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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Accretion of galaxies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accretion_of_galaxies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accretion_of_stars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accretion_of_stars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Accretion of stars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accretion_of_stars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accretion_of_planets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accretion_of_planets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Accretion of planets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accretion_of_planets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accretion_of_asteroids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accretion_of_asteroids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Accretion of asteroids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accretion_of_asteroids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accretion_of_comets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accretion_of_comets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Accretion of comets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accretion_of_comets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Accretion (astrophysics)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">46 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A" title="تنامي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تنامي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrecimientu" title="Acrecimientu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Acrecimientu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkresiya" title="Akkresiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Akkresiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BF" title="বিবৃদ্ধি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিবৃদ্ধি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Акрэцыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Акрэцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Акреция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Акреция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akrecija_(astrofizika)" title="Akrecija (astrofizika) – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Akrecija (astrofizika)" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acreci%C3%B3" title="Acreció – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Acreció" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akrece_(astronomie)" title="Akrece (astronomie) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Akrece (astronomie)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkretion_(Astronomie)" title="Akkretion (Astronomie) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Akkretion (Astronomie)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akretsioon_(astronoomia)" title="Akretsioon (astronoomia) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Akretsioon (astronoomia)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrecimiento" title="Acrecimiento – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Acrecimiento" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akrezio" title="Akrezio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Akrezio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B2%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4_(%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9)" title="برافزایش (اخترفیزیک) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="برافزایش (اخترفیزیک)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accr%C3%A9tion" title="Accrétion – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Accrétion" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuilleamh" title="Fuilleamh – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fuilleamh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%95%EC%B0%A9" title="강착 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="강착" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B3%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%AE%D6%84" title="Աճանստվածք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աճանստվածք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akresi_(astrofisika)" title="Akresi (astrofisika) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Akresi (astrofisika)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accrescimento_(astronomia)" title="Accrescimento (astronomia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Accrescimento (astronomia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аккреция – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Аккреция" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аккреция – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Аккреция" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akr%C4%93cija" title="Akrēcija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Akrēcija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkretioun_(Astronomie)" title="Akkretioun (Astronomie) – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Akkretioun (Astronomie)" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akrecija" title="Akrecija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Akrecija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5_(%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Насобирање (астрофизика) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Насобирање (астрофизика)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokokan_(astrofizik)" title="Tokokan (astrofizik) – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tokokan (astrofizik)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accretie_(astrofysica)" title="Accretie (astrofysica) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Accretie (astrofysica)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%99%8D%E7%9D%80_(%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6)" title="降着 (天文学) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="降着 (天文学)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkresjon" title="Akkresjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Akkresjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrecion" title="Acrecion – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Acrecion" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkretsiya" title="Akkretsiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Akkretsiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akrecja_(astronomia)" title="Akrecja (astronomia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Akrecja (astronomia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre%C3%A7%C3%A3o_(astrof%C3%ADsica)" title="Acreção (astrofísica) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Acreção (astrofísica)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre%C8%9Bie_(astronomie)" title="Acreție (astronomie) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Acreție (astronomie)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аккреция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Аккреция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accretion_(astrophysics)" title="Accretion (astrophysics) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Accretion (astrophysics)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akr%C3%A9cia_(astron%C3%B3mia)" title="Akrécia (astronómia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Akrécia (astronómia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akrecija_(astrofizika)" title="Akrecija (astrofizika) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Akrecija (astrofizika)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasautumisteoria" title="Kasautumisteoria – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kasautumisteoria" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%8E%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B7%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="ఎక్రీషన్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఎక్రీషన్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аккретсия – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Аккретсия" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1lma_(astrofizik)" title="Yığılma (astrofizik) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yığılma (astrofizik)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_(%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81)" title="Акреція (космос) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Акреція (космос)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%E1%BB%93i_t%E1%BB%A5_(thi%C3%AAn_v%C4%83n_h%E1%BB%8Dc)" title="Bồi tụ (thiên văn học) – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Bồi tụ (thiên văn học)" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%B8%E7%A7%AF" title="吸积 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="吸积" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Accumulation of particles into a massive object by gravitationally attracting more matter</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HL_Tau_protoplanetary_disk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/HL_Tau_protoplanetary_disk.jpg/300px-HL_Tau_protoplanetary_disk.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/HL_Tau_protoplanetary_disk.jpg/450px-HL_Tau_protoplanetary_disk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/HL_Tau_protoplanetary_disk.jpg/600px-HL_Tau_protoplanetary_disk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Atacama_Large_Millimeter_Array" title="Atacama Large Millimeter Array">ALMA</a> image of <a href="/wiki/HL_Tauri" title="HL Tauri">HL Tauri</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">protoplanetary disk</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a>, <b>accretion</b> is the accumulation of particles into a massive object by <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravitationally</a> attracting more matter, typically <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gaseous</a> matter, into an <a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk" title="Accretion disk">accretion disk</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-eso20080808_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eso20080808-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Masters_2010_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masters_2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">astronomical objects</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a>, are formed by accretion processes. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Accretion_(astrophysics)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The accretion model that Earth and the other <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet" title="Terrestrial planet">terrestrial planets</a> formed from meteoric material was proposed in 1944 by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Schmidt" title="Otto Schmidt">Otto Schmidt</a>, followed by the <i>protoplanet theory</i> of <a href="/wiki/William_McCrea_(astronomer)" title="William McCrea (astronomer)">William McCrea</a> (1960) and finally the <i>capture theory</i> of <a href="/wiki/Michael_Woolfson" title="Michael Woolfson">Michael Woolfson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Woolfson1993_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woolfson1993-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1978, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Prentice" title="Andrew Prentice">Andrew Prentice</a> resurrected the initial Laplacian ideas about planet formation and developed the <i>modern Laplacian theory</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Woolfson1993_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woolfson1993-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> None of these models proved completely successful, and many of the proposed theories were descriptive. </p><p>The 1944 accretion model by Otto Schmidt was further developed in a quantitative way in 1969 by <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Safronov" title="Viktor Safronov">Viktor Safronov</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NewScientist_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NewScientist-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He calculated, in detail, the different stages of terrestrial planet formation.<sup id="cite_ref-Papaloizou_2005_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papaloizou_2005-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Safronov1972_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Safronov1972-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then, the model has been further developed using intensive numerical simulations to study <a href="/wiki/Planetesimal" title="Planetesimal">planetesimal</a> accumulation. It is now accepted that stars form by the gravitational collapse of <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">interstellar gas</a>. Prior to collapse, this gas is mostly in the form of molecular clouds, such as the <a href="/wiki/Orion_Nebula" title="Orion Nebula">Orion Nebula</a>. As the cloud collapses, losing potential energy, it heats up, gaining kinetic energy, and the conservation of <a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum" title="Angular momentum">angular momentum</a> ensures that the cloud forms a flattened disk—the <a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk" title="Accretion disk">accretion disk</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accretion_of_galaxies">Accretion of galaxies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Accretion_(astrophysics)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Accretion of galaxies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Protogalaxy" title="Protogalaxy">Protogalaxy</a></div> <p>A few hundred thousand years after the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a> cooled to the point where atoms could form. As the Universe continued to <a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">expand</a> and cool, the atoms lost enough kinetic energy, and <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> coalesced sufficiently, to form <a href="/wiki/Protogalaxy" title="Protogalaxy">protogalaxies</a>. As further accretion occurred, <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxies</a> formed.<sup id="cite_ref-Kereš_2010_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kereš_2010-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indirect evidence is widespread.<sup id="cite_ref-Kereš_2010_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kereš_2010-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Galaxies grow through <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_merger" title="Galaxy merger">mergers</a> and smooth gas accretion. Accretion also occurs inside galaxies, forming stars. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accretion_of_stars">Accretion of stars</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Accretion_(astrophysics)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Accretion of stars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Protostar" title="Protostar">Protostar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Embryonic_Stars_in_the_Trifid_Nebula.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Embryonic_Stars_in_the_Trifid_Nebula.jpg/310px-Embryonic_Stars_in_the_Trifid_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Embryonic_Stars_in_the_Trifid_Nebula.jpg/465px-Embryonic_Stars_in_the_Trifid_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Embryonic_Stars_in_the_Trifid_Nebula.jpg/620px-Embryonic_Stars_in_the_Trifid_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>The visible-light (left) and infrared (right) views of the <a href="/wiki/Trifid_Nebula" title="Trifid Nebula">Trifid Nebula</a>, a giant star-forming cloud of gas and dust located 5,400 <a href="/wiki/Light-year" title="Light-year">light-years</a> (1,700 <a href="/wiki/Parsec" title="Parsec">pc</a>) away in the constellation Sagittarius</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">Stars</a> are thought to form inside <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">giant clouds</a> of cold <a href="/wiki/Molecular_hydrogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular hydrogen">molecular hydrogen</a>—<a href="/wiki/Giant_molecular_cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant molecular cloud">giant molecular clouds</a> of roughly 300,000 <a href="/wiki/Solar_mass" title="Solar mass"><var>M</var><sub>☉</sub></a> and 65 <a href="/wiki/Light-year" title="Light-year">light-years</a> (20 <a href="/wiki/Parsec" title="Parsec">pc</a>) in diameter.<sup id="cite_ref-Montmerle2006_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montmerle2006-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pudritz2002_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pudritz2002-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over millions of years, giant molecular clouds are prone to <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_collapse" title="Gravitational collapse">collapse</a> and fragmentation.<sup id="cite_ref-Clark2005_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark2005-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These fragments then form small, dense cores, which in turn collapse into stars.<sup id="cite_ref-Pudritz2002_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pudritz2002-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cores range in mass from a fraction to several times that of the Sun and are called protostellar (protosolar) nebulae.<sup id="cite_ref-Montmerle2006_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montmerle2006-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They possess diameters of 2,000–20,000 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">astronomical units</a> (0.01–0.1 <a href="/wiki/Parsec" title="Parsec">pc</a>) and a <a href="/wiki/Particle_number_density" class="mw-redirect" title="Particle number density">particle number density</a> of roughly 10,000 to 100,000/cm<sup>3</sup> (160,000 to 1,600,000/cu in). Compare it with the particle number density of the air at the sea level—2.8<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>19</sup>/cm<sup>3</sup> (4.6<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>20</sup>/cu in).<sup id="cite_ref-Pudritz2002_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pudritz2002-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Motte1998_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Motte1998-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The initial collapse of a solar-mass protostellar nebula takes around 100,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Montmerle2006_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montmerle2006-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pudritz2002_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pudritz2002-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Every nebula begins with a certain amount of <a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum" title="Angular momentum">angular momentum</a>. Gas in the central part of the nebula, with relatively low angular momentum, undergoes fast compression and forms a hot <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrostatic">hydrostatic</a> (non-contracting) core containing a small fraction of the mass of the original nebula. This core forms the seed of what will become a star.<sup id="cite_ref-Montmerle2006_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montmerle2006-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the collapse continues, conservation of angular momentum dictates that the rotation of the infalling envelope accelerates, which eventually forms a disk. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Embedded_Outflow_in_Herbig-Haro_object_HH_46_47.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Embedded_Outflow_in_Herbig-Haro_object_HH_46_47.jpg/220px-Embedded_Outflow_in_Herbig-Haro_object_HH_46_47.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Embedded_Outflow_in_Herbig-Haro_object_HH_46_47.jpg/330px-Embedded_Outflow_in_Herbig-Haro_object_HH_46_47.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Embedded_Outflow_in_Herbig-Haro_object_HH_46_47.jpg/440px-Embedded_Outflow_in_Herbig-Haro_object_HH_46_47.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Infrared image of the molecular outflow from an otherwise hidden newborn star HH 46/47</figcaption></figure> <p>As the infall of material from the disk continues, the envelope eventually becomes thin and transparent and the <a href="/wiki/Young_stellar_object" title="Young stellar object">young stellar object</a> (YSO) becomes observable, initially in <a href="/wiki/Far-infrared" class="mw-redirect" title="Far-infrared">far-infrared</a> light and later in the visible.<sup id="cite_ref-Motte1998_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Motte1998-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around this time the protostar begins to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">fuse</a> <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a>. If the protostar is sufficiently massive (above <span class="nowrap">80</span> <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_mass" title="Jupiter mass"><var>M</var><sub>J</sub></a>), hydrogen fusion follows. Otherwise, if its mass is too low, the object becomes a <a href="/wiki/Brown_dwarf" title="Brown dwarf">brown dwarf</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stahler1988_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stahler1988-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This birth of a new star occurs approximately 100,000 years after the collapse begins.<sup id="cite_ref-Montmerle2006_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montmerle2006-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Objects at this stage are known as Class I protostars, which are also called young <a href="/wiki/T_Tauri_star" title="T Tauri star">T Tauri stars</a>, evolved protostars, or young stellar objects. By this time, the forming star has already accreted much of its mass; the total mass of the disk and remaining envelope does not exceed 10–20% of the mass of the central YSO.<sup id="cite_ref-Motte1998_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Motte1998-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Accretion_Disk_Binary_System.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Accretion_Disk_Binary_System.jpg/220px-Accretion_Disk_Binary_System.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Accretion_Disk_Binary_System.jpg/330px-Accretion_Disk_Binary_System.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Accretion_Disk_Binary_System.jpg/440px-Accretion_Disk_Binary_System.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="525" /></a><figcaption>When the lower-mass star in a binary system enters an expansion phase, its outer atmosphere may <a href="/wiki/Roche_lobe#Mass_transfer" title="Roche lobe">fall onto the compact star</a>, forming an accretion disk</figcaption></figure> <p>At the next stage, the envelope completely disappears, having been gathered up by the disk, and the protostar becomes a classical T Tauri star.<sup id="cite_ref-Mohanty2005_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mohanty2005-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter have accretion disks and continue to accrete hot gas, which manifests itself by strong emission lines in their spectrum. The former do not possess accretion disks. Classical T Tauri stars evolve into weakly lined T Tauri stars.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin1994_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin1994-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This happens after about 1 million years.<sup id="cite_ref-Montmerle2006_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montmerle2006-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mass of the disk around a classical T Tauri star is about 1–3% of the stellar mass, and it is accreted at a rate of 10<sup>−7</sup> to 10<sup>−9</sup> <var>M</var><sub>☉</sub> per year.<sup id="cite_ref-Hartmann1998_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hartmann1998-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A pair of bipolar jets is usually present as well. The accretion explains all peculiar properties of classical T Tauri stars: strong <a href="/wiki/Flux" title="Flux">flux</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Emission_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Emission line">emission lines</a> (up to 100% of the intrinsic <a href="/wiki/Luminosity" title="Luminosity">luminosity</a> of the star), <a href="/wiki/Magnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic">magnetic</a> activity, <a href="/wiki/Photometry_(astronomy)" title="Photometry (astronomy)">photometric</a> <a href="/wiki/Variable_star" title="Variable star">variability</a> and jets.<sup id="cite_ref-Muzerolle2001_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muzerolle2001-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emission lines actually form as the accreted gas hits the "surface" of the star, which happens around its <a href="/wiki/Poles_of_astronomical_bodies#Magnetic_poles" title="Poles of astronomical bodies">magnetic poles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Muzerolle2001_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muzerolle2001-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The jets are byproducts of accretion: they carry away excessive angular momentum. The classical T Tauri stage lasts about 10 million years<sup id="cite_ref-Montmerle2006_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montmerle2006-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (there are only a few examples of so-called <a href="/wiki/Peter_Pan_disk" title="Peter Pan disk">Peter Pan disks</a>, where the accretion continues to persist for much longer periods, sometimes lasting for more than 40 million years<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). The disk eventually disappears due to accretion onto the central star, planet formation, ejection by jets, and <a href="/wiki/Photoevaporation" title="Photoevaporation">photoevaporation</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> radiation from the central star and nearby stars.<sup id="cite_ref-Adams2004_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams2004-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, the young star becomes a <a href="/wiki/Weak-lined_T_Tauri_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak-lined T Tauri star">weakly lined T Tauri star</a>, which, over hundreds of millions of years, evolves into an ordinary Sun-like star, dependent on its initial mass. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accretion_of_planets">Accretion of planets</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Accretion_(astrophysics)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Accretion of planets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">Protoplanetary disk</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Artist%E2%80%99s_Impression_of_a_Baby_Star_Still_Surrounded_by_a_Protoplanetary_Disc.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Artist%E2%80%99s_Impression_of_a_Baby_Star_Still_Surrounded_by_a_Protoplanetary_Disc.jpg/220px-Artist%E2%80%99s_Impression_of_a_Baby_Star_Still_Surrounded_by_a_Protoplanetary_Disc.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Artist%E2%80%99s_Impression_of_a_Baby_Star_Still_Surrounded_by_a_Protoplanetary_Disc.jpg/330px-Artist%E2%80%99s_Impression_of_a_Baby_Star_Still_Surrounded_by_a_Protoplanetary_Disc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Artist%E2%80%99s_Impression_of_a_Baby_Star_Still_Surrounded_by_a_Protoplanetary_Disc.jpg/440px-Artist%E2%80%99s_Impression_of_a_Baby_Star_Still_Surrounded_by_a_Protoplanetary_Disc.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Artist's impression of a <a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">protoplanetary disk</a> showing a young star at its center</figcaption></figure> <p>Self-accretion of <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">cosmic dust</a> accelerates the growth of the particles into boulder-sized <a href="/wiki/Planetesimal" title="Planetesimal">planetesimals</a>. The more massive planetesimals accrete some smaller ones, while others shatter in collisions. Accretion disks are common around smaller stars, stellar remnants in a <a href="/wiki/Binary_star" title="Binary star">close binary</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black holes</a> surrounded by material (such as those at the centers of <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxies</a>). Some dynamics in the disk, such as <a href="/wiki/Dynamical_friction" title="Dynamical friction">dynamical friction</a>, are necessary to allow orbiting gas to lose <a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum" title="Angular momentum">angular momentum</a> and fall onto the central massive object. Occasionally, this can result in <a href="/wiki/Stellar_surface_fusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar surface fusion">stellar surface fusion</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Bondi_accretion" title="Bondi accretion">Bondi accretion</a>). </p><p>In the formation of terrestrial planets or <a href="/wiki/Planetary_core" title="Planetary core">planetary cores</a>, several stages can be considered. First, when gas and dust grains collide, they agglomerate by microphysical processes like <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force" title="Van der Waals force">van der Waals forces</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetic forces</a>, forming micrometer-sized particles. During this stage, accumulation mechanisms are largely non-gravitational in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-Ward_1996_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ward_1996-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, planetesimal formation in the centimeter-to-meter range is not well understood, and no convincing explanation is offered as to why such grains would accumulate rather than simply rebound.<sup id="cite_ref-Ward_1996_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ward_1996-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 341">: 341 </span></sup> In particular, it is still not clear how these objects grow to become 0.1–1 km (0.06–0.6 mi) sized planetesimals;<sup id="cite_ref-Papaloizou_2005_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papaloizou_2005-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chambers_2004_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chambers_2004-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this problem is known as the "meter size barrier":<sup id="cite_ref-astrobites20150403_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-astrobites20150403-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grishin2019_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grishin2019-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As dust particles grow by coagulation, they acquire increasingly large relative velocities with respect to other particles in their vicinity, as well as a systematic inward drift velocity, that leads to destructive collisions, and thereby limit the growth of the aggregates to some maximum size.<sup id="cite_ref-Birnstiel2009_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birnstiel2009-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ward (1996) suggests that when slow moving grains collide, the very low, yet non-zero, gravity of colliding grains impedes their escape.<sup id="cite_ref-Ward_1996_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ward_1996-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 341">: 341 </span></sup> It is also thought that grain fragmentation plays an important role replenishing small grains and keeping the disk thick, but also in maintaining a relatively high abundance of solids of all sizes.<sup id="cite_ref-Birnstiel2009_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birnstiel2009-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A number of mechanisms have been proposed for crossing the 'meter-sized' barrier. Local concentrations of pebbles may form, which then gravitationally collapse into planetesimals the size of large asteroids. These concentrations can occur passively due to the structure of the gas disk, for example, between eddies, at pressure bumps, at the edge of a gap created by a giant planet, or at the boundaries of turbulent regions of the disk.<sup id="cite_ref-Protostars_and_Planets_2014_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Protostars_and_Planets_2014-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Or, the particles may take an active role in their concentration via a feedback mechanism referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Streaming_instability" title="Streaming instability">streaming instability</a>. In a streaming instability the interaction between the solids and the gas in the protoplanetary disk results in the growth of local concentrations, as new particles accumulate in the wake of small concentrations, causing them to grow into massive filaments.<sup id="cite_ref-Protostars_and_Planets_2014_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Protostars_and_Planets_2014-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternatively, if the grains that form due to the agglomeration of dust are highly porous their growth may continue until they become large enough to collapse due to their own gravity. The low density of these objects allows them to remain strongly coupled with the gas, thereby avoiding high velocity collisions which could result in their erosion or fragmentation.<sup id="cite_ref-Johansen_Jacquet_2015_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johansen_Jacquet_2015-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Grains eventually stick together to form mountain-size (or larger) bodies called planetesimals. Collisions and <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravitational interactions</a> between planetesimals combine to produce Moon-size planetary embryos (<a href="/wiki/Protoplanet" title="Protoplanet">protoplanets</a>) over roughly 0.1–1 million years. Finally, the planetary embryos collide to form planets over 10–100 million years.<sup id="cite_ref-Chambers_2004_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chambers_2004-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The planetesimals are massive enough that mutual gravitational interactions are significant enough to be taken into account when computing their evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Papaloizou_2005_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papaloizou_2005-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Growth is aided by orbital decay of smaller bodies due to gas drag, which prevents them from being stranded between orbits of the embryos.<sup id="cite_ref-Weidenschilling1997_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weidenschilling1997-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kary1993_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kary1993-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further collisions and accumulation lead to terrestrial planets or the core of giant planets. </p><p>If the planetesimals formed via the gravitational collapse of local concentrations of pebbles, their growth into planetary embryos and the cores of giant planets is dominated by the further accretions of pebbles. <a href="/wiki/Pebble_accretion" title="Pebble accretion">Pebble accretion</a> is aided by the gas drag felt by objects as they accelerate toward a massive body. Gas drag slows the pebbles below the escape velocity of the massive body causing them to spiral toward and to be accreted by it. Pebble accretion may accelerate the formation of planets by a factor of 1000 compared to the accretion of planetesimals, allowing giant planets to form before the dissipation of the gas disk.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewin_2015_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewin_2015-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lambrechts_Johansen_2012_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lambrechts_Johansen_2012-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, core growth via pebble accretion appears incompatible with the final masses and compositions of <a href="/wiki/Uranus" title="Uranus">Uranus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-helled_2014_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-helled_2014-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Direct calculations indicate that, in a typical <a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">protoplanetary disk</a>, the formation time of a giant planet via pebble accretion is comparable to the formation times resulting from planetesimal accretion.<sup id="cite_ref-dangelo_2024_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dangelo_2024-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The formation of <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet" title="Terrestrial planet">terrestrial planets</a> differs from that of giant gas planets, also called <a href="/wiki/Jovian_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Jovian planet">Jovian planets</a>. The particles that make up the terrestrial planets are made from metal and rock that condensed in the inner <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>. However, Jovian planets began as large, icy planetesimals, which then captured hydrogen and helium gas from the <a href="/wiki/Solar_nebula" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar nebula">solar nebula</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ddl2011_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ddl2011-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Differentiation between these two classes of planetesimals arise due to the <a href="/wiki/Frost_line_(astrophysics)" title="Frost line (astrophysics)">frost line</a> of the solar nebula.<sup id="cite_ref-Bennett2014_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bennett2014-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accretion_of_asteroids">Accretion of asteroids</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Accretion_(astrophysics)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Accretion of asteroids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chondrules_grassland_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Chondrules_grassland_1.jpg/220px-Chondrules_grassland_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Chondrules_grassland_1.jpg/330px-Chondrules_grassland_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Chondrules_grassland_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="414" data-file-height="291" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chondrule" title="Chondrule">Chondrules</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Chondrite" title="Chondrite">chondrite</a> meteorite. A millimeter scale is shown.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">Meteorites</a> contain a record of accretion and impacts during all stages of <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroid</a> origin and evolution; however, the mechanism of asteroid accretion and growth is not well understood.<sup id="cite_ref-asteroids_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-asteroids-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence suggests the main growth of asteroids can result from gas-assisted accretion of <a href="/wiki/Chondrule" title="Chondrule">chondrules</a>, which are millimeter-sized spherules that form as molten (or partially molten) droplets in space before being accreted to their parent asteroids.<sup id="cite_ref-asteroids_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-asteroids-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the inner Solar System, chondrules appear to have been crucial for initiating accretion.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott_2011_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott_2011-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tiny mass of asteroids may be partly due to inefficient chondrule formation beyond 2 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">AU</a>, or less-efficient delivery of chondrules from near the protostar.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott_2011_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott_2011-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, impacts controlled the formation and destruction of asteroids, and are thought to be a major factor in their geological evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott_2011_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott_2011-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chondrules, metal grains, and other components likely formed in the <a href="/wiki/Solar_nebula" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar nebula">solar nebula</a>. These accreted together to form parent asteroids. Some of these bodies subsequently melted, forming <a href="/wiki/Planetary_core" title="Planetary core">metallic cores</a> and <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a>-rich <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantles</a>; others were aqueously altered.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott_2011_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott_2011-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the asteroids had cooled, they were eroded by impacts for 4.5 billion years, or disrupted.<sup id="cite_ref-Asteroids_III_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asteroids_III-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For accretion to occur, impact velocities must be less than about twice the escape velocity, which is about 140 <a href="/wiki/Metre_per_second" title="Metre per second">m/s</a> (460 <a href="/wiki/Feet_per_second" class="mw-redirect" title="Feet per second">ft/s</a>) for a 100 km (60 mi) radius asteroid.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott_2011_35-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott_2011-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simple models for accretion in the <a href="/wiki/Asteroid_belt" title="Asteroid belt">asteroid belt</a> generally assume micrometer-sized dust grains sticking together and settling to the midplane of the nebula to form a dense layer of dust, which, because of gravitational forces, was converted into a disk of kilometer-sized planetesimals. But, several arguments<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (January 2016)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> suggest that asteroids may not have accreted this way.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott_2011_35-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott_2011-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accretion_of_comets">Accretion of comets</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Accretion_(astrophysics)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Accretion of comets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UltimaThule_CA06_color_vertical_(rotated).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/UltimaThule_CA06_color_vertical_%28rotated%29.png/220px-UltimaThule_CA06_color_vertical_%28rotated%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/UltimaThule_CA06_color_vertical_%28rotated%29.png/330px-UltimaThule_CA06_color_vertical_%28rotated%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/UltimaThule_CA06_color_vertical_%28rotated%29.png/440px-UltimaThule_CA06_color_vertical_%28rotated%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1302" data-file-height="1860" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/486958_Arrokoth" title="486958 Arrokoth">486958 Arrokoth</a>, a Kuiper belt object which is thought to represent the original planetesimals from which the planets grew</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">Comets</a>, or their precursors, formed in the outer Solar System, possibly millions of years before planet formation.<sup id="cite_ref-Comets_2015_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Comets_2015-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> How and when comets formed is debated, with distinct implications for Solar System formation, dynamics, and geology. Three-dimensional computer simulations indicate the major structural features observed on <a href="/wiki/Comet_nucleus" title="Comet nucleus">cometary nuclei</a> can be explained by pairwise low velocity accretion of weak cometesimals.<sup id="cite_ref-Cometary_accretion_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cometary_accretion-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Weidenschilling1997b_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weidenschilling1997b-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The currently favored formation mechanism is that of the <a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis" title="Nebular hypothesis">nebular hypothesis</a>, which states that comets are probably a remnant of the original planetesimal "building blocks" from which the planets grew.<sup id="cite_ref-Choi_2014_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Choi_2014-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hill_2000_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill_2000-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SC_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SC-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Astronomers think that comets originate in both the <a href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" title="Oort cloud">Oort cloud</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Scattered_disk" class="mw-redirect" title="Scattered disk">scattered disk</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Levison2007_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levison2007-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scattered disk was created when <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a> migrated outward into the proto-Kuiper belt, which at the time was much closer to the Sun, and left in its wake a population of dynamically stable objects that could never be affected by its orbit (the <a href="/wiki/Kuiper_belt" title="Kuiper belt">Kuiper belt</a> proper), and a population whose perihelia are close enough that Neptune can still disturb them as it travels around the Sun (the scattered disk). Because the scattered disk is dynamically active and the Kuiper belt relatively dynamically stable, the scattered disk is now seen as the most likely point of origin for periodic comets.<sup id="cite_ref-Levison2007_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levison2007-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The classic Oort cloud theory states that the Oort cloud, a sphere measuring about 50,000 AU (0.24 pc) in radius, formed at the same time as the solar nebula and occasionally releases comets into the inner Solar System as a giant planet or star passes nearby and causes gravitational disruptions.<sup id="cite_ref-Greenberg1985_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greenberg1985-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of such comet clouds may already have been seen in the <a href="/wiki/Helix_Nebula" title="Helix Nebula">Helix Nebula</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Rosetta_(spacecraft)" title="Rosetta (spacecraft)"><i>Rosetta</i> mission</a> to comet <a href="/wiki/67P/Churyumov%E2%80%93Gerasimenko" title="67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko">67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko</a> determined in 2015 that when Sun's heat penetrates the surface, it triggers evaporation (sublimation) of buried ice. While some of the resulting water vapour may escape from the nucleus, 80% of it recondenses in layers beneath the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-cycling_water_2016_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cycling_water_2016-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This observation implies that the thin ice-rich layers exposed close to the surface may be a consequence of cometary activity and evolution, and that global layering does not necessarily occur early in the comet's formation history.<sup id="cite_ref-cycling_water_2016_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cycling_water_2016-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Filacchione2016_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Filacchione2016-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While most scientists thought that all the evidence indicated that the structure of nuclei of comets is processed <a href="/wiki/Rubble_pile" title="Rubble pile">rubble piles</a> of smaller ice planetesimals of a previous generation,<sup id="cite_ref-Krishna1997_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krishna1997-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <i>Rosetta</i> mission confirmed the idea that comets are "rubble piles" of disparate material.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Comets appear to have formed as ~100-km bodies, then overwhelmingly ground/recontacted into their present states.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Accretion_(astrophysics)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a> – Study of molecules in the Universe and their reactions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_spectroscopy" title="Astronomical spectroscopy">Astronomical spectroscopy</a> – Study of astronomy using spectroscopy to measure the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumplanetary_disk" title="Circumplanetary disk">Circumplanetary disk</a> – Accumulation of matter around a planet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exoasteroid" title="Exoasteroid">Exoasteroid</a> – Asteroids found outside of the Solar System</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules" title="List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules">List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova" title="Nova">Nova</a> – Nuclear explosion in a white dwarf star</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_nebula" title="Planetary nebula">Planetary nebula</a> – Type of emission nebula created by dying red giants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q-PACE" title="Q-PACE">Q-PACE</a> – Spacecraft mission to study stellar accretion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-star" title="Quasi-star">Quasi-star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_system" title="Ring system">Ring system</a> – Ring of cosmic dust orbiting an astronomical object</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubble_pile" title="Rubble pile">Rubble pile</a> – Celestial body composed of many pieces of rock held together by gravity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity" title="Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity">Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Accretion_(astrophysics)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-eso20080808-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-eso20080808_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output 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subfields"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomy_subfields" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomy subfields"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_subfields_of_astronomy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major subfields of <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">Astrometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extragalactic_astronomy" title="Extragalactic astronomy">Extragalactic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_astronomy" title="Galactic astronomy">Galactic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_mechanics" title="Orbital mechanics">Orbital mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Solar astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy#Stellar_astronomy" title="Astronomy">Stellar astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Exoplanets" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Exoplanet" title="Template:Exoplanet"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Exoplanet" title="Template talk:Exoplanet"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Exoplanet" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Exoplanet"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Exoplanets" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Exoplanets</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">Planet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Definition_of_planet" title="Definition of planet">Definition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IAU_definition_of_planet" title="IAU definition of planet">IAU</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Main topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exoplanet" title="Exoplanet">Exoplanet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters" title="Exoplanet orbital and physical parameters">Exoplanet orbital and physical parameters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methods_of_detecting_exoplanets" title="Methods of detecting exoplanets">Methods of detecting exoplanets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_system" title="Planetary system">Planetary system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planet-hosting_star" title="Planet-hosting star">Planet-hosting stars</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/PDS_70" title="PDS 70"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/PDS_70.jpg/100px-PDS_70.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/PDS_70.jpg/150px-PDS_70.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/PDS_70.jpg/200px-PDS_70.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1692" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Sizes<br />and <br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_planet_types" title="List of planet types">types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet" title="Terrestrial planet">Terrestrial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_planet" title="Carbon planet">Carbon planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coreless_planet" title="Coreless planet">Coreless planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_planet" title="Desert planet">Desert planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_planet" title="Dwarf planet">Dwarf planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hycean_planet" title="Hycean planet">Hycean planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_planet" title="Ice planet">Ice planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_planet" title="Iron planet">Iron planet</a> (Super-Mercury)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_planet" title="Lava planet">Lava planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_world" title="Ocean world">Ocean world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mega-Earth" title="Mega-Earth">Mega-Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Earth" title="Sub-Earth">Sub-Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-Earth" title="Super-Earth">Super-Earth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Gas_giant" title="Gas giant">Gaseous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eccentric_Jupiter" title="Eccentric Jupiter">Eccentric Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mini-Neptune" title="Mini-Neptune">Mini-Neptune</a> (Gas dwarf)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_planet" title="Helium planet">Helium planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_Jupiter" title="Hot Jupiter">Hot Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_Neptune" title="Hot Neptune">Hot Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_giant" title="Gas giant">Gas giant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_giant" title="Ice giant">Ice giant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-Jupiter" title="Super-Jupiter">Super-Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-Neptune" title="Super-Neptune">Super-Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-puff" title="Super-puff">Super-puff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-hot_Jupiter" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultra-hot Jupiter">Ultra-hot Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-hot_Neptune" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultra-hot Neptune">Ultra-hot Neptune</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Other types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blanet" title="Blanet">Blanet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_dwarf" title="Brown dwarf">Brown dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chthonian_planet" title="Chthonian planet">Chthonian planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumbinary_planet" title="Circumbinary planet">Circumbinary planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumtriple_planet" title="Circumtriple planet">Circumtriple planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disrupted_planet" title="Disrupted planet">Disrupted planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_planet" title="Double planet">Double planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenopolis" title="Ecumenopolis">Ecumenopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyeball_planet" title="Eyeball planet">Eyeball planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giant_planet" title="Giant planet">Giant planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoplanet" title="Mesoplanet">Mesoplanet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary-mass_object" title="Planetary-mass object">Planemo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_dwarf#Low-mass_brown_dwarfs_versus_high-mass_planets" title="Brown dwarf">Planet/Brown dwarf boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetesimal" title="Planetesimal">Planetesimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoplanet" title="Protoplanet">Protoplanet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar_planet" title="Pulsar planet">Pulsar planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-brown_dwarf" title="Sub-brown dwarf">Sub-brown dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Neptune" title="Sub-Neptune">Sub-Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toroidal_planet" title="Toroidal planet">Toroidal planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-cool_dwarf" title="Ultra-cool dwarf">Ultra-cool dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-short_period_planet" title="Ultra-short period planet">Ultra-short period planet (USP)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">Formation <br />and <br />evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Accretion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk" title="Accretion disk">Accretion disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_belt" title="Asteroid belt">Asteroid belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumplanetary_disk" title="Circumplanetary disk">Circumplanetary disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_disc" title="Circumstellar disc">Circumstellar disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_envelope" title="Circumstellar envelope">Circumstellar envelope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">Cosmic dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris_disk" title="Debris disk">Debris disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detached_object" title="Detached object">Detached object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disrupted_planet" title="Disrupted planet">Disrupted planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk#Excretion_disk" title="Accretion disk">Excretion disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exozodiacal_dust" title="Exozodiacal dust">Exozodiacal dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_materials" title="Extraterrestrial materials">Extraterrestrial materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_sample_curation" title="Extraterrestrial sample curation">Extraterrestrial sample curation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giant-impact_hypothesis" title="Giant-impact hypothesis">Giant-impact hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_collapse" title="Gravitational collapse">Gravitational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hills_cloud" title="Hills cloud">Hills cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exoplanet_interiors" title="Exoplanet interiors">Internal structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_dust_cloud" title="Interplanetary dust cloud">Interplanetary dust cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_medium" title="Interplanetary medium">Interplanetary medium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Interplanetary space">Interplanetary space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_cloud" title="Interstellar cloud">Interstellar cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_dust" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstellar dust">Interstellar dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">Interstellar medium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_space#Interstellar_space" title="Outer space">Interstellar space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuiper_belt" title="Kuiper belt">Kuiper belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules" title="List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules">List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_collision#Formation_of_planets" title="Stellar collision">Merging stars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">Molecular cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis" title="Nebular hypothesis">Nebular hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" title="Oort cloud">Oort cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">Outer space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_migration" title="Planetary migration">Planetary migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_system" title="Planetary system">Planetary system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetesimal" title="Planetesimal">Planetesimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis#Formation_of_planets" title="Nebular hypothesis">Planet formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">Protoplanetary disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_system" title="Ring system">Ring system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubble_pile" title="Rubble pile">Rubble pile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sample-return_mission" title="Sample-return mission">Sample-return mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scattered_disc" title="Scattered disc">Scattered disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_formation" title="Star formation">Star formation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_system" title="Planetary system">Systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exocomet" title="Exocomet">Exocomet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_comet" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstellar comet">Interstellar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exomoon" title="Exomoon">Exomoon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tidally_detached_exomoon" title="Tidally detached exomoon">Tidally detached</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_planet" title="Rogue planet">Rogue planet</a></li> <li>Orbits <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retrograde_and_prograde_motion#Exoplanets" title="Retrograde and prograde motion">Retrograde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-orbital_configuration#Trojans" title="Co-orbital configuration">Trojan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_resonance#Mean-motion_resonances_among_extrasolar_planets" title="Orbital resonance">Mean-motion resonances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titius%E2%80%93Bode_law#Lunar_systems_and_other_planetary_systems" title="Titius–Bode law">Titius–Bode law</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_system#Planet-hosting_stars" title="Planetary system">Host stars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A-type_main-sequence_star#Planets" title="A-type main-sequence star">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B-type_main-sequence_star#Planets" title="B-type main-sequence star">B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_star#Planets" title="Binary star">Binary star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_dwarf#Planets_around_brown_dwarfs" title="Brown dwarf">Brown dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-type_main-sequence_star#Planets" title="F-type main-sequence star">F/Yellow-white dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G-type_main-sequence_star#Planets" title="G-type main-sequence star">G/Yellow dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbig_Ae/Be_star#Planets" title="Herbig Ae/Be star">Herbig Ae/Be</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-type_main-sequence_star#Planets" title="K-type main-sequence star">K/Orange dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_dwarf#Planets" title="Red dwarf">M/Red dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar_planet" title="Pulsar planet">Pulsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_giant#Planets" title="Red giant">Red giant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subdwarf_B_star#Planetary_systems" title="Subdwarf B star">Subdwarf B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subgiant#Planets" title="Subgiant">Subgiant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T_Tauri_star#Planets" title="T Tauri star">T Tauri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_dwarf#Debris_disks_and_planets" title="White dwarf">White dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_giant#Planets" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow giant">Yellow giants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Methods_of_detecting_exoplanets" title="Methods of detecting exoplanets">Detection</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">Astrometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methods_of_detecting_exoplanets#Direct_imaging" title="Methods of detecting exoplanets">Direct imaging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_directly_imaged_exoplanets" title="List of directly imaged exoplanets">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_microlensing" title="Gravitational microlensing">Microlensing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_detected_by_microlensing" title="List of exoplanets detected by microlensing">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarimetry" title="Polarimetry">Polarimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methods_of_detecting_exoplanets#Pulsar_timing" title="Methods of detecting exoplanets">Timing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_detected_by_timing" title="List of exoplanets detected by timing">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doppler_spectroscopy" title="Doppler spectroscopy">Radial velocity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_detected_by_radial_velocity" title="List of exoplanets detected by radial velocity">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methods_of_detecting_exoplanets#Transit_photometry" title="Methods of detecting exoplanets">Transit method</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_transiting_exoplanets" title="List of transiting exoplanets">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transit-timing_variation" title="Transit-timing variation">Transit-timing variation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_habitability" title="Planetary habitability">Habitability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrooceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrooceanography">Astrooceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_habitable_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumstellar habitable zone">Circumstellar habitable zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_analog" title="Earth analog">Earth analog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_liquid_water" title="Extraterrestrial liquid water">Extraterrestrial liquid water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_habitable_zone" title="Galactic habitable zone">Galactic habitable zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_binary_star_systems" title="Habitability of binary star systems">Habitability of binary star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_F-type_main-sequence_star_systems" title="Habitability of F-type main-sequence star systems">Habitability of F-type main-sequence star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_K-type_main-sequence_star_systems" title="Habitability of K-type main-sequence star systems">Habitability of K-type main-sequence star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_natural_satellites" title="Habitability of natural satellites">Habitability of natural satellites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_neutron_star_systems" title="Habitability of neutron star systems">Habitability of neutron star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_red_dwarf_systems" title="Habitability of red dwarf systems">Habitability of red dwarf systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_yellow_dwarf_systems" title="Habitability of yellow dwarf systems">Habitability of yellow dwarf systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitable_zone_for_complex_life" title="Habitable zone for complex life">Habitable zone for complex life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_potentially_habitable_exoplanets" title="List of potentially habitable exoplanets">List of potentially habitable exoplanets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tholin" title="Tholin">Tholin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superhabitable_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Superhabitable planet">Superhabitable planet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Catalogues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalog_of_Nearby_Habitable_Systems" title="Catalog of Nearby Habitable Systems">Nearby Habitable Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exoplanet_Data_Explorer" title="Exoplanet Data Explorer">Exoplanet Data Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrasolar_Planets_Encyclopaedia" title="Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia">Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NASA_Exoplanet_Archive" title="NASA Exoplanet Archive">NASA Exoplanet Archive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NASA_Star_and_Exoplanet_Database" title="NASA Star and Exoplanet Database">NASA Star and Exoplanet Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Exoplanet_Catalogue" title="Open Exoplanet Catalogue">Open Exoplanet Catalogue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_planets" title="Lists of planets">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Exoplanetary systems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanetary_host_stars" class="mw-redirect" title="List of exoplanetary host stars">Host stars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_multiplanetary_systems" title="List of multiplanetary systems">Multiplanetary systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stars_with_proplyds" title="List of stars with proplyds">Stars with proto-planetary discs</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_exoplanets" class="mw-redirect" title="Lists of exoplanets">Exoplanets</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discoveries_of_exoplanets" title="Discoveries of exoplanets">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanet_extremes" title="List of exoplanet extremes">Extremes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanet_firsts" title="List of exoplanet firsts">Firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nearest_exoplanets" title="List of nearest exoplanets">Nearest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_exoplanets" title="List of largest exoplanets">Largest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_massive_exoplanets" class="mw-redirect" title="List of most massive exoplanets">Heaviest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nearest_terrestrial_exoplanet_candidates" title="List of nearest terrestrial exoplanet candidates">Terrestrial candidates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_by_the_Kepler_space_telescope" title="List of exoplanets discovered by the Kepler space telescope">Kepler</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_by_the_Kepler_space_telescope:_1%E2%80%93500" title="List of exoplanets discovered by the Kepler space telescope: 1–500">1–500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_by_the_Kepler_space_telescope:_501%E2%80%931000" title="List of exoplanets discovered by the Kepler space telescope: 501–1000">501–1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_by_the_Kepler_space_telescope:_1001%E2%80%931500" title="List of exoplanets discovered by the Kepler space telescope: 1001–1500">1001–1500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_by_the_Kepler_space_telescope:_1501%E2%80%932000" title="List of exoplanets discovered by the Kepler space telescope: 1501–2000">1501–2000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_observed_during_Kepler%27s_K2_mission" title="List of exoplanets observed during Kepler's K2 mission">K2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_potentially_habitable_exoplanets" title="List of potentially habitable exoplanets">Potentially habitable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_proper_names_of_exoplanets" title="List of proper names of exoplanets">Proper names</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Discovered exoplanets by year <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_before_2000" title="List of exoplanets discovered before 2000">before 2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_between_2000%E2%80%932009" title="List of exoplanets discovered between 2000–2009">2000–2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2010" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2010">2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2011" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2011">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2012" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2012">2012</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2013" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2013">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2014" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2014">2014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2015" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2015">2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2016" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2016">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2017" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2017">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2018" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2018">2018</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2019" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2019">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2020" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2020">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2021" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2021">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2022" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2022">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2023" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2023">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2024" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2024">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan_Institute" title="Carl Sagan Institute">Carl Sagan Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exoplanet_naming_convention" title="Exoplanet naming convention">Exoplanet naming convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase_curve_(astronomy)#Exoplanets" title="Phase curve (astronomy)">Exoplanet phase curves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exoplanetary_Circumstellar_Environments_and_Disk_Explorer" title="Exoplanetary Circumstellar Environments and Disk Explorer">Exoplanetary Circumstellar Environments and Disk Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extragalactic_planet" title="Extragalactic planet">Extragalactic planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrasolar_planets_in_fiction" title="Extrasolar planets in fiction">Extrasolar planets in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodynamics_of_terrestrial_exoplanets" title="Geodynamics of terrestrial exoplanets">Geodynamics of terrestrial exoplanets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neptunian_desert" title="Neptunian desert">Neptunian desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nexus_for_Exoplanet_System_Science" title="Nexus for Exoplanet System Science">Nexus for Exoplanet System Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globular_cluster#Planets" title="Globular cluster">Planets in globular clusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_planet_radius_gap" title="Small planet radius gap">Small planet radius gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudarsky%27s_gas_giant_classification" title="Sudarsky's gas giant classification">Sudarsky's gas giant classification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discoveries_of_exoplanets" title="Discoveries of exoplanets">Discoveries of exoplanets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanet_search_projects" title="List of exoplanet search projects">Search projects</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and 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class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/17px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/26px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/34px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/19px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/29px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/38px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span 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