ADW: Bryozoa: INFORMATION

<!DOCTYPE html> <html xmlns:og="http://ogp.me/ns#" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> <head> <title>ADW: Bryozoa: INFORMATION</title> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <link rel="canonical" href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Bryozoa/" /> <script type="text/javascript" src="//code.jquery.com/jquery-3.6.0.min.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="//code.jquery.com/jquery-migrate-3.3.2.min.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="/static/js/compat.js"></script> <link rel="shortcut icon" href="https://animaldiversity.org/favicon.ico" /> <link href="//fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Gentium+Book+Basic:400,400italic,700,700italic" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <link href="//fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=PT+Sans:400,700,400italic,700italic" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/static/bootstrap/css/bootstrap.css" /> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/static/css/pica.styles.css" /> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/static/css/pica.print.css" media="print" />  <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/static/colorbox/colorbox.css" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Bryozoa/" /> <meta content="Bryozoa (moss animals)" property="og:title" /> <meta content="website" property="og:type" /> <meta content="Animal Diversity Web" property="og:site_name" /> <meta content="https://animaldiversity.org/collections/contributors/Grzimek_inverts/Phylactolaemata/Pectinatella_magnifica_colo/medium.jpg" property="og:image" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@AnimalDiversity" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Bryozoa (moss animals)" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Read about Bryozoa (moss animals) on the Animal Diversity Web." /> <meta name="twitter:image:src" content="https://animaldiversity.org/collections/contributors/Grzimek_inverts/Phylactolaemata/Pectinatella_magnifica_colo/medium.jpg" /> <meta name="twitter:image:height" content="419" /> <meta name="twitter:image:width" content="640" /> <meta name="twitter:url" content="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Bryozoa/" /> <script type="text/javascript" src="/static/js/Hyphenator.js"></script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/static/social-likes/social-likes_birman.css" /> <style> .social-likes { margin: 0; } .social-likes__widget { margin: 0; } </style>   </head> <body> <div id="outerwrap"> <div id="header" aria-role="header"> <h1> <a id="homelink" href="/">Animal Diversity Web</a> </h1> <div class="umlinks"> <div class="relative"> <a href="https://lsa.umich.edu/ummz/" id="ummzlink">University of Michigan Museum of Zoology</a> <a href="https://www.umich.edu/" id="umlink">University of Michigan</a> </div> </div> </div> <div id="wrap" class="gradient"> <div class="container-fluid"> <div class="row-fluid"> <div class="span2 sidebar left"> <ul class="nav nav-tabs nav-stacked" id="sitemap"> <li> <a href="/">Home</a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/">About Us</a> </li> <li> <a href="/animal_names/">About Animal Names</a> </li> <li> <a href="/teach/">Educational Resources</a> </li> <li> <a href="/collections/">Special Collections</a> </li> <li> <a href="/glossary/">Glossary</a> </li> <li> <a href="/accounts/Animalia/">Browse Animalia</a> </li> </ul> <h2 class="offscreen">More Information</h2> <div class="well"> <h3>Additional Information</h3> <ul class="unstyled"> <li> <a href="http://eol.org/search/?q=Bryozoa&search=Go">Encyclopedia of Life</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="span7_5 blahblahblah main" aria-role="main"> <h2 class="rank-phylum">Bryozoa<span class="vernacular-name">moss animals</span><span class="vernacular-name alt-vernacular-name">(Also: bryozoans)</span></h2> <div class="social-likes" data-counters="no"> <div class="facebook" title="Share link on Facebook">Facebook</div> <div class="twitter" title="Share link on Twitter">Twitter</div> </div> <div class="snapshots" aria-hidden="true"> <ul> <li> <a href="/accounts/Bryozoa/pictures/collections/contributors/Grzimek_inverts/Phylactolaemata/Pectinatella_magnifica_colo/"> <img alt=" " src="/collections/contributors/Grzimek_inverts/Phylactolaemata/Pectinatella_magnifica_colo/button.jpg" border="0" /> </a> </li> <li> <a href="/accounts/Bryozoa/pictures/collections/contributors/robert_bachand/Alcyoniidae/40_Rubbery_bryozoan_Alcyonidium_spp._DE_Bay/"> <img alt=" " src="/collections/contributors/robert_bachand/Alcyoniidae/40_Rubbery_bryozoan_Alcyonidium_spp._DE_Bay/button.jpg" border="0" /> </a> </li> <li> <a href="/accounts/Bryozoa/pictures/collections/contributors/Grzimek_inverts/Stenolaemata/Idmidronea_atlantica/"> <img alt=" " src="/collections/contributors/Grzimek_inverts/Stenolaemata/Idmidronea_atlantica/button.jpg" border="0" /> </a> </li> <li> <a href="/accounts/Bryozoa/pictures/collections/contributors/robert_bachand/39_Encrusting_bryozoan_on_eelgrass_-feeding/"> <img alt=" " src="/collections/contributors/robert_bachand/39_Encrusting_bryozoan_on_eelgrass_-feeding/button.jpg" border="0" /> </a> </li> <li> <a href="/accounts/Bryozoa/pictures/collections/contributors/jo_okeefe/rubberybryozoan_100_6692/"> <img alt=" " src="/collections/contributors/jo_okeefe/rubberybryozoan_100_6692/button.jpg" border="0" /> </a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="byline">By Jeremy Wright</div> <nav class="contents"> <ul> <li> <a href="#diversity">Diversity</a> </li> <li> <a href="#geographic_range">Geographic Range</a> </li> <li> <a href="#habitat">Habitat</a> </li> <li> <a href="#taxonomic_history">Systematic and Taxonomic History</a> </li> <li> <a href="#physical_description">Physical Description</a> </li> <li> <a href="#development">Development</a> </li> </ul> <ul> <li> <a href="#reproduction">Reproduction</a> </li> <li> <a href="#lifespan_longevity">Lifespan/Longevity</a> </li> <li> <a href="#behavior">Behavior</a> </li> <li> <a href="#communication">Communication and Perception</a> </li> <li> <a href="#food_habits">Food Habits</a> </li> <li> <a href="#predation">Predation</a> </li> </ul> <ul> <li> <a href="#ecosystem_roles">Ecosystem Roles</a> </li> <li> <a href="#economic_importance_positive">Economic Importance for Humans: Positive</a> </li> <li> <a href="#economic_importance_negative">Economic Importance for Humans: Negative</a> </li> <li> <a href="#conservation_status">Conservation Status</a> </li> <li> <a href="#contributors">Contributors</a> </li> <li> <a href="#references">References</a> </li> </ul> </nav> <div class="inner-wrap"> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="diversity">Diversity</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">Phylum <span class="taxon-link rank-phylum">Bryozoa</span> (or <span class="taxon-link rank-phylum">Bryozoa</span>), commonly known as “moss animals”, includes over 5,000 currently recognized species (with over 5,000 additional, extinct forms known) of sessile, almost exclusively colonial (only one solitary species, <a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Monobryozoon_ambulans/">Monobryozoon ambulans</a>, is known), coelomate organisms that superficially resemble soft coral polyps. This resemblance is due to the presence of a ring of cilia-lined tentacles, called a lophophore, which these species use to generate currents that assist in feeding on diatoms and other planktonic organisms. Bryozoans have traditionally been placed into three classes: <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Phylactolaemata/">Phylactolaemata</a>, <span class="taxon-name">Stenolaemata</span>, and <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Gymnolaemata/">Gymnolaemata</a>, which includes orders <a class="taxon-link rank-order" href="/accounts/Ctenostomata/">Ctenostomata</a> and <a class="taxon-link rank-order" href="/accounts/Cheilostomata/">Cheilostomata</a>. Though the majority of bryozoan species are marine, fresh and brackish water forms are also known. Colonies usually grow on rocky substrates, but many other solid surfaces are used as well, from the shells and exoskeletons of other invertebrates to floating chunks of Antarctic ice. While the size of an individual bryozoan zooid is quite small, averaging half a millimeter in length, total colony sizes can range from one centimeter to over a meter across. Colonies range in appearance, from gelatinous blobs, to bushy or tree-like forms, there are also encrusting species that excrete mineralized exoskeletons and greatly resemble small corals. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#5DA76680-8B24-11E2-837E-002500F14F28" class="citation">"Bryozoa", 2013</a>; <a href="#C62DEE78-7E01-11E2-B649-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#C40BF714-8B23-11E2-989E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Buchsbaum, et al., 1987</a>; <a href="#6EA25AC7-7E02-11E2-AE9F-002500F14F28" class="citation">Ruppert, et al., 2004</a>; <a href="#B7602B45-7E02-11E2-91DE-002500F14F28" class="citation">Zhang, 2011</a>)</span></p> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="geographic_range">Geographic Range</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate"><span class="taxon-link">Bryozoans</span> are found in freshwater, brackish and marine ecosystems throughout the world, from all depths and latitudes. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#C62DEE78-7E01-11E2-B649-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#B75864B5-8B21-11E2-9B9E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Ramel, 2012</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate "> <li class="keywords-header">Biogeographic Regions</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020914235803">nearctic</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020915001330">palearctic</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020915001348">oriental</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020916134510">ethiopian</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020915000403">neotropical</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020916135737">australian</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020916135918">antarctica</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145571">oceanic islands</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020917113601">arctic ocean</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <span>indian ocean</span> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020917114102">atlantic ocean</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020917114731">pacific ocean</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <span>mediterranean sea</span> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Other Geographic Terms</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#200304045530">holarctic</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145620">cosmopolitan</a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="habitat">Habitat</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate"><span class="taxon-link">Bryozoans</span> are sessile and colonial, typically settling on hard substrate including sand grains, rocks, and shells, as well as on blades of kelp or other algae, although some species settle on softer sediment. Colonies are lophopodid (covered in a protective gelatinous layer, which individuals protrude) or plumatellid (typically erect or prostrate). Some are stoloniferous (individual zooids arise separately from each other along horizontal stolons), or non-stoloniferous (zooids are adjacent and compacted with colonies, taking a variety of forms including encrusting, arborescent and discoidal). Colonies may be relatively small, a few centimeters across or a centimeter high, but colonies as large as 3 feet across or 4 inches high, comprised of a million zooids, are possible for some species. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#C62DEE78-7E01-11E2-B649-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#B75864B5-8B21-11E2-9B9E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Ramel, 2012</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate "> <li class="keywords-header">Habitat Regions</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145595">temperate</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145598">tropical</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145371">polar</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145582">saltwater or marine</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145747">freshwater</a> </li> </ul> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate "> <li class="keywords-header">Aquatic Biomes</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145836">pelagic</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145431">benthic</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145675">reef</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145802">oceanic vent</a> </li> <li> <span>lakes and ponds</span> </li> <li> <span>rivers and streams</span> </li> <li> <span>temporary pools</span> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145825">coastal</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145435">brackish water</a> </li> </ul> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Other Habitat Features</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145842">riparian</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145350">estuarine</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145633">intertidal or littoral</a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="taxonomic_history">Systematic and Taxonomic History</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">The taxonomic classification of <span class="taxon-link rank-phylum">Bryozoa</span> is complex and historically problematic. The name <span class="taxon-link rank-phylum">Bryozoa</span> was first used by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg in 1831, to refer to a group of organisms previously referred to as <a class="taxon-link rank-genus" href="/accounts/Polyzoa/">Polyzoa</a> by J. Vaughan Thompson, just one year before. The name <span class="taxon-link rank-phylum">Bryozoa</span> was then coined for this phylum by Nitsche in 1869, when it was discovered that organisms previously included in <span class="taxon-link rank-phylum">Bryozoa</span> differed in their anatomy and physiology, the ectoproct anus is located outside the perimeter of the lophophore, while the other group, <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Entoprocta/">Entoprocta</a>, have their anus located inside the lophophore. The use of molecular phylogenetic analyses has revealed that <span class="taxon-link rank-phylum">Bryozoa</span> and <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Entoprocta/">Entoprocta</a>, along with <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Cycliophora/">Cycliophora</a> (an obscure phylum of sac-like organisms found on the mouthparts of lobsters) form a clade of related organisms. The name <span class="taxon-link rank-phylum">Bryozoa</span> is now commonly applied to <span class="taxon-link rank-phylum">Bryozoa</span> and <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Entoprocta/">Entoprocta</a>, collectively, while the name <a class="taxon-link rank-genus" href="/accounts/Polyzoa/">Polyzoa</a> has recently been applied to the higher taxon containing all three lineages. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#C62DEE78-7E01-11E2-B649-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#7B8796E6-3F2E-11E3-A9D3-002500F14F28" class="citation">Dewel, et al., 2002</a>; <a href="#8E2CE3D9-3F35-11E3-9E05-002500F14F28" class="citation">Ehrenberg, 1831</a>; <a href="#280BF161-8B22-11E2-9BAA-002500F14F28" class="citation">Halanych, et al., 1995</a>; <a href="#F3191D4A-7E01-11E2-9516-002500F14F28" class="citation">Hausdorf, et al., 2007</a>; <a href="#8FABD29C-8B22-11E2-B155-002500F14F28" class="citation">Helmkampf, et al., 2008</a>; <a href="#22944D1C-3F37-11E3-B351-002500F14F28" class="citation">Nitsche, 1869</a>; <a href="#18D5F1F5-3F34-11E3-9CBF-002500F14F28" class="citation">Thompson, 1830</a>)</span></p> <p audience="advanced intermediate">Molecular phylogenetic analyses have supported the monophyly of <span class="taxon-link rank-phylum">Bryozoa</span>, as well as that of its three traditionally accepted classes, with the freshwater <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Phylactolaemata/">Phylactolaemata</a> apparently representing a basal taxon to the sister groups <span class="taxon-name">Stenolaemata</span> and <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Gymnolaemata/">Gymnolaemata</a>. <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Gymnolaemata/">Gymnolaemata</a> has traditionally been divided into two orders, <a class="taxon-link rank-order" href="/accounts/Ctenostomata/">Ctenostomata</a> and <a class="taxon-link rank-order" href="/accounts/Cheilostomata/">Cheilostomata</a>, based on soft and hard body forms, respectively. However, molecular analyses have indicated that these two orders are non-monophyletic, and hard body forms have evolved multiple times in <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Gymnolaemata/">Gymnolaemata</a>. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#27F21FF0-3F3C-11E3-94FF-002500F14F28" class="citation">Edgecombe, et al., 2011</a>; <a href="#6F91CFE3-3F3A-11E3-937B-002500F14F28" class="citation">Fuchs, et al., 2009</a>)</span></p> <p audience="advanced intermediate"><span class="taxon-link rank-phylum">Bryozoa</span>, along with <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Phoronida/">Phoronida</a> and <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Brachiopoda/">Brachiopoda</a>, have historically been grouped into <span class="taxon-name">Lophophorata</span>, due to the presence of a lophophore in all three phyla. Previously considered basal <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Deuterostomia/">deuterostomes</a>, they are now classified as <span class="taxon-name">protostomes</span> and considered to be more closely related to <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Trochozoa/">trochozoans</a> (mollusks, annelids, etc.), in the superphylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Lophotrochozoa/">Lophotrochozoa</a> (occasionally referred to as <span class="taxon-name">Spiralia</span>, a clade containing all organisms developing via spiral cleavage, the equivalency of these two names is a continuing matter of debate). <span class="citations"> (<a href="#96CE2E5C-3F3F-11E3-95E9-002500F14F28" class="citation">Dunn, et al., 2008</a>; <a href="#27F21FF0-3F3C-11E3-94FF-002500F14F28" class="citation">Edgecombe, et al., 2011</a>; <a href="#D432D014-3F3E-11E3-8DCB-002500F14F28" class="citation">Giribet, 2008</a>; <a href="#280BF161-8B22-11E2-9BAA-002500F14F28" class="citation">Halanych, et al., 1995</a>; <a href="#44229078-3F3F-11E3-8279-002500F14F28" class="citation">Hejnol, 2011</a>)</span></p> <ul class="aside block-grid donthyphenate two-up"> <li> <dl> <dt>Synonyms</dt> <dd> <ul> <li><a class="taxon-link rank-genus" href="/accounts/Polyzoa/">Polyzoa</a> (Thompson, 1830)</li> <li><span class="taxon-link rank-phylum">Bryozoa</span> (Nitsche, 1869)</li> </ul> </dd> </dl> </li> <li> <dl> <dt>Synapomorphies</dt> <dd> <ul> <li>loss of valves</li> <li>loss of ancestral gut</li> <li>gain of new gut</li> <li>sessile, colonial lifestyle</li> </ul> </dd> </dl> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="physical_description">Physical Description</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">An individual organism within a colony is called a zooid, and is made up of a cystid and a polypide. The cystid is the outer casing (the chitinous, calcified or gelatinous zoecium, secreted by the zooid), and the attached body wall. The polypide is comprised of the lophophore and viscera. The lophophore extends through the cystid orifice, and it may be covered with an operculum. Individual zooids are small; the largest known species grows to 4 mm. An epidermis and peritoneum underlay their zoeciums. There may or may not be longitudinal and circular muscles under these layers. <span class="taxon-link">Bryozoans</span> are capable of withdrawing their lophophores into their zoeciums in order to avoid predation (other anti-predator adaptations include surface spines or production of toxic chemicals in some species). In some species, the ciliated tentacles of the lophophore are arranged in a horseshoe shape, while in others they are arranged circularly. In species with the first pattern, there is a food groove at the base of the lophophore, leading to the mouth. In those with a circular arrangement, each tentacle has one ciliated frontal tract and two ciliated lateral tracts. The cilia create a feeing current, which flows toward the mouth, they also direct particles toward the mouth, changing the direction of their stroking in order to do so. The gut is U-shaped, beginning at the mouth and terminating in an anus located within the lophophore ring. There are no special excretory organs; when the polypide of a zooid accumulates an overabundance of waste chemicals, it is replaced by a new one, which is grown from the body wall. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#C62DEE78-7E01-11E2-B649-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#C40BF714-8B23-11E2-989E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Buchsbaum, et al., 1987</a>; <a href="#6EA25AC7-7E02-11E2-AE9F-002500F14F28" class="citation">Ruppert, et al., 2004</a>)</span></p> <p audience="advanced intermediate">Zooids within a colony may be polymorphic and specialized. All colonies have autozooids, which are responsible for feeding and digestion; the rest of the zooids in the colony are known as heterozooids and cannot feed. Some zooids, known as kenozooids, are greatly reduced and used for attachment to substrates. Others, known as varicularia, have sharp, well-developed opercula (avicularia) to defend the colony. There also may be vibracula, which have a flagellular operculum used for cleaning, or ooecia, which are specialized for brooding eggs. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#C62DEE78-7E01-11E2-B649-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#C40BF714-8B23-11E2-989E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Buchsbaum, et al., 1987</a>; <a href="#7166AF68-8B26-11E2-9310-002500F14F28" class="citation">McKinney and Jackson, 1989</a>)</span></p> <p audience="advanced intermediate">The degree to which zooids are connected to each other within a colony varies. In colonies of class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Phylactolaemata/">Phylactolaemata</a>, all of the zooids have a continuous metacoel, each with a funiculus (tissue cord) extending from the end of its gut to its body wall. Species within other classes are connected to lesser degrees. Stenolaemates have interzooidal pores allowing some exchange of coelomic fluid. Gymnolaemates living in stoloniferous colonies have septa separating the zooids, along the stolons, and a stolonal funiculus connecting each individual’s funiculus to the stolon through pores in the septa. Those living in non-stoloniferous colonies have walls that are packed tightly together, with pores between the walls. Food and waste materials are distributed from individual zooids throughout an entire colony. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#C62DEE78-7E01-11E2-B649-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#C40BF714-8B23-11E2-989E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Buchsbaum, et al., 1987</a>; <a href="#B75864B5-8B21-11E2-9B9E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Ramel, 2012</a>; <a href="#6EA25AC7-7E02-11E2-AE9F-002500F14F28" class="citation">Ruppert, et al., 2004</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate "> <li class="keywords-header">Other Physical Features</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145642">bilateral symmetry</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020915002358">polymorphic</a> </li> </ul> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Sexual Dimorphism</li> <li> <span>sexes alike</span> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="development">Development</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate"><span class="taxon-link">Bryozoans</span> are hermaphroditic. Eggs may be brooded within gonozooids, or embryo sacs. Cleavage is radial, holoblastic and nearly equal, creating a coeloblastula. Development may be indirect or mixed; in all cases there is a free-swimming dispersal form. Phylactolaemate species develop from coeloblastulae into a cystid stage and then a ciliated polypide. Stenolaemate embryos bud, creating secondary and tertiary embryos (polyembryony). Gymnolaemates undergo gastrulation by delamination, with one of each pair of daughter cells becoming endoderm and/or mesoderm. Many larvae of free spawning bryozoan species are flattened and triangular, with a functional gut; these are known as cyphonaute larvae. Embryos of species that brood eggs do not have a digestive tract and are planktonic for only a short time. Some freshwater bryozoans may produce statoblasts, masses of cells surrounded by chitinous valves, which lie dormant, surviving temperature extremes and even desiccation, until conditions change. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#C62DEE78-7E01-11E2-B649-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#C40BF714-8B23-11E2-989E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Buchsbaum, et al., 1987</a>; <a href="#B75864B5-8B21-11E2-9B9E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Ramel, 2012</a>)</span></p> <p audience="advanced intermediate">All bryozoan larvae are positively phototaxic and many have pigment spots, which may be light sensitive. They later become negatively phototaxic, swim to the bottom, and settle. Once on the bottom, they rely on chemical and tactile cues to determine suitability of the area and, if appropriate, a sticky material is secreted. At that point, the metamorphosed larva becomes an ancestrula, beginning a new colony. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#C62DEE78-7E01-11E2-B649-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#B75864B5-8B21-11E2-9B9E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Ramel, 2012</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Development - Life Cycle</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145364">metamorphosis</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020913222523">colonial growth</a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="reproduction">Reproduction</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate"><span class="taxon-link">Bryozoans</span> are hermaphroditic; some are simultaneous (all <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Phylactolaemata/">Phylactolaemata</a> species) and others are protandric. A few species are dioecious; in these species, colonies most often include both male and female zooids. Gonads are transient and gametes are released first into the metacoel, before migrating to the mesocoel. Sperm are typically released through the tentacles, while eggs may be released to the water or an external brooding area through a supraneural pore or intertentacular organ, found between the bases of the tentacles. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#C62DEE78-7E01-11E2-B649-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#C40BF714-8B23-11E2-989E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Buchsbaum, et al., 1987</a>; <a href="#2F0DAE54-8B1F-11E2-9F21-002500F14F28" class="citation">"Introduction to the Bryozoans", 2011</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Mating System</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145483">polygynandrous (promiscuous)</a> </li> </ul> <p audience="advanced intermediate">A <span class="taxon-link">bryozoan</span> colony begins with a single individual, known as an ancestrula. Ancestrulas are sexually produced, but colonies grow through asexual reproduction. Breeding is somewhat regulated by water temperatures and levels of sunlight: rising temperatures and increased light trigger phytoplankton growth which, in turn, triggers budding and, to a lesser extent, sexual reproduction. Species may free-spawn or, more often, females will brood eggs for at least a short time. Larvae of brooding species settle much more quickly following hatching, as their larval forms cannot feed. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#C62DEE78-7E01-11E2-B649-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#2F0DAE54-8B1F-11E2-9F21-002500F14F28" class="citation">"Introduction to the Bryozoans", 2011</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Key Reproductive Features</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145554">iteroparous</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145698">year-round breeding</a> </li> <li> <span>gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)</span> </li> <li> <span>simultaneous hermaphrodite</span> </li> <li> <span>sequential hermaphrodite</span> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145373">protandrous</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145786">sexual</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145314">asexual</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145546">fertilization</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145726">external</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145427">internal</a> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <p audience="advanced intermediate">Most species of <span class="taxon-link rank-phylum">Bryozoa</span> brood their eggs for some amount of time, after which, there is no further parental investment. Other species, however, do not exhibit brooding behavior, and simply release gametes into the water. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#C62DEE78-7E01-11E2-B649-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#2F0DAE54-8B1F-11E2-9F21-002500F14F28" class="citation">"Introduction to the Bryozoans", 2011</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Parental Investment</li> <li> <span>no parental involvement</span> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145507">male parental care</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145746">female parental care</a> </li> <li> <span>pre-fertilization</span> <ul> <li> <span>provisioning</span> </li> <li> <span>protecting</span> <ul> <li> <span>male</span> </li> <li> <span>female</span> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="lifespan_longevity">Lifespan/Longevity</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">It is difficult to judge the lifespan of individual zooids. Colonies, once established, will continue to bud and thrive indefinitely, assuming conditions are favorable. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#C62DEE78-7E01-11E2-B649-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>)</span></p> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="behavior">Behavior</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate"><span class="taxon-link">Bryozoans</span> are typically sessile, colonial animals. Only one free-swimming, solitary, species is known (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Monobryozoon_ambulans/">Monobryozoon ambulans</a>). Colonies of one genus, <a class="taxon-link rank-genus" href="/accounts/Cristatella/">Cristatella</a> (class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Phylactolaemata/">Phylactolaemata</a>), grow in a gelatinous strip and may move 1 to 10 cm a day. There are reports of <a class="taxon-link rank-genus" href="/accounts/Selenaria/">Selenaria</a> species (class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Gymnolaemata/">Gymnolaemata</a>) moving to orient the colony towards light with a "lurching" motion, up to 3 mm at a time (0.5 to 1 m/hr). <span class="citations"> (<a href="#C62DEE78-7E01-11E2-B649-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#9B1110CA-8B31-11E2-B4D7-002500F14F28" class="citation">Cook and Chimonides, 1978</a>; <a href="#B75864B5-8B21-11E2-9B9E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Ramel, 2012</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Key Behaviors</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145414">diurnal</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145503">nocturnal</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145752">crepuscular</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145586">sessile</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145585">sedentary</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145440">colonial</a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="communication">Communication and Perception</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">Zooids possess tactile cells located on their tentacles, and some larvae have light sensitive ocelli; these animals are positively phototaxic as larvae and negatively phototaxic as adults. In some <span class="taxon-link">bryozoans</span>, groups of zooids work together to create increased currents for feeding and waste removal, suggesting at least some form of primitive, inter-zooid communication, although the means by which this is accomplished are currently unknown. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#C62DEE78-7E01-11E2-B649-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#B75864B5-8B21-11E2-9B9E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Ramel, 2012</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Perception Channels</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145694">visual</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145500">tactile</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145606">chemical</a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="food_habits">Food Habits</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate"><span class="taxon-link">Bryozoans</span> are most commonly suspension feeders, although some species may use their tentacles to move food particles to their mouths. In some species, the ciliated tentacles of the lophophore are arranged in a horseshoe shape, while in others they are arranged circularly. In species with the first pattern, there is a food groove at the base of the lophophore, leading to the mouth. In those with a circular arrangement, each tentacle has one ciliated frontal tract and two ciliated lateral tracts. The cilia create a feeding current that flows toward the mouth, also directing larger particles toward the mouth by changing the direction of their stroking motions, if necessary. These types of zooids also have a ciliated tract leading to the mouth, located inside the tentacle area of the lophophore. In some species, groups of zooids work together to create increased currents for feeding and waste removal. Bryozoans typically feed on diatoms (phylum <span class="taxon-name">Bacillariophyta</span>) and other unicellular algae. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#C62DEE78-7E01-11E2-B649-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#C40BF714-8B23-11E2-989E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Buchsbaum, et al., 1987</a>; <a href="#6EA25AC7-7E02-11E2-AE9F-002500F14F28" class="citation">Ruppert, et al., 2004</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Primary Diet</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145368">planktivore</a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="predation">Predation</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">Predators of <span class="taxon-link">bryozoans</span> include fish, nudibranchs, snails, sea spiders, and sea urchins who graze on their colonies. They are capable of withdrawing their lophophore into their zoecium by using changes in internal hydrostatic pressure, in order to avoid predation. Other anti-predator adaptations found in some species include zoecium spines, which may be re-grown rapidly if grazed (particularly in <a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Membranipora_membranacea/">Membranipora membranacea</a>), and the production of toxic chemicals. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#E22233E8-8B36-11E2-B082-002500F14F28" class="citation">Berning, 2008</a>; <a href="#C62DEE78-7E01-11E2-B649-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#C40BF714-8B23-11E2-989E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Buchsbaum, et al., 1987</a>; <a href="#13D83400-8B34-11E2-8D6A-002500F14F28" class="citation">Iyengar and Harvell, 2002</a>; <a href="#282FFDF5-8B35-11E2-9D12-002500F14F28" class="citation">Wood, et al., 2006</a>)</span></p> <ul class="aside block-grid donthyphenate one-up"> <li> <dl> <dt>Known Predators</dt> <dd> <ul> <li><a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Corambe_pacifica/">Corambe pacifica</a> (Order <span class="taxon-name">Nudibrancha</span>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Mollusca/">Mollusca</a>)</li> <li><a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Doridella_steinbergae/">Doridella steinbergae</a> (Order <span class="taxon-name">Nudibrancha</span>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Mollusca/">Mollusca</a>)</li> <li><a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Onchidoris_muricata/">Onchidoris muricata</a> (Order <span class="taxon-name">Nudibrancha</span>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Mollusca/">Mollusca</a>)</li> <li><a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Polycera_zosterae/">Polycera zosterae</a> (Order <span class="taxon-name">Nudibrancha</span>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Mollusca/">Mollusca</a>)</li> <li><span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Triopha catalinae</span> (Order <span class="taxon-name">Nudibrancha</span>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Mollusca/">Mollusca</a>)</li> <li><a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Pomacea_canaliculata/">Pomacea canaliculata</a> (<span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Class Gastropoda</span>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Mollusca/">Mollusca</a>)</li> <li>ray-finned fishes (Class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Actinopterygii/">Actinopterygii</a>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-phylum" href="/accounts/Chordata/">Chordata</a>))</li> <li>sea urchins (Class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Echinoidea/">Echinoidea</a>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Echinodermata/">Echinodermata</a>)</li> <li>sea spiders (Class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Pycnogonida/">Pycnogonida</a>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Arthropoda/">Arthropoda</a>)</li> </ul> </dd> </dl> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="ecosystem_roles">Ecosystem Roles</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">As filter feeders, <span class="taxon-link">bryozoans</span> control planktonic populations in their environments; it has been reported that a single zooid may filter as much as 8.8 mL of water a day. The structures of bryozoan colonies may serve as habitat and shelter for juvenile fishes, as well as <span class="taxon-name">copepods</span>, <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Amphipoda/">amphipods</a> and <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Polychaeta/">polychaetes</a>. The species <a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Hypophorella_expansa/">Hypophorella expansa</a> has symbiotic relationships with tube-dwelling polychaete worms, such as <span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Lanice conchylega</span>. The zooids of <span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Harmeriella terebrans</span> are known to attack <span rank="Genus" class="taxon-name rank-genus">Tubiporella</span> species and take up residence in their zooecia. Bryozoan zooids may host a variety of parasites, including one species that causes proliferative kidney disease (PKD) in <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Salmonidae/">salmonid</a> fishes. Some species may be parasitic on <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Echinodermata/">echinoderm</a> species. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#C40BF714-8B23-11E2-989E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Buchsbaum, et al., 1987</a>; <a href="#C40BF714-8B23-11E2-989E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Buchsbaum, et al., 1987</a>; <a href="#E93962FD-8B39-11E2-A956-002500F14F28" class="citation">Canning, et al., 2000</a>; <a href="#62650A7D-8B3B-11E2-BF93-002500F14F28" class="citation">Jangoux, 1987</a>; <a href="#B75864B5-8B21-11E2-9B9E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Ramel, 2012</a>; <a href="#2F0DAE54-8B1F-11E2-9F21-002500F14F28" class="citation">"Introduction to the Bryozoans", 2011</a>; <a href="#45B8243D-8B3A-11E2-B9F3-002500F14F28" class="citation">Tamberg, et al., 2013</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Ecosystem Impact</li> <li> <span>creates habitat</span> </li> </ul> <div class="note"> <strong>Species Used as Host</strong> <br /> <ul> <li><span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Leptometra phalangium</span> (Class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Crinoidea/">Crinoidea</a>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Echinodermata/">Echinodermata</a>)</li> <li><span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Poliometra prolixa</span> (Class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Crinoidea/">Crinoidea</a>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Echinodermata/">Echinodermata</a>)</li> <li><span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Psolus charcoti</span> (Class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Holothuroidea/">Holothuroidea</a>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Echinodermata/">Echinodermata</a>)</li> </ul> </div> <div class="note"> <strong>Mutualist Species</strong> <br /> <ul> <li><span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Lanice conchylega</span> (Order <span class="taxon-name">Terebellida</span>, Class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Polychaeta/">Polychaeta</a>)</li> </ul> </div> <div class="note"> <strong>Commensal/Parasitic Species</strong> <br /> <ul> <li><a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Loxosomella_nordgaardi/">Loxosomella nordgaardi</a> (Order <span class="taxon-name">Solitaria</span>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Entoprocta/">Entoprocta</a>)</li> <li><span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Tetracapsula bryosalmonae</span> (Order <span class="taxon-name">Malacovalvulida</span>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-phylum" href="/accounts/Cnidaria/">Cnidaria</a>)</li> </ul> </div> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="economic_importance_positive">Economic Importance for Humans: Positive</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">As filter feeders, <span class="taxon-link">bryozoans</span> filter and recirculate water. It has been estimated that a colony of <a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Zoobotryon_verticillatum/">Zoobotryon verticillatum</a> approximately 1 m^2 in size has the potential to filter up to 48,600 gallons of seawater per year. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#2F0DAE54-8B1F-11E2-9F21-002500F14F28" class="citation">"Introduction to the Bryozoans", 2011</a>)</span></p> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="economic_importance_negative">Economic Importance for Humans: Negative</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">A myxosporean parasite, <span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae</span>, is carried by some species of <span class="taxon-link rank-phylum">Bryozoa</span> and causes proliferative kidney disease (PKD) in wild and farmed populations of <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Salmonidae/">salmonids</a>, one of the most serious parasitic infections of these fish, causing up to 90% loss in some populations. At one time, bryozoans caused problems for humans by building colonies within water-carrying pipes; the advent of water filtration solved this problem. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#F03CF8D9-8B3C-11E2-8D7F-002500F14F28" class="citation">Hedrick, et al., 1993</a>; <a href="#B75864B5-8B21-11E2-9B9E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Ramel, 2012</a>)</span></p> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="conservation_status">Conservation Status</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">As a cosmopolitan phylum, <span class="taxon-link">bryozoans</span> as a whole are not in any danger. However, certain populations may be at risk due to introduced predators. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#282FFDF5-8B35-11E2-9D12-002500F14F28" class="citation">Wood, et al., 2006</a>)</span></p> <ul class="aside block-grid donthyphenate one-up"> <li> <dl> <dt>IUCN Red List <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/">[Link]</a></dt> <dd>Not Evaluated</dd> </dl> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="contributors">Contributors</h3> <p>Jeremy Wright (author), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, Leila Siciliano Martina (editor), Animal Diversity Web Staff. </p> </section> <section class="offscreen"> <h3 id="glossary">Glossary</h3> <div id="20020916135918"> <dl> <dt>Antarctica</dt> <dd> <p>lives on Antarctica, the southernmost continent which sits astride the southern pole.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020917113601"> <dl> <dt>Arctic Ocean</dt> <dd> <p>the body of water between Europe, Asia, and North America which occurs mostly north of the Arctic circle.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020917114102"> <dl> <dt>Atlantic Ocean</dt> <dd> <p>the body of water between Africa, Europe, the southern ocean (above 60 degrees south latitude), and the western hemisphere. It is the second largest ocean in the world after the Pacific Ocean.</p> <p align="center"> <img alt="World Map" src="/images/worldmap.2001.jpg" /> </p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020916135737"> <dl> <dt>Australian</dt> <dd> <p>Living in Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, New Guinea and associated islands.</p> <p align="center"> <img alt="World Map" src="/images/worldmap.2001.jpg" /> </p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020916134510"> <dl> <dt>Ethiopian</dt> <dd> <p>living in sub-Saharan Africa (south of 30 degrees north) and Madagascar.</p> <p align="center"> <img alt="World Map" src="/images/worldmap.2001.jpg" /> </p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020914235803"> <dl> <dt>Nearctic</dt> <dd> <p>living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.</p> <p align="center"> <img alt="World Map" src="/images/worldmap.2001.jpg" /> </p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020915000403"> <dl> <dt>Neotropical</dt> <dd> <p>living in the southern part of the New World. In other words, Central and South America.</p> <p align="center"> <img alt="World Map" src="/images/worldmap.2001.jpg" /> </p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020917114731"> <dl> <dt>Pacific Ocean</dt> <dd> <p>body of water between the southern ocean (above 60 degrees south latitude), Australia, Asia, and the western hemisphere. This is the world's largest ocean, covering about 28% of the world's surface.</p> <p align="center"> <img alt="World Map" src="/images/worldmap.2001.jpg" /> </p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020915001330"> <dl> <dt>Palearctic</dt> <dd> <p>living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.</p> <p align="center"> <img alt="World Map" src="/images/worldmap.2001.jpg" /> </p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145314"> <dl> <dt>asexual</dt> <dd> <p>reproduction that is not sexual; that is, reproduction that does not include recombining the genotypes of two parents</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145431"> <dl> <dt>benthic</dt> <dd> <p>Referring to an animal that lives on or near the bottom of a body of water. Also an aquatic biome consisting of the ocean bottom below the pelagic and coastal zones. Bottom habitats in the very deepest oceans (below 9000 m) are sometimes referred to as the abyssal zone. see also oceanic vent.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145642"> <dl> <dt>bilateral symmetry</dt> <dd> <p>having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145435"> <dl> <dt>brackish water</dt> <dd> <p>areas with salty water, usually in coastal marshes and estuaries.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145606"> <dl> <dt>chemical</dt> <dd> <p>uses smells or other chemicals to communicate</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145825"> <dl> <dt>coastal</dt> <dd> <p>the nearshore aquatic habitats near a coast, or shoreline.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145440"> <dl> <dt>colonial</dt> <dd> <p>used loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies. More specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits (a continuous, modular society) - as in clonal organisms.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020913222523"> <dl> <dt>colonial growth</dt> <dd> <p>animals that grow in groups of the same species, often refers to animals which are not mobile, such as corals.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145620"> <dl> <dt>cosmopolitan</dt> <dd> <p>having a worldwide distribution. Found on all continents (except maybe Antarctica) and in all biogeographic provinces; or in all the major oceans (Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145752"> <dl> <dt>crepuscular</dt> <dd> <p>active at dawn and dusk</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145414"> <dl> <dt>diurnal</dt> <dd> <ol class="arabic simple"> <li>active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.</li> </ol> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145350"> <dl> <dt>estuarine</dt> <dd> <p>an area where a freshwater river meets the ocean and tidal influences result in fluctuations in salinity.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145726"> <dl> <dt>external fertilization</dt> <dd> <p>fertilization takes place outside the female's body</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145746"> <dl> <dt>female parental care</dt> <dd> <p>parental care is carried out by females</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145546"> <dl> <dt>fertilization</dt> <dd> <p>union of egg and spermatozoan</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145747"> <dl> <dt>freshwater</dt> <dd> <p>mainly lives in water that is not salty.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="200304045530"> <dl> <dt>holarctic</dt> <dd> <p>a distribution that more or less circles the Arctic, so occurring in both the Nearctic and Palearctic biogeographic regions.</p> <p align="center"> <img alt="World Map" src="/images/worldmap.2001.jpg" /> </p> <p>Found in northern North America and northern Europe or Asia.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145427"> <dl> <dt>internal fertilization</dt> <dd> <p>fertilization takes place within the female's body</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145633"> <dl> <dt>intertidal or littoral</dt> <dd> <p>the area of shoreline influenced mainly by the tides, between the highest and lowest reaches of the tide. An aquatic habitat.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145554"> <dl> <dt>iteroparous</dt> <dd> <p>offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145507"> <dl> <dt>male parental care</dt> <dd> <p>parental care is carried out by males</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145364"> <dl> <dt>metamorphosis</dt> <dd> <p>A large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows. In insects, "incomplete metamorphosis" is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form, and "complete metamorphosis" is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms. Butterflies have complete metamorphosis, grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145365"> <dl> <dt>native range</dt> <dd> <p>the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145503"> <dl> <dt>nocturnal</dt> <dd> <p>active during the night</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145571"> <dl> <dt>oceanic islands</dt> <dd> <p>islands that are not part of continental shelf areas, they are not, and have never been, connected to a continental land mass, most typically these are volcanic islands.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145802"> <dl> <dt>oceanic vent</dt> <dd> <p>Areas of the deep sea floor where continental plates are being pushed apart. Oceanic vents are places where hot sulfur-rich water is released from the ocean floor. An aquatic biome.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020915001348"> <dl> <dt>oriental</dt> <dd> <p>found in the oriental region of the world. In other words, India and southeast Asia.</p> <p align="center"> <img alt="World Map" src="/images/worldmap.2001.jpg" /> </p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145836"> <dl> <dt>pelagic</dt> <dd> <p>An aquatic biome consisting of the open ocean, far from land, does not include sea bottom (benthic zone).</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145368"> <dl> <dt>planktivore</dt> <dd> <p>an animal that mainly eats plankton</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145371"> <dl> <dt>polar</dt> <dd> <p>the regions of the earth that surround the north and south poles, from the north pole to 60 degrees north and from the south pole to 60 degrees south.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145483"> <dl> <dt>polygynandrous</dt> <dd> <p>the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males, each of which also pairs with several different females.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020915002358"> <dl> <dt>polymorphic</dt> <dd> <p>"many forms." A species is polymorphic if its individuals can be divided into two or more easily recognized groups, based on structure, color, or other similar characteristics. The term only applies when the distinct groups can be found in the same area; graded or clinal variation throughout the range of a species (e.g. a north-to-south decrease in size) is not polymorphism. Polymorphic characteristics may be inherited because the differences have a genetic basis, or they may be the result of environmental influences. We do not consider sexual differences (i.e. sexual dimorphism), seasonal changes (e.g. change in fur color), or age-related changes to be polymorphic. Polymorphism in a local population can be an adaptation to prevent density-dependent predation, where predators preferentially prey on the most common morph.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145373"> <dl> <dt>protandrous</dt> <dd> <p>condition of hermaphroditic animals (and plants) in which the male organs and their products appear before the female organs and their products</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145675"> <dl> <dt>reef</dt> <dd> <p>structure produced by the calcium carbonate skeletons of coral polyps (Class Anthozoa). Coral reefs are found in warm, shallow oceans with low nutrient availability. They form the basis for rich communities of other invertebrates, plants, fish, and protists. The polyps live only on the reef surface. Because they depend on symbiotic photosynthetic algae, zooxanthellae, they cannot live where light does not penetrate.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145842"> <dl> <dt>riparian</dt> <dd> <p>Referring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody (usually, but not always, a river or stream).</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145582"> <dl> <dt>saltwater or marine</dt> <dd> <p>mainly lives in oceans, seas, or other bodies of salt water.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145585"> <dl> <dt>sedentary</dt> <dd> <p>remains in the same area</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145586"> <dl> <dt>sessile</dt> <dd> <p>non-motile; permanently attached at the base.</p> <p>Attached to substratum and moving little or not at all. Synapomorphy of the Anthozoa</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145786"> <dl> <dt>sexual</dt> <dd> <p>reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145500"> <dl> <dt>tactile</dt> <dd> <p>uses touch to communicate</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145595"> <dl> <dt>temperate</dt> <dd> <p>that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145598"> <dl> <dt>tropical</dt> <dd> <p>the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145694"> <dl> <dt>visual</dt> <dd> <p>uses sight to communicate</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145698"> <dl> <dt>year-round breeding</dt> <dd> <p>breeding takes place throughout the year</p> </dd> </dl> </div> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="references">References</h3> <p id="5DA76680-8B24-11E2-837E-002500F14F28">2013. 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Accessed March 12, 2013 at <tt><a href="http://eugene.yakovis.com/doc/Tamberg%20Shunatova%20Yakovis%202013.pdf">http://eugene.yakovis.com/doc/Tamberg%20Shunatova%20Yakovis%202013.pdf</a></tt>. </p> <p id="18D5F1F5-3F34-11E3-9CBF-002500F14F28">Thompson, J. 1830. On Polyzoa, a new animal, an inhabitant of some Zoophytes, with the description of the newly instituted genera <span rank="Genus" class="taxon-name rank-genus">Pedicellaria</span>, <a class="taxon-link rank-genus" href="/accounts/Vesicularia/">Vesicularia</a> and their species. <span style="font-style: italic">Zoological Researches</span>, 5: 89-102. </p> <p id="282FFDF5-8B35-11E2-9D12-002500F14F28">Wood, T., P. Anurakpongsatorn, R. Chaichana, J. Mahujchariyawong, T. Satapanajaru. 2006. Heavy Predation on Freshwater Bryozoans by the Golden Apple Snail, <a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Pomacea_canaliculata/">Pomacea canaliculata</a> Lamarck, 1822 (<a class="taxon-link rank-family" href="/accounts/Ampullariidae/">Ampullariidae</a>). <span style="font-style: italic">The Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University</span>, 6/1: 31-36. Accessed March 12, 2013 at <tt><a href="http://www.wright.edu/~tim.wood/documents/2006_AppleSnail_000.pdf">http://www.wright.edu/~tim.wood/documents/2006_AppleSnail_000.pdf</a></tt>. </p> <p id="B7602B45-7E02-11E2-91DE-002500F14F28">Zhang, Z. 2011. Animal biodiversity: an introduction to higher-level classification and taxonomic richness. <span style="font-style: italic">Zootaxa</span>, 3148: 7-12. </p> </section> </div> </div> <div class="span2_5 right sidebar"> <div class="well" id="pocket-guide-link"> <a href="https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/adw-pocket-guide/id916179421?mt=8" target="_blank"><i class="icon-download icon-white" style="vertical-align: bottom"></i> ADW Pocket Guides on the iOS App Store! </a> <p>The Animal Diversity Web team is excited to announce ADW Pocket Guides!</p> <p> <a href="/news/5009059054038197651/">Read more...</a> </p> </div> <h2 class="offscreen">Search</h2> <div id="site-search"> <form action="/search" method="GET"> <label for="q" class="offscreen">Enter search text</label> <input value="" id="q" name="q" class="span12" size="15" type="text" placeholder="Search ADW" /> <button class="btn"> <i class="icon-zoom-in"></i> <span class="offscreen">Search</span> </button> <p style="max-height: 35px"> <label for="feature-list" class="offscreen">Search in feature</label> <select size="1" name="feature" class="feature-list input-medium" id="feature-list"> <option value="INFORMATION">Taxon Information</option> <option value="COLLECTIONS">Contributor Galleries</option> <option value="TOPICS">Topics</option> <option value="CLASSIFICATION">Classification</option> </select> </p> </form> <ul class="unstyled"> <li> <a href="https://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/quaardvark/">Explore Data @ Quaardvark</a> </li> <li> <a href="/search_guide/">Search Guide</a> </li> </ul> </div> <h2 class="offscreen">Navigation Links</h2> <dl class="tabbed features"> <dd class="feature-information active"> <a name="feature-information" href="/accounts/Bryozoa/" class="active" id="feature-information"> Information </a> </dd> <dd class="feature-pictures"> <a name="feature-pictures" href="/accounts/Bryozoa/pictures/" id="feature-pictures"> Pictures </a> </dd> <dd class="feature-classification"> <a name="feature-classification" href="/accounts/Bryozoa/classification/#Bryozoa" id="feature-classification"> Classification </a> </dd> </dl> <div class="classification well"> <h3>Classification</h3> <ul class="unstyled"> <li> <span class="rank">Kingdom</span> <a href="/accounts/Animalia/" class="taxon-name rank-kingdom">Animalia</a> <span class="vernacular-name">animals</span> <div class="features"> <a href="/accounts/Animalia/" class="feature feature-information" rel="tooltip" data-original-title="Animalia: information (1)" data-delay="250" data-total="4749">Animalia: information (1)</a> <a href="/accounts/Animalia/pictures/" class="feature feature-pictures" rel="tooltip" data-original-title="Animalia: pictures (22861)" data-delay="250">Animalia: pictures (22861)</a> <a href="/accounts/Animalia/specimens/" class="feature feature-specimens" rel="tooltip" data-original-title="Animalia: specimens (7109)" data-delay="250">Animalia: specimens (7109)</a> <a href="/accounts/Animalia/sounds/" class="feature feature-sounds" rel="tooltip" data-original-title="Animalia: sounds (722)" data-delay="250">Animalia: sounds (722)</a> <a href="/accounts/Animalia/maps/" class="feature feature-maps" rel="tooltip" data-original-title="Animalia: maps (42)" data-delay="250">Animalia: maps (42)</a> </div> </li> <li class="active"> <span class="rank">Phylum</span> <a href="/accounts/Bryozoa/" class="taxon-name rank-phylum">Bryozoa</a> <span class="vernacular-name">moss animals</span> <div class="features"> <a href="/accounts/Bryozoa/" class="feature feature-information" rel="tooltip" data-original-title="Bryozoa: information (1)" data-delay="250" data-total="1">Bryozoa: information (1)</a> <a href="/accounts/Bryozoa/pictures/" class="feature feature-pictures" rel="tooltip" data-original-title="Bryozoa: pictures (15)" data-delay="250">Bryozoa: pictures (15)</a> <span class="feature-off feature-specimens"></span> <span class="feature-off feature-sounds"></span> <span class="feature-off feature-maps"></span> </div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="footer" aria-role="contentinfo"> <div class="inner-footer"> <div class="page-citation"> <p class="content">To cite this page: Wright, J. 2014. 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ADW: Bryozoa: INFORMATION