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id="toc-Awards_and_honors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awards_and_honors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Awards and honors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Awards_and_honors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>General references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Max Born</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 98 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-98" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">98 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86" title="ماكس بورن – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ماكس بورن" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maks_Born" title="Maks Born – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Maks Born" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%86" title="ماکس برن – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ماکس برن" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8" title="মাক্স বর্ন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মাক্স বর্ন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD" title="Макс Борн – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Макс Борн" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD" title="Макс Борн – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Макс Борн" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD" title="Макс Борн – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Макс Борн" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%BE_%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%BD" title="Μαξ Μπορν – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μαξ Μπορν" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%86" title="ماکس برن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ماکس برن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%89%EC%8A%A4_%EB%B3%B4%EB%A5%B8" title="막스 보른 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="막스 보른" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%BD_%D4%B2%D5%B8%D5%BC%D5%B6" title="Մաքս Բոռն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մաքս Բոռն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8" title="माक्स बोर्न – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="माक्स बोर्न" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%A1_%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9F" title="מקס בורן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מקס בורן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಮ್ಯಾಕ್ಸ್ ಬಾರ್ನ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮ್ಯಾಕ್ಸ್ ಬಾರ್ನ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="მაქს ბორნი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მაქს ბორნი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD" title="Макс Борн – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Макс Борн" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD" title="Макс Борн – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Макс Борн" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximus_Born" title="Maximus Born – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Maximus Born" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makss_Borns" title="Makss Borns – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Makss Borns" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD" title="Макс Борн – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Макс Борн" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BA" title="മാക്സ് ബോൺ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മാക്സ് ബോൺ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8" title="मॅक्स बॉर्न – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मॅक्स बॉर्न" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="მაქს ბორნი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მაქს ბორნი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86" title="ماكس بورن – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ماكس بورن" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%86" title="ماکس برن – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ماکس برن" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD" title="Макс Борн – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Макс Борн" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8" title="म्याक्स् बर्न – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="म्याक्स् बर्न" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9E%E3%83%83%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%83%9C%E3%83%AB%E3%83%B3" title="マックス・ボルン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="マックス・ボルン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B8_%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A8" title="ਮੈਕਸ ਬੌਰਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮੈਕਸ ਬੌਰਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86" title="میکس بورن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="میکس بورن" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86" title="ماکس بورن – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ماکس بورن" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD,_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81" title="Борн, Макс – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Борн, Макс" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D8%A8%DB%86%D8%B1%D9%86" title="ماکس بۆرن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ماکس بۆرن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD" title="Макс Борн – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Макс Борн" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="மாக்ஸ் போர்ன் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மாக்ஸ் போர்ன்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD" title="Макс Борн – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Макс Борн" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AC%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="మాక్స్ బార్న్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మాక్స్ బార్న్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C_%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%99" title="มัคส์ บอร์น – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="มัคส์ บอร์น" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD" title="Макс Борн – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Макс Борн" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD" title="Макс Борн – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Макс Борн" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86" title="میکس بورن – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="میکس بورن" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E7%8E%BB%E6%81%A9" title="马克斯·玻恩 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="马克斯·玻恩" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Max Born" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E7%8E%BB%E6%81%A9" title="馬克斯·玻恩 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="馬克斯·玻恩" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Max Born</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:;"><span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a></span> <span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh">FRSE</a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Max_Born.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Max_Born.jpg/220px-Max_Born.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Max_Born.jpg/330px-Max_Born.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Max_Born.jpg/440px-Max_Born.jpg 2x" data-file-width="928" data-file-height="1303" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Born, 1930s</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1882-12-11</span>)</span>11 December 1882<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Breslau" class="mw-redirect" title="Breslau">Breslau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">5 January 1970<span style="display:none">(1970-01-05)</span> (aged 87)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen" title="Göttingen">Göttingen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lower_Saxony" title="Lower Saxony">Lower Saxony</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Stadtfriedhof" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadtfriedhof">Stadtfriedhof</a>, Göttingen</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citizenship</th><td class="infobox-data category"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Germany (1882–1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statelessness" title="Statelessness">Stateless</a> (1935–1939)</li> <li>United Kingdom (1939–1970)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a> (<a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a>, 1906)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Introducing <a href="/wiki/Matrix_mechanics" title="Matrix mechanics">matrix mechanics</a> (1925)</li> <li>Formulating the <a href="/wiki/Born_rule" title="Born rule">Born rule</a> (1926)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;">Hedwig Ehrenberg</div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1913)<wbr /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">3, including <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Victor_Rudolf_Born" title="Gustav Victor Rudolf Born">Gustav</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Relatives</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olivia_Newton-John" title="Olivia Newton-John">Olivia Newton-John</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgina_Born" title="Georgina Born">Georgina Born</a> (granddaughter)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist nowrap"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Medal" title="Max Planck Medal">Max Planck Medal</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hughes_Medal" title="Hughes Medal">Hughes Medal</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> (1954)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goethe_University_Frankfurt" title="Goethe University Frankfurt">University of Frankfurt</a> (1919–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a> (1921–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> (1933–1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Institute_of_Science" title="Indian Institute of Science">Indian Institute of Science</a> (1935–1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a> (1936–1952)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i> Untersuchungen über die Stabilität der elastischen Linie in Ebene und Raum unter verschiedenen Grenzbedingungen </i> <span style="font-size:97%;">(1906)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Runge" title="Carl Runge">Carl Runge</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Larmor" title="Joseph Larmor">Joseph Larmor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Schwarzschild" title="Karl Schwarzschild">Karl Schwarzschild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woldemar_Voigt" title="Woldemar Voigt">Woldemar Voigt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold"><i>See list</i></span></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Bradburn" title="Mary Bradburn">Mary Bradburn</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Kaijia_Cheng" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaijia Cheng">Kaijia Cheng</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Max_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Max Delbrück">Max Delbrück</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Elsasser" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Elsasser">Walter Elsasser</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Siegfried_Fl%C3%BCgge" title="Siegfried Flügge">Siegfried Flügge</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Herbert_S._Green" title="Herbert S. Green">Herbert S. Green</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Carl_Hermann" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Hermann">Carl Hermann</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hund" title="Friedrich Hund">Friedrich Hund</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Pascual_Jordan" title="Pascual Jordan">Pascual Jordan</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Krahn" title="Edgar Krahn">Edgar Krahn</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Goeppert-Mayer">Maria Goeppert-Mayer</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Lothar_Wolfgang_Nordheim" title="Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim">Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Peng_Huanwu" title="Peng Huanwu">Huanwu Peng</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Pryce" title="Maurice Pryce">Maurice Pryce</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Bertha_Swirles" title="Bertha Swirles">Bertha Swirles</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Sheila_Tinney" title="Sheila Tinney">Sheila Tinney</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Victor_Frederick_Weisskopf" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Frederick Weisskopf">Victor Frederick Weisskopf</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Liming_Yang" class="mw-redirect" title="Liming Yang">Liming Yang</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang_Kun" title="Huang Kun">Huang Kun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Wolf" title="Emil Wolf">Emil Wolf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Max_Born_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Max_Born_signature.svg/250px-Max_Born_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="43" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Max_Born_signature.svg/330px-Max_Born_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="169" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Max Born</b> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">German:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈmaks<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈbɔʁn]</a></span> <span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/dd\/De-Max_Born.ogg\/De-Max_Born.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"De-Max Born.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/dd/De-Max_Born.ogg/De-Max_Born.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:De-Max_Born.ogg" title="File:De-Max Born.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span>; 11 December 1882 – 5 January 1970) was a German-British <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> who was instrumental in the development of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>. He also made contributions to <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">solid-state physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>, and supervised the work of a number of notable physicists in the 1920s and 1930s. Born shared the 1954 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> with <a href="/wiki/Walther_Bothe" title="Walther Bothe">Walther Bothe</a> "for his fundamental research in quantum mechanics, especially in the statistical interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Wave_function" title="Wave function">wave function</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Nobel_Prize_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobel_Prize-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Born entered the <a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a> in 1904, where he met the three renowned mathematicians <a href="/wiki/Felix_Klein" title="Felix Klein">Felix Klein</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hilbert" title="David Hilbert">David Hilbert</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Minkowski" title="Hermann Minkowski">Hermann Minkowski</a>. He wrote his <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> thesis on the subject of the stability of elastic wires and tapes, winning the university's Philosophy Faculty Prize. In 1905, he began researching <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a> with Minkowski, and subsequently wrote his <a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">habilitation</a> thesis on the <a href="/wiki/Thomson_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomson model">Thomson model</a> of the atom. A chance meeting with <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</a> in Berlin in 1918 led to discussion of how an <a href="/wiki/Ionic_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic compound">ionic compound</a> is formed when a <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a> reacts with a <a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">halogen</a>, which is today known as the <a href="/wiki/Born%E2%80%93Haber_cycle" title="Born–Haber cycle">Born–Haber cycle</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> he was originally placed as a radio operator, but his specialist knowledge led to his being moved to research duties on <a href="/wiki/Sound_ranging" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound ranging">sound ranging</a>. In 1921 Born returned to Göttingen, where he arranged another chair for his long-time friend and colleague <a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a>. Under Born, Göttingen became one of the world's foremost centres for physics. In 1925 Born and <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> formulated the <a href="/wiki/Matrix_mechanics" title="Matrix mechanics">matrix mechanics</a> representation of quantum mechanics. The following year, he formulated the now-standard interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Probability_amplitude" title="Probability amplitude">probability density function</a> for ψ*ψ in the <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a>, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1954. His influence extended far beyond his own research. <a href="/wiki/Max_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Max Delbrück">Max Delbrück</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siegfried_Fl%C3%BCgge" title="Siegfried Flügge">Siegfried Flügge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hund" title="Friedrich Hund">Friedrich Hund</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pascual_Jordan" title="Pascual Jordan">Pascual Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Goeppert-Mayer">Maria Goeppert-Mayer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lothar_Wolfgang_Nordheim" title="Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim">Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Victor_Weisskopf" title="Victor Weisskopf">Victor Weisskopf</a> all received their PhD degrees under Born at Göttingen, and his assistants included <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Herzberg" title="Gerhard Herzberg">Gerhard Herzberg</a>, Friedrich Hund, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a>, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Rosenfeld" title="Léon Rosenfeld">Léon Rosenfeld</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a>. </p><p>In January 1933, the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> came to power in Germany, and Born, who was <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a>, was suspended from his professorship at the University of Göttingen. He emigrated to the United Kingdom, where he took a job at <a href="/wiki/St_John%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="St John's College, Cambridge">St John's College, Cambridge</a>, and wrote a popular science book, <i>The Restless Universe</i>, as well as <i>Atomic Physics</i>, which soon became a standard <a href="/wiki/Textbook" title="Textbook">textbook</a>. In October 1936, he became the Tait Professor of <a href="/wiki/Natural_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Philosophy">Natural Philosophy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a>, where, working with German-born assistants E. Walter Kellermann and <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a>, he continued his research into physics. Born became a naturalised <a href="/wiki/British_subject" title="British subject">British subject</a> on 31 August 1939, one day before <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> broke out in Europe. He remained in Edinburgh until 1952. He retired to <a href="/wiki/Bad_Pyrmont" title="Bad Pyrmont">Bad Pyrmont</a>, in <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a>, and died in a hospital in Göttingen on 5 January 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-nbwdis_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nbwdis-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Born&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Max Born was born on 11 December 1882 in Breslau (now <a href="/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw" title="Wrocław">Wrocław</a>, Poland), which at the time of Born's birth was part of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussian</a> <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Silesia" title="Province of Silesia">Province of Silesia</a> in the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>, to a family of <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> descent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorn2002_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorn2002-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was one of two children born to <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Jacob_Born" title="Gustav Jacob Born">Gustav Born</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Anatomist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomist">anatomist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Embryologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryologist">embryologist</a>, who was a professor of embryology at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Breslau" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Breslau">University of Breslau</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197117_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197117-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his wife Margarethe (Gretchen) née Kauffmann, from a Silesian family of industrialists. She died when Max was four years old, on 29 August 1886.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan20055–7_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan20055–7-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Max had a sister, Käthe, who was born in 1884, and a half-brother, Wolfgang, from his father's second marriage, to Bertha Lipstein. Wolfgang later became Professor of Art History at the <a href="/wiki/City_College_of_New_York" title="City College of New York">City College of New York</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorn2002231_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorn2002231-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Initially educated at the König-Wilhelm-<a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(school)" title="Gymnasium (school)">Gymnasium</a> in Breslau, Born entered the University of Breslau in 1901. The German university system allowed students to move easily from one university to another, so he spent summer semesters at <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg_University" title="Heidelberg University">Heidelberg University</a> in 1902 and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Zurich" title="University of Zurich">University of Zurich</a> in 1903. Fellow students at Breslau, <a href="/wiki/Otto_Toeplitz" title="Otto Toeplitz">Otto Toeplitz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Hellinger" title="Ernst Hellinger">Ernst Hellinger</a>, told Born about the <a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197116–18_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197116–18-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Born went there in April 1904. At Göttingen he found three renowned mathematicians: <a href="/wiki/Felix_Klein" title="Felix Klein">Felix Klein</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hilbert" title="David Hilbert">David Hilbert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Minkowski" title="Hermann Minkowski">Hermann Minkowski</a>. Very soon after his arrival, Born formed close ties to the latter two men. From the first class he took with Hilbert, Hilbert identified Born as having exceptional abilities and selected him as the lecture scribe, whose function was to write up the class notes for the students' mathematics reading room at the University of Göttingen. Being class scribe put Born into regular, invaluable contact with Hilbert. Hilbert became Born's mentor after selecting him to be the first to hold the unpaid, semi-official position of assistant. Born's introduction to Minkowski came through Born's stepmother, Bertha, as she knew Minkowski from dancing classes in <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a>. The introduction netted Born invitations to the Minkowski household for Sunday dinners. In addition, while performing his duties as scribe and assistant, Born often saw Minkowski at Hilbert's house.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200522–28_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200522–28-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Born's relationship with Klein was more problematic. Born attended a seminar conducted by Klein and professors of <a href="/wiki/Applied_mathematics" title="Applied mathematics">applied mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Runge" title="Carl Runge">Carl Runge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Prandtl" title="Ludwig Prandtl">Ludwig Prandtl</a>, on the subject of <a href="/wiki/Elasticity_of_a_function" title="Elasticity of a function">elasticity</a>. Although not particularly interested in the subject, Born was obliged to present a paper. He presented one in which, taking the simple case of a curved wire with both ends fixed, he used Hilbert's <a href="/wiki/Calculus_of_variations" title="Calculus of variations">calculus of variations</a> to determine the configuration that would minimise <a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">potential energy</a> and therefore be the most stable. Klein was impressed, and invited Born to submit a thesis on the subject of "Stability of Elastica in a Plane and Space" – a subject near and dear to Klein – which Klein had arranged to be the subject for the prestigious annual Philosophy Faculty Prize offered by the university. Entries could also qualify as doctoral dissertations. Born responded by turning down the offer, as applied mathematics was not his preferred area of study. Klein was greatly offended.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200530–31_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200530–31-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197118–19_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197118–19-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Klein had the power to make or break academic careers, so Born felt compelled to atone by submitting an entry for the prize. Because Klein refused to supervise him, Born arranged for Carl Runge to be his supervisor. <a href="/wiki/Woldemar_Voigt" title="Woldemar Voigt">Woldemar Voigt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Schwarzschild" title="Karl Schwarzschild">Karl Schwarzschild</a> became his other examiners. Starting from his paper, Born developed the equations for the stability conditions. As he became more interested in the topic, he had an apparatus constructed that could test his predictions experimentally. On 13 June 1906, the <a href="/wiki/Rector_(academia)" title="Rector (academia)">rector</a> announced that Born had won the prize. A month later, he passed his <a href="/wiki/Oral_examination" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral examination">oral examination</a> and was awarded his <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> in mathematics <i><a href="/wiki/Magna_cum_laude" class="mw-redirect" title="Magna cum laude">magna cum laude</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200533–36_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200533–36-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On graduation, Born was obliged to perform his military service, which he had deferred while a student. He found himself drafted into the <a href="/wiki/German_Army_(German_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="German Army (German Empire)">German army</a>, and posted to the 2nd Guards Dragoons "Empress Alexandra of Russia", which was stationed in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>. His service was brief, as he was discharged early after an <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> attack in January 1907. He then travelled to England, where he was admitted to <a href="/wiki/Gonville_and_Caius_College,_Cambridge" title="Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge">Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge</a>, and studied physics for six months at the <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_Laboratory" title="Cavendish Laboratory">Cavendish Laboratory</a> under <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Frederick_Charles_Searle" title="George Frederick Charles Searle">George Searle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Larmor" title="Joseph Larmor">Joseph Larmor</a>. After Born returned to Germany, the Army re-inducted him, and he served with the elite <a href="/wiki/1st_(Silesian)_Life_Cuirassiers_%22Great_Elector%22" title="1st (Silesian) Life Cuirassiers "Great Elector"">1st (Silesian) Life Cuirassiers "Great Elector"</a> until he was again medically discharged after just six weeks' service. He then returned to Breslau, where he worked under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/Otto_Lummer" title="Otto Lummer">Otto Lummer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Pringsheim_Sr." title="Ernst Pringsheim Sr.">Ernst Pringsheim</a>, hoping to do his <a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">habilitation</a> in physics. A minor accident involving Born's <a href="/wiki/Black_body" title="Black body">black body</a> experiment, a ruptured cooling water hose, and a flooded laboratory, led to Lummer telling him that he would never become a physicist.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200536–41_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200536–41-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1905, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> published his paper <i>On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies</i> about <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>. Born was intrigued, and began researching the subject. He was devastated to discover that Minkowski was also researching special relativity along the same lines, but when he wrote to Minkowski about his results, Minkowski asked him to return to Göttingen and do his habilitation there. Born accepted. Toeplitz helped Born brush up on his <a href="/wiki/Matrix_algebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrix algebra">matrix algebra</a> so he could work with the four-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Minkowski_space" title="Minkowski space">Minkowski space</a> <a href="/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)" title="Matrix (mathematics)">matrices</a> used in the latter's project to reconcile relativity with <a href="/wiki/Electrodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrodynamics">electrodynamics</a>. Born and Minkowski got along well, and their work made good progress, but Minkowski died suddenly of <a href="/wiki/Appendicitis" title="Appendicitis">appendicitis</a> on 12 January 1909. The mathematics students had Born speak on their behalf at the funeral.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200542–43_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200542–43-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A few weeks later, Born attempted to present their results at a meeting of the Göttingen Mathematics Society. He did not get far before he was publicly challenged by Klein and <a href="/wiki/Max_Abraham" title="Max Abraham">Max Abraham</a>, who rejected relativity, forcing him to terminate the lecture. However, Hilbert and Runge were interested in Born's work, and, after some discussion with Born, they became convinced of the veracity of his results and persuaded him to give the lecture again. This time he was not interrupted, and Voigt offered to sponsor Born's habilitation thesis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200545–49_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200545–49-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Born subsequently published his talk as an article on "The Theory of the Rigid Electron in the Kinematics of the Principle of Relativity" (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Die Theorie des starren Elektrons in der Kinematik des Relativitätsprinzips</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-dietheorie_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dietheorie-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which introduced the concept of <a href="/wiki/Born_rigidity" title="Born rigidity">Born rigidity</a>. On 23 October Born presented his habilitation lecture on the <a href="/wiki/Thomson_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomson model">Thomson model</a> of the atom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200545–49_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200545–49-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career">Career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Born&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Berlin_and_Frankfurt">Berlin and Frankfurt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Born&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Berlin and Frankfurt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Born settled in as a young academic at Göttingen as a <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Privatdozent" title="Privatdozent">Privatdozent</a></i></span>. In Göttingen, Born stayed at a <a href="/wiki/Boarding_house" title="Boarding house">boarding house</a> run by Sister Annie at Dahlmannstraße 17, known as El BoKaReBo. The name was derived from the first letters of the last names of its boarders: "El" for Ella Philipson (a medical student), "Bo" for Born and Hans Bolza (a physics student), "Ka" for <a href="/wiki/Theodore_von_K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n" title="Theodore von Kármán">Theodore von Kármán</a> (a <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Privatdozent</i></span>), and "Re" for Albrecht Renner (another medical student). A frequent visitor to the boarding house was <a href="/wiki/Paul_Peter_Ewald" title="Paul Peter Ewald">Paul Peter Ewald</a>, a doctoral student of <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Sommerfeld" title="Arnold Sommerfeld">Arnold Sommerfeld</a> on loan to Hilbert at Göttingen as a special assistant for physics. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Courant" title="Richard Courant">Richard Courant</a>, a mathematician and <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Privatdozent</i></span>, called these people the "in group".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200549–55_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200549–55-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1912, Born met Hedwig (Hedi) Ehrenberg, the daughter of a <a href="/wiki/Leipzig_University" title="Leipzig University">Leipzig University</a> law professor, and a friend of Carl Runge's daughter <a href="/wiki/Iris_Runge" title="Iris Runge">Iris</a>. She was of Jewish background on her father's side, although he had become a practising <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a> when he got married, as did Max's sister Käthe. Despite never practising his religion, Born refused to convert, and his wedding on 2 August 1913 was a garden ceremony. However, he was baptised as a Lutheran in March 1914 by the same pastor who had performed his wedding ceremony. Born regarded "religious professions and churches as a matter of no importance".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200561–62_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200561–62-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His decision to be baptised was made partly in deference to his wife, and partly due to his desire to assimilate into German society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200561–62_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200561–62-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The marriage produced three children: two daughters, Irene, born in 1914, and Margarethe (Gritli), born in 1915, and a son, <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Victor_Rudolf_Born" title="Gustav Victor Rudolf Born">Gustav</a>, born in 1921.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorn2002225_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorn2002225-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through marriage, Born is related to jurists <a href="/wiki/Victor_Ehrenberg_(jurist)" title="Victor Ehrenberg (jurist)">Victor Ehrenberg</a>, his father-in-law, and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Jhering" title="Rudolf von Jhering">Rudolf von Jhering</a>, his wife's maternal grandfather, as well as to philosopher and theologian <a href="/wiki/Hans_Ehrenberg" title="Hans Ehrenberg">Hans Ehrenberg</a>, and is a great uncle of British comedian <a href="/wiki/Ben_Elton" title="Ben Elton">Ben Elton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorn2002238–241_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorn2002238–241-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of 1913, Born had published 27 papers, including important work on relativity and the dynamics of crystal lattices (3 with <a href="/wiki/Theodore_von_Karman" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodore von Karman">Theodore von Karman</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200556–62_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200556–62-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which became a book.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197120_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197120-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1914, he received a letter from <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a> explaining that a new <a href="/wiki/Professor_extraordinarius" class="mw-redirect" title="Professor extraordinarius">professor extraordinarius</a> chair of <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">theoretical physics</a> had been created at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a>. The chair had been offered to <a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Max von Laue</a>, but he had turned it down. Born accepted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200563–67_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200563–67-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> was now raging. Soon after arriving in Berlin in 1915, he enlisted in an Army signals unit. In October, he joined the <a href="/wiki/Artillerie_Pr%C3%BCfungskommission" title="Artillerie Prüfungskommission">Artillerie Prüfungskommission</a>, the Army's Berlin-based artillery research and development organisation, under <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Ladenburg" title="Rudolf Ladenburg">Rudolf Ladenburg</a>, who had established a special unit dedicated to the new technology of <a href="/wiki/Sound_ranging" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound ranging">sound ranging</a>. In Berlin, Born formed a lifelong friendship with Einstein, who became a frequent visitor to Born's home.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200570–75_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200570–75-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within days of <a href="/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Armistice with Germany">the armistice</a> in November 1918, Planck had the Army release Born. A chance meeting with <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</a> that month led to discussion of the manner in which an <a href="/wiki/Ionic_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic compound">ionic compound</a> is formed when a <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a> reacts with a <a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">halogen</a>, which is today known as the <a href="/wiki/Born%E2%80%93Haber_cycle" title="Born–Haber cycle">Born–Haber cycle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200583–86_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200583–86-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even before Born had taken up the chair in Berlin, von Laue had changed his mind, and decided that he wanted it after all.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200563–67_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200563–67-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He arranged with Born and the faculties concerned for them to exchange jobs. In April 1919, Born became <a href="/wiki/Professor_ordinarius" class="mw-redirect" title="Professor ordinarius">professor ordinarius</a> and Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics on the science faculty at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Frankfurt_am_Main" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Frankfurt am Main">University of Frankfurt am Main</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197120_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197120-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While there, he was approached by the University of Göttingen, which was looking for a replacement for <a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a> as Director of the Physical Institute.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197121_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197121-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Theoretical physics," Einstein advised him, "will flourish wherever <i>you</i> happen to be; there is no other Born to be found in Germany today."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200596_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200596-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In negotiating for the position with the education ministry, Born arranged for another chair, of experimental physics, at Göttingen for his long-time friend and colleague <a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197121_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197121-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1919 <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_Bormann" title="Elisabeth Bormann">Elisabeth Bormann</a> joined the Institut für Theoretische Physik as his assistant.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She developed the first atomic beams. Working with Born, Bormann was the first to measure the <a href="/wiki/Mean_free_path" title="Mean free path">free path</a> of atoms in gases and the size of molecules.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Göttingen"><span id="G.C3.B6ttingen"></span>Göttingen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Born&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Göttingen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solvay_conference_1927.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Solvay_conference_1927.jpg/220px-Solvay_conference_1927.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Solvay_conference_1927.jpg/330px-Solvay_conference_1927.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Solvay_conference_1927.jpg/440px-Solvay_conference_1927.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2171" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Solvay_Conference" title="Solvay Conference">Solvay Conference</a>, 1927. Born is second from the right in the second row, between <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">Louis de Broglie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>. </figcaption></figure> <p>For the 12 years Born and Franck were at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a> (1921 to 1933), Born had a collaborator with shared views on basic scientific concepts—a benefit for teaching and research. Born's collaborative approach with experimental physicists was similar to that of <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Sommerfeld" title="Arnold Sommerfeld">Arnold Sommerfeld</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Munich" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Munich">University of Munich</a>, who was ordinarius professor of theoretical physics and Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics—also a prime mover in the development of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum theory</a>. Born and Sommerfeld collaborated with experimental physicists to test and advance their theories. In 1922, when lecturing in the United States at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison" title="University of Wisconsin–Madison">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a>, Sommerfeld sent his student <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> to be Born's assistant. Heisenberg returned to Göttingen in 1923, where he completed his habilitation under Born in 1924, and became a <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Privatdozent</i></span> at Göttingen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005113,_120,_123_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005113,_120,_123-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJungnickelMcCormmach1986274,_281–285,_350–354_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJungnickelMcCormmach1986274,_281–285,_350–354-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1919 and 1920, Max Born became displeased about the large number of objections<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> against Einstein's relativity, and gave speeches in the winter of 1919 in support of Einstein. Born received pay for his relativity speeches which helped with expenses through the year of rapid inflation. The speeches in German language became a book published in 1920 of which Einstein received the proofs before publication.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A third edition was published in 1922 and an English translation was published in 1924. Born represented light speed as a function of curvature,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "the velocity of light is much greater for some directions of the light ray than its ordinary value c, and other bodies can also attain much greater velocities.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>" </p><p>In 1925, Born and Heisenberg formulated the <a href="/wiki/Matrix_mechanics" title="Matrix mechanics">matrix mechanics</a> representation of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>. On 9 July, Heisenberg gave Born a paper entitled <i><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Cber_quantentheoretische_Umdeutung_kinematischer_und_mechanischer_Beziehungen" class="mw-redirect" title="Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen">Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen</a></i> ("Quantum-Theoretical Re-interpretation of Kinematic and Mechanical Relations") to review, and submit for publication. In the paper, Heisenberg formulated quantum theory, avoiding the concrete, but unobservable, representations of electron orbits by using parameters such as transition probabilities for quantum jumps, which necessitated using two indexes corresponding to the initial and final states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeisenberg1925879–893_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeisenberg1925879–893-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESegrè1980153–157_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESegrè1980153–157-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Born read the paper, he recognized the formulation as one which could be transcribed and extended to the systematic language of matrices,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPais1991275–279_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPais1991275–279-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which he had learned from his study under Jakob Rosanes at <a href="/wiki/Breslau_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Breslau University">Breslau University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Born1954_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Born1954-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Up until this time, matrices were seldom used by physicists; they were considered to belong to the realm of <a href="/wiki/Pure_mathematics" title="Pure mathematics">pure mathematics</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Mie" title="Gustav Mie">Gustav Mie</a> had used them in a paper on electrodynamics in 1912, and Born had used them in his work on the lattices theory of crystals in 1921. While matrices were used in these cases, the algebra of matrices with their multiplication did not enter the picture as they did in the matrix formulation of quantum mechanics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJammer1966206–207_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJammer1966206–207-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the help of his assistant and former student <a href="/wiki/Pascual_Jordan" title="Pascual Jordan">Pascual Jordan</a>, Born began immediately to make a transcription and extension, and they submitted their results for publication; the paper was received for publication just 60 days after Heisenberg's paper.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBornJordan1925_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBornJordan1925-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A follow-on paper was submitted for publication before the end of the year by all three authors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBornHeisenbergJordan1925557–615_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBornHeisenbergJordan1925557–615-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result was a surprising formulation: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle pq-qp={h \over 2\pi i}I}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> <mi>q</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>q</mi> <mi>p</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>h</mi> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>I</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle pq-qp={h \over 2\pi i}I}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0ea8411d4f40c3048471132dfe8a5827ecac52d1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:15.811ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle pq-qp={h \over 2\pi i}I}" /></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>p</i> and <i>q</i> were matrices for location and <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a>, and <i>I</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Identity_matrix" title="Identity matrix">identity matrix</a>. The left hand side of the equation is not zero because <a href="/wiki/Matrix_multiplication" title="Matrix multiplication">matrix multiplication</a> is not <a href="/wiki/Commutative" class="mw-redirect" title="Commutative">commutative</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Born1954_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Born1954-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This formulation was entirely attributable to Born, who also established that all the elements not on the diagonal of the matrix were zero. Born considered that his paper with Jordan contained "the most important principles of quantum mechanics including its <a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">extension to electrodynamics</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Born1954_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Born1954-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The paper put Heisenberg's approach on a solid mathematical basis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197135_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197135-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Born was surprised to discover that <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> had been thinking along the same lines as Heisenberg. Soon, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> used the matrix method to calculate the energy values of the hydrogen atom and found that they agreed with the <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model" title="Bohr model">Bohr model</a>. Another important contribution was made by <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a>, who looked at the problem using <a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">wave mechanics</a>. This had a great deal of appeal to many at the time, as it offered the possibility of returning to deterministic classical physics. Born would have none of this, as it ran counter to facts determined by experiment.<sup id="cite_ref-Born1954_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Born1954-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He formulated the now-standard interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Probability_amplitude" title="Probability amplitude">probability density function</a> for ψ*ψ in the <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a>, which he published in July 1926.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorn1926863–867_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorn1926863–867-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197135_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197135-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In a letter to Born on 4 December 1926, Einstein made his famous remark regarding quantum mechanics: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Quantum mechanics is certainly imposing. But an inner voice tells me that it is not yet the real thing. The theory says a lot, but does not really bring us any closer to the secret of the 'old one'. I, at any rate, am convinced that <i>He</i> is not playing at dice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBornBornEinstein197191_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBornBornEinstein197191-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>This quotation is often paraphrased as '<a href="/wiki/God_does_not_play_dice" class="mw-redirect" title="God does not play dice">God does not play dice</a>'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorn1969113_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorn1969113-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1928, Einstein nominated Heisenberg, Born, and Jordan for the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein20051004_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein20051004-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005190_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005190-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but Heisenberg alone won the 1932 Prize "for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen",<sup id="cite_ref-nobelprize.org_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobelprize.org-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Schrödinger and Dirac shared the 1933 Prize "for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory".<sup id="cite_ref-nobelprize.org_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobelprize.org-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 25 November 1933, Born received a letter from Heisenberg in which he said he had been delayed in writing due to a "bad conscience" that he alone had received the Prize "for work done in Göttingen in collaboration—you, Jordan and I."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005191_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005191-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heisenberg went on to say that Born and Jordan's contribution to quantum mechanics cannot be changed by "a wrong decision from the outside."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005191_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005191-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1954, Heisenberg wrote an article honouring Planck for his insight in 1900, in which he credited Born and Jordan for the final mathematical formulation of matrix mechanics and Heisenberg went on to stress how great their contributions were to quantum mechanics, which were not "adequately acknowledged in the public eye."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005285–286_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005285–286-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Those who received their PhD degrees under Born at Göttingen included <a href="/wiki/Max_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Max Delbrück">Max Delbrück</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siegfried_Fl%C3%BCgge" title="Siegfried Flügge">Siegfried Flügge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hund" title="Friedrich Hund">Friedrich Hund</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pascual_Jordan" title="Pascual Jordan">Pascual Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Goeppert-Mayer">Maria Goeppert-Mayer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lothar_Wolfgang_Nordheim" title="Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim">Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Victor_Weisskopf" title="Victor Weisskopf">Victor Weisskopf</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mathgene_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mathgene-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005142,_262_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005142,_262-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Born's assistants at the University of Göttingen's Institute for Theoretical Physics included <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>, Werner Heisenberg, <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Herzberg" title="Gerhard Herzberg">Gerhard Herzberg</a>, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Wolfgang Pauli, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Rosenfeld" title="Léon Rosenfeld">Léon Rosenfeld</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005178,_262_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005178,_262-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Heitler" title="Walter Heitler">Walter Heitler</a> became an assistant to Born in 1928, and completed his habilitation under him in 1929. Born not only recognised talent to work with him, but he "let his superstars stretch past him; to those less gifted, he patiently handed out respectable but doable assignments."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005143_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005143-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Delbrück, and Goeppert-Mayer went on to be awarded Nobel Prizes.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_life">Later life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Born&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Later life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In January 1933, the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> came to power in Germany. In May, Born became one of six Jewish professors at Göttingen who were suspended with pay; Franck had already resigned. In twelve years they had built Göttingen into one of the world's foremost centres for physics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005174–177_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005174–177-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Born began looking for a new job, writing to Maria Göppert-Mayer at <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a> and Rudi Ladenburg at <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>. He accepted an offer from <a href="/wiki/St_John%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="St John's College, Cambridge">St John's College, Cambridge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005180–184_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005180–184-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At Cambridge, he wrote a popular science book, <i>The Restless Universe</i>, and a textbook, <i>Atomic Physics</i>, that soon became a standard text, going through seven editions. His family soon settled into life in England, with his daughters Irene and Gritli becoming engaged to Welshman Brinley (Bryn) Newton-John and Englishman <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Pryce" title="Maurice Pryce">Maurice Pryce</a> respectively. Born's granddaughter <a href="/wiki/Olivia_Newton-John" title="Olivia Newton-John">Olivia Newton-John</a> was the daughter of Irene.<sup id="cite_ref-sdcohlrts_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sdcohlrts-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197122_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197122-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005200–201_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005200–201-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Max_Born_1937.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Max_Born_1937.jpg/250px-Max_Born_1937.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Max_Born_1937.jpg/330px-Max_Born_1937.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Max_Born_1937.jpg/500px-Max_Born_1937.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3215" data-file-height="2261" /></a><figcaption>Max and Hedi Born in Indian clothes, Bangalore, India, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1937</span></figcaption></figure> <p>Born's position at Cambridge was only a temporary one, and his tenure at Göttingen was terminated in May 1935. He therefore accepted an offer from <a href="/wiki/C._V._Raman" title="C. V. Raman">C. V. Raman</a> to go to <a href="/wiki/Bangalore" class="mw-redirect" title="Bangalore">Bangalore</a> in 1935.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005199_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005199-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Born considered taking a permanent position there, but the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Institute_of_Science" title="Indian Institute of Science">Indian Institute of Science</a> did not create an additional chair for him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005205–208_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005205–208-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In November 1935, the Born family had their German citizenship revoked, rendering them <a href="/wiki/Statelessness" title="Statelessness">stateless</a>. A few weeks later Göttingen cancelled Born's doctorate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005224_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005224-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Born considered an offer from <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Kapitsa" title="Pyotr Kapitsa">Pyotr Kapitsa</a> in Moscow, and started taking Russian lessons from <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls">Rudolf Peierls</a>'s Russian-born wife Genia. But then <a href="/wiki/Charles_Galton_Darwin" title="Charles Galton Darwin">Charles Galton Darwin</a> asked Born if he would consider becoming his successor as Tait Professor of <a href="/wiki/Natural_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Philosophy">Natural Philosophy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a>, an offer that Born promptly accepted,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005210–211_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005210–211-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> assuming the chair in October 1936.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197122_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197122-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Edinburgh, Born promoted the teaching of <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">mathematical physics</a>. He had two German assistants, E. Walter Kellermann and <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a>, and one Scottish assistant, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Schlapp" title="Robert Schlapp">Robert Schlapp</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and together they continued to investigate the mysterious behaviour of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005218–220_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005218–220-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Born became a Fellow of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" title="Royal Society of Edinburgh">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a> in 1937, and of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Society of London">Royal Society of London</a> in March 1939. During 1939, he got as many of his remaining friends and relatives still in Germany as he could out of the country, including his sister Käthe, in-laws Kurt and Marga, and the daughters of his friend Heinrich Rausch von Traubenberg. Hedi ran a domestic bureau, placing young Jewish women in jobs. Born received his certificate of naturalisation as a <a href="/wiki/British_subject" title="British subject">British subject</a> on 31 August 1939, one day before the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> broke out in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005225–226_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005225–226-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grave_of_Max_Born_at_Stadtfriedhof_G%C3%B6ttingen_2017_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Grave_of_Max_Born_at_Stadtfriedhof_G%C3%B6ttingen_2017_01.jpg/170px-Grave_of_Max_Born_at_Stadtfriedhof_G%C3%B6ttingen_2017_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Grave_of_Max_Born_at_Stadtfriedhof_G%C3%B6ttingen_2017_01.jpg/255px-Grave_of_Max_Born_at_Stadtfriedhof_G%C3%B6ttingen_2017_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Grave_of_Max_Born_at_Stadtfriedhof_G%C3%B6ttingen_2017_01.jpg/340px-Grave_of_Max_Born_at_Stadtfriedhof_G%C3%B6ttingen_2017_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2311" data-file-height="4096" /></a><figcaption>Born's gravestone in Göttingen is inscribed with the canonical commutation relation, which he put on rigorous mathematical footing.</figcaption></figure><p> Born remained at Edinburgh until he reached the retirement age of 70 in 1952. He retired to <a href="/wiki/Bad_Pyrmont" title="Bad Pyrmont">Bad Pyrmont</a>, in <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a>, in 1954.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197123–24_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197123–24-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October, he received word that he was being awarded the Nobel Prize. His fellow physicists had never stopped nominating him. Franck and Fermi had nominated him in 1947 and 1948 for his work on crystal lattices, and over the years, he had also been nominated for his work on solid state physics, quantum mechanics and other topics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005299_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005299-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1954, he received the prize for "fundamental research in Quantum Mechanics, especially in the statistical interpretation of the wave function"<sup id="cite_ref-Nobel_Prize_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobel_Prize-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—something that he had worked on alone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005299_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan2005299-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his Nobel lecture he reflected on the philosophical implications of his work:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I believe that ideas such as absolute certitude, absolute exactness, final truth, etc. are figments of the imagination which should not be admissible in any field of science. On the other hand, any assertion of probability is either right or wrong from the standpoint of the theory on which it is based. This loosening of thinking (<i>Lockerung des Denkens</i>) seems to me to be the greatest blessing which modern science has given to us. For the belief in a single truth and in being the possessor thereof is the root cause of all evil in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorn2002261_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorn2002261-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>In retirement, he continued scientific work, and produced new editions of his books. In 1955 he became one of signatories to the <a href="/wiki/Russell-Einstein_Manifesto" class="mw-redirect" title="Russell-Einstein Manifesto">Russell-Einstein Manifesto</a>. He died at age 87 in hospital in Göttingen on 5 January 1970,<sup id="cite_ref-nbwdis_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nbwdis-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is buried in the <i><a href="/wiki/Stadtfriedhof" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadtfriedhof">Stadtfriedhof</a></i> there, in the same cemetery as <a href="/wiki/Walther_Nernst" title="Walther Nernst">Walther Nernst</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber" title="Wilhelm Eduard Weber">Wilhelm Weber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Max von Laue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a>, and <a href="/wiki/David_Hilbert" title="David Hilbert">David Hilbert</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Global_policy">Global policy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Born&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Global policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a <a href="/wiki/World_constitution" title="World constitution">world constitution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, for the first time in human history, a <a href="/wiki/World_Constituent_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="World Constituent Assembly">World Constituent Assembly</a> convened to draft and adopt a <a href="/wiki/Constitution_for_the_Federation_of_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution for the Federation of Earth">Constitution for the Federation of Earth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Born&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Personal life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Born's wife Hedwig (Hedi) Martha Ehrenberg (1891–1972) was a daughter of the jurist <a href="/wiki/Victor_Ehrenberg_(jurist)" title="Victor Ehrenberg (jurist)">Victor Ehrenberg</a> and Elise von Jhering (a daughter of the jurist <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Jhering" title="Rudolf von Jhering">Rudolf von Jhering</a>). Born was survived by his wife Hedi and their children Irene, Gritli and <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Victor_Rudolf_Born" title="Gustav Victor Rudolf Born">Gustav</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197123–24_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197123–24-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Singer and actress <a href="/wiki/Olivia_Newton-John" title="Olivia Newton-John">Olivia Newton-John</a> was a daughter of Irene (1914–2003), while Gustav is the father of musician and academic <a href="/wiki/Georgina_Born" title="Georgina Born">Georgina Born</a> and actor Max Born (<i><a href="/wiki/Fellini_Satyricon" title="Fellini Satyricon">Fellini Satyricon</a></i>) who are thus also Max's grandchildren. His great-grandchildren include songwriter <a href="/wiki/Brett_Goldsmith" title="Brett Goldsmith">Brett Goldsmith</a>, singer <a href="/wiki/Tottie_Goldsmith" title="Tottie Goldsmith">Tottie Goldsmith</a>, racing car driver <a href="/wiki/Emerson_Newton-John" title="Emerson Newton-John">Emerson Newton-John</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and singer <a href="/wiki/Chloe_Rose_Lattanzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Chloe Rose Lattanzi">Chloe Rose Lattanzi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Born helped his nephew, architect, <a href="/wiki/Otto_K%C3%B6nigsberger" title="Otto Königsberger">Otto Königsberger</a> (1908–1999) obtain commission in the Mysore State.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Awards_and_honors">Awards and honors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Born&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Awards and honors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1934 – <a href="/wiki/Stokes_Medal" class="mw-redirect" title="Stokes Medal">Stokes Medal</a> of Cambridge<sup id="cite_ref-Born_Biographic_Data_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Born_Biographic_Data-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1939 – <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">Fellow of the Royal Society</a><sup id="cite_ref-Born_Biographic_Data_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Born_Biographic_Data-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp1971_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp1971-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1945 – <a href="/wiki/Makdougall%E2%80%93Brisbane_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Makdougall–Brisbane Prize">Makdougall–Brisbane Prize</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" title="Royal Society of Edinburgh">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1945 – <a href="/wiki/Gunning_Victoria_Jubilee_Prize" title="Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize">Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize</a> of the Royal Society of Edinburgh<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1948 – <a href="/wiki/Max-Planck_Medal" class="mw-redirect" title="Max-Planck Medal">Max Planck Medaille</a> der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft<sup id="cite_ref-Born_Biographic_Data_81-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Born_Biographic_Data-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1950 – <a href="/wiki/Hughes_Medal" title="Hughes Medal">Hughes Medal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Society of London">Royal Society of London</a><sup id="cite_ref-Born_Biographic_Data_81-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Born_Biographic_Data-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1953 – Honorary citizen of the town of Göttingen<sup id="cite_ref-Born_Biographic_Data_81-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Born_Biographic_Data-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1954 – <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> The award was for Born's fundamental research in quantum mechanics, especially for his statistical interpretation of the wavefunction.<sup id="cite_ref-Born_Biographic_Data_81-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Born_Biographic_Data-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>1954 – Nobel Prize Banquet Speech<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1954 – Born Nobel Prize Lecture<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>1956 – <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Hugo Grotius</a> Medal for International Law, Munich<sup id="cite_ref-Born_Biographic_Data_81-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Born_Biographic_Data-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1959 – <a href="/wiki/Bundesverdienstkreuz" class="mw-redirect" title="Bundesverdienstkreuz">Grand Cross of Merit with Star of the Order of Merit of the German Federal Republic</a><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1972 – <a href="/wiki/Max_Born_Medal_and_Prize" title="Max Born Medal and Prize">Max Born Medal and Prize</a> was created by the <a href="/wiki/German_Physical_Society" title="German Physical Society">German Physical Society</a> and the British <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Physics" title="Institute of Physics">Institute of Physics</a>. It is awarded annually.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DPG_Born_Prize_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DPG_Born_Prize-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1982 – Ceremony at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a> in the 100th Birth Year of Max Born and James Franck, Institute Directors 1921–1933.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1991 – <a href="/w/index.php?title=Max-Born-Institut_f%C3%BCr_Nichtlineare_Optik_und_Kurzzeitspektroskopie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Max-Born-Institut für Nichtlineare Optik und Kurzzeitspektroskopie (page does not exist)">Max-Born-Institut für Nichtlineare Optik und Kurzzeitspektroskopie</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max-Born-Institut_f%C3%BCr_Nichtlineare_Optik_und_Kurzzeitspektroskopie" class="extiw" title="de:Max-Born-Institut für Nichtlineare Optik und Kurzzeitspektroskopie">de</a>]</span> – Institute named in his honor.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2017 – On 11 December 2017, Google showed a Google doodle, designed by Kati Szilagyi, in honouring the 135th birth anniversary of Born.<sup id="cite_ref-Scroll.in_2017_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scroll.in_2017-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Born&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Born,_Max_%E2%80%93_Einstein%27s_theory_of_relativity_(Die_Relativit%C3%A4tstheorie_Einsteins_und_ihre_physikalischen_Grundlagen),_1922_%E2%80%93_BEIC_10969245.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Born%2C_Max_%E2%80%93_Einstein%27s_theory_of_relativity_%28Die_Relativit%C3%A4tstheorie_Einsteins_und_ihre_physikalischen_Grundlagen%29%2C_1922_%E2%80%93_BEIC_10969245.jpg/220px-Born%2C_Max_%E2%80%93_Einstein%27s_theory_of_relativity_%28Die_Relativit%C3%A4tstheorie_Einsteins_und_ihre_physikalischen_Grundlagen%29%2C_1922_%E2%80%93_BEIC_10969245.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="358" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Born%2C_Max_%E2%80%93_Einstein%27s_theory_of_relativity_%28Die_Relativit%C3%A4tstheorie_Einsteins_und_ihre_physikalischen_Grundlagen%29%2C_1922_%E2%80%93_BEIC_10969245.jpg/330px-Born%2C_Max_%E2%80%93_Einstein%27s_theory_of_relativity_%28Die_Relativit%C3%A4tstheorie_Einsteins_und_ihre_physikalischen_Grundlagen%29%2C_1922_%E2%80%93_BEIC_10969245.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Born%2C_Max_%E2%80%93_Einstein%27s_theory_of_relativity_%28Die_Relativit%C3%A4tstheorie_Einsteins_und_ihre_physikalischen_Grundlagen%29%2C_1922_%E2%80%93_BEIC_10969245.jpg/440px-Born%2C_Max_%E2%80%93_Einstein%27s_theory_of_relativity_%28Die_Relativit%C3%A4tstheorie_Einsteins_und_ihre_physikalischen_Grundlagen%29%2C_1922_%E2%80%93_BEIC_10969245.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2547" data-file-height="4145" /></a><figcaption><i>Einstein's theory of relativity</i>, 1922 (US edition of <i>Die Relativitätstheorie Einsteins und ihre physikalischen Grundlagen</i>, 1920)</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Max_Born" title="Bibliography of Max Born">Bibliography of Max Born</a></div> <p>During his life, Born wrote several semi-popular and technical books. His volumes on topics like <a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">atomic physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a> were very well received. They are considered classics in their fields, and are still in print. The following is a chronological listing of his major works: </p> <ul><li><i>Über das Thomson'sche Atommodell</i> <a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">Habilitations-Vortrag</a> (FAM, 1909) – The Habilitation was done at the University of Göttingen, on 23 October 1909.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=3936972"><i><span></span></i>Die Relativitätstheorie Einsteins und ihre physikalischen Grundlagen<i><span></span></i></a> (in German). Berlin: Springer. 1920.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Relativit%C3%A4tstheorie+Einsteins+und+ihre+physikalischen+Grundlagen&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1920&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.beic.it%2Fwebclient%2FDeliveryManager%3Fpid%3D3936972&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span> – Based on Born's lectures at the University of Frankfurt am Main.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Available in English under the title <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=10969245"><i><span></span></i>Einstein's theory of relativity<i><span></span></i></a>. New York: Dutton. 1922.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Einstein%27s+theory+of+relativity&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dutton&rft.date=1922&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.beic.it%2Fwebclient%2FDeliveryManager%3Fpid%3D10969245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul></li> <li><i>Dynamik der Kristallgitter</i> (Teubner, 1915)<sup id="cite_ref-Greenspan,_2005,_p._352_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greenspan,_2005,_p._352-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – After its publication, the physicist Arnold Sommerfeld asked Born to write an article based on it for the 5th volume of the <i>Mathematical Encyclopedia</i>. The First World War delayed the start of work on this article, but it was taken up in 1919 and finished in 1922. It was published as a revised edition under the title <i>Atomic Theory of Solid States</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Vorlesungen über Atommechanik</i> (Springer, 1925)<sup id="cite_ref-Greenspan,_2005,_p._352_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greenspan,_2005,_p._352-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Problems of Atomic Dynamics</i> (MIT Press, 1926) – A first account of matrix mechanics being developed in Germany, based on two series of lectures given at <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a>, over three months, in late 1925 and early 1926.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Mechanics of the Atom</i> (George Bell & Sons, 1927) – Translated by J. W. Fisher and revised by <a href="/wiki/D._R._Hartree" class="mw-redirect" title="D. R. Hartree">D. R. Hartree</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Elementare Quantenmechanik (Zweiter Band der Vorlesungen über Atommechanik)</i>, with Pascual Jordan. (Springer, 1930) – This was the first volume of what was intended as a two-volume work. This volume was limited to the work Born did with Jordan on matrix mechanics. The second volume was to deal with Erwin Schrödinger's wave mechanics. However, the second volume was not even started by Born, as he believed his friend and colleague Hermann Weyl had written it before he could do so.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Optik: Ein Lehrbuch der elektromagnetische Lichttheorie</i> (Springer, 1933) – The book was released just as the Borns were emigrating to England.</li> <li><i>Moderne Physik</i> (1933) – Based on seven lectures given at the Technischen Hochschule Berlin.<sup id="cite_ref-Greenspan,_2005,_p._201_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greenspan,_2005,_p._201-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Atomic Physics</i> (Blackie, London, 1935) – Authorized translation of <i>Moderne Physik</i> by <a href="/wiki/John_Dougall_(mathematician)" title="John Dougall (mathematician)">John Dougall</a>, with updates.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>The Restless Universe</i><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Blackie and Son Limited, 1935) – A popularised rendition of the workshop of nature, translated by <a href="/wiki/Winifred_Margaret_Deans" class="mw-redirect" title="Winifred Margaret Deans">Winifred Margaret Deans</a>. Born's nephew, <a href="/wiki/Otto_K%C3%B6nigsberger" title="Otto Königsberger">Otto Königsberger</a>, whose successful career as an architect in Berlin was brought to an end when the Nazis took over, was temporarily brought to England to illustrate the book.<sup id="cite_ref-Greenspan,_2005,_p._201_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greenspan,_2005,_p._201-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Experiment and Theory in Physics</i> (Cambridge University Press, 1943) – The address given King's College, <a href="/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne" title="Newcastle upon Tyne">Newcastle upon Tyne</a>, at the request of the Durham Philosophical Society and the Pure Science Society. An expanded version of the lecture appeared in a 1956 Dover Publications edition.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/naturalphilosoph032159mbp"><i>Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance</i></a> (Oxford University Press, 1949) – Based on Born's 1948 Waynflete lectures, given at the College of St. Mary Magdalen, Oxford University. A later edition (Dover, 1964) included two appendices: "Symbol and Reality" and Born's lecture given at the Nobel laureates 1964 meeting in Landau, Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>A General Kinetic Theory of Liquids</i> with H. S. Green (Cambridge University Press, 1949) – The six papers in this book were reproduced with permission from the <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Proceedings of the Royal Society">Proceedings of the Royal Society</a></i>.</li> <li><i>Natural Philosophy Of Cause And Chance</i>, Oxford 1949</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dynamical_Theory_of_Crystal_Lattices" title="Dynamical Theory of Crystal Lattices">Dynamical Theory of Crystal Lattices</a></i>, with <a href="/wiki/Kun_Huang" class="mw-redirect" title="Kun Huang">Kun Huang</a>. (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1954)<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Max Born <i>The statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061231144002/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1954/born-lecture.pdf">Nobel Lecture</a> – 11 December 1954.</li> <li><i>Physics in My Generation: A Selection of Papers</i> (Pergamon, 1956)<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Physik im Wandel meiner Zeit</i> (Vieweg, 1957)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Optics" title="Principles of Optics">Principles of Optics: Electromagnetic Theory of Propagation, Interference and Diffraction of Light</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with <a href="/wiki/Emil_Wolf" title="Emil Wolf">Emil Wolf</a>. (Pergamon, 1959) – This book is not an English translation of <i>Optik</i>, but rather a substantially new book. Shortly after World War II, a number of scientists suggested that Born update and translate his work into English. Since there had been many advances in optics in the intervening years, updating was warranted. In 1951, Wolf began as Born's private assistant on the book; it was eventually published in 1959 by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Maxwell" title="Robert Maxwell">Robert Maxwell</a>'s Pergamon Press.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – the delay being due to the lengthy time needed "to resolve all the financial and publishing tricks created by Maxwell."<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Physik und Politik</i> (VandenHoeck und Ruprecht, 1960)</li> <li><i>Zur Begründung der Matrizenmechanik</i>, with Werner Heisenberg and Pascual Jordan (Battenberg, 1962) – Published in honor of Max Born's 80th birthday. This edition reprinted the authors' articles on matrix mechanics published in <i>Zeitschrift für Physik</i>, Volumes <b>26</b> and <b>33</b>–<b>35</b>, 1924–1926.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>My Life and My Views: A Nobel Prize Winner in Physics Writes Provocatively on a Wide Range of Subjects</i> (Scribner, 1968) – Part II (pp. 63–206) is a translation of <i>Von der Verantwortung des Naturwissenschaftlers</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Briefwechsel 1916–1955, kommentiert von Max Born</i> with Hedwig Born and Albert Einstein (Nymphenburger, 1969)</li> <li><i>The Born–Einstein Letters: Correspondence between Albert Einstein and Max and Hedwig Born from 1916–1955, with commentaries by Max Born</i> (Macmillan, 1971).<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Mein Leben: Die Erinnerungen des Nobelpreisträgers</i> (Munich: Nymphenburger, 1975). Born's published memoirs.</li> <li><i>My Life: Recollections of a Nobel Laureate</i> (Scribner, 1978).<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Translation of <i>Mein Leben.</i></li></ul> <p>For a full list of his published papers, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/histcomp/born-m_auth/index-so-2.html">HistCite</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190226050320/http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/histcomp/born-m_auth/index-so-2.html">Archived</a> 26 February 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. For his published works, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070210134906/http://bibliothek.bbaw.de/kataloge/literaturnachweise/born/literatur.pdf">Published Works – Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften Akademiebibliothek</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Born&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Max_Born" title="List of things named after Max Born">List of things named after Max Born</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_refugees" title="List of refugees">List of refugees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Jewish Nobel laureates">List of Jewish Nobel laureates</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Born&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Nobel_Prize-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_Prize_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_Prize_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1954/">"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1954"</a>. The Official Web Site of the Nobel Prize<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics+1954&rft.pub=The+Official+Web+Site+of+the+Nobel+Prize&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1954%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nbwdis-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nbwdis_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nbwdis_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=iZtRAAAAIBAJ&pg=5297%2C1066126">"Nobel prize winner dies"</a>. <i>Pittsburgh Post-Gazette</i>. (Pennsylvania, U.S.). Associated Press. 6 January 1970. p. 26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pittsburgh+Post-Gazette&rft.atitle=Nobel+prize+winner+dies&rft.pages=26&rft.date=1970-01-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fid%3DiZtRAAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D5297%252C1066126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorn2002-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorn2002_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBorn2002">Born 2002</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197117-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197117_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKemmerSchlapp1971">Kemmer & Schlapp 1971</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan20055–7-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan20055–7_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenspan2005">Greenspan 2005</a>, pp. 5–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorn2002231-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorn2002231_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBorn2002">Born 2002</a>, p. 231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197116–18-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197116–18_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKemmerSchlapp1971">Kemmer & Schlapp 1971</a>, pp. 16–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200522–28-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200522–28_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenspan2005">Greenspan 2005</a>, pp. 22–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131113202504/http://do.nw.schule.de/mbr/schule/maxbornengl.htm"><i>Max Born's Life</i></a>, Max Born Realschule, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://do.nw.schule.de/mbr/schule/maxbornengl.htm">the original</a> on 13 November 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 March</span> 2013</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Max+Born%27s+Life&rft.pub=Max+Born+Realschule&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdo.nw.schule.de%2Fmbr%2Fschule%2Fmaxbornengl.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200530–31-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200530–31_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenspan2005">Greenspan 2005</a>, pp. 30–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197118–19-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197118–19_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKemmerSchlapp1971">Kemmer & Schlapp 1971</a>, pp. 18–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200533–36-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200533–36_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenspan2005">Greenspan 2005</a>, pp. 33–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200536–41-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200536–41_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenspan2005">Greenspan 2005</a>, pp. 36–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200542–43-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200542–43_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenspan2005">Greenspan 2005</a>, pp. 42–43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200545–49-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200545–49_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200545–49_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenspan2005">Greenspan 2005</a>, pp. 45–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dietheorie-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dietheorie_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBorn1909" class="citation journal cs1">Born, M. (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1424151">"Die Theorie des starren Elektrons in der Kinematik des Relativitätsprinzips"</a>. <i>Annalen der Physik</i>. <b>335</b> (11): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>56. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1909AnP...335....1B">1909AnP...335....1B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19093351102">10.1002/andp.19093351102</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik&rft.atitle=Die+Theorie+des+starren+Elektrons+in+der+Kinematik+des+Relativit%C3%A4tsprinzips&rft.volume=335&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E56&rft.date=1909&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fandp.19093351102&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1909AnP...335....1B&rft.aulast=Born&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1424151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200549–55-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200549–55_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenspan2005">Greenspan 2005</a>, pp. 49–55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200561–62-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200561–62_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200561–62_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenspan2005">Greenspan 2005</a>, pp. 61–62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorn2002225-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorn2002225_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBorn2002">Born 2002</a>, p. 225.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorn2002238–241-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorn2002238–241_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBorn2002">Born 2002</a>, pp. 238–241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200556–62-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200556–62_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenspan2005">Greenspan 2005</a>, pp. 56–62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197120-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197120_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197120_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKemmerSchlapp1971">Kemmer & Schlapp 1971</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200563–67-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200563–67_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200563–67_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenspan2005">Greenspan 2005</a>, pp. 63–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200570–75-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200570–75_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenspan2005">Greenspan 2005</a>, pp. 70–75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200583–86-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200583–86_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenspan2005">Greenspan 2005</a>, pp. 83–86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197121-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197121_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemmerSchlapp197121_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKemmerSchlapp1971">Kemmer & Schlapp 1971</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200596-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenspan200596_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenspan2005">Greenspan 2005</a>, p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKorotinStupnicki2018" class="citation book cs1">Korotin, Ilse Erika; Stupnicki, Nastasja (2018). <i>Biografien bedeutender österreichischer Wissenschafterinnen: "Die Neugier treibt mich, Fragen zu stellen"</i>. 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W. Peng. See Greenspan, 2005, p. 257 and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asap.unimelb.edu.au/bsparcs/biogs/P000246b.htm">Born Biographic Data</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=IEhAAAAAIBAJ&pg=3924%2C129473">"Royal Society of Edinburgh. Awards to Professors"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Glasgow_Herald" class="mw-redirect" title="The Glasgow Herald">The Glasgow Herald</a></i>. 2 May 1950. p. 3<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Born+medal+and+prize&rft.pub=Institute+of+Physics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iop.org%2Fabout%2Fawards%2Fbilateral%2Fborn%2Fpage_38469.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DPG_Born_Prize-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DPG_Born_Prize_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110813233420/http://www.dpg-physik.de/preise/preistraeger_mb.html">"Max-Born-Preis"</a> [Max Born Prize] (in German). <a href="/wiki/German_Physical_Society" title="German Physical Society">German Physical Society</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dpg-physik.de/preise/preistraeger_mb.html">the original</a> on 13 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Max-Born-Preis&rft.pub=German+Physical+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dpg-physik.de%2Fpreise%2Fpreistraeger_mb.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>James Franck und Max Born in Göttingen: Reden zur akademischen Feier aus Anlass der 100. Wiederkehr ihres Geburtsjahres.</i> (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1983). Speeches by Norbert Kamp, Peter Haasen, Gerhart W. Rathenau, and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hund" title="Friedrich Hund">Friedrich Hund</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Max-Born-Institute+for+Nonlinear+Optics+and+Short+Pulse+Spectroskopy+%E2%80%93+Developement%26%2332%3B%26%2391%3Bsic%26%2393%3B+of+the+MBI&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mbi-berlin.de%2Fen%2Fgeneral%2Fdevelopment%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scroll.in_2017-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Scroll.in_2017_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scroll.in/latest/861039/google-celebrates-135th-birth-anniversary-of-german-physicist-max-born">"Who is Max Born? Google doodle honours physicist for his contributions to quantum mechanics"</a>. <i>Scroll.in</i>. 11 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scroll.in&rft.atitle=Who+is+Max+Born%3F+Google+doodle+honours+physicist+for+his+contributions+to+quantum+mechanics&rft.date=2017-12-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscroll.in%2Flatest%2F861039%2Fgoogle-celebrates-135th-birth-anniversary-of-german-physicist-max-born&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greenspan, 2005, pp. 49, 51, and 353.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greenspan, 2005, p. 100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Greenspan,_2005,_p._352-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Greenspan,_2005,_p._352_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Greenspan,_2005,_p._352_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Greenspan, 2005, p. 352.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greenspan, 2005, pp. 66, 110, and 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greenspan, 2005, p. 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Problems of Atomic Dynamics</i> is available from MIT Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-52019-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-52019-2">0-262-52019-2</a>, and Dover Publications, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-43873-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-43873-2">0-486-43873-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libserv.aip.org:81/ipac20/ipac.jsp?uri=full=3100001~!16749~!0&profile=newcustom-aipnbl#focus">AIP Niels Bohr Library</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abebooks.com">AbeBooks</a>: Search on <i>Mechanics of the Atom</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greenspan, 2005, pp. 159–160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jungnickel, Volume 2, 1990, p. 378.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Greenspan,_2005,_p._201-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Greenspan,_2005,_p._201_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Greenspan,_2005,_p._201_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Greenspan, 2005, p. 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The eighth edition was published in 1969, including revisions by R. J. Blin-Stoyle & J. M. Radcliffe. The 8th edition of <i>Atomic Physics</i> is available from Dover Publications in paper cover, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-65984-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-65984-4">0-486-65984-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Restless Universe</i> was last published by Dover Publications, 1951, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-20412-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-20412-X">0-486-20412-X</a>, but it is no longer in print.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greenspan, 2005, 245–246</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mala.bc.ca/~mcneil/cit/citlcborn1.htm">Citations for Max Born Based on the Library of Congress</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930154529/http://www.mala.bc.ca/~mcneil/cit/citlcborn1.htm">Archived</a> 30 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – See the entry for Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance. Also see Greenspan, 2005, p. 352.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A new edition of <i>Dynamical Theory of Crystal Lattices </i> is available from <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> in hard cover <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850369-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850369-9">978-0-19-850369-9</a> and in soft cover <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-850369-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-850369-5">0-19-850369-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Physics in My Generation</i> (Springer, 1969), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-90008-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-387-90008-X">0-387-90008-X</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Optics" title="Principles of Optics">Principles of Optics</a></i> is now in its 7th revised printing, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-64222-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-64222-1">0-521-64222-1</a>. The first 5 revised editions were done by Pergamon Press (1959–1975). The last 2 were done by Cambridge University Press in 1980 and 1999.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Rosbaud" title="Paul Rosbaud">Paul Rosbaud</a>, a former editor at Springer who remained in Germany during World War II and spied for the allies, was initially involved with Born and the endeavor to publish <i>Optik</i> in English, as Rosbaud was organizing a publishing company in England after the war. The publishing company did not materialize, and Rosbaud eventually joined Pergamon Press. (Greenspan, 2005, pp. 292–294.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greenspan, 2005, pp. 174, 292–294.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libserv.aip.org:81/ipac20/ipac.jsp?session=11C35BG761245.424&menu=search&aspect=subtab129&npp=10&ipp=20&spp=20&profile=newcustom-aipnbl&ri=2&source=%7E%21horizon&index=.GW&term=Matrizenmechanik&aspect=subtab129&x=12&y=10#focus">"AIP Niels Bohr Library"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AIP+Niels+Bohr+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibserv.aip.org%3A81%2Fipac20%2Fipac.jsp%3Fsession%3D11C35BG761245.424%26menu%3Dsearch%26aspect%3Dsubtab129%26npp%3D10%26ipp%3D20%26spp%3D20%26profile%3Dnewcustom-aipnbl%26ri%3D2%26source%3D%257E%2521horizon%26index%3D.GW%26term%3DMatrizenmechanik%26aspect%3Dsubtab129%26x%3D12%26y%3D10%23focus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libserv.aip.org:81/ipac20/ipac.jsp?session=11C35BG761245.424&menu=search&aspect=subtab129&npp=10&ipp=20&spp=20&profile=newcustom-aipnbl&ri=4&source=%7E%21horizon&index=.GW&term=My+Life+My+Views&aspect=subtab129#focus">"AIP Niels Bohr Library"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AIP+Niels+Bohr+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibserv.aip.org%3A81%2Fipac20%2Fipac.jsp%3Fsession%3D11C35BG761245.424%26menu%3Dsearch%26aspect%3Dsubtab129%26npp%3D10%26ipp%3D20%26spp%3D20%26profile%3Dnewcustom-aipnbl%26ri%3D4%26source%3D%257E%2521horizon%26index%3D.GW%26term%3DMy%2BLife%2BMy%2BViews%26aspect%3Dsubtab129%23focus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Born–Einstein Letters</i>, <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan Publishers</a>, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4039-4496-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-4039-4496-2">1-4039-4496-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>My Life: Recollections of a Nobel Laureate</i> was also published by Taylor and Francis/Charles Scribner's Sons, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85066-174-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-85066-174-9">0-85066-174-9</a>. No longer in print.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_references">General references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Born&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: General references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBernstein2005" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bernstein" title="Jeremy Bernstein">Bernstein, Jeremy</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.2060717">"Max Born and the Quantum Theory"</a>. <i>American Journal of Physics</i>. <b>73</b> (11): <span class="nowrap">999–</span>1008. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005AmJPh..73..999B">2005AmJPh..73..999B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.2060717">10.1119/1.2060717</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=Max+Born+and+the+Quantum+Theory&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E999-%3C%2Fspan%3E1008&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.2060717&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005AmJPh..73..999B&rft.aulast=Bernstein&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1119%252F1.2060717&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span> Reprinted as chapter 7 in Bernstein, Jeremy (2014). <i>A Chorus of Bells and Other Scientific Inquiries</i>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBornHeisenbergJordan1925" class="citation journal cs1">Born, M.; <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Heisenberg, W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Pascual_Jordan" title="Pascual Jordan">Jordan, P.</a> (1925). "Zur Quantenmechanik II". <i>Zeitschrift für Physik</i>. <b>35</b> (<span class="nowrap">557–</span>615): 557. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1926ZPhy...35..557B">1926ZPhy...35..557B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01379806">10.1007/BF01379806</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186237037">186237037</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Physik&rft.atitle=Zur+Quantenmechanik+II&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E557%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E615&rft.pages=557&rft.date=1925&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A186237037%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01379806&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1926ZPhy...35..557B&rft.aulast=Born&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Heisenberg%2C+W.&rft.au=Jordan%2C+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBornJordan1925" class="citation journal cs1">Born, M.; <a href="/wiki/Pascual_Jordan" title="Pascual Jordan">Jordan, P.</a> (1925). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131004232115/http://www.cond-mat.physik.uni-mainz.de/~oettel/ws10/born_jordan_ZPhys_34_858_1925.pdf">"Zur Quantenmechanik"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Zeitschrift für Physik</i>. <b>34</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">858–</span>888. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1925ZPhy...34..858B">1925ZPhy...34..858B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01328531">10.1007/BF01328531</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186114542">186114542</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cond-mat.physik.uni-mainz.de/~oettel/ws10/born_jordan_ZPhys_34_858_1925.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Physik&rft.atitle=Zur+Quantenmechanik&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E858-%3C%2Fspan%3E888&rft.date=1925&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A186114542%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01328531&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1925ZPhy...34..858B&rft.aulast=Born&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Jordan%2C+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cond-mat.physik.uni-mainz.de%2F~oettel%2Fws10%2Fborn_jordan_ZPhys_34_858_1925.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBorn1926" class="citation journal cs1">Born, M. (1926). "Zur Quantenmechanik der Stoßvorgänge". <i>Zeitschrift für Physik</i>. <b>37</b> (12): <span class="nowrap">863–</span>867. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1926ZPhy...37..863B">1926ZPhy...37..863B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01397477">10.1007/BF01397477</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119896026">119896026</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Physik&rft.atitle=Zur+Quantenmechanik+der+Sto%C3%9Fvorg%C3%A4nge&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E863-%3C%2Fspan%3E867&rft.date=1926&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119896026%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01397477&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1926ZPhy...37..863B&rft.aulast=Born&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBorn1969" class="citation book cs1">Born, Max (1969). <i>Physics in my Generation</i>. New York: Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53116">53116</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+in+my+Generation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53116&rft.aulast=Born&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBornBornEinstein1971" class="citation book cs1">Born, M.; Born, M. E. H. & <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein, A.</a> (1971). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/borneinsteinlett0000eins"><i>The Born–Einstein Letters: Correspondence between Albert Einstein and Max and Hedwig Born from 1916 to 1955, with commentaries by Max Born</i></a></span>. I. Born, trans. <a href="/wiki/London,_UK" class="mw-redirect" title="London, UK">London, UK</a>: <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8027-0326-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8027-0326-2"><bdi>978-0-8027-0326-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Born%E2%80%93Einstein+Letters%3A+Correspondence+between+Albert+Einstein+and+Max+and+Hedwig+Born+from+1916+to+1955%2C+with+commentaries+by+Max+Born&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-8027-0326-2&rft.aulast=Born&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Born%2C+M.+E.+H.&rft.au=Einstein%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fborneinsteinlett0000eins&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBorn2002" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Victor_Rudolf_Born" title="Gustav Victor Rudolf Born">Born, G. V. R.</a> (May 2002). "The Wide-Ranging Family History of Max Born". <i>Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London</i>. <b>56</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">219–</span>262. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsnr.2002.0180">10.1098/rsnr.2002.0180</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3557669">3557669</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:72026412">72026412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Notes+and+Records+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=The+Wide-Ranging+Family+History+of+Max+Born&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E219-%3C%2Fspan%3E262&rft.date=2002-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A72026412%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3557669%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsnr.2002.0180&rft.aulast=Born&rft.aufirst=G.+V.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGreenspan2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Thorndike_Greenspan" title="Nancy Thorndike Greenspan">Greenspan, Nancy Thorndike</a> (2005). <i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_the_Certain_World:_The_Life_and_Science_of_Max_Born" class="mw-redirect" title="The End of the Certain World: The Life and Science of Max Born">The End of the Certain World: The Life and Science of Max Born</a></i>. New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0693-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0693-6"><bdi>978-0-7382-0693-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56534998">56534998</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+the+Certain+World%3A+The+Life+and+Science+of+Max+Born&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F56534998&rft.isbn=978-0-7382-0693-6&rft.aulast=Greenspan&rft.aufirst=Nancy+Thorndike&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span> Also published in Germany: <i>Max Born – Baumeister der Quantenwelt. Eine Biographie</i> Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8274-1640-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-8274-1640-X">3-8274-1640-X</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHeisenberg1925" class="citation journal cs1">Heisenberg, W. (1925). "Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen". <i>Zeitschrift für Physik</i>. <b>33</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">879–</span>893. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1925ZPhy...33..879H">1925ZPhy...33..879H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01328377">10.1007/BF01328377</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186238950">186238950</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Physik&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+quantentheoretische+Umdeutung+kinematischer+und+mechanischer+Beziehungen&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E879-%3C%2Fspan%3E893&rft.date=1925&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A186238950%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01328377&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1925ZPhy...33..879H&rft.aulast=Heisenberg&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJammer1966" class="citation book cs1">Jammer, Max (1966). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conceptualdevelo0000jamm"><i>The Conceptual Development of Quantum Mechanics</i></a></span>. New York: McGraw–Hill. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/534562">534562</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Conceptual+Development+of+Quantum+Mechanics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw%E2%80%93Hill&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F534562&rft.aulast=Jammer&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconceptualdevelo0000jamm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJungnickelMcCormmach1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christa_Jungnickel" title="Christa Jungnickel">Jungnickel, Christa</a>; <a href="/wiki/Russell_McCormmach" title="Russell McCormmach">McCormmach, Russell</a> (1986). <i><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_Mastery_of_Nature" title="Intellectual Mastery of Nature">Intellectual Mastery of Nature</a>. Theoretical Physics from Ohm to Einstein, Volume 2: The Now Mighty Theoretical Physics, 1870 to 1925</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-41585-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-41585-7"><bdi>978-0-226-41585-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/489992471">489992471</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intellectual+Mastery+of+Nature.+Theoretical+Physics+from+Ohm+to+Einstein%2C+Volume+2%3A+The+Now+Mighty+Theoretical+Physics%2C+1870+to+1925&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F489992471&rft.isbn=978-0-226-41585-7&rft.aulast=Jungnickel&rft.aufirst=Christa&rft.au=McCormmach%2C+Russell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKemmerSchlapp1971" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Kemmer" title="Nicholas Kemmer">Kemmer, N.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Schlapp" title="Robert Schlapp">Schlapp, R.</a> (1971). "Max Born 1882–1970". <i><a href="/wiki/Biographical_Memoirs_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society">Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society</a></i>. <b>17</b>: <span class="nowrap">17–</span>52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1971.0002">10.1098/rsbm.1971.0002</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73330505">73330505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biographical+Memoirs+of+Fellows+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Max+Born+1882%E2%80%931970&rft.volume=17&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E52&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.1971.0002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A73330505%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kemmer&rft.aufirst=N.&rft.au=Schlapp%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPais1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Pais" title="Abraham Pais">Pais, Abraham</a> (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nielsbohrstimesi00pais_0"><i>Niels Bohr's Times, In Physics, Philosophy and Polity</i></a></span>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852049-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852049-8"><bdi>978-0-19-852049-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Niels+Bohr%27s+Times%2C+In+Physics%2C+Philosophy+and+Polity&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-19-852049-8&rft.aulast=Pais&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnielsbohrstimesi00pais_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSegrè1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Segrè, Emilio</a> (1980). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromxraystoquark0000segr"><i>From X-Rays to Quarks: Modern Physicists and their Discoveries</i></a></span>. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-1147-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-1147-6"><bdi>978-0-7167-1147-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5946636">5946636</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+X-Rays+to+Quarks%3A+Modern+Physicists+and+their+Discoveries&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman+and+Company&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F5946636&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-1147-6&rft.aulast=Segr%C3%A8&rft.aufirst=Emilio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffromxraystoquark0000segr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Born&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output 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Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/60px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Max_Born" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Max Born">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/40px-Scholia_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/60px-Scholia_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/80px-Scholia_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="104" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:Scholia" class="extiw" title="d:Wikidata:Scholia">Scholia</a> has a profile for <a href="https://iw.toolforge.org/scholia/Q58978" class="extiw" title="toolforge:scholia/Q58978"><b>Max Born <small>(Q58978)</small></b></a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402141755/http://www.aip.org/servlet/plainHistory?collection=HISTORY&queryText=Max+Born">American Institute of Physics History Search: Max Born</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9080764/Max-Born">Encyclopædia Britannica, Max Born – full article</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060828133536/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people%2FBorn%2C+Max">Annotated bibliography for Max Born from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/92">Freeview video of Gustav Born (son of Max) with conversation and film on Gustav's memories of his father by the Vega Science Trust</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobel-winners.com/Physics/max_born.html">Max Born information from Nobel Winners site</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/61">Max Born</a> on Nobelprize.org <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q58978#P8024" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span> including his Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1954 <i>The Statistical Interpretations of Quantum Mechanics</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120229151835/http://archiveshub.ac.uk/features/0412born.html">Papers of Professor Max Born (1882–1970)</a> Held at the Edinburgh University Library, Special Collections Division</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archivesearch.lib.cam.ac.uk/repositories/9/resources/1437">The Papers of Professor Max Born</a> held at <a href="/wiki/Churchill_Archives_Centre" title="Churchill Archives Centre">Churchill Archives Centre</a>, Cambridge</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1">Wolf, Emil (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1995Ap%26SS.227..277W">"Recollections of Max Born"</a>. <i>Astrophysics and Space Science</i>. <b>227</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>2): 277. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995Ap&SS.227..277W">1995Ap&SS.227..277W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00678085">10.1007/BF00678085</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:189849885">189849885</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astrophysics+and+Space+Science&rft.atitle=Recollections+of+Max+Born&rft.volume=227&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=277&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A189849885%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00678085&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995Ap%26SS.227..277W&rft.aulast=Wolf&rft.aufirst=Emil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fadsabs.harvard.edu%2Ffull%2F1995Ap%2526SS.227..277W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuhn,_Thomas_S." class="mw-redirect" title="Kuhn, Thomas S.">Kuhn, Thomas S.</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_L._Heilbron" title="John L. Heilbron">John L. Heilbron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Forman_(historian)" title="Paul Forman (historian)">Paul Forman</a>, and Lini Allen <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061004192028/http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/guides/ahqp/index.htm"><i>Sources for History of Quantum Physics</i></a> (American Philosophical Society, 1967)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4522-1">Oral history interview transcript for Max Born on 1 June 1960, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives</a> - Session I</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4522-2">Oral history interview transcript for Max Born on 1 June 1960, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives</a> - Session II</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4522-3">Oral history interview transcript for Max Born on 17 October 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives</a> - Session III</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4522-4">Oral history interview transcript for Max Born on 18 October 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives</a> - Session IV</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mediatheque.lindau-nobel.org/videos/31519/optical-problems-german-presentation-1959">"Video – Max Born (1959): Optical Problems (German presentation)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lindau_Nobel_Laureate_Meetings" title="Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings">Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Video+%E2%80%93+Max+Born+%281959%29%3A+Optical+Problems+%28German+presentation%29&rft.pub=Lindau+Nobel+Laureate+Meetings&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mediatheque.lindau-nobel.org%2Fvideos%2F31519%2Foptical-problems-german-presentation-1959&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMax+Born" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F225669a0">"Professor Max Born"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>225</b> (5233): <span class="nowrap">669–</span>671. 14 February 1970. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970Natur.225..669.">1970Natur.225..669.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F225669a0">10.1038/225669a0</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4224915">4224915</a>.</cite><span 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Max_Born" title="Template talk:Max Born"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Max_Born" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Max Born"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Max_Born488" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Max Born</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_theorem" title="Adiabatic theorem">Adiabatic theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BBGKY_hierarchy" title="BBGKY hierarchy">BBGKY hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_approximation" title="Born approximation">Born approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_coordinates" title="Born coordinates">Born coordinates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_equation" title="Born equation">Born equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_reciprocity" title="Born reciprocity">Born reciprocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_rigidity" title="Born rigidity">Born rigidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_rule" title="Born rule">Born rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_series" title="Born series">Born series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born%E2%80%93Haber_cycle" title="Born–Haber cycle">Born–Haber cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born%E2%80%93Huang_approximation" title="Born–Huang approximation">Born–Huang approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born%E2%80%93Infeld_model" title="Born–Infeld model">Born–Infeld model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born%E2%80%93Land%C3%A9_equation" title="Born–Landé equation">Born–Landé equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born%E2%80%93Oppenheimer_approximation" title="Born–Oppenheimer approximation">Born–Oppenheimer approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_probability" class="mw-redirect" title="Born probability">Born probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born%E2%80%93von_Karman_boundary_condition" title="Born–von Karman boundary condition">Born–von Karman boundary condition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canonical_commutation_relation" title="Canonical commutation relation">Canonical commutation relation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cauchy%E2%80%93Born_rule" title="Cauchy–Born rule">Cauchy–Born rule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Max_Born" title="Bibliography of Max Born">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dynamical_Theory_of_Crystal_Lattices" title="Dynamical Theory of Crystal Lattices">Dynamical Theory of Crystal Lattices</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Optics" title="Principles of Optics">Principles of Optics</a></i> (1959)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Jacob_Born" title="Gustav Jacob Born">Gustav Jacob Born</a> <small>(father)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Victor_Rudolf_Born" title="Gustav Victor Rudolf Born">Gustav Victor Rudolf Born</a> <small>(son)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgina_Born" title="Georgina Born">Georgina Born</a> <small>(granddaughter)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivia_Newton-John" title="Olivia Newton-John">Olivia Newton-John</a> <small>(granddaughter)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Born_(crater)" title="Born (crater)">lunar impact crater</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_the_Certain_World" title="The End of the Certain World">The End of the Certain World</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Max_Born" title="List of things named after Max Born">List of things named after Max Born</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Born_Award" title="Max Born Award">Max Born Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Born_Medal_and_Prize" title="Max Born Medal and Prize">Max Born Medal and Prize</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Max_Born" title="Category:Max Born">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Max_Born" class="extiw" title="commons:Max Born">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Wikiquote page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span> <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Max_Born" class="extiw" title="q:Max Born">Quotes</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikisource page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/20px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Max_Born" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Max Born">Texts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physics145" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Template:Nobel Prize in Physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Template talk:Nobel Prize in Physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel Prize in Physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physics145" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physics" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physics">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1901: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Röntgen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1902: <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Lorentz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Zeeman" title="Pieter Zeeman">Zeeman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1903: <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Becquerel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">P. Curie</a> / <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">M. Curie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1904: <a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Rayleigh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1905: <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Lenard" title="Philipp Lenard">Lenard</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1906: <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1907: <a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Michelson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1908: <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Lippmann" title="Gabriel Lippmann">Lippmann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1909: <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Marconi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand Braun">Braun</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1910: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Diderik_van_der_Waals" title="Johannes Diderik van der Waals">Van der Waals</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1911: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wien" title="Wilhelm Wien">Wien</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1912: <a href="/wiki/Gustaf_Dal%C3%A9n" title="Gustaf Dalén">Dalén</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1913: <a href="/wiki/Heike_Kamerlingh_Onnes" title="Heike Kamerlingh Onnes">Kamerlingh Onnes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1914: <a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Laue</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1915: <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Bragg" title="Lawrence Bragg">W. L. Bragg</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">W. H. Bragg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1916</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1917: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Glover_Barkla" title="Charles Glover Barkla">Barkla</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1918: <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Planck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1919: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Stark" title="Johannes Stark">Stark</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1920: <a href="/wiki/Charles_%C3%89douard_Guillaume" title="Charles Édouard Guillaume">Guillaume</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1921: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1922: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">N. Bohr</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1923: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan" title="Robert Andrews Millikan">Millikan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1924: <a href="/wiki/Manne_Siegbahn" title="Manne Siegbahn">M. Siegbahn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1925: <a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">Franck</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Ludwig_Hertz" title="Gustav Ludwig Hertz">Hertz</a></span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1926: <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin" title="Jean Baptiste Perrin">Perrin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1927: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Compton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson_Rees_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Thomson Rees Wilson">C. Wilson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1928: <a href="/wiki/Owen_Willans_Richardson" class="mw-redirect" title="Owen Willans Richardson">O. Richardson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1929: <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">De Broglie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1930: <a href="/wiki/C._V._Raman" title="C. V. Raman">Raman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1931</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1932: <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Heisenberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1933: <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Schrödinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Dirac</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1934</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1935: <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">Chadwick</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1936: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Francis_Hess" title="Victor Francis Hess">Hess</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carl_David_Anderson" title="Carl David Anderson">C. D. Anderson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1937: <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Davisson" title="Clinton Davisson">Davisson</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Paget_Thomson" title="George Paget Thomson">G. P. Thomson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1938: <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Fermi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1939: <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Lawrence</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1940</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1941</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1942</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1943: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Stern" title="Otto Stern">Stern</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1944: <a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Rabi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1945: <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Pauli</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1946: <a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Bridgman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1947: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Victor_Appleton" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Victor Appleton">Appleton</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1948: <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Blackett</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1949: <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Yukawa" title="Hideki Yukawa">Yukawa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1950: <a href="/wiki/C._F._Powell" title="C. F. Powell">Powell</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1951: <a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">Cockcroft</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Walton</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1952: <a href="/wiki/Felix_Bloch" title="Felix Bloch">Bloch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Purcell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1953: <a href="/wiki/Frits_Zernike" title="Frits Zernike">Zernike</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1954: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Born</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walther_Bothe" title="Walther Bothe">Bothe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1955: <a href="/wiki/Willis_Lamb" title="Willis Lamb">Lamb</a> / <a href="/wiki/Polykarp_Kusch" title="Polykarp Kusch">Kusch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1956: <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">Shockley</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Brattain</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1957: <a href="/wiki/Yang_Chen-Ning" title="Yang Chen-Ning">C. N. Yang</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tsung-Dao_Lee" title="Tsung-Dao Lee">T. D. Lee</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1958: <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Cherenkov" title="Pavel Cherenkov">Cherenkov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Frank" title="Ilya Frank">Frank</a> / <a href="/wiki/Igor_Tamm" title="Igor Tamm">Tamm</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1959: <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Segrè</a> / <a href="/wiki/Owen_Chamberlain" title="Owen Chamberlain">Chamberlain</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1960: <a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Glaser" title="Donald A. Glaser">Glaser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1961: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hofstadter" title="Robert Hofstadter">Hofstadter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_M%C3%B6ssbauer" title="Rudolf Mössbauer">Mössbauer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1962: <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Landau</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1963: <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Wigner</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Goeppert Mayer</a> / <a href="/wiki/J._Hans_D._Jensen" title="J. Hans D. Jensen">Jensen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1964: <a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Townes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Basov" title="Nikolay Basov">Basov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Prokhorov" title="Alexander Prokhorov">Prokhorov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1965: <a href="/wiki/Shin%27ichir%C5%8D_Tomonaga" title="Shin'ichirō Tomonaga">Tomonaga</a> / <a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Schwinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1966: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kastler" title="Alfred Kastler">Kastler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1967: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1968: <a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Alvarez</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1969: <a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Gell-Mann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1970: <a href="/wiki/Hannes_Alfv%C3%A9n" title="Hannes Alfvén">Alfvén</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_N%C3%A9el" title="Louis Néel">Néel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1971: <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Gabor" title="Dennis Gabor">Gabor</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1972: <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Leon_Cooper" title="Leon Cooper">Cooper</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Schrieffer" title="John Robert Schrieffer">Schrieffer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1973: <a href="/wiki/Leo_Esaki" title="Leo Esaki">Esaki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ivar_Giaever" title="Ivar Giaever">Giaever</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Josephson" title="Brian Josephson">Josephson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1974: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ryle" title="Martin Ryle">Ryle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antony_Hewish" title="Antony Hewish">Hewish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1975: <a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">A. Bohr</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ben_Roy_Mottelson" title="Ben Roy Mottelson">Mottelson</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">Rainwater</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1976: <a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Richter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Samuel_C._C._Ting" title="Samuel C. C. Ting">Ting</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1977: <a href="/wiki/Philip_W._Anderson" title="Philip W. Anderson">P. W. Anderson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nevill_Francis_Mott" class="mw-redirect" title="Nevill Francis Mott">Mott</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Hasbrouck_Van_Vleck" title="John Hasbrouck Van Vleck">Van Vleck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1978: <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Kapitsa" title="Pyotr Kapitsa">Kapitsa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arno_Allan_Penzias" title="Arno Allan Penzias">Penzias</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">R. Wilson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1979: <a href="/wiki/Sheldon_Glashow" title="Sheldon Glashow">Glashow</a> / <a href="/wiki/Abdus_Salam" title="Abdus Salam">Salam</a> / <a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Weinberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1980: <a href="/wiki/James_Cronin" title="James Cronin">Cronin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Fitch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1981: <a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Bloembergen" title="Nicolaas Bloembergen">Bloembergen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Leonard_Schawlow" title="Arthur Leonard Schawlow">Schawlow</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kai_Siegbahn" title="Kai Siegbahn">K. Siegbahn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1982: <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_G._Wilson" title="Kenneth G. Wilson">K. Wilson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1983: <a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Chandrasekhar</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">Fowler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1984: <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rubbia" title="Carlo Rubbia">Rubbia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Simon_van_der_Meer" title="Simon van der Meer">Van der Meer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1985: <a href="/wiki/Klaus_von_Klitzing" title="Klaus von Klitzing">von Klitzing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1986: <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Ruska" title="Ernst Ruska">Ruska</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gerd_Binnig" title="Gerd Binnig">Binnig</a> / <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Rohrer" title="Heinrich Rohrer">Rohrer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1987: <a href="/wiki/Georg_Bednorz" title="Georg Bednorz">Bednorz</a> / <a href="/wiki/K._Alex_M%C3%BCller" title="K. Alex Müller">Müller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1988: <a href="/wiki/Leon_M._Lederman" title="Leon M. Lederman">Lederman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Schwartz" title="Melvin Schwartz">Schwartz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_Steinberger" title="Jack Steinberger">Steinberger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1989: <a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Ramsey</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hans_Georg_Dehmelt" title="Hans Georg Dehmelt">Dehmelt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Paul" title="Wolfgang Paul">Paul</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1990: <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Isaac_Friedman" title="Jerome Isaac Friedman">Friedman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Henry_Way_Kendall" title="Henry Way Kendall">Kendall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Taylor" title="Richard E. Taylor">R. Taylor</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1991: <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Gilles_de_Gennes" title="Pierre-Gilles de Gennes">de Gennes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1992: <a href="/wiki/Georges_Charpak" title="Georges Charpak">Charpak</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1993: <a href="/wiki/Russell_Alan_Hulse" title="Russell Alan Hulse">Hulse</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooton_Taylor_Jr." title="Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.">J. Taylor</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1994: <a href="/wiki/Bertram_Brockhouse" title="Bertram Brockhouse">Brockhouse</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Shull" title="Clifford Shull">Shull</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1995: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Lewis_Perl" title="Martin Lewis Perl">Perl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Reines</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1996: <a href="/wiki/David_Lee_(physicist)" title="David Lee (physicist)">D. Lee</a> / <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Osheroff" title="Douglas Osheroff">Osheroff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Coleman_Richardson" title="Robert Coleman Richardson">R. Richardson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1997: <a href="/wiki/Steven_Chu" title="Steven Chu">Chu</a> / <a href="/wiki/Claude_Cohen-Tannoudji" title="Claude Cohen-Tannoudji">Cohen-Tannoudji</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Daniel_Phillips" title="William Daniel Phillips">Phillips</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1998: <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Laughlin" title="Robert B. Laughlin">Laughlin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Horst_Ludwig_St%C3%B6rmer" title="Horst Ludwig Störmer">Störmer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_C._Tsui" title="Daniel C. Tsui">Tsui</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1999: <a href="/wiki/Gerard_%27t_Hooft" title="Gerard 't Hooft">'t Hooft</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martinus_J._G._Veltman" title="Martinus J. G. Veltman">Veltman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2000: <a href="/wiki/Zhores_Alferov" title="Zhores Alferov">Alferov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Kroemer" title="Herbert Kroemer">Kroemer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">Kilby</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–<br />present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">2001: <a href="/wiki/Eric_Allin_Cornell" title="Eric Allin Cornell">Cornell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Ketterle" title="Wolfgang Ketterle">Ketterle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wieman" title="Carl Wieman">Wieman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2002: <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Davis_Jr." title="Raymond Davis Jr.">Davis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Masatoshi_Koshiba" title="Masatoshi Koshiba">Koshiba</a> / <a href="/wiki/Riccardo_Giacconi" title="Riccardo Giacconi">Giacconi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2003: <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Abrikosov_(physicist)" title="Alexei Abrikosov (physicist)">Abrikosov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Ginzburg" title="Vitaly Ginzburg">Ginzburg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anthony_James_Leggett" title="Anthony James Leggett">Leggett</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2004: <a href="/wiki/David_Gross" title="David Gross">Gross</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hugh_David_Politzer" title="Hugh David Politzer">Politzer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frank_Wilczek" title="Frank Wilczek">Wilczek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2005: <a href="/wiki/Roy_J._Glauber" title="Roy J. Glauber">Glauber</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_L._Hall" title="John L. Hall">Hall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._H%C3%A4nsch" title="Theodor W. Hänsch">Hänsch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2006: <a href="/wiki/John_C._Mather" title="John C. Mather">Mather</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Smoot" title="George Smoot">Smoot</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2007: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Fert" title="Albert Fert">Fert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Gr%C3%BCnberg" title="Peter Grünberg">Grünberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2008: <a href="/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu" title="Yoichiro Nambu">Nambu</a> / <a href="/wiki/Makoto_Kobayashi_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Makoto Kobayashi (physicist)">Kobayashi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Toshihide_Maskawa" title="Toshihide Maskawa">Maskawa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2009: <a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Kao</a> / <a href="/wiki/Willard_Boyle" title="Willard Boyle">Boyle</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_E._Smith" title="George E. Smith">Smith</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2010: <a href="/wiki/Andre_Geim" title="Andre Geim">Geim</a> / <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Novoselov" title="Konstantin Novoselov">Novoselov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2011: <a href="/wiki/Saul_Perlmutter" title="Saul Perlmutter">Perlmutter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Schmidt" title="Brian Schmidt">Schmidt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Adam_Riess" title="Adam Riess">Riess</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2012: <a href="/wiki/David_J._Wineland" title="David J. Wineland">Wineland</a> / <a href="/wiki/Serge_Haroche" title="Serge Haroche">Haroche</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2013: <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Englert" title="François Englert">Englert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Higgs" title="Peter Higgs">Higgs</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2014: <a href="/wiki/Isamu_Akasaki" title="Isamu Akasaki">Akasaki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hiroshi_Amano" title="Hiroshi Amano">Amano</a> / <a href="/wiki/Shuji_Nakamura" title="Shuji Nakamura">Nakamura</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2015: <a href="/wiki/Takaaki_Kajita" title="Takaaki Kajita">Kajita</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_B._McDonald" title="Arthur B. McDonald">McDonald</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2016: <a href="/wiki/David_J._Thouless" class="mw-redirect" title="David J. Thouless">Thouless</a> / <a href="/wiki/Duncan_Haldane" title="Duncan Haldane">Haldane</a> / <a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Kosterlitz" title="J. Michael Kosterlitz">Kosterlitz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2017: <a href="/wiki/Rainer_Weiss" title="Rainer Weiss">Weiss</a> / <a href="/wiki/Barry_Barish" title="Barry Barish">Barish</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne" title="Kip Thorne">Thorne</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2018: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashkin" title="Arthur Ashkin">Ashkin</a> / <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Mourou" title="Gérard Mourou">Mourou</a> / <a href="/wiki/Donna_Strickland" title="Donna Strickland">Strickland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2019: <a href="/wiki/Jim_Peebles" title="Jim Peebles">Peebles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michel_Mayor" title="Michel Mayor">Mayor</a> / <a href="/wiki/Didier_Queloz" title="Didier Queloz">Queloz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2020: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Genzel" title="Reinhard Genzel">Genzel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrea_M._Ghez" title="Andrea M. Ghez">Ghez</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2021: <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Parisi" title="Giorgio Parisi">Parisi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Hasselmann" title="Klaus Hasselmann">Hasselmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Syukuro_Manabe" title="Syukuro Manabe">Manabe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2022: <a href="/wiki/Alain_Aspect" title="Alain Aspect">Aspect</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Clauser" title="John Clauser">Clauser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anton_Zeilinger" title="Anton Zeilinger">Zeilinger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2023: <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Agostini" title="Pierre Agostini">Agostini</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Krausz" title="Ferenc Krausz">Krausz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anne_L%27Huillier" title="Anne L'Huillier">L'Huillier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2024: <a href="/wiki/John_Hopfield" title="John Hopfield">Hopfield</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Hinton" title="Geoffrey Hinton">Hinton</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1954_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1954 Nobel Prize in Literature">1954</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway" title="Ernest Hemingway">Ernest Hemingway</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees</a> (Switzerland)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Max Born</a> (Great Britain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Bothe" title="Walther Bothe">Walther Bothe</a> (Germany)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Franklin_Enders" title="John Franklin Enders">John Franklin Enders</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Chapman_Robbins" title="Frederick Chapman Robbins">Frederick Chapman Robbins</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huckle_Weller" title="Thomas Huckle Weller">Thomas Huckle Weller</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1949_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1949 Nobel Prize winners">1949</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1950_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1950 Nobel Prize winners">1950</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1951_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1951 Nobel Prize winners">1951</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1952_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1952 Nobel Prize winners">1952</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1953_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1953 Nobel Prize winners">1953</a></dd> <dd><b>1954 </b></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1955_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1955 Nobel Prize winners">1955</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1956_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1956 Nobel Prize winners">1956</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1957_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1957 Nobel Prize winners">1957</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1958_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1958 Nobel Prize winners">1958</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1959_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1959 Nobel Prize winners">1959</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories1029" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories" title="Template:World Constitutional Convention call signatories"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories" title="Template talk:World Constitutional Convention call signatories"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World Constitutional Convention call signatories"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories1029" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_Constitutional_Convention" title="World Constitutional Convention">World Constitutional Convention</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Constitutional_Convention_call" class="mw-redirect" title="World Constitutional Convention call">call</a> signatories</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"> <b><a href="/wiki/Constitution_for_the_Federation_of_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution for the Federation of Earth">Constitution for the Federation of Earth</a></b> </span></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Constitution_Coordinating_Committee" title="World Constitution Coordinating Committee">World Constitution Coordinating Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thane_Read" title="Thane Read">Thane Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Isely" title="Philip Isely">Philip Isely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Isely" title="Margaret Isely">Margaret Isely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Lloyd" title="Georgia Lloyd">Georgia Lloyd</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/40px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/60px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/45px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/40px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/60px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Head_of_government" title="Head of government">Head of governments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_presidents" title="Lists of presidents">Presidents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/40px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/60px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Faure" title="Edgar Faure">Edgar Faure</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica"><img alt="Costa Rica" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/40px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/60px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Orlich_Bolmarcich" title="Francisco Orlich Bolmarcich">Francisco Orlich Bolmarcich</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica"><img alt="Costa Rica" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/40px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/60px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Figueres_Ferrer" title="José Figueres Ferrer">José Figueres Ferrer</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania"><img alt="Tanzania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/40px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/60px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nyerere" title="Julius Nyerere">Julius Nyerere</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal"><img alt="Senegal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9opold_S%C3%A9dar_Senghor" title="Léopold Sédar Senghor">Léopold Sédar Senghor</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan"><img alt="Pakistan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ayub_Khan" title="Ayub Khan">Muhammad Ayub Khan</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica"><img alt="Costa Rica" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/40px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/60px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Otilio_Ulate_Blanco" title="Otilio Ulate Blanco">Otilio Ulate Blanco</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vice-presidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya"><img alt="Kenya" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/40px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/60px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Jaramogi_Oginga_Odinga" title="Jaramogi Oginga Odinga">Jaramogi Oginga Odinga</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prime_Ministers" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Ministers">Prime Ministers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Clement Attlee</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone"><img alt="Sierra Leone" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/45px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Milton_Margai" title="Milton Margai">Milton Margai</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/60px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Tetsu_Katayama" title="Tetsu Katayama">Tetsu Katayama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Governors" class="mw-redirect" title="Governors">Governors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/California" title="California"><img alt="California" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg/23px-Flag_of_California.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg/35px-Flag_of_California.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg/45px-Flag_of_California.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Culbert_Olson" title="Culbert Olson">Culbert Olson</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Hiroshima_Prefecture" title="Hiroshima Prefecture"><img alt="Hiroshima Prefecture" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/40px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/60px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Hiroo_%C5%8Chara" title="Hiroo Ōhara">Hiroo Ōhara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mayors" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayors">Mayors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Greater_Accra_Region" title="Greater Accra Region"><img alt="Greater Accra Region" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg/23px-Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg/35px-Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg/45px-Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="304" data-file-height="202" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/E.C._Quaye" class="mw-redirect" title="E.C. Quaye">E.C. Quaye</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Hiroshima_Prefecture" title="Hiroshima Prefecture"><img alt="Hiroshima Prefecture" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/40px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/60px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Setsuo_Yamada" title="Setsuo Yamada">Setsuo Yamada</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Hiroshima_Prefecture" title="Hiroshima Prefecture"><img alt="Hiroshima Prefecture" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/40px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/60px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Shinzo_Hamai" title="Shinzo Hamai">Shinzo Hamai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Politicians">Politicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/35px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/45px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="540" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Cornelis_Berkhouwer" title="Cornelis Berkhouwer">Cornelis Berkhouwer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan"><img alt="Pakistan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ebrahim_Haroon_Jaffer" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmed Ebrahim Haroon Jaffer">Ahmed Ebrahim Haroon Jaffer</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/60px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Akira_Kazami" title="Akira Kazami">Akira Kazami</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/B._Satya_Narayan_Reddy" title="B. Satya Narayan Reddy">B. Satya Narayan Reddy</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/60px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Chiyo_Sakakibara" title="Chiyo Sakakibara">Chiyo Sakakibara</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Diwan_Chaman_Lall" title="Diwan Chaman Lall">Diwan Chaman Lall</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico"><img alt="Mexico" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/40px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/60px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ezequiel_Padilla_Pe%C3%B1aloza" title="Ezequiel Padilla Peñaloza">Ezequiel Padilla Peñaloza</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Jahn" title="Gerhard Jahn">Gerhard Jahn</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/60px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Hisato_Ichimada" title="Hisato Ichimada">Hisato Ichimada</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Usborne" title="Henry Usborne">Henry Usborne</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/60px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ichir%C5%8D_Kiyose" title="Ichirō Kiyose">Ichirō Kiyose</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Inder_Kumar_Gujral" title="Inder Kumar Gujral">Inder Kumar Gujral</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/40px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/60px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_de_Lipkowski" title="Irène de Lipkowski">Irène de Lipkowski</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/John_Foster_(MP_for_Northwich)" title="John Foster (MP for Northwich)">John Foster</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kanaiyalal_Maneklal_Munshi" title="Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi">Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/60px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kenz%C5%8D_Matsumura" title="Kenzō Matsumura">Kenzō Matsumura</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana"><img alt="Ghana" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Komla_Agbeli_Gbedemah" title="Komla Agbeli Gbedemah">Komla Agbeli Gbedemah</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Silkin,_1st_Baron_Silkin" title="Lewis Silkin, 1st Baron Silkin">Lewis Silkin</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/N._G._Ranga" title="N. G. Ranga">N. G. Ranga</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil"><img alt="Brazil" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/40px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/60px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Pascoal_Ranieri_Mazzilli" title="Pascoal Ranieri Mazzilli">Pascoal Ranieri Mazzilli</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland"><img alt="Scotland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Wolrige-Gordon" title="Patrick Wolrige-Gordon">Patrick Wolrige-Gordon</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/William_Beveridge" title="William Beveridge">William Beveridge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious leader">Religious leaders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abb%C3%A9_Pierre" title="Abbé Pierre">Abbé Pierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dana_McLean_Greeley" title="Dana McLean Greeley">Dana McLean Greeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_MacLeod" title="George MacLeod">George MacLeod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Collins_(priest)" title="John Collins (priest)">John Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Niem%C3%B6ller" title="Martin Niemöller">Martin Niemöller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Scott_(priest)" title="Michael Scott (priest)">Michael Scott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel laureates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kastler" title="Alfred Kastler">Alfred Kastler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._F._Powell" title="C. F. Powell">C. F. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hideki_Yukawa" title="Hideki Yukawa">Hideki Yukawa</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Max Born</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemistry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a> <small>(twice)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physiology or Medicine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyi" title="Albert Szent-Györgyi">Albert Szent-Györgyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dickinson_W._Richards" title="Dickinson W. Richards">Dickinson W. Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Joseph_Muller" title="Hermann Joseph Muller">Hermann Joseph Muller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macfarlane_Burnet" title="Macfarlane Burnet">Macfarlane Burnet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvatore_Quasimodo" title="Salvatore Quasimodo">Salvatore Quasimodo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Peace</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Boyd_Orr" title="John Boyd Orr">John Boyd Orr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rotblat" title="Joseph Rotblat">Joseph Rotblat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multiple</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> <small>(Chemistry & Peace)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientists">Scientists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_C._Price" title="Charles C. Price">Charles C. Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Condon" title="Edward Condon">Edward Condon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edris_Rice-Wray_Carson" title="Edris Rice-Wray Carson">Edris Rice-Wray Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlow_Shapley" title="Harlow Shapley">Harlow Shapley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Orcel" title="Jean Orcel">Jean Orcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitirim_Sorokin" title="Pitirim Sorokin">Pitirim Sorokin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priyadaranjan_Ray" title="Priyadaranjan Ray">Priyadaranjan Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Dumont" title="René Dumont">René Dumont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilder_Penfield" title="Wilder Penfield">Wilder Penfield</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_activists" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights activists">Human rights activists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Humanitarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanitarians">Humanitarians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_and_Magda_Trocm%C3%A9" title="André and Magda Trocmé">André and Magda Trocmé</a> <small>(Righteous Among the Nations)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brock_Chisholm" title="Brock Chisholm">Brock Chisholm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Veterans" class="mw-redirect" title="Veterans">Veterans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_B._Hester" title="Hugh B. Hester">Hugh B. Hester</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Varied Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ernest_Bishop" title="Arthur Ernest Bishop">Arthur Ernest Bishop</a> <small>(inventor)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Alfaro_Siqueiros" title="David Alfaro Siqueiros">David Alfaro Siqueiros</a> <small>(Social realist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._M._L._Odjidja" title="E. M. L. Odjidja">E. M. L. Odjidja</a> <small>(teacher)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_J._Sparling" title="Edward J. Sparling">Edward J. Sparling</a> <small>(educator)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Kahler" title="Erich Kahler">Erich Kahler</a> <small>(scholar)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorio_Bermann" title="Gregorio Bermann">Gregorio Bermann</a> <small>(humanist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_Piel" title="Gerard Piel">Gerard Piel</a> <small>(science editor)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Laugier" title="Henri Laugier">Henri Laugier</a> <small>(scholar)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_J._Schonfield" title="Hugh J. Schonfield">Hugh J. Schonfield</a> <small>(scholar & pacifist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaoru_%C5%8Cta" title="Kaoru Ōta">Kaoru Ōta</a> <small>(union leader)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kay_Boyle" title="Kay Boyle">Kay Boyle</a> <small>(writer)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Morain" title="Lloyd Morain">Lloyd Morain</a> <small>(humanist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Van_Doren" title="Mark Van Doren">Mark Van Doren</a> <small>(writer & scholar)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maur%C3%ADcio_Campos_de_Medeiros" title="Maurício Campos de Medeiros">Maurício Campos de Medeiros</a> <small>(teacher)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer" title="Oscar Niemeyer">Oscar Niemeyer</a> <small>(architect)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%8Cuchi_Hy%C5%8Dei" title="Ōuchi Hyōei">Ōuchi Hyōei</a> <small>(economist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rameshwari_Nehru" title="Rameshwari Nehru">Rameshwari Nehru</a> <small>(social worker)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satish_Gujral" title="Satish Gujral">Satish Gujral</a> <small>(artist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shigeri_Yamataka" title="Shigeri Yamataka">Shigeri Yamataka</a> <small>(feminist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophia_Wadia" title="Sophia Wadia">Sophia Wadia</a> <small>(theosophist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Slotkin" title="Stanley Slotkin">Stanley Slotkin</a> <small>(businessman)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)" title="Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)">Stuart Hall</a> <small>(cultural theorist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamaki_Uemura" title="Tamaki Uemura">Tamaki Uemura</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/YWCA" title="YWCA">YWCA</a> executive)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tano_J%C5%8Ddai" title="Tano Jōdai">Tano Jōdai</a> <small>(teacher & pacifist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyohiko_Kagawa" title="Toyohiko Kagawa">Toyohiko Kagawa</a> <small>(pacifist)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Committee_for_a_World_Constitutional_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="World Committee for a World Constitutional Convention">World Committee for a World Constitutional Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_World_Parliament" title="Provisional World Parliament">Provisional World Parliament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_constitution" title="World constitution">World constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_government" title="World government">World government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_federalism" class="mw-redirect" title="World federalism">World federalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Source: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B154-F05-028.1.4">[1]</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B149-F04-022.1.3">[2]</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B149-F04-022.1.8">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Emerging_World_Law.html?id=Qw-IOgAACAAJ">[4]</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 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aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q58978#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata4213" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q58978#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata4213" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q58978#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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href="https://viaf.org/viaf/27126854">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/17109/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJycJt4KHtYYxvVJvYj6Kd">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118513621">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50050350">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122772830">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122772830">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00433892">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Born, Max <1882-1970>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/UFIV023513">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35020387">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ola2002153872&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX867197">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/15606">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p069496145">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90078340">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000078598&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000099668&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=140321">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/20dgg65l06xg2gg">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810628497305606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/286273">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007258817005171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058511181606706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/13953297">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00101030?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=18245">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:born.max">zbMATH</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/39705">MathSciNet</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.leopoldina.org/mitgliederverzeichnis/mitglieder/member/Member/show/max-born/">Leopoldina</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/2b47809f-118e-4d2e-9cd2-519b67296476">MusicBrainz</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/794630">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Max Born"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118513621.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118513621">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/03158733X">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w61v5g64">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Max_Born&oldid=1282685061">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Max_Born&oldid=1282685061</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div 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