naval bases. Soldiers were generalists in the military and construction arts. They practiced archery, spear-throwing and above all swordsmanship against posts (<i>pali</i>) fixed in the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-vegI_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vegI-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Training was taken very seriously and was democratic. Ordinary soldiers would see all the officers training with them including the <i>praetor</i> or the emperor if he was in camp. </p><p>Swordsmanship lessons and use of the shooting range probably took place on the <i>campus</i>, a "field" outside the <i>castra</i>, from which English "camp" derives. Its surface could be lightly paved. Winter curtailed outdoor training. The general might in that case have sheds constructed, which served as field houses for training. There is archaeological evidence in one case of an indoor equestrian ring. </p><p>Apart from the training, each soldier had a regular job on the base, of which there was a large variety from the various kinds of clerk to the craftsmen. Soldiers changed jobs frequently. The commander's policy was to have all the soldiers skilled in all the arts and crafts so that they could be as interchangeable as possible. Even then the goal was not entirely achievable. The gap was bridged by the specialists, the <i>optiones</i> or "chosen men", of which there were many different kinds. For example, a skilled artisan might be chosen to superintend a workshop. Soldiers were also expected to build the camp upon arrival before engaging in any sort of warfare after a day's march.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cohen_0008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Cohen_0008.jpg/250px-Cohen_0008.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Cohen_0008.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="325" data-file-height="160" /></a><figcaption>An aureus of the late republic</figcaption></figure> <p>The supply administration was run as a business using money as the medium of exchange.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Aureus" title="Aureus">aureus</a> was the preferred coin of the late republic and early empire; in the late empire the <a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">solidus</a> came into use. The larger bases, such as <i>Moguntiacum</i>, minted their own coins. As does any business, the base quaestorium required careful record keeping, performed mainly by the optiones. A chance cache of tablets from <a href="/wiki/Vindolanda" title="Vindolanda">Vindolanda</a> in Britain gives us a glimpse of some supply transactions. They record, among other things, the purchase of consumables and raw supplies, the storage and repair of clothing and other items, and the sale of items, including foodstuffs, to achieve an income. Vindolanda traded vigorously with the surrounding natives.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another feature of the camp was the military hospital (<i>valetudinarium</i>, later <i>hospitium</i>). Augustus instituted the first permanent <a href="/wiki/Medical_community_of_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical community of ancient Rome">medical corps in the Roman army</a>. Its physicians, the <i>medici ordinarii</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had to be qualified physicians. They were allowed medical students, practitioners and whatever orderlies they needed; i.e., the military hospitals were medical schools and places of residency as well.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Officers were allowed to marry and to reside with their families on base. The army did not extend the same privileges to the men, who were not allowed to marry.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, they often kept common law families off base in communities nearby. The communities might be native, as the tribesmen tended to build around a permanent base for purposes of trade, but also the base sponsored villages (<i>vici</i>) of dependents and businessmen. Dependants were not allowed to follow an army on the march into hostile territory. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Military_service" title="Military service">Military service</a> was for about 25 years. At the end of that time, the <a href="/wiki/Veteran" title="Veteran">veteran</a> was given a certificate of honorable discharge (<i><a href="/wiki/Honesta_missio" title="Honesta missio">honesta missio</a></i>). Some of these have survived engraved on stone. Typically they certify that the veteran, his wife (one per veteran) and children or his sweetheart were now Roman citizens, which is a good indication that troops, which were used chiefly on the frontier, were from peoples elsewhere on the frontier who wished to earn Roman citizenship. However, under <a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a>, citizenship was no longer granted to the children of rank-and-file veterans, the privilege becoming restricted only to officers.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Veterans often went into business in the communities near a base.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They became permanent members of the community and would stay on after the troops were withdrawn, as in the notable case of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Patrick" title="Saint Patrick">Saint Patrick</a>'s family. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Duties">Duties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Duties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hadrians_Wall_05.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Hadrians_Wall_05.JPG/290px-Hadrians_Wall_05.JPG" decoding="async" width="290" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Hadrians_Wall_05.JPG/435px-Hadrians_Wall_05.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Hadrians_Wall_05.JPG/580px-Hadrians_Wall_05.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>The remains of the southern granary at <a href="/wiki/Housesteads" class="mw-redirect" title="Housesteads">Housesteads</a> Roman Fort on <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Conducted in parallel with the ordinary activities was "the duty", the official chores required by the camp under strict military discipline. The <i>legate</i> was ultimately responsible for them as he was for the entire camp, but he delegated the duty to a tribune chosen as officer of the day. The line <i>tribunes</i> were commanders of <i><a href="/wiki/Cohort_(military_unit)" title="Cohort (military unit)">cohortes</a></i> and were approximately the equivalent of colonels. The six tribunes were divided into units of two, with each unit being responsible for filling the position of officer of the day for two months. The two men of a unit decided among themselves who would take what day. They could alternate days or each take a month. One filled in for the other in case of illness. On his day, the tribune effectively commanded the camp and was even respected as such by the <i>legate</i>. </p><p>The equivalent concept of the duties performed in modern camps is roughly the detail. The responsibilities (<i>curae</i>) of the many kinds of detail were distributed to the men by all the methods considered fair and democratic: lot, rotation and negotiation. Certain kinds of <i>cura</i> were assigned certain classes or types of troops; for example, wall sentries were chosen only from <i>velites</i>. Soldiers could be temporarily or permanently exempted: the <i>immunes</i>. For example, a <a href="/wiki/Triarii" title="Triarii">triarius</a> was <i>immunis</i> from the <i>curae</i> of the <a href="/wiki/Hastati" title="Hastati">hastati</a>. </p><p>The duty year was divided into time slices, typically one or two months, which were apportioned to units, typically <a href="/wiki/Maniple_(military_unit)" title="Maniple (military unit)">maniples</a> or <a href="/wiki/Centuria" title="Centuria">centuries</a>. They were always allowed to negotiate who took the duty and when. The most common kind of <i>cura</i> were the posts of the sentinels, called the <i>excubiae</i> by day and the <i>vigilae</i> at night. Wall posts were <i>praesidia</i>, gate posts, <i>custodiae</i>, advance positions before the gates, <i>stationes</i>. In addition were special guards and details. One post was typically filled by four men, one sentinel and the others at ease until a situation arose or it was their turn to be sentinel. Some of the details were: </p> <ul><li>guarding, cleaning and maintaining the <i>principia</i>.</li> <li>guarding and maintaining the quarters of each <a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">tribune</a>.</li> <li>tending the horses of each cavalry <i><a href="/wiki/Turma" title="Turma">turma</a></i>.</li> <li>guarding the <i>praetorium</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/40px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/60px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/120px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castra_by_province" title="List of castra by province">List of castra by province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">Military history of ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline of ancient Rome</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A 2nd declension neuter noun. According to Lewis & Short, dictionary item linked in External links, General, either the singular or plural form was used – the plural form, <i>castra</i>, had a possible meaning of "tents".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMeagan_Ayer2014" class="citation book cs1">Meagan Ayer, ed. (2014) [1903]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dcc.dickinson.edu/grammar/latin/variable-nouns">"Variable Nouns §107"</a>. <i>Allen and Greenough's new Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges</i>. Boston: Ginn & Company. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-947822-04-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-947822-04-7"><bdi>978-1-947822-04-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 October</span> 2021</span> – via Dickinson College Commentaries.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Variable+Nouns+%26sect%3B107&rft.btitle=Allen+and+Greenough%27s+new+Latin+Grammar+for+Schools+and+Colleges&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Ginn+%26+Company&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-947822-04-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdcc.dickinson.edu%2Fgrammar%2Flatin%2Fvariable-nouns&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CampbellP4-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CampbellP4_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CampbellP4_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCampbell2009">Campbell 2009</a>, p. 4. Included is a discussion about the typologies of Roman fortifications.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Vegetius" title="Vegetius">Vegetius</a>, <i>Epitoma rei militaris</i>, 3.8. In Clark's translation, section 3.8, we find "Rules for Encamping an Army", last paragraph. "Small fort" is <i>castellum</i>, which Vegetius explains as the diminutive of <i>castra</i>. He conceives of <i>castella</i> as fortified outposts to be manned by cavalry protecting a supply route; i.e., a base from which to conduct patrols.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPokorny1959" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pokorny, Julius (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/indogermanisches02pokouoft#page/585/mode/1up"><i>Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch</i></a> [<i>Indo-European Etymological Dictionary</i>] (in German). Vol. 2. Bern: Francke. p. 586.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indogermanisches+Etymologisches+W%C3%B6rterbuch&rft.place=Bern&rft.pages=586&rft.pub=Francke&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pokorny&rft.aufirst=Julius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Findogermanisches02pokouoft%23page%2F585%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNepos" class="citation web cs1">Nepos, Cornelius. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/nepos/nepos.alc.shtml">"Alcibiades 9.3"</a>. Latin Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alcibiades+9.3&rft.pub=Latin+Library&rft.aulast=Nepos&rft.aufirst=Cornelius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelatinlibrary.com%2Fnepos%2Fnepos.alc.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis & Short under External links, General, as well as many uncited Latin dictionaries, make this suggestion.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1">Campbell, Duncan B. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/865462">"A Camp in search of a Campaign: The reality of Hyginus' Roman army"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Warfare_(magazine)" title="Ancient Warfare (magazine)">Ancient Warfare</a></i>. <b>3</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">46–</span>49<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ancient+Warfare&rft.atitle=A+Camp+in+search+of+a+Campaign%3A+The+reality+of+Hyginus%27+Roman+army&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E46-%3C%2Fspan%3E49&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Duncan+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F865462&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Flavius Josephus: <i>The Jewish War</i>. III.5.1, trans. William Whiston.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ramsay's classic article, linked under External links, General, below, covers types of camps and camps in general. This Wikipedia article is heavily indebted but not exclusively to it.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Rebecca H. Jones 2012 <i>Roman camps in Britain</i>, Amberley Press, Stroud.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roman Legionary Fortresses 27BC-378AD, D.B.Campbell, Osprey.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. C. Bishop, Handbook to Roman Legionary Fortresses, Pen & Sword, Hbk 208 pp <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781848841383" title="Special:BookSources/9781848841383">9781848841383</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see W.S. Hanson 2009 Building the forts and frontiers, in W.S. Hanson (ed) <i>The army and frontiers of Rome. Papers offered to David Breeze on the occasion of his sixty-fifth birthday and his retirement from Historic Scotland</i>, JRA Supplementary Series 74, Portsmouth, Rhode Island, 33-43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.timetrips.co.uk/romsol-camp.html.">"The Life of a Roman Soldier"</a>. <i>Time Trips</i>. October 3, 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211108015257/https://www.timetrips.co.uk/romsol-camp.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 8, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 3,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Time+Trips&rft.atitle=The+Life+of+a+Roman+Soldier&rft.date=2021-10-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.timetrips.co.uk%2Fromsol-camp.html.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Hanson and Friel (1995) under External links, Forts and fortifications, below.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Book VI Section 19 <i>The Roman Military System</i> pages 313-368 in Thayer's Loeb's Polybius under Primary sources below.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-richardson03a-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-richardson03a_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-richardson03a_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRichardson2003" class="citation journal cs1">Richardson, Alan (2003). "Space and Manpower in Roman Camps". <i>Oxford Journal of Archaeology</i>. <b>22</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">303–</span>313. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-0092.00189">10.1111/1468-0092.00189</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Journal+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Space+and+Manpower+in+Roman+Camps&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E303-%3C%2Fspan%3E313&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1468-0092.00189&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An extensive lexicon at the <i>Romans in Britain</i> site, linked under External links, General, below, matches military terms of all periods of ancient Rome to English equivalents.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bell (2001) linked in External links, General, favors the view that the Greeks either influenced the Romans directly in the choice of the quadrangular plan or influenced the Etruscans, who influenced the Romans. The Greek theory certainly does not exclude an Indo-European origin.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-richardson02a-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-richardson02a_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-richardson02a_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRichardson2002" class="citation journal cs1">Richardson, Alan (2002). "Camps and forts of units and formations of the Roman army". <i>Oxford Journal of Archaeology</i>. <b>21</b>: <span class="nowrap">93–</span>107. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-0092.00151">10.1111/1468-0092.00151</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Journal+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Camps+and+forts+of+units+and+formations+of+the+Roman+army&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E93-%3C%2Fspan%3E107&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1468-0092.00151&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-richardson05a-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-richardson05a_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. RICHARDSON: The Orientation of Roman Camps and Forts. October 2005 Oxford Journal of Archaeology 24(4):415 - 426 DOI:10.1111/j.1468-0092.2005.00244.x</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-richardson01a-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-richardson01a_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richardson, A. (2001). The order of battle in the Roman army: EVIDENCE FROM MARCHING CAMPS. Oxford J Archaeol 20 (2). Vol 20(2), pp. 171-185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-steinhoff19-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-steinhoff19_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSTEINHOFF2019" class="citation book cs1">STEINHOFF, JOHN PAUL (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://open.library.ubc.ca/media/stream/pdf/24/1.0380617/4"><i>THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO ROMAN CAMP AND FORT DESIGN: AN EXAMINATION OF THE FRONTIERS IN BRITAIN AND NORTH AFRICA UNDER HADRIAN</i></a>. Vancouver: THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=THEORETICAL+APPROACHES+TO+ROMAN+CAMP+AND+FORT+DESIGN%3A+AN+EXAMINATION+OF+THE+FRONTIERS+IN+BRITAIN+AND+NORTH+AFRICA+UNDER+HADRIAN&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.pub=THE+UNIVERSITY+OF+BRITISH+COLUMBIA&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=STEINHOFF&rft.aufirst=JOHN+PAUL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopen.library.ubc.ca%2Fmedia%2Fstream%2Fpdf%2F24%2F1.0380617%2F4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith (1875) under External links, Forts and fortifications. The <i>sudes</i> were not just simple stakes. Three or four branches were left on for interlocking.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Cardo</i> is the hinge line of a door and therefore is any main axis. In surveying it was the line drawn across (at 90° using a <a href="/wiki/Groma_surveying" class="mw-redirect" title="Groma surveying">groma</a>) the east-west <i>decumanus</i>, which was the first line drawn based on the position of the sun at <a href="/wiki/Sunrise" title="Sunrise">sunrise</a>. The <i>via principalis</i> would certainly be a cardo.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Decumana</i> (feminine of <i>decumanus</i>) derives most likely from <i>decima manus</i>, "tenth part" or "tenfold". As tenfold, it meant "immense." As tenth part, it also meant "across", such as a cross-path or cross-boundary. In surveying it was the first line drawn, after noting the position of the sun at <a href="/wiki/Sunrise" title="Sunrise">sunrise</a> in order to know exactly where <a href="/wiki/East" title="East">east</a> was; the <i>cardo</i> was then drawn across it at right angles. This was necessary, because the ancient Romans did not have the <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a> to determine the position of the <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_north" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic north">magnetic north</a>. The connection between tenth and across remains obscure. The presence of numbered streets makes it less likely that the <i>via decumana</i> was "cross street" than that it was "10th street."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The term <i>legatus</i> had other meanings in other contexts, such as governor or ambassador.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sims, Lesley: "Roman Soldier's Handbook", page 55-56. Usborne Publishing Ltd, 2004.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spain was especially heavily colonized by veterans, who Romanized the language and the architecture. Refer to Miranda (2002) under External links, Camp life, below.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roby under Secondary sources below.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vegI-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vegI_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vegI_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vegetius Book I, linked in Primary sources below.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.timetrips.co.uk/romsol-camp.html">"Life in the Roman Army"</a>. <i>www.timetrips.co.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-11-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.timetrips.co.uk&rft.atitle=Life+in+the+Roman+Army&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.timetrips.co.uk%2Fromsol-camp.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Verboven, pages 15-17, under External links, Camp life. The author states estimates of coinage passing hands at various locations. A soldier received pay less deductions for expenses. He could borrow from or invest with the first bankers, the <i>argentarii</i> or <i>negotiatores nummularii</i>, whose business was to supply the legion with money for a percentage.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A link to the Vindolanda tablets database with introductions, descriptions and bibliography is given under Primary sources below.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i>The Tombstone of Anicius Ingenuus</i>, a medicus ordinarius, under Primary sources below.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scheidel page 14 under External links, Camp life.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scheidel pages 2-8 under External links, Camp life.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Duncan B. Campbell, "Women in Roman forts: Residents, visitors or barred from entry?", Ancient Warfare, vol. IV (2010), issue 6, pp. 48-53, cf. p. 50</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Verboven describes the process. A veteran with a certain skill continued it as a contractor for the army. For example, a <i>gladiarius</i> or maker of swords, became a <i>negotiator gladiarius</i>, a supplier of swords. There were a large number of such names: the <i>negotiatores vestiarii</i> for clothing, <i>frumentarii</i> for grain, <i>salsari leguminari</i> for the salted vegetable concession, and so on.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Forman, Joan: "The Romans", p. 15. Macdonald educational. 1975</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJosephus" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>. <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The War of the Jews"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_War_of_the_Jews"><i>The War of the Jews</i> </a></span>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/William_Whiston" title="William Whiston">William Whiston</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+of+the+Jews&rft.au=Josephus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPopulation_of_Vindolanda_(100_AD)" class="citation web cs1">Population of Vindolanda (100 AD). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vindolanda.csad.ox.ac.uk/tablets/TVII-2-5.shtml">"(the Tablets)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(shtml)</span>. <i>Vindolanda Tablets Online: The Roman Army: Activities</i>. Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents, Academic Computing Development Team at Oxford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vindolanda+Tablets+Online%3A+The+Roman+Army%3A+Activities&rft.atitle=%28the+Tablets%29&rft.au=Population+of+Vindolanda+%28100+AD%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvindolanda.csad.ox.ac.uk%2Ftablets%2FTVII-2-5.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFpseudo-Hyginus" class="citation web cs1">pseudo-Hyginus. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/hyginus/hyginus6.shtml">"De Munitionibus Castrorum"</a>. <i>The Latin Library</i>. Ad fontes Academy.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Latin+Library&rft.atitle=De+Munitionibus+Castrorum&rft.au=pseudo-Hyginus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelatinlibrary.com%2Fhyginus%2Fhyginus6.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span> (Latin text.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPolybius" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/6*.html">"The Histories (English translation) Book VI"</a>. <i>The Loeb Classical Library, Volume III Section VI</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Loeb+Classical+Library%2C+Volume+III+Section+VI&rft.atitle=The+Histories+%28English+translation%29+Book+VI&rft.au=Polybius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FPolybius%2F6%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span> Web publication on Bill Thayer's <i>Polybius</i> site.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRoman_government_(160_AD)" class="citation web cs1">Roman government (160 AD). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legionxxiv.org/diploma160ad.htm">"(Military Diploma)"</a>. <i>Military Diploma of Discharge and Roman Citizenship</i>. Metz, George W.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Military+Diploma+of+Discharge+and+Roman+Citizenship&rft.atitle=%28Military+Diploma%29&rft.au=Roman+government+%28160+AD%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legionxxiv.org%2Fdiploma160ad.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span> Legion xxiv website.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUnknown_inscriber_(3rd_century_AD)" class="citation web cs1">Unknown inscriber (3rd century AD). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060825045351/http://museums.ncl.ac.uk/archive/old_fotm/old_fotmo98/">"(the Tombstone)"</a>. <i>Tombstone of Anicius Ingenuus, Museum of Antiquities Website</i>. <a href="/wiki/Newcastle_University" title="Newcastle University">Newcastle University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://museums.ncl.ac.uk/archive/old_fotm/old_fotmo98/">the original</a> on 2006-08-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tombstone+of+Anicius+Ingenuus%2C+Museum+of+Antiquities+Website&rft.atitle=%28the+Tombstone%29&rft.au=Unknown+inscriber+%283rd+century+AD%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuseums.ncl.ac.uk%2Farchive%2Fold_fotm%2Fold_fotmo98%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVegetius" class="citation web cs1">Vegetius. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060618184027/http://museums.ncl.ac.uk/archive/arma/contents/text/technica/veg1.htm">"Flavius Vegetius Renatus Epitoma Rei Militaris Book I"</a>. Armamentarium. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://museums.ncl.ac.uk/archive/arma/contents/text/technica/veg1.htm">the original</a> on 2006-06-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Flavius+Vegetius+Renatus+Epitoma+Rei+Militaris+Book+I&rft.pub=Armamentarium&rft.au=Vegetius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuseums.ncl.ac.uk%2Farchive%2Farma%2Fcontents%2Ftext%2Ftechnica%2Fveg1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span> Selections, Latin and English juxtaposed by paragraph. Translator unknown.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPublius_Flavius_Vegetius_Renatus2001" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Publius_Flavius_Vegetius_Renatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus">Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200421095339/http://www.digitalattic.org/home/war/vegetius/">"The Military Institutions of the Romans (De Re Militari)"</a>. <i>Digital Attic 2.0</i>. Clarke, Lieutenant John (translator); unknown editor. Brevik, Mads. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalattic.org/home/war/vegetius/">the original</a> on 2020-04-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-06-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+Attic+2.0&rft.atitle=The+Military+Institutions+of+the+Romans+%28De+Re+Militari%29&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Publius+Flavius+Vegetius+Renatus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalattic.org%2Fhome%2Fwar%2Fvegetius%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span> Books I-III only. The unknown editor altered the translation "to conform to modern usage" and abbreviated the text. Access is by subtitle. Search only within subsection.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_sources">Secondary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Secondary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBishop2012" class="citation book cs1">Bishop, M.C. (2012). <i>Handbook to Roman Legionary Fortresses</i>. Barnsley: Pen and Sword. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84884-138-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84884-138-3"><bdi>978-1-84884-138-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+to+Roman+Legionary+Fortresses&rft.place=Barnsley&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-84884-138-3&rft.aulast=Bishop&rft.aufirst=M.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Campbell_(ancient_historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Duncan Campbell (ancient historian)">Campbell, Duncan B.</a> (2009). <i>Roman Auxiliary Forts 27 BC-AD 378</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-380-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-380-3"><bdi>978-1-84603-380-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Auxiliary+Forts+27+BC-AD+378&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-84603-380-3&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Duncan+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1983" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Anne (1983). <i>Roman Forts of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD in Britain and the German Provinces</i>. London: Adam & Charles Black. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7136-2223-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7136-2223-7"><bdi>0-7136-2223-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Forts+of+the+1st+and+2nd+centuries+AD+in+Britain+and+the+German+Provinces&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Adam+%26+Charles+Black&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-7136-2223-7&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Anne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHanel2007" class="citation book cs1">Hanel, Norbert (2007). "Military camps, canabae and vici: The archaeological evidence". In Erdkamp, Paul (ed.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/companiontoroman00erdk"><i>The Companion to the Roman Army</i></a></span>. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/companiontoroman00erdk/page/n422">395</a>–416. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3921-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3921-5"><bdi>978-1-4443-3921-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Military+camps%2C+canabae+and+vici%3A+The+archaeological+evidence&rft.btitle=The+Companion+to+the+Roman+Army&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=395-416&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-3921-5&rft.aulast=Hanel&rft.aufirst=Norbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcompaniontoroman00erdk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKeppie1994" class="citation book cs1">Keppie, Lawrence (1994). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makingofromanarm0000kepp"><i>The Making of the Roman Army from Republic to Empire</i></a></span>. New York: Barnes and Noble Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56619-359-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-56619-359-1"><bdi>1-56619-359-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+Roman+Army+from+Republic+to+Empire&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Barnes+and+Noble+Books&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=1-56619-359-1&rft.aulast=Keppie&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmakingofromanarm0000kepp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRoby1872" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_John_Roby" title="Henry John Roby">Roby, Henry John</a> (1872). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hRIAAAAAYAAJ&q=vigilia+roman+military+watch&pg=PA453"><i>A Grammar of the Latin Language from Plautus to Suetonius: Second Edition</i></a>. London: Macmillan. p. 453.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+the+Latin+Language+from+Plautus+to+Suetonius%3A+Second+Edition&rft.place=London&rft.pages=453&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1872&rft.aulast=Roby&rft.aufirst=Henry+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhRIAAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Dvigilia%2Broman%2Bmilitary%2Bwatch%26pg%3DPA453&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Castra" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Castra">Castra</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <p>Below are a number of links to sites reporting or summarizing current research or thinking. Many are reprints of articles made available to the public at no charge. The historical researcher will find their bibliographies of great interest. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General">General</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: General"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100612022959/http://roman-empire.net/army/army-pictures.html">"Army Picture Index"</a>. <i>Illustrated History of the Roman Empire</i>. roman-empire.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-empire.net/army/army-pictures.html">the original</a> on 2010-06-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-06-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Illustrated+History+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.atitle=Army+Picture+Index&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.roman-empire.net%2Farmy%2Farmy-pictures.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBell2001" class="citation web cs1">Bell, Anders (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110706170344/http://cac-scec.ca/concours_essais/01Bell.html">"Castra et urbs romana: An Examination of the Common Features of Roman Settlements in Italy and the Empire and a System to aid in the Discovery of their Origins"</a>. <i>CAC Undergraduate Essay Contest for 2000-2001</i>. Classical Association of Canada. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cac-scec.ca/concours_essais/01Bell.html">the original</a> on 2011-07-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-04-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CAC+Undergraduate+Essay+Contest+for+2000-2001&rft.atitle=Castra+et+urbs+romana%3A+An+Examination+of+the+Common+Features+of+Roman+Settlements+in+Italy+and+the+Empire+and+a+System+to+aid+in+the+Discovery+of+their+Origins.&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Anders&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcac-scec.ca%2Fconcours_essais%2F01Bell.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLewisShort,_Charles" class="citation web cs1">Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3D%237013">"Castrum/Castra"</a>. <i>A Latin Dictionary</i>. The Perseus Digital Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=A+Latin+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Castrum%2FCastra&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Charlton+T.&rft.au=Short%2C+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fptext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0059%253Aentry%253D%25237013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRamsay1875" class="citation web cs1">Ramsay, William (1875). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Castra.html">"Castra"</a>. <i>William Smith A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities</i>. John Murray, republished on Bill Thayer's LacusCurtius site.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=William+Smith+A+Dictionary+of+Greek+and+Roman+Antiquities&rft.atitle=Castra&rft.date=1875&rft.aulast=Ramsay&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2Fsecondary%2FSMIGRA%2A%2FCastra.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-britain.co.uk/military/roman-military-camps/">"Introduction to Roman Military Camps"</a>. roman-britain.co.uk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Roman+Military+Camps&rft.pub=roman-britain.co.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.roman-britain.co.uk%2Fmilitary%2Froman-military-camps%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span> Links to a Glossary.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060622110221/http://www.romans-in-britain.org.uk/glo_military_glossary_a.htm">The Romans in Britain, Glossary of Military terms</a>. Note that both Latin and Greek terms with the same meaning are included.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forts_and_fortifications">Forts and fortifications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Forts and fortifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/bearsden/">"Antonine Wall Fort: Bearsden, New Kilpatrick, Strathclyde"</a>. roman-britain.co.uk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Antonine+Wall+Fort%3A+Bearsden%2C+New+Kilpatrick%2C+Strathclyde&rft.pub=roman-britain.co.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.roman-britain.co.uk%2Fplaces%2Fbearsden%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHansonFriel,_J.G.P.1995" class="citation journal cs1">Hanson, W.S.; Friel, J.G.P. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061026193530/http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/PSAS_2002/pdf/vol_125/125_499_519.pdf">"Westerton: A Roman Watchtower on the Gask Frontier"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Society_of_Antiquaries_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland">Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland</a></i>. <b>125</b>: <span class="nowrap">499–</span>519. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.9750%2FPSAS.125.499.519">10.9750/PSAS.125.499.519</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/PSAS_2002/pdf/vol_125/125_499_519.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2006-10-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-06-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Society+of+Antiquaries+of+Scotland&rft.atitle=Westerton%3A+A+Roman+Watchtower+on+the+Gask+Frontier&rft.volume=125&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E499-%3C%2Fspan%3E519&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.9750%2FPSAS.125.499.519&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=W.S.&rft.au=Friel%2C+J.G.P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fads.ahds.ac.uk%2Fcatalogue%2Fadsdata%2FPSAS_2002%2Fpdf%2Fvol_125%2F125_499_519.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/brandon_camp/">"Iron-Age Hillfort, Roman Stores Depot Brandon Camp, Leintwardine Herefordshire"</a>. roman-britain.co.uk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Iron-Age+Hillfort%2C+Roman+Stores+Depot+Brandon+Camp%2C+Leintwardine+Herefordshire&rft.pub=roman-britain.co.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.roman-britain.co.uk%2Fplaces%2Fbrandon_camp%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLendering" class="citation web cs1">Lendering, Jona. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140710035419/http://www.livius.org/ha-hd/haltern/haltern.html">"Haltern"</a>. <i>Livius articles on ancient history</i>. livius.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/ha-hd/haltern/haltern.html">the original</a> on 2014-07-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-03-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Livius+articles+on+ancient+history&rft.atitle=Haltern&rft.aulast=Lendering&rft.aufirst=Jona&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Fha-hd%2Fhaltern%2Fhaltern.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/nidum/">"Nidum: Roman Auxiliary Fort: Neath, West Glamorgan"</a>. roman-britain.co.uk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nidum%3A+Roman+Auxiliary+Fort%3A+Neath%2C+West+Glamorgan&rft.pub=roman-britain.co.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.roman-britain.co.uk%2Fplaces%2Fnidum%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/inchtuthil/">"Pinnata Castra: Roman Legionary Fortress & Marching Camps: Inchtuthill, Tayside"</a>. roman-britain.co.uk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pinnata+Castra%3A+Roman+Legionary+Fortress+%26+Marching+Camps%3A+Inchtuthill%2C+Tayside&rft.pub=roman-britain.co.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.roman-britain.co.uk%2Fplaces%2Finchtuthil%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060612234608/http://exeter.gov.uk/timetrail/02_romanfortress/growth.asp">"Roman Fortress"</a>. <i>Time trail</i>. Exeter City Council. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.exeter.gov.uk/timetrail/02_romanfortress/growth.asp">the original</a> on 2006-06-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Time+trail&rft.atitle=Roman+Fortress&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.exeter.gov.uk%2Ftimetrail%2F02_romanfortress%2Fgrowth.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmith1875" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(lexicographer)" title="William Smith (lexicographer)">Smith, William</a> (1875). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Vallum.html">"Vallum"</a>. <i>A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities</i>. London: John Murray. p. 1183.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vallum&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Greek+and+Roman+Antiquities&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1183&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1875&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2Fsecondary%2FSMIGRA%2A%2FVallum.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span>. Article republished on Bill Thayer's LacusCurtius site, which has the advantage of linking to ancient texts cited by Smith.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTribus" class="citation web cs1">Tribus. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eduvinet.de/tribus/roemlag/sache/rl.htm">"The Roman Camp in Bonn"</a>. Eduvinet Services.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Camp+in+Bonn&rft.pub=Eduvinet+Services&rft.au=Tribus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eduvinet.de%2Ftribus%2Froemlag%2Fsache%2Frl.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080724192753/http://www.bulgariancastles.com/bulgariancastles/en/fortress-sostra-en">"The Roman Camp Sostra"</a>. bulgariancastles.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bulgariancastles.com/bulgariancastles/en/fortress-sostra-en">the original</a> on 2008-07-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Camp+Sostra&rft.pub=bulgariancastles.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbulgariancastles.com%2Fbulgariancastles%2Fen%2Ffortress-sostra-en&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Camp_life_2">Camp life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Castra&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Camp life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2010" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Campbell_(ancient_historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Duncan Campbell (ancient historian)">Campbell, Duncan B.</a> (2010). "Women in Roman forts: Residents, visitors or barred from entry?". <i>Ancient Warfare</i>. <b>IV</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">48–</span>53.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ancient+Warfare&rft.atitle=Women+in+Roman+forts%3A+Residents%2C+visitors+or+barred+from+entry%3F&rft.volume=IV&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E48-%3C%2Fspan%3E53&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Duncan+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMiranda2002" class="citation web cs1">Miranda, Frank (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060913152621/http://www.history.ucla.edu/undergrad/pat/journal2002/miranda.pdf">"Castra et Coloniae: The Role of the Roman Army in the Romanization and Urbanization of Spain"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Quaestio: The UCLA Undergraduate History Journal</i>. <a href="/wiki/Phi_Alpha_Theta" title="Phi Alpha Theta">Phi Alpha Theta</a>: History Honors Society, UCLA Theta Upsilon chapter, UCLA Department of History. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.ucla.edu/undergrad/pat/journal2002/miranda.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2006-09-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Quaestio%3A+The+UCLA+Undergraduate+History+Journal&rft.atitle=Castra+et+Coloniae%3A+The+Role+of+the+Roman+Army+in+the+Romanization+and+Urbanization+of+Spain&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Miranda&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.ucla.edu%2Fundergrad%2Fpat%2Fjournal2002%2Fmiranda.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFScheidel2005" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Scheidel" title="Walter Scheidel">Scheidel, Walter</a> (November 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/pdfs/scheidel/110509.pdf">"Marriage, Families and Survival in the Roman Imperial Army: Demographic Aspects"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics</i>. Princeton University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Princeton%2FStanford+Working+Papers+in+Classics&rft.atitle=Marriage%2C+Families+and+Survival+in+the+Roman+Imperial+Army%3A+Demographic+Aspects&rft.date=2005-11&rft.aulast=Scheidel&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2F~pswpc%2Fpdfs%2Fscheidel%2F110509.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVerboven2007" class="citation book cs1">Verboven, Koenraad (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070926234609/http://www.ancienthistory.ugent.be/history/en/Verboven_Good_for_business.pdf">"Good for Business. The Roman Army and the Emergence of a 'Business Class' in the Northwestern Provinces of the Roman Empire (1st century BCE - 3rd century CE)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Lukas, De Blois; <a href="/wiki/Elio_Lo_Cascio" title="Elio Lo Cascio">Elio, Lo Cascio</a> (eds.). <i>The Impact of the Roman Army (200 BC - AD 476). Economic, Social, Political, Religious and Cultural Aspects</i>. Leiden & Boston: Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">295–</span>314. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16044-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16044-6"><bdi>978-90-04-16044-6</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ancienthistory.ugent.be/history/en/Verboven_Good_for_business.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2007-09-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-08-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Good+for+Business.+The+Roman+Army+and+the+Emergence+of+a+%27Business+Class%27+in+the+Northwestern+Provinces+of+the+Roman+Empire+%281st+century+BCE+-+3rd+century+CE%29&rft.btitle=The+Impact+of+the+Roman+Army+%28200+BC+-+AD+476%29.+Economic%2C+Social%2C+Political%2C+Religious+and+Cultural+Aspects&rft.place=Leiden+%26+Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E295-%3C%2Fspan%3E314&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16044-6&rft.aulast=Verboven&rft.aufirst=Koenraad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ancienthistory.ugent.be%2Fhistory%2Fen%2FVerboven_Good_for_business.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACastra" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style 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tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output 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text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Burgus" title="Burgus">Burgus</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caltrop" title="Caltrop">Caltrop</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Castellum" title="Castellum">Castellum</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Castra</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Castro_culture" title="Castro culture">Castros</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_city_wall" title="Chinese city wall">Chengqiang</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_rampart" title="Circular rampart">Circular rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_gate" title="City gate">City gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crannog" title="Crannog">Crannog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditch_(fortification)" title="Ditch (fortification)">Ditch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_wall" title="Defensive wall">Defensive wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dun_(fortification)" title="Dun (fortification)">Dun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faussebraye" title="Faussebraye">Faussebraye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatehouse" title="Gatehouse">Gatehouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gord_(archaeology)" title="Gord (archaeology)">Gord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillfort" title="Hillfort">Hillfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landwehr_(border)" title="Landwehr (border)">Landwehr</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)" title="Limes (Roman Empire)">Limes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuraghe" title="Nuraghe">Nuraghe</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum">Oppidum</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palisade" title="Palisade">Palisade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pincer_gate" title="Pincer gate">Pincer gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promontory_fort" title="Promontory fort">Promontory fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rampart_(fortification)" title="Rampart (fortification)">Rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringfort" title="Ringfort">Ringfort</a> (Rath)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_castle" title="Refuge castle">Refuge castle</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Schwedenschanze" title="Schwedenschanze">Schwedenschanze</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockade" title="Stockade">Stockade</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Sudis_(stake)" title="Sudis (stake)">Sudis</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Trou_de_loup" title="Trou de loup">Trou de loup</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Vallum" title="Vallum">Vallum</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagon_fort" title="Wagon fort">Wagon fort</a> (<span title="Afrikaans-language text"><i lang="af">Laager</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrified_fort" title="Vitrified fort">Vitrified fort</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_fortification" title="Medieval fortification">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_work" title="Advanced work">Advanced work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albarrana_tower" title="Albarrana tower">Albarrana tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcazaba" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcazaba">Alcazaba</a></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Alc%C3%A1zar" title="Alcázar">Alcázar</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amba_(landform)" title="Amba (landform)">Amba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrowslit" title="Arrowslit">Arrowslit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbican" title="Barbican">Barbican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartizan" title="Bartizan">Bartizan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastion" title="Bastion">Bastion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_tower" title="Battery tower">Battery tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlement" title="Battlement">Battlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bawn" title="Bawn">Bawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bent_entrance" title="Bent entrance">Bent entrance</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Bergfried" title="Bergfried">Bergfried</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Berm" title="Berm">Berm</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boom_(navigational_barrier)" title="Boom (navigational barrier)">Boom</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Bret%C3%A8che" title="Bretèche">Bretèche</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_castle" title="Bridge castle">Bridge castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_tower" title="Bridge tower">Bridge tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burh" title="Burh">Burh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butter-churn_tower" title="Butter-churn tower">Butter-churn tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caer" title="Caer">Caer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_gate" title="Chamber gate">Chamber gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartaque" title="Chartaque">Chartaque</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Chashi" title="Chashi">Chashi</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Chemin_de_ronde" title="Chemin de ronde">Chemin de ronde</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Chemise_(wall)" title="Chemise (wall)">Chemise</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Cheval_de_frise" title="Cheval de frise">Cheval de frise</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citadel" title="Citadel">Citadel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion_castle" title="Coercion castle">Coercion castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_castle" title="Concentric castle">Concentric castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corner_tower" title="Corner tower">Corner tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-castle" title="Counter-castle">Counter-castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtain_wall_(fortification)" title="Curtain wall (fortification)">Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drawbridge" title="Drawbridge">Drawbridge</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Enceinte" title="Enceinte">Enceinte</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Embrasure" title="Embrasure">Embrasure</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flanking_tower" title="Flanking tower">Flanking tower</a></li> <li>Fortified buildings (<a href="/wiki/Fortified_church" title="Fortified church">church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fortified_house" title="Fortified house">house</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fujian_tulou" title="Fujian tulou">Fujian tulou</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ganerbenburg" title="Ganerbenburg">Ganerbenburg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gate_tower" title="Gate tower">Gate tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabion" title="Gabion">Gabion</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Glacis" title="Glacis">Glacis</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guard_tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Guard tower">Guard tower</a></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Gulyay-gorod" title="Gulyay-gorod">Gulyay-gorod</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Gusuku" title="Gusuku">Gusuku</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half_tower" title="Half tower">Half tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoarding_(castle)" title="Hoarding (castle)">Hoarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_bailey" title="Inner bailey">Inner bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasbah" title="Kasbah">Kasbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keep" title="Keep">Keep</a></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kremlin_(fortification)" title="Kremlin (fortification)">Kremlin</a></i></span> <small>(<span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Detinets" title="Detinets">Detinets</a></i></span>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ksar" title="Ksar">Ksar</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Landesburg" title="Landesburg">Landesburg</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loophole" title="Loophole">Loophole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-plan_castle" title="L-plan castle">L-plan castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machicolation" title="Machicolation">Machicolation</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Merlon" title="Merlon">Merlon</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moat" title="Moat">Moat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle" title="Motte-and-bailey castle">Motte-and-bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_hole" title="Murder hole">Murder hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neck_ditch" title="Neck ditch">Neck ditch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_bailey" title="Outer bailey">Outer bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outwork" title="Outwork">Outwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapet" title="Parapet">Parapet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peel_tower" title="Peel tower">Peel tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portcullis" title="Portcullis">Portcullis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postern" title="Postern">Postern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_tower" title="Powder tower">Powder tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalat_(fortress)" title="Qalat (fortress)">Qalat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduit" title="Reduit">Reduit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribat" title="Ribat">Ribat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricetto" title="Ricetto">Ricetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringwork" title="Ringwork">Ringwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundel_(fortification)" title="Roundel (fortification)">Roundel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrangular_castle" title="Quadrangular castle">Quadrangular castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_keep" title="Shell keep">Shell keep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shield_wall_(castle)" title="Shield wall (castle)">Shield wall</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_castle" title="Japanese castle">Shiro</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toll_castle" title="Toll castle">Toll castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_castle" title="Tower castle">Tower castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_house" title="Tower house">Tower house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turret_(architecture)" title="Turret (architecture)">Turret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ring_fortress" title="Viking ring fortress">Viking ring fortress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_tower" title="Fortified tower">Wall tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bailey_(castle)" title="Bailey (castle)">Bailey (or ward)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchtower" title="Watchtower">Watchtower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_tower" title="Witch tower">Witch tower</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Yagura_(tower)" title="Yagura (tower)">Yagura</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yett" title="Yett">Yett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zwinger" title="Zwinger">Zwinger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Abwurfdach" class="mw-redirect" title="Abwurfdach">Abwurfdach</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenal" title="Arsenal">Arsenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barricade" title="Barricade">Barricade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastion" title="Bastion">Bastion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockhouse" title="Blockhouse">Blockhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastwork_(fortification)" title="Breastwork (fortification)">Breastwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canal</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Caponier" title="Caponier">Caponier</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casemate" title="Casemate">Casemate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalier_(fortification)" title="Cavalier (fortification)">Cavalier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterguard" title="Counterguard">Counterguard</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Couvreface" title="Couvreface">Couvreface</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Coupure" title="Coupure">Coupure</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covertway" title="Covertway">Covertway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crownwork" title="Crownwork">Crownwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Device_Forts" title="Device Forts">Device Forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrenchment_(fortification)" title="Entrenchment (fortification)">Entrenchment</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Fl%C3%A8che_(fortification)" title="Flèche (fortification)">Flèche</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorge_(fortification)" title="Gorge (fortification)">Gorge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_magazine" title="Gunpowder magazine">Gunpowder magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hornwork" title="Hornwork">Hornwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotta_mara" title="Kotta mara">Kotta mara</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Lunette_(fortification)" title="Lunette (fortification)">Lunette</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magazine_(artillery)" title="Magazine (artillery)">Magazine</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Orillon" title="Orillon">Orillon</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ostrog_(fortress)" title="Ostrog (fortress)">Ostrog</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palanka_(fortification)" title="Palanka (fortification)">Palanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place-of-arms" title="Place-of-arms">Place-of-arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygonal_fort" title="Polygonal fort">Polygonal fort</a></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Presidio" title="Presidio">Presidio</a></i></span> (Spanish America)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punji_stick" title="Punji stick">Punji sticks</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ravelin" title="Ravelin">Ravelin</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Redan" title="Redan">Redan</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redoubt" title="Redoubt">Redoubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrenchment_(military)" title="Retrenchment (military)">Retrenchment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sally_port" title="Sally port">Sally port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandbag" title="Sandbag">Sandbag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterscarp" title="Counterscarp">Scarp and Counterscarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sconce_(fortification)" title="Sconce (fortification)">Sconce</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Schanze" title="Schanze">Schanze</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea fort">Sea fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Station_(frontier_defensive_structure)" title="Station (frontier defensive structure)">Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Star fort">Star fort</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Tenaille" title="Tenaille">Tenaille</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbed_wire" title="Barbed wire">Barbed wire</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Barbette" title="Barbette">Barbette</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_outpost" title="Border outpost">Border outpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunker" title="Bunker">Bunker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_artillery" title="Coastal artillery">Coastal artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disappearing_gun" title="Disappearing gun">Disappearing gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_control_tower" title="Fire control tower">Fire control tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_turret" title="Gun turret">Gun turret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine">Land mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martello_tower" title="Martello tower">Martello tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outpost_(military)" title="Outpost (military)">Outpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygonal_fort" title="Polygonal fort">Polygonal fort</a></li> <li><span title="Persian-language text"><i lang="fa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Sangar_(fortification)" title="Sangar (fortification)">Sangar</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wire_obstacle" title="Wire obstacle">Wire obstacles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_scaffolding" title="Admiralty scaffolding">Admiralty scaffolding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_raid_shelter" title="Air raid shelter">Air raid shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_trench" title="Anti-tank trench">Anti-tank trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbed_tape" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbed tape">Barbed tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cointet-element" title="Cointet-element">Belgian gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_shelter" title="Blast shelter">Blast shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_wall" title="Blast wall">Blast wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Border security">Border security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomb_shelter" title="Bomb shelter">Bomb shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buoy_anti-tank_obstacle" title="Buoy anti-tank obstacle">Buoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremer_wall" title="Bremer wall">Bremer wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concertina_wire" title="Concertina wire">Concertina wire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">Defensive fighting position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_anti-invasion_preparations_of_the_Second_World_War#Lines_and_islands" title="British anti-invasion preparations of the Second World War">British "hedgehog" road block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_hedgehog" title="Czech hedgehog">Czech hedgehog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon%27s_teeth_(fortification)" title="Dragon's teeth (fortification)">Dragon's teeth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forward_operating_base" title="Forward operating base">Entry control point (ECP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_fence" title="Electric fence">Electric fence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallout_shelter" title="Fallout shelter">Fallout shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_support_base" title="Fire support base">Fire support base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flak_tower" title="Flak tower">Flak tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardened_aircraft_shelter" title="Hardened aircraft shelter">Hardened aircraft shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesco_bastion" title="Hesco bastion">Hesco bastion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabal_(earthworks)" title="Kabal (earthworks)">Kabal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loophole_(firearm)" title="Loophole (firearm)">Loophole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_line_of_resistance" title="Main line of resistance">Main line of resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_launch_facility" title="Missile launch facility">Missile launch facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pillbox_(military)" title="Pillbox (military)">Pillbox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revetment_(aircraft)" title="Revetment (aircraft)">Revetment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentry_gun" title="Sentry gun">Sentry gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_hole" title="Spider hole">Spider hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_pen" title="Submarine pen">Submarine pen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_hangar" title="Underground hangar">Underground hangar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon_storage_area" title="Weapon storage area">Weapon storage area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_Storage_and_Security_System" title="Weapons Storage and Security System">Weapons Storage and Security System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By topography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_castle" title="Cave castle">Cave castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_castle" title="Hill castle">Hill castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillfort" title="Hillfort">Hillfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillside_castle" title="Hillside castle">Hillside castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilltop_castle" title="Hilltop castle">Hilltop castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_castle" title="Island castle">Island castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowland_castle" title="Lowland castle">Lowland castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_castle" title="Marsh castle">Marsh castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_castle" title="Water castle">Moated castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promontory_fort" title="Promontory fort">Promontory fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_castle" title="Ridge castle">Ridge castle</a></li> <li><span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it"><a href="/wiki/Rocca_(fortification)" title="Rocca (fortification)">Rocca</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_castle" title="Rock castle">Rock castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spur_castle" title="Spur castle">Spur castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_castle" title="Water castle">Water castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotta_mara" title="Kotta mara">Floating water castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By role</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Border_barrier" title="Border barrier">Border barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion_castle" title="Coercion castle">Coercion castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-castle" title="Counter-castle">Counter-castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fence" title="Fence">Fence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ganerbenburg" title="Ganerbenburg">Ganerbenburg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagdschloss" title="Jagdschloss">Hunting lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_castle" title="Imperial castle">Imperial castle</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Kaiserpfalz" title="Kaiserpfalz">Kaiserpfalz</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Landesburg" title="Landesburg">Landesburg</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Lustschloss" title="Lustschloss">Lustschloss</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_base" title="Military base">Military base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstacle" title="Obstacle">Obstacle</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Ordensburg" title="Ordensburg">Ordensburg</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_castle" title="Refuge castle">Refuge castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toll_castle" title="Toll castle">Toll castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_castle" title="Urban castle">Urban castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By design</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bastion_fort" title="Bastion fort">Bastion fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_castle" title="Bridge castle">Bridge castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_rampart" title="Circular rampart">Circular rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_castle" title="Concentric castle">Concentric castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-plan_castle" title="L-plan castle">L-plan castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle" title="Motte-and-bailey castle">Motte-and-bailey castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrangular_castle" title="Quadrangular castle">Quadrangular castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringfort" title="Ringfort">Ringfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringwork" title="Ringwork">Ringwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_castle" title="Tower castle">Tower castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-plan_castle" title="Z-plan castle">Z-plan castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bastion_forts" title="List of bastion forts">Bastion forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles" title="List of castles">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_with_defensive_walls" title="List of cities with defensive walls">Cities with defensive walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_line" title="Defense line">Defense line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_estate" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortified estate">Fortified estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fortifications" title="List of fortifications">Fortifications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forts" title="List of forts">Forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_military_installations" title="Lists of military installations">Military installations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_walls" title="List of walls">Walls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related word</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castle_town" title="Castle town">Castle town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau" title="Château">Château</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungeon" title="Dungeon">Dungeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festung" title="Festung">Festung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_gateway" title="Fortified gateway">Fortified gateway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatekeeper" title="Gatekeeper">Gatekeeper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loophole_(firearm)" title="Loophole (firearm)">Loophole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_redoubt" title="National redoubt">National redoubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palas" title="Palas">Palas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picket_(military)" title="Picket (military)">Picket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schloss" title="Schloss">Schloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench" title="Trench">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedette_(sentry)" title="Vedette (sentry)">Vedette</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense" title="Civil defense">Civil defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_of_government" title="Continuity of government">Continuity of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_urbanism" title="Military urbanism">Military urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">Siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">Siege engine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_siege_engines" title="List of siege engines">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">Urban warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_guerrilla_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nobold">See also</span>: <b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Fortification" title="Category:Fortification">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Rome_topics565" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics565" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /></div><div 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