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class="mw-page-title-main">Justification (epistemology)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%83_(%D1%8D%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Негіздеу (эпистемология) – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Негіздеу (эпистемология)" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtvaardiging_(kennistheorie)" title="Rechtvaardiging (kennistheorie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Rechtvaardiging (kennistheorie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzasadnienie" title="Uzasadnienie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Uzasadnienie" data-language-autonym="Polski" 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href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Schools</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogmatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogmatism">Dogmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infallibilism" title="Infallibilism">Infallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">Perspectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_knowledge_and_action" title="Unity of knowledge and action">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Full_and_partial" title="Belief">Credence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">Certainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy)" title="Meaning (philosophy)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Domains</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_epistemology" title="Applied epistemology">Applied epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical epistemology">Historical epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Epistemologists</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related fields</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_cognition" title="Epistemic cognition">Epistemic cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_modal_logic" title="Epistemic modal logic">Epistemic logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Epistemology_sidebar" title="Template:Epistemology sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epistemology_sidebar" title="Template talk:Epistemology sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Justification</b> (also called <b>epistemic justification</b>) is a property of <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">beliefs</a> that fulfill certain norms about what a person should believe.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemologists</a> often identify justification as a component of knowledge distinguishing it from mere true opinion.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They study the reasons why someone holds a belief.<sup id="cite_ref-IEP_Just_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEP_Just-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epistemologists are concerned with various features of belief, which include the ideas of warrant (a proper justification for holding a belief), <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a>, among others. </p><p>Debates surrounding epistemic justification often involve the <i>structure</i> of justification, including whether there are foundational justified beliefs or whether mere <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">coherence</a> is sufficient for a system of beliefs to qualify as justified. Another major subject of debate is the sources of justification, which might include <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perceptual experience</a> (the evidence of the senses), <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>, and authoritative <a href="/wiki/Testimony" title="Testimony">testimony</a>, among others. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Justification_and_knowledge">Justification and knowledge</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Justification_(epistemology)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Justification and knowledge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Justification" involves the reasons why someone holds a <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">belief</a> that one <i>should</i> hold based on one's current evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-IEP_Just_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEP_Just-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Justification is a property of beliefs insofar as they are held blamelessly. In other words, a justified belief is a belief that a person is entitled to hold. </p><p>Many philosophers from Plato onward have treated "<a href="/wiki/Justified_true_belief" class="mw-redirect" title="Justified true belief">justified true belief</a>" (JTB) as constituting knowledge. It is particularly associated with a theory discussed in his dialogues <i><a href="/wiki/Meno" title="Meno">Meno</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Theaetetus_(dialogue)" title="Theaetetus (dialogue)">Theaetetus</a></i>. While in fact Plato seems to disavow justified true belief as constituting knowledge at the end of <i>Theaetetus</i>, the claim that Plato unquestioningly accepted this view of knowledge stuck until the proposal of the <a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-IEP_Just_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEP_Just-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The subject of justification has played a major role in the value of knowledge as "justified true belief".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Some contemporary epistemologists, such as <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Kvanvig" title="Jonathan Kvanvig">Jonathan Kvanvig</a> assert that justification isn't necessary in getting to the truth and avoiding errors. Kvanvig attempts to show that knowledge is no more valuable than true belief, and in the process dismissed the necessity of justification due to justification not being connected to the truth.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conceptions_of_justification">Conceptions of justification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Justification_(epistemology)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Conceptions of justification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/William_P._Alston" class="mw-redirect" title="William P. Alston">William P. Alston</a> identifies two conceptions of justification.<sup id="cite_ref-Alston_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alston-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 15–16">: 15–16 </span></sup> One conception is "deontological" justification, which holds that justification evaluates the obligation and responsibility of a person having only true beliefs. This conception implies, for instance, that a person who has made his best effort but is incapable of concluding the correct belief from his evidence is still justified. The deontological conception of justification corresponds to <a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism#Epistemology#Internalism" title="Internalism and externalism">epistemic internalism</a>. Another conception is "truth-conducive" justification, which holds that justification is based on having sufficient evidence or reasons that entails that the belief is at least likely to be true. The truth-conductive conception of justification corresponds to <a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism#Epistemology#Externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">epistemic externalism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories_of_justification">Theories of justification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Justification_(epistemology)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Theories of justification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several different views as to what entails justification, mostly focusing on the question "How sure do we need to be that our beliefs correspond to the actual world?" <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>Different theories of justification require different conditions before a belief can be considered justified. Theories of justification generally include other aspects of epistemology, such as defining knowledge. </p><p>Notable theories of justification include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> – Basic beliefs justify other, non-basic beliefs.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_coherentism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemic coherentism">Epistemic coherentism</a> – Beliefs are justified if they cohere with other beliefs a person holds, each belief is justified if it coheres with the overall system of beliefs.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a> – Beliefs are justified by infinite chains of reasons.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundherentism" title="Foundherentism">Foundherentism</a> – Both fallible foundations and coherence are components of justification—proposed by <a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a> – The believer must be able to justify a belief through internal knowledge (internalism), or outside sources of knowledge (externalism).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a> – Beliefs are warranted by proper cognitive function—proposed by <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidentialism" title="Evidentialism">Evidentialism</a> – Beliefs depend solely on the evidence for them.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a> – A belief is justified if it is the result of a reliable process.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infallibilism" title="Infallibilism">Infallibilism</a> – Knowledge is incompatible with the possibility of being wrong.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a> – Claims can be accepted even though they cannot be conclusively proven or justified.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-justificationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-justificationism">Non-justificationism</a> – Knowledge is produced by attacking claims and refuting them instead of justifying them.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological skepticism">Skepticism</a> – Knowledge is impossible or undecidable.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism_of_theories_of_justification">Criticism of theories of justification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Justification_(epistemology)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Criticism of theories of justification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Fogelin" title="Robert Fogelin">Robert Fogelin</a> claims to detect a suspicious resemblance between the theories of justification and <a href="/wiki/Agrippa_the_Sceptic" class="mw-redirect" title="Agrippa the Sceptic">Agrippa</a>'s five modes leading to the suspension of belief. He concludes that the modern proponents have made no significant progress in responding to the ancient modes of <a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrhonian skepticism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/William_P._Alston" class="mw-redirect" title="William P. Alston">William P. Alston</a> criticizes the very idea of a theory of justification. He claims: "There isn't any unique, epistemically crucial property of beliefs picked out by 'justified'. Epistemologists who suppose the contrary have been chasing a will-o'-the-wisp. What has really been happening is this. Different epistemologists have been emphasizing, concentrating on, "pushing" different epistemic desiderata, different features of belief that are positively valuable from the standpoint of the aims of cognition."<sup id="cite_ref-Alston_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alston-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 22">: 22 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Justification_(epistemology)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dream_argument" title="Dream argument">Dream argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument_(epistemology)" title="Regress argument (epistemology)">Regress argument (epistemology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCnchhausen_trilemma" title="Münchhausen trilemma">Münchhausen trilemma</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Justification_(epistemology)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBlaauwPritchard2005" class="citation book cs1">Blaauw, Martijn; Pritchard, Duncan (2005). <i>Epistemology A-Z</i>. Edinburgh University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">92–</span>93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-2213-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-2213-9"><bdi>978-0-7486-2213-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epistemology+A-Z&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E92-%3C%2Fspan%3E93&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-2213-9&rft.aulast=Blaauw&rft.aufirst=Martijn&rft.au=Pritchard%2C+Duncan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJustification+%28epistemology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldmanBender2005" class="citation book cs1">Goldman, Alvin; Bender, John (2005). "Justification, Epistemic". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). <i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 465. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7"><bdi>978-0-19-926479-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Justification%2C+Epistemic&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy&rft.pages=465&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-926479-7&rft.aulast=Goldman&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rft.au=Bender%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJustification+%28epistemology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKvanvig2011" class="citation book cs1">Kvanvig, Jonathan L. (2011). "Epistemic justification". In Bernecker, Sven; Pritchard, Duncan (eds.). <i>The Routledge Companion to Epistemology</i>. Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">25–</span>26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-88200-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-88200-5"><bdi>978-1-136-88200-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epistemic+justification&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Companion+to+Epistemology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E26&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-136-88200-5&rft.aulast=Kvanvig&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJustification+%28epistemology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IEP_Just-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IEP_Just_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IEP_Just_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IEP_Just_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/epi-just">"Epistemic Justification"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200803204640/https://iep.utm.edu/epi-just/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Epistemic+Justification&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fepi-just&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJustification+%28epistemology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alston-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Alston_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alston_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlston2005" class="citation book cs1">Alston, William P. (2005). <i>Beyond "Justification": dimensions of epistemic evaluation</i>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-80-144291-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-80-144291-9"><bdi>978-0-80-144291-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+%22Justification%22%3A+dimensions+of+epistemic+evaluation&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-80-144291-9&rft.aulast=Alston&rft.aufirst=William+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJustification+%28epistemology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFogelin1994" class="citation book cs1">Fogelin, Robert J. (1994). <i>Pyrrhonian Reflections on Knowledge and Justification</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508987-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508987-5"><bdi>978-0-19-508987-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pyrrhonian+Reflections+on+Knowledge+and+Justification&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-19-508987-5&rft.aulast=Fogelin&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJustification+%28epistemology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Justification_(epistemology)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justep-foundational/">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Foundationalist Theories of Epistemic Justification</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/#WIJ">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Epistemology, 2. What is Justification?</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justep-intext/">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Internalist vs. Externalist Conceptions of Epistemic Justification</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justep-coherence/">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Coherentist Theories of Epistemic Justification</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Justification_(epistemology)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/epi-just">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Epistemic Justification</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/ep-en">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Epistemic Entitlement</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/int-ext">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Internalism and Externalism in Epistemology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/epis-con">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Epistemic Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/coherent">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Coherentism in Epistemology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/contextu">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Contextualism in Epistemology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/kft-just">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Knowledge-First Theories of Justification</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_DeRose" title="Keith DeRose">Keith DeRose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anil_Gupta_(philosopher)" title="Anil Gupta (philosopher)">Anil Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Klein" title="Peter D. Klein">Peter Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Kornblith" title="Hilary Kornblith">Hilary Kornblith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Pritchard" title="Duncan Pritchard">Duncan Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Pryor" title="James Pryor">James Pryor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Siegel" title="Susanna Siegel">Susanna Siegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a 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<li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">Representational realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A posteriori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_injustice" title="Epistemic injustice">Epistemic injustice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">Meta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileged_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Privileged access">Privileged access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">Procedural knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Epistemology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Epistemology">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs" title="Category:Philosophy stubs">Stubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Positivism47" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Declinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology)" title="Positivist school (criminology)">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Machian positivism (empirio-criticism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankean_historical_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rankean historical positivism">Rankean historical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivism in Poland">Polish positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Machism" title="Russian Machism">Russian Machism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Principal concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle#Critique_of_metaphysics" title="Vienna Circle">Critique of metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Antitheses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodological_dualism" title="Methodological dualism">Methodological dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a><br />in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</a> (1830s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Uncertainty principle</a> (1927)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">Behavioralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-behavioralism" title="Post-behavioralism">Post-behavioralism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_nihilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological nihilism">nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_pluralism" title="Epistemological pluralism">pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_realism" title="Epistemological realism">realism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism in literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">Nomothetic–idiographic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">Objectivity in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operationalization" title="Operationalization">Operationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_sentence" title="Ramsey sentence">Ramsey sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense-data theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuration_theory" title="Structuration theory">Structuration theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Positivist-related_debate47" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Positivist-related debate</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Method</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Methodenstreit" title="Methodenstreit">Methodenstreit</a></i></span> (1890s)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Werturteilsstreit" title="Werturteilsstreit">Werturteilsstreit</a></i></span> (1909–1959)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Positivism_dispute" title="Positivism dispute">Positivismusstreit</a></i></span> (1960s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)#Fourth_Great_Debate" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Fourth Great Debate in international relations</a> (1980s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science wars</a> (1990s)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Contributions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Course_in_Positive_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Course in Positive Philosophy">The Course in Positive Philosophy</a></i> (1830)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_General_View_of_Positivism" title="A General View of Positivism">A General View of Positivism</a></i> (1848)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critical_History_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical History of Philosophy">Critical History of Philosophy</a></i> (1869)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idealism_and_Positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealism and Positivism">Idealism and Positivism</a></i> (1879–1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Analysis_of_Sensations" class="mw-redirect" title="The Analysis of Sensations">The Analysis of Sensations</a></i> (1886)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Modern_Physics" title="The Logic of Modern Physics">The Logic of Modern Physics</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Cultures" title="The Two Cultures">The Two Cultures</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Universe_in_a_Nutshell" title="The Universe in a Nutshell">The Universe in a Nutshell</a></i> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Proponents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Avenarius" title="Richard Avenarius">Richard Avenarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Percy Williams Bridgman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Eugen Dühring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Ernst Laas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._P._Snow" title="C. P. Snow">C. P. Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Criticism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Materialism_and_Empirio-criticism" title="Materialism and Empirio-criticism">Materialism and Empirio-criticism</a></i> (1909)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a></i> (1934)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Historicism" title="The Poverty of Historicism">The Poverty of Historicism</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/World_Hypotheses" title="World Hypotheses">World Hypotheses</a></i> (1942)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> (1951)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Method" title="Truth and Method">Truth and Method</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Conjectures_and_Refutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjectures and Refutations">Conjectures and Refutations</a></i> (1963)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_and_Human_Interests" title="Knowledge and Human Interests">Knowledge and Human Interests</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="The Poverty of Theory">The Poverty of Theory</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Scientific_Image" class="mw-redirect" title="The Scientific Image">The Scientific Image</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rhetoric_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rhetoric of Economics">The Rhetoric of Economics</a></i> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Gaston Bachelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deirdre_McCloskey" title="Deirdre McCloskey">Deirdre McCloskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pepper" title="Stephen Pepper">Stephen Pepper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">E. P. Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Concepts in contention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Verstehen" title="Verstehen">Verstehen</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Category:Positivism" title="Category:Positivism">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox505" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q145874#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85071149">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007538516505171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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