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url(../wp-content/uploads/2018/02/August.jpg); } .class-july{ background:linear-gradient(0deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, 0), rgba(255, 255, 255, 0)), url(../wp-content/uploads/2018/02/July.jpg); } .class-june{ background:linear-gradient(0deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, 0), rgba(255, 255, 255, 0)), url(../wp-content/uploads/2018/02/June.jpg); } .class-may{ background:linear-gradient(0deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, 0), rgba(255, 255, 255, 0)), url(../wp-content/uploads/2018/02/May.jpg); } .class-april{ background:linear-gradient(0deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, 0), rgba(255, 255, 255, 0)), url(../wp-content/uploads/2018/02/April.jpg); } .class-march{ background:linear-gradient(0deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, 0), rgba(255, 255, 255, 0)), url(../wp-content/uploads/2018/02/March.jpg); } .class-february{ background:linear-gradient(0deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, 0), rgba(255, 255, 255, 0)), url(../wp-content/uploads/2018/02/February.jpg); } .class-january{ background:linear-gradient(0deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, 0), rgba(255, 255, 255, 0)), url(../wp-content/uploads/2018/02/January.jpg); }*/ .section-title{ max-width:1280px; margin:auto; text-align:center; } .boxed-article{ width:100%; margin-right:40px; height:auto; } .section-title h2{ margin:60px auto; font-size:22px; } .section-title h2.featured{ margin:2px auto 50px auto; } .section-title h5{ margin:40px auto 0 auto; } .boxed-article:last-child{ margin-right:0; } .boxed-article .ba-title{ text-align:center; margin:10px 0 40px 0; } .boxed-article .ba-title a{ font-family:Arial; font-size:16px; font-weight:600; color:#000; } .boxed-article img{ width:100%; height:200px; object-fit:cover; } .ul-article{ /*list-style:none;*/ padding-left:20px; height:70%; } .ul-article a, .ul-article li{ font-weight:bold; font-size:16px; color:#000; } .ul-article a:hover{ text-decoration:underline; } .article-issue{ font-weight:600; font-size:24px; color:#fff; text-shadow:2px 2px 4px #000000; } .bio-links a{ display:inline-block; } .econlib_logo span{ display:none !important; } footer h6{ display:none !important; } .torch-text2{ color: #dbecf1 !important; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom:40px; } div.networking{ padding-top:40px; } .torch-text{ margin-bottom:2px; } h2.lined{ display:block; max-width:1280px; width: 100%; text-align: center; border-bottom: 2px solid #72bdca; line-height: 0.1em; margin: 10px auto 40px auto; } h2.lined span { background:#fff; padding:0 10px; } .oak-more-entries{ text-align:center; } #btn-more-entries{ background:#d8d8d8; border:1px solid #979797; padding:10px 60px; margin:20px; color:#000; cursor:pointer; border-radius:10px; font-size:18px; font-weight:600; } .title-category{ padding-top:20px; } .title-category h3{ font-size:16px; } #econtal-page-banner{ display:block !important; padding-bottom:20px; } #econtal-page-banner .col-md-6, #econtal-page-banner .col-md-12, #econtal-page-banner .col-lg-6{ padding-left:0 !important; padding-right:0 !important; } .econtalk-page.econtalk.main-banner:before{ left:0; } .pp-multiple-authors-layout-inline{ font-size:18px; margin-bottom:0; line-height:normal; display:inline-block; } a.author.url{ font-size:18px; line-height:normal; color:#212529; } .card-block .pp-multiple-authors-layout-inline, .card-block a.author.url{ font-size:14px; } .card-title a{ color:#000000; } h2.pp-multiple-authors-layout-inline{ font-weight:normal; } #label_total_shown{ display:none; } .facet_span_ctr, .search_result_facet_counter{ font-family:Arial, sans-serif; font-style:normal; font-size:14px; color:#27baae; font-weight:bold; cursor:pointer; } /*body{ max-width:1920px; margin:auto; }*/ .econtalk-container{ padding-right:0; padding-left:0; display:block; } #econtalks{ display:block; overflow:auto; } #econtalks .grid-masonry-item{ width:100%; } #econtalk-recent-wrap{ clear:both; margin-bottom:20px; } #econtalk-recent-image{ display:block; width:100%; height:30vh; background-repeat:no-repeat; background-size:cover; background-position:right center; } #econtalk-recent-content{ width:100%; } /*#econtalk-recent-content, #econtalk-recent-image{ float:left; }*/ #wrap-content-head{ background:#0e0c0c; padding:10px; } #wrap-content-body{ padding:20px; background:#f0f0f0; } /*#wrap-content-head span{ color:#72bdca; font-size:22px; font-weight:600; text-transform:uppercase; display:block; margin-bottom:15px }*/ span.wrap-title{ color:#72bdca; font-size:22px; font-weight:700; text-transform:uppercase; display:block; margin-bottom:15px } span.lwe-title{ color:#000; padding:20px 0 0 20px; } span.lwe-related{ padding:20px 0 0 0; } span.newsletter-title{ color:#fff; } .econtalk-archive-titles{ font-size:28px; font-weight:600; } #wrap-content-head h2{ margin-bottom:20px; } #wrap-content-head h2 a{ color:#fff; } .btn_pill{ background:#fff; color:#72bdca; border-radius:25px; border:0; padding:7px 30px; font-weight:600; margin-right:15px; cursor:pointer; text-align:center; display:block; margin-bottom:5px; } .lw_btn_pill{ padding:7px 7px; float:left; margin-left:-20px; border-radius:0; } #twe-date{ font-size:16px; font-weight:bold; } #twe-excerpt{ font-size:18px; font-weight:500; } .econtalk-action-btn{ display:block; width:85%; margin:auto; margin-bottom:5px; text-align:center; color:#fff; padding:15px 40px; border:0; text-transform:uppercase; font-size:16px; /*margin-right:10px;*/ cursor:pointer; border-radius:0; vertical-align:top; } .econtalk-action-btn:hover{ color:#fff; } .btn-listen{ background:#00c29d; } .btn-transcript{ background:#44c3da; } .btn-share{ background:#282e2f; } #wrap-btn-pills{ display:none; margin-bottom:16px; } .lw-col{ width:100%; } #last-week-epi-wrap{ background:#e8fbff; } #newsletter-wrap{ background:#363636; } #newsletter-wrap p{ color: #fff; padding: 20px 0 20px 20px; font-size:34px; line-height:1.2; } #newsletter-wrap form{ display:flex; padding:0 20px 20px 20px } #newsletter-wrap form .email{ width:70%; margin-right:20px; border-radius:0; } #newsletter-wrap form .btn{ width:30%; border-radius:0;; } #lw-image{ width:300px; height:300px; display:block; background-repeat:no-repeat; background-size:cover; background-position:center } #episode-archive-wrap{ background:#adf0ff; padding:20px 60px; } #single-episode-archive-wrap{ padding:20px; } #episode-archive-wrap .lwe-title, #single-episode-archive-wrap .lwe-title, #episode-archive-wrap p, #single-episode-archive-wrap p{ text-align:center; } #episode-archive-wrap p, #single-episode-archive-wrap p{ font-size:20px; font-weight:500; } #single-episode-archive-wrap .lwe-title{ padding:20px 0 0 0; } #featured-guest-wrap{ margin-top:20px; background:#f6f6f6; height:763px; } #lw-article-wrap{ display:blok; padding:0 20px 20px 20px; } #lw-image, #lw-content{ width:100%; } #lw-content p{ font-weight:500; } #lw-content h2 a, #lw-content h2 a:hover{ color:#000; } #econtalk-related-wrap{ background:#fff; padding:0 20px 20px 20px; } #wrap-rel-article a{ color:#000; font-weight:600; } #wrap-rel-article .lw_btn_pill{ color:#72bdca; } #browse-by-wrap{ display:block; } #browse-by-wrap a#bb-guest{ background-image:url(../wp-content/themes/econlib/assets/img/social.png); } #browse-by-wrap a#bb-date{ background-image:url(../wp-content/themes/econlib/assets/img/monthly-calendar.png); } #browse-by-wrap a{ display:block; position:relative; height:45px; width:100%; margin-top:30px; margin-bottom:30px; background-size:cover; } #single-episode-archive-wrap #browse-by-wrap a{ width:100%; height:200px; } #browse-by-wrap span{ position:absolute; bottom:0; color:#fff; background:#241919; font-size:18px; padding:10px; border:0; display:block; width:100%; text-align:center; margin-top:120px; } span.featured-guest-title{ color:#000000; text-align:center; padding-top:20px; } .carousel-control-next, .carousel-control-next:hover, .carousel-control-prev, .carousel-control-prev:hover{ color:#44c3da; } .carousel-indicators li { width: 15px; height: 15px; border-radius: 20px; background-color: rgba(105, 105, 105, 0.5); } .carousel-indicators .active { background-color: #44c3da; } .carousel-item .card a, .carousel-item .card-title{ text-align:center; } .carousel-item .card{ background:none; padding:40px 20px; border:0; } .carousel-item .card-text{ font-size:16px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; color:#000; } .carousel-item .card-title{ font-size:21px; font-weight:500; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; color:#000; } .carousel-item .card-body{ padding:20px 15%; } span.econ-extra-title, span.past-epi-title{ text-align:center; color:#000; display:block; } span.econ-extra-title{ margin-bottom:0; padding:20px; } span.past-epi-title{ padding:20px; } #bg-wrap-econ-extras{ margin:auto; margin-top:20px; max-width:1230px; background:#f8f6f6; } #econtalk-extras-wrap .card-block, #econtalk-extras-wrap .card-comment, #econtalk-past-epi-wrap .card-block, #econtalk-past-epi-wrap .card-comment{ padding:10px !important; } /*#econtalk-extras-wrap .col-xl-3:first-child{ flex:0 0 50%; max-width:50%; }*/ #econtalk-extras-wrap .col-md-6{ max-width:100%; } #econtalk-extras-wrap h4 a, #econtalk-past-epi-wrap h4 a{ font-weight:600; } #econtalk-extras-wrap .card-block *, #econtalk-past-epi-wrap .card-block *{ font-family:Arial, sans-serif; } #econtalk-past-epi-wrap, .fa-caret-down{ color: #44c3da; } #econtalk-single-podcast-wrap{ display:flex; padding:0; flex-direction:column-reverse; } #podcast-wrap{ width:100%; padding:20px; background:#f0f0f0; display:none; } #podcast-wrap-mobile .clear-fix{ padding:20px; background:#000; } #podcast-wrap-mobile #econtalk-desc-wrap{ padding:20px; } #podcast-wrap-mobile #single-econtalk-title a{ color:#fff; font-size:22px; } #podcast-img{ display:block; width:100%; height:220px; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-size: cover; background-position: right center; } #econtalk-single-tabs-wrap{ margin-top:20px; } #econtalk-single-tabs-wrap nav{ background:#fff; margin-top:20px; } #econtalk-single-tabs-wrap nav a{ margin-left:0; margin-right:5px; margin-bottom:5px; background:#e1e1e1; } #econtalk-single-tabs-wrap .nav-tabs .nav-link{ color:#000; text-transform:uppercase; } #econtalk-single-tabs-wrap .nav-tabs .nav-link:hover{ color:#fff; background-color:#231f1f; border-radius:0; } #econtalk-single-tabs-wrap .nav-tabs .nav-link.active{ color:#fff; background-color:#231f1f; border:0; border-radius:0; } #econtalk-single-tabs-wrap #nav-tabContent{ width:100%; } #single-econtalk{ width:100%; } #econtalk-single-tabs-wrap #single-econtalk-tab-sidebar{ width:100%; } #single-econtalk-audio-wrap{ margin:20px 0; } #single-econtalk-title a{ color:#000; } #single-econtalk-date{ font-weight:600; } #single-econtalk-desc{ font-weight:500; } #single-about-the-guest{ padding:20px; margin-bottom:20px; background:#e8fbff; } #single-related-episodes{ padding:20px; } #single-about-the-guest span, #single-related-episodes span{ text-align:center; color:#000; } #single-about-the-guest-img{ text-align:center; margin-bottom:20px; } #single-related-episodes a{ color: #000; font-weight: 600; font-size: 20px; } #econtalk-single-podcast-wrap .btn-transcript, #econtalk-single-podcast-wrap .btn-listen{ display:none; } #single-about-the-guest h5 a{ display:block; text-align:center; color:#00c29d; } #checkbox_toggle{ font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; color: #1ca5e9; cursor:pointer; } .woo_subscribe_now_btn{ background-color: #44c3da; border-radius: 2px; box-shadow: none; border: none; color: #fff !important; font-family: Lato; font-size: 16px; padding:20px 40px; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: 0.6px; text-transform: uppercase; cursor: pointer; } .woocommerce *{ font-family: Lato !important; } .cart-collaterals{ padding-bottom:40px; } #customer_details .col-1, #customer_details .col-2{ max-width:100%; } #customer_details .form-row{ display:block; } .year-picker .col-8, .year-picker .col-4{ padding-left:0; display:inline-block; max-width:50%; flex:0 0 50%; } .year-picker .row{ padding-bottom:5px; } .year-picker .col-8 h3, .year-picker .col-4 h3{ font-size:14px; font-weight:600; } .dropdown-filter-wrap, .dropdown-filter-wrap2{ width:50%; position:relative; } .dropdown-filter-wrap2{ width:33.33%; } .dropdown-filter-wrap .btn-secondary, .dropdown-filter-wrap2 .btn-secondary{ color:#000; background:none; border:0; font-size:16px; } @media (min-width:768px){ .search_tool_bgwrap{ padding-top:40px; } .main-header{ height:64px; padding:0 20px; } section.main-banner, .navbar-search{ display:block !important; } .lg-nextprev{ display:flex !important; } .article-single-page .card-comment{ display:inline-block !important; } .m-featured-image, .s-nextprev{ display:none; } section.articles-page article .main-content, .card-block .article-content{ display: block !important; } .recent-cards .article-text h4, .card-title-container .card-title{ font-size: 18px; } .recent-cards .article-text h4{ white-space:nowrap !important; } .recent-cards .read-more-btn{ display:inline-block !important; float:right !important; } header .logo{ margin-left:5%; } .search-header{ width:auto; } .articles-page .row .col-md-6{ padding-right:15px; padding-left:15px; } .grid-masonry .col-md-6{ padding-left:15px; padding-right:15px; } article.grid-card .card-block{ min-height:250px !important; } .articles-grid .title-date{ padding:20px; } /* search tool desktop */ .search_tool_wrap{ max-width: 815px; margin: 0 auto; padding: 20px; border-radius: 12px; } .search_tool_wrap form{ padding: 55px 165px 10px 165px; } .search_tool_wrap h4{ font-size: 30px; text-align: center; margin-bottom:32px; } .search_result_article h4{ text-align: left; margin-bottom:5px; } .sp_searchterm_wrap #search_term{ margin-bottom:27px; } .sp_searchterm_wrap #search_term{ font-size:20px; font-weight:500; } .sp_searchterm_wrap .close{ top:10px; } .search_tool_wrap #refine_search{ display:block; width:80%; margin:45px auto 0 auto; padding:14px 50px; font-size:18px; } .search_results h4{ /*display:none;*/ text-align:left; } .sortbytoggle-wrap{ width:41.5%; float:left; margin-right:1%; /*display:block;*/ } .sort-total-wrap{ width:57.5%; float:left; } #results-orderby a{ text-align:left; } #divResultSummary{ display:block; /*justify-content:flex-end;*/ } .page_subcat_wrap{ padding:25px; } .page_subcat_wrap .subcat_wrap .oakcol{ display:block; width:50%; float:left; padding:10px 15px; } .page_subcat_wrap .subcat_wrap{ padding:30px; height:auto; } .page_subcat_wrap .subcat_wrap .oakcol a{ /*text-align:center;*/ font-size:18px; color:#fff; } .page_subcat_wrap .subcat_wrap .oakcol a.active-subcat{ color:#4a90e2; } .page_subcat_wrap .subcat_wrap .oakcol a.active-subcat::before{ content:"> "; } .page_subcat_wrap .subcat_wrap h4{ display:block; } .subcat{ display:none; } .page_subcat_wrap .subcat_wrap{ /*overflow-y:scroll;*/ } /*.grey-section{ padding:40px 0 100px 0; }*/ .div-container{ display:flex; } .section-title h2{ font-size:32px; } .boxed-article .ba-title{ margin:25px 0 0 0; } #cee_subcat_wrap{ /*background:linear-gradient(0deg, rgba(1, 1, 1, 0.5), rgba(1, 1, 1, 0.3)), url(../wp-content/uploads/2021/08/image-3.png); background-size:cover; background-repeat:no-repeat; background-position: bottom center;*/ } #label_total_shown{ display:inline-block; } .sortbytoggle-wrap, #results-orderby{ background:#4a90e2; } .results-header{ background:none; } } .category-list .category-card{ margin-bottom:0; } html { scroll-behavior: smooth; } @media (min-width:992px){ .article-single-page section .post-content .highlight{ float:right; margin: 20px 0 20px 20px; width:220px; } .mobile-related{ display:none; } .desktop-related{ display:block; } .econtalk-container{ display:flex; padding-right:15px; padding-left:15px; } #econtalk-extras-wrap .col-xl-3:first-child{ flex:0 0 50%; max-width:50%; } #econtalk-recent-image{ height:auto; width:40%; } #econtalk-recent-content{ width:60%; } #econtalk-recent-content, #econtalk-recent-image{ float:left; } #wrap-content-head{ padding:40px 40px 20px 40px; } #wrap-content-body{ padding:40px; } .btn_pill{ display:inline-block; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } .econtalk-action-btn{ display:inline-block; margin-bottom:0; width:auto; text-align:left; } .lw-col{ width:50%; } .lw-col:first-child{ margin-right:20px; } #lw-article-wrap{ display:flex; } #lw-image{ display:block; width:45%; } #lw-content{ width:55%; margin-left:10px; } #browse-by-wrap{ display:flex; } #single-episode-archive-wrap #browse-by-wrap a:first-child{ margin-right:5%; } #browse-by-wrap a:first-child{ margin-right:8%; } #browse-by-wrap a{ height:225px; width:46%; } #econtalks .grid-masonry-item{ width:305px; float:left; } #econtalk-single-podcast-wrap{ display:flex; flex-direction:row; } #podcast-wrap-mobile{ display:none; } #podcast-wrap{ display:block; float:left; width:60%; padding:40px; } #podcast-img{ float:left; width:40%; height:auto; } #econtalk-single-tabs-wrap #nav-tabContent{ width:60%; float:left; padding:20px !important; } #econtalk-single-tabs-wrap #single-econtalk-tab-sidebar{ width:40%; float:left; padding:20px !important; } #single-episode-archive-wrap #browse-by-wrap div{ width:43%; } #wrap-btn-pills{ display:block; } .econtalk-archive-titles{ font-size:32px; } #econtalk-related-wrap{ background:none; } .lw_btn_pill{ float:right; border-radius:25px; margin-right:0; } #econtalk-single-tabs-wrap nav a{ margin-left:15px; margin-right:15px; margin-bottom:0; background:#fff; } /*#econtalk-single-podcast-wrap .btn-transcript, #econtalk-single-podcast-wrap .btn-listen{ display:inline-block; }*/ } @media (min-width:1180px){ .econlib_logo, .econlib_logo span{ display:block; } header .navbar-toggler{ display:none; } .navbar{ position:static; } .navbar-nav{ flex-direction:row; } .navbar-collapse{ display:block; } #menu-top-menu > .menu-item{ min-width:130px; text-align:center; flex-grow:1; } .navbar-nav .dropdown-menu{ /*position:absolute;*/ background:#72bdca; /*top:100%;*/ /*left:0; width:100%;*/ margin:0; border:0; border-radius:0; } li.menu-item-has-children{ position:static; } .main-header{ position:relative; } ul.dropdown-menu li{ /*float:none !important; display:inline-block !important; */ } ul.dropdown-menu li a{ padding:10px 20px; } .nav-wrap #menu-top-mobile li{ /*min-width:130px;*/ flex-grow:1; text-align:center; } /*.nav-wrap{ display:flex; } .nav-mobile-wrap{ display:none; }*/ #template_submenu{ padding:0; text-align:center; } #template_submenu ul{ display:inline-block; position:static; width:auto; height:45px; padding:0; margin:0 auto; /*display:inline-block; height:45px; line-height:45px; list-style:none; text-align:center; margin:0; padding:0;*/ } #template_submenu ul li{ display:inline-block; } #template_submenu .subnav-parent, #template_submenu .subnav-toggler{ display:none; } /*.previous-month, .previous-month2{ width:25%; } .current-month{ width:50%; }*/ .current-month, .previous-month, .previous-month2, .previous-month3{ width:25%; } .article-second-container .div-item{ width:49%; float:left; } .article-second-container .div-item:nth-child(even){ margin-right:0; } .div-item{ margin-bottom:0; } .video-container .div-item{ width:31%; float:left; height:auto !important; } } /* ##Device = Tablets, Ipads (portrait) ##Screen = B/w 768px to 1024px */ @media (min-width: 768px) and (max-width: 1024px) { /* CSS */ } /* ##Device = Tablets, Ipads (landscape) ##Screen = B/w 768px to 1024px */ @media (min-width: 768px) and (max-width: 1024px) and (orientation: landscape) { .site-container{ max-width:100%; } .econtalk-container{ padding-left:0; padding-right:0; } .btn_pill:last-child, #btnGroupDrop1{ margin-top:10px; } } div.smcx-modal{top:0 !important;left:0 !important;max-width:100% !important;width:100% !important;height:100% !important;max-height:100% !important;background:rgba(0,0,0,0.5) !important;margin-top:0 !important;margin-left:0 !important;margin:0 !important;}.smcx-modal-invitation>.smcx-modal-content{margin:12% auto 0 auto !important;} #_customize-input-cee_page_header{ width:100% !important; } /* 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id="bc-uc"> <li class="bc-li bc-li-home"><a href="https://www.econlib.org">Home</a>  /  </li> </ul> </div> <section class="article-single-page jumbotron main-banner logo-wide-center" style="background-image: url(https://www.econlib.org/wp-content/uploads/2000/07/library-1.jpg)" > <div class="site-container height-full info-container"> <div class="row height-full"> <div class="height-full col-12 col-lg-4 "> <div class="article-info-block"> <div class="article-info"> <p>ECONLIB Articles</p> <p>Jan 1 2002</p> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </section>  <section class="article-single-page site-container post-container"> <div class="row"> <section class="col-lg-8"> <article class="post"> <div class="row post-header"> <h1 class="col-11 post-title">Life and Works of Antoine Louis Claude, Comte Destutt de Tracy</h1> <div class="card-comment"> <a href="#comments" class="card-comment-container"> <span class="card-comment-count"> 0 </span> <i class="fa card-comment-icon" aria-hidden="true"></i> </a> </div> <h5 class="col-12 post-author"> By David M. Hart </h5> </div> <div class="m-featured-image"> <a href="https://www.econlib.org/library/Tracy/DestuttdeTracyBio.html"><img src="https://www.econlib.org/wp-content/uploads/2000/07/library-1.jpg" alt="Life and Works of Antoine Louis Claude, Comte Destutt de Tracy" width="100%"></a> <div class="m-metawrap"> <p class="m-meta-stuff"> By David M. Hart, Jan 1 2002 </p> <div class="share-post-widget share-post-widget-top"> <div class="share-text"> SHARE <br/> POST: </div> <a class="fa-regular fa-envelope fa-2x" href="mailto:?Subject=Check out this Econlib page&Body=I thought you might be interested in Life and Works of Antoine Louis Claude, Comte Destutt de Tracy By David M. Hart. You can view it at https://www.econlib.org/library/Tracy/DestuttdeTracyBio.html"></a> <a class="fa fa-print fa-2x" href="https://www.econlib.org/library/Tracy/DestuttdeTracyBio.html?to_print=true"></a> <a class="fa-brands fa-facebook-f fa-2x" style="color: #FFF" href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=https://www.econlib.org/library/Tracy/DestuttdeTracyBio.html" target="_blank"></a>  <a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?url=https://www.econlib.org/library/Tracy/DestuttdeTracyBio.html" class="fa-brands fa-x-twitter fa-2x" style="color: #FFF" target="_blank" data-show-count="false"></a> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script> </div> </div> </div> <div class="post-content"> <div class="article"> <div class="section"> <p><span id="para_1" class="p"></span></p> <div id="title_1" class="phead">Destutt de Tracy’s Life (1754-1836)</div> <div class="intro"><span class="initcap">D</span>estutt de Tracy was born in Paris on July 20, 1754 and died in Paris on<br /> March 10, 1836. He was a <i>philosophe,</i> one of the founders in the 1790s of<br /> the classical liberal republican group known as the Id茅ologues (which<br /> included Cabanis, Condorcet, Constant, Daunou, Say, Madame de Sta毛l), a<br /> politician under several regimes spanning the Revolution and the<br /> Restoration, and an influential author. When the Estates General were<br /> called to meet in 1789 he, although a member of an aristocratic family<br /> which had been ennobled twice (hence his name), joined the Third Estate<br /> and renounced his title. He was later elected to the Constituent<br /> Assembly and served in the army in 1792 under the Marquis de Lafayette.<br /> During the Terror he was imprisoned and only escaped execution because<br /> Robespierre beat him to the scaffold. It was during his period of<br /> imprisonment that he read the works of Condillac and Locke and began<br /> working on his theory of id茅ologie. He was made a member of the Institut<br /> National in 1796 (he was part of the Section of the Analysis of<br /> Sensations and Ideas in the Class of Moral and Political Sciences, which<br /> was later suppressed by Napoleon in 1803) and later appointed to the<br /> French Academy (1808). During the Directory Tracy was active in<br /> educational reform, especially in creating a national system of<br /> education. His membership of the Senate during the Consulate and Empire<br /> gave him many opportunities to express his “ideological” opposition to<br /> Napoleon’s illiberal regime, which culminated in 1814 with Tracy’s call<br /> for the removal of the Emperor. For this, he was rewarded with the<br /> restoration of his noble title by Louis XVIII later that year.<br /> Nevertheless, he continued to support the liberal opposition during the<br /> restoration of Louis XVIII and Charles X. Although Tracy was active in<br /> bringing to power a more liberal, constitutional monarchy during the<br /> July Revolution of 1830 he quickly became disillusioned with the<br /> results.</div> <p><span id="para_2" class="p"></span></p> <p>Tracy coined the term “ideology” shortly after his appointment to the<br /> Institute National in 1796 to refer to his “science of ideas” which<br /> attempted to create a secure foundation for all the moral and political<br /> sciences by closely examining the sensations and the ideas about those<br /> sensations which arose in human beings as they interacted with their<br /> physical environment. His deductive methodology for the social sciences<br /> has much in common with the Austrian school of economics which emerged<br /> after 1870. For Tracy, “Ideology” was a liberal social and economic<br /> philosophy which provided the basis for a strong defense of private<br /> property, individual liberty, the free market, and constitutional limits<br /> to the power of the state (preferably in a republican form modeled on<br /> that of the USA). For Napoleon, “ideology” was a term of abuse which he<br /> directed against his liberal opponents in the Institut National and it<br /> was this negative sense of the term which Marx had in mind in his<br /> writings on Ideology (he called Tracy a “fischbl眉tige<br /> Bourgeoisdoktrin盲r”鈥攁 fish-blooded bourgeois doctrinaire).</p> <p><span id="para_3" class="p"></span></p> <p>The impact of Tracy’s political and economic ideas was considerable. His<br /> <a href="/library/Tracy/ddtMSL.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><i>Commentary and Review of Montesquieu’s Spirit of Laws</i></a> (1811) was much<br /> admired by Thomas Jefferson, who translated it and had it published in<br /> America at a time when a French edition was impossible due to Napoleon’s<br /> censorship. In the <i>Commentary</i> Tracy criticised Montesquieu’s defence of<br /> monarchy and supported American-style republicanism which operated in<br /> the context of a laissez-faire economic order. Tracy’s multi-volume work<br /> <i>Elements of Ideology</i> (1801-1815) is his magnum opus. Volume 4, which<br /> appeared in 1815 and which dealt with political economy, was also<br /> translated and published by Jefferson in 1817. The <i>Elements of Ideology</i><br /> was quickly translated into the major European languages and influenced<br /> a new generation of Italian, Spanish and Russian liberals who were<br /> involved in revolutionary activity in the early 1820s (the Carbonari in<br /> France and Italy, and the Decembrists in Russia). One of Tracy’s key<br /> social and economic ideas was that “society is purely and solely a<br /> continual series of exchanges” and his broader social theory is based<br /> upon working out the implications of this notion of free exchange.<br /> Within France, Tracy’s work influenced the thinking of the novelist<br /> Stendhal, the historian Augustin Thierry, and the political economists<br /> and lawyers Charles Comte and Charles Dunoyer.</p> </div> <div class="section" style="font-size: 80%;"> <hr /> <p><span id="para_4" class="p"></span></p> <div id="title_2" class="phead">Bibliography</div> <p><b>Works by Destutt de Tracy</b></p> <p><span id="para_5" class="p"></span></p> <p>Destutt de Tracy, Antoine Louis Claude, <a href="/library/Tracy/ddtMSL.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><i>A Commentary and Review of Montesquieu’s Spirit of Laws,</i></a> trans. Thomas Jefferson (1811) (New York: Burt Franklin, 1969). French 1819 edition online at <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/scripts/ConsultationTout.exe?O=N005466&E=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">http://gallica.bnf.fr/scripts/ConsultationTout.exe?O=N005466&E=0</a>.</p> <p><span id="para_6" class="p"></span></p> <p>Destutt de Tracy, Antoine Louis Claude, <i>A Treatise on Political Economy,</i>trans. Thomas Jefferson (1817) (reprinted New York 1970). French 1823 edition online at <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/scripts/ConsultationTout.exe?O=N041802&E=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">http://gallica.bnf.fr/scripts/ConsultationTout.exe?O=N041802&E=0</a>.</p> <p><span id="para_7" class="p"></span></p> <p><b>Works about Destutt de Tracy</b></p> <p><span id="para_8" class="p"></span></p> <p>Head, Brian, <i>Ideology and Social Science: Destutt de Tracy and French Liberalism</i> (Dordrecht, M. Nijhoff; Boston, Hingham, MA, 1985).</p> <p><span id="para_9" class="p"></span></p> <p>Kaiser, T., “Politics and Political Economy in the Thought of the Id茅ologues,” <i>History of Political Economy,</i> 1980, pp. 141-60.</p> <p>Kennedy, Emmet, <i>A Philosophe in the Age of Revolution: Destutt de Tracyand the Origins of “Ideology”</i> (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1978).</p> <p><span id="para_10" class="p"></span></p> <p>Klein, Daniel, “Deductive economic methodology in the French Enlightenment: Condillac and Destutt de Tracy,” <i>History of Political Economy,</i> 1985, 17:1, pp. 51-71.</p> <p><span id="para_11" class="p"></span></p> <p>Venturi, Franco, “Destutt de Tracy and the Liberal Revolutions” in <i>Studies in Free Russia,</i> trans. Fausta Segre Walsby and Margaret O’Dell(University of Chicago Press, 1982), pp. 59-93.</p> <p><span id="para_12" class="p"></span></p> <p>Welch, Cheryl B., <i>Liberty and Utility: The French Id茅ologues and the Transformation of Liberalism</i> (New York: Columbia University Press,1984).</p> </div> <div class="section" style="font-size: 70%;"> <p><a name="affiliation"></a></p> <hr /> <p> </p> <div class="affiliation"><a href="#">*</a>Dr. David M. Hart is the newly appointed Director of the Liberty Fund’s Online Library of Liberty Project. Previously he taught history at the University of Adelaide, South Australia. His research interests include 18th and 19th century French liberal thought.</div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mobile-related"> <article class="card related-article"> <div class="card-header"> <h6 class="related-article-author">RELATED CONTENT By Antoine Louis Claude Destutt de Tracy</h6> <h5 class="related-article-title">A Commentary and Review of Montesquieu's "Spirit of Laws"</h5> </div> <div class="card-body">Antoine Louis Claude Destutt de Tracy (1754-1836) composed A Commentary and Review of Montesquieu's Spirit of Laws in 1811. It was promptly translated to English by Thomas Jefferson, who published it along with translations of M. Condorcet's "Observations on the [Twenty-ninth] Book" (the original cover page produced by William Duane's Philadelphia press erroneously reads as the "Thirty-first Book") and "Two Letters of Helvetius, on the Merits of the Same Work". We reproduce all these translated...</div> <div class="article-btn-block"> <a href="https://www.econlib.org/library/Tracy/ddtMSL.html" class="btn btn-info">Read This Article</a> </div> </article> </div> </article> </section> <aside class="col-lg-4 height-full flex"> <div class="share-post-widget"> <div class="share-text"> SHARE <br/> POST: </div> <a class="fa-regular fa-envelope fa-2x" href="mailto:?Subject=Check out this Econlib page&Body=I thought you might be interested in Life and Works of Antoine Louis Claude, Comte Destutt de Tracy By David M. Hart. 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It was promptly translated to English by Thomas Jefferson, who published it along with translations of M. Condorcet's "Observations on the [Twenty-ninth] Book" (the original cover page produced by William Duane's Philadelphia press erroneously reads as the "Thirty-first Book") and "Two Letters of Helvetius, on the Merits of the Same Work". We reproduce all these translated...</div> <div class="article-btn-block"> <a href="https://www.econlib.org/library/Tracy/ddtMSL.html" class="btn btn-info">Read This Article</a> </div> </article> </div> </aside> </div> </section> <footer> <div class="site-container"> <div class="row footer-row-1"> <div class="col-1 footer-logo-wrap"> <img src="http://www.econlib.org/wp-content/themes/econlib/assets/icons/torch-icon.svg" width="80" height="120"> <h4>Econlib</h4> </div> <div class="col-2 footer-description"> <h4>The Library of Economics and Liberty</h4> <h3>Liberty Fund, Inc.</h3> <p>11301 N. 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