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Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85_%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%AA%D9%82_%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85_%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%AA%D9%82_%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AB%D9%84" title="تواسم مشتق وتواسم مشتق متماثل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تواسم مشتق وتواسم مشتق متماثل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinapomorfia" title="Sinapomorfia – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Sinapomorfia" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinapomorfia" title="Sinapomorfia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sinapomorfia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apomorphie#Unterteilung_von_Apomorphien" title="Apomorphie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Apomorphie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCnapomorf" title="Sünapomorf – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sünapomorf" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinapomorfia" title="Sinapomorfia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sinapomorfia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinapomorfio" title="Sinapomorfio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sinapomorfio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="جداریختی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جداریختی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapomorphie" title="Synapomorphie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Synapomorphie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sionapamorf" title="Sionapamorf – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Sionapamorf" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinapomorf%C3%ADa" title="Sinapomorfía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Sinapomorfía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apomorfi_dan_sinapomorfi" title="Apomorfi dan sinapomorfi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Apomorfi dan sinapomorfi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinapomorfia" title="Sinapomorfia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sinapomorfia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapomorfie" title="Synapomorfie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Synapomorfie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapomorfie" title="Synapomorfie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Synapomorfie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E6%9C%89%E6%B4%BE%E7%94%9F%E5%BD%A2%E8%B3%AA" title="共有派生形質 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="共有派生形質" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapomorfia" title="Synapomorfia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Synapomorfia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinapomorfia" title="Sinapomorfia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sinapomorfia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Синапоморфия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Синапоморфия" 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class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Synapomorphy.jpg" decoding="async" width="279" height="267" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="279" data-file-height="267" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Phylogenies" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenies">Phylogenies</a> showing the terminology used to describe different patterns of ancestral and derived character or <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_trait" title="Phenotypic trait">trait</a> states.<sup id="cite_ref-PageHolmes2009_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PageHolmes2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetics</a>, an <b>apomorphy</b> (or <b>derived trait</b>) is a novel <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_trait" title="Phenotypic trait">character</a> or character state that has <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolved</a> from its ancestral form (or <a href="/wiki/Plesiomorphy_and_symplesiomorphy" title="Plesiomorphy and symplesiomorphy">plesiomorphy</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Futuyma2017b_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Futuyma2017b-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Futuyma2017p_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Futuyma2017p-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-berkeleybiology_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berkeleybiology-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <b>synapomorphy</b> is an apomorphy shared by two or more <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a> and is therefore <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis#Scientific_hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesized</a> to have evolved in their <a href="/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor" title="Most recent common ancestor">most recent common ancestor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PageHolmes2009_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PageHolmes2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kitchingetal2001_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kitchingetal2001-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Futuyma2017p_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Futuyma2017p-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hillisetal2014p_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hillisetal2014p-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">cladistics</a>, synapomorphy implies <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-kitchingetal2001_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kitchingetal2001-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Examples of apomorphy are the presence of <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_locomotion#Posture" title="Terrestrial locomotion">erect</a> <a href="/wiki/Gait" title="Gait">gait</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fur" title="Fur">fur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">the evolution of three middle ear bones</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mammary_gland" title="Mammary gland">mammary glands</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> but not in other <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>, which have retained their ancestral traits of a <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_locomotion#Posture" title="Terrestrial locomotion">sprawling</a> gait and lack of fur.<sup id="cite_ref-baum2008_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baum2008-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, these derived traits are also synapomorphies of mammals in general as they are not shared by other vertebrate animals.<sup id="cite_ref-baum2008_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baum2008-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Apomorphy_and_synapomorphy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word <i lang="en"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/synapomorphy#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:synapomorphy">synapomorphy</a></i>—coined by German entomologist <a href="/wiki/Willi_Hennig" title="Willi Hennig">Willi Hennig</a>—is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> words <span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%83%CF%8D%CE%BD#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:σύν">σύν</a></span> (<i>sún</i>), meaning "with, together"; <span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%80%CF%80%CF%8C#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:ἀπό">ἀπό</a></span> (<i>apó</i>), meaning "away from"; and <span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%81%CF%86%CE%AE#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:μορφή">μορφή</a></span> (<i>morphḗ</i>), meaning "shape, form". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Apomorphy_and_synapomorphy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">Lampreys</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</a> share some features, like a nervous system, that are not synapomorphic because they are also shared by <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>. In contrast, the presence of <a href="/wiki/Jaw" title="Jaw">jaws</a> and paired appendages<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in both sharks and dogs, but not in lampreys or close invertebrate relatives, identifies these traits as synapomorphies. This supports the hypothesis that dogs and sharks are more closely related to each other than to lampreys. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clade_analysis">Clade analysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Apomorphy_and_synapomorphy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Clade analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of synapomorphy depends on a given clade in the tree of life. <a href="/wiki/Cladogram" title="Cladogram">Cladograms</a> are diagrams that depict evolutionary relationships within groups of taxa. These illustrations are accurate predictive device in modern genetics. They are usually depicted in either tree or ladder form. Synapomorphies then create evidence for historical relationships and their associated hierarchical structure. Evolutionarily, a synapomorphy is the marker for the most recent common ancestor of the monophyletic group consisting of a set of taxa in a cladogram.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What counts as a synapomorphy for one clade may well be a primitive character or <a href="/wiki/Plesiomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Plesiomorphy">plesiomorphy</a> at a less inclusive or nested clade. For example, the presence of <a href="/wiki/Mammary_gland" title="Mammary gland">mammary glands</a> is a synapomorphy for <a href="/wiki/Mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammals">mammals</a> in relation to <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a> but is a <a href="/wiki/Symplesiomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Symplesiomorphy">symplesiomorphy</a> for mammals in relation to one another—rodents and primates, for example. So the concept can be understood as well in terms of "a character newer than" (<a href="/wiki/Autapomorphy" title="Autapomorphy">autapomorphy</a>) and "a character older than" (<a href="/wiki/Plesiomorphy_and_symplesiomorphy" title="Plesiomorphy and symplesiomorphy">plesiomorphy</a>) the apomorphy: mammary glands are evolutionarily newer than vertebral column, so mammary glands are an autapomorphy if vertebral column is an apomorphy, but if mammary glands are the <a href="/wiki/Apomorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Apomorph">apomorphy</a> being considered then vertebral column is a plesiomorphy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relations_to_other_terms">Relations to other terms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Apomorphy_and_synapomorphy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Relations to other terms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These phylogenetic terms are used to describe different patterns of ancestral and derived character or trait states as stated in the above diagram in association with apomorphies and synapomorphies.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symplesiomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Symplesiomorphy">Symplesiomorphy</a> – an ancestral trait shared by two or more taxa. <ul><li><i>Plesiomorphy</i> – a symplesiomorphy discussed in reference to a more derived state.</li> <li>Pseudoplesiomorphy – is a trait that cannot be identified as neither a plesiomorphy nor an apomorphy that is a reversal.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>Reversal – is a loss of derived trait present in ancestor and the reestablishment of a plesiomorphic trait.</li> <li>Convergence – independent evolution of a similar trait in two or more taxa.</li> <li><i>Apomorphy</i> – a derived trait. Apomorphy shared by two or more taxa and inherited from a common ancestor is synapomorphy. Apomorphy unique to a given taxon is autapomorphy.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Synapomorphy/<a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homology</a> – a derived trait that is found in some or all terminal groups of a clade, and inherited from a common ancestor, for which it was an autapomorphy (i.e., not present in <i>its</i> immediate ancestor).</li> <li><i>Underlying synapomorphy</i> – a synapomorphy that has been lost again in many members of the clade. If lost in all but one, it can be hard to distinguish from an autapomorphy.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autapomorphy" title="Autapomorphy">Autapomorphy</a> – a distinctive derived trait that is unique to a given taxon or group.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>Homoplasy in <a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">biological systematics</a> is when a <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_trait" title="Phenotypic trait">trait</a> has been gained or lost independently in separate lineages during evolution. This <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a> leads to species independently sharing a trait that is different from the trait inferred to have been present in their common ancestor.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Parallel <a href="/wiki/Homoplasy" title="Homoplasy">homoplasy</a> – derived trait present in two groups or species without a common ancestor due to <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Reverse <a href="/wiki/Homoplasy" title="Homoplasy">homoplasy</a> – trait present in an ancestor but not in direct descendants that reappears in later descendants.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21350170_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21350170-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incomplete_lineage_sorting" title="Incomplete lineage sorting">Hemiplasy</a> is the case where a character that appears homoplastic given the species tree actually has a single origin on the associated gene tree.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid18570042_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18570042-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid29078296_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29078296-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hemiplasy reflects gene tree-species tree discordance due to the <a href="/wiki/Multispecies_coalescent_process" title="Multispecies coalescent process">multispecies coalescent</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Apomorphy_and_synapomorphy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-PageHolmes2009-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PageHolmes2009_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PageHolmes2009_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRoderick_D.M._PageEdward_C._Holmes2009" class="citation book cs1">Roderick D.M. Page; Edward C. Holmes (14 July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p2lWhjuK8m8C"><i>Molecular Evolution: A Phylogenetic Approach</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-1336-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-1336-9"><bdi>978-1-4443-1336-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecular+Evolution%3A+A+Phylogenetic+Approach&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009-07-14&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-1336-9&rft.au=Roderick+D.M.+Page&rft.au=Edward+C.+Holmes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp2lWhjuK8m8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AApomorphy+and+synapomorphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Futuyma2017b-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Futuyma2017b_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFutuymaKirkpatrick2017" class="citation book cs1">Futuyma, Douglas J.; Kirkpatrick, Mark (2017). "Tree of life". <i>Evolution</i> (4th ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 27–53.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tree+of+life&rft.btitle=Evolution&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+Mass.&rft.pages=27-53&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Futuyma&rft.aufirst=Douglas+J.&rft.au=Kirkpatrick%2C+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AApomorphy+and+synapomorphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Futuyma2017p-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Futuyma2017p_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Futuyma2017p_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFutuymaKirkpatrick2017" class="citation book cs1">Futuyma, Douglas J.; Kirkpatrick, Mark (2017). 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Elsevier. p. 543. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-049474-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-049474-6"><bdi>978-0-08-049474-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Dinosaurs&rft.pages=543&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-08-049474-6&rft.aulast=Currie&rft.aufirst=Philip+J.&rft.au=Padia%2C+Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7t9M5TsmjOUC%26pg%3DPA543&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AApomorphy+and+synapomorphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00scot"><i>Concise Encyclopedia Biology</i></a></span>. 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John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-1324-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-1324-6"><bdi>978-1-4443-1324-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1039167559">1039167559</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Ecology+and+Environmental+Management&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1039167559&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-1324-6&rft.aulast=Calow&rft.aufirst=Peter+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJKTeiqPBpM4C%26pg%3DPA552&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AApomorphy+and+synapomorphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsSchmittWheeler2016" class="citation book cs1">Williams D, Schmitt M, Wheeler Q (July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J1GJDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA169"><i>The Future of Phylogenetic Systematics: The Legacy of Willi Hennig</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-11764-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-11764-8"><bdi>978-1-107-11764-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Future+of+Phylogenetic+Systematics%3A+The+Legacy+of+Willi+Hennig&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016-07&rft.isbn=978-1-107-11764-8&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Schmitt%2C+Michael&rft.au=Wheeler%2C+Quentin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ1GJDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AApomorphy+and+synapomorphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2011" class="citation book cs1">Simpson MG (9 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ia2eIPVksMMC&pg=PA18"><i>Plant Systematics</i></a>. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Extensive+gene+tree+discordance+and+hemiplasy+shaped+the+genomes+of+North+American+columnar+cacti&rft.volume=114&rft.issue=45&rft.pages=12003-12008&rft.date=2017-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5692538%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29078296&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1706367114&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017PNAS..11412003C&rft.aulast=Copetti&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=B%C3%BArquez%2C+A&rft.au=Bustamante%2C+E&rft.au=Charboneau%2C+JL&rft.au=Childs%2C+KL&rft.au=Eguiarte%2C+LE&rft.au=Lee%2C+S&rft.au=Liu%2C+TL&rft.au=McMahon%2C+MM&rft.au=Whiteman%2C+NK&rft.au=Wing%2C+RA&rft.au=Wojciechowski%2C+MF&rft.au=Sanderson%2C+MJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5692538&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AApomorphy+and+synapomorphy" 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template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Phylogenetics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Phylogenetics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Phylogenetics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Relevant fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_phylogenetics" title="Computational phylogenetics">Computational phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">Molecular phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Evolutionary taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/32px-Tree_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/48px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/64px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="915" data-file-height="760" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology portal</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenesis" title="Phylogenesis">Phylogenesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogenetic tree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cladogram" title="Cladogram">Cladogram</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_network" title="Phylogenetic network">Phylogenetic network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_branch_attraction" title="Long branch attraction">Long branch attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">Clade</a> vs <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_grade" title="Evolutionary grade">Grade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(evolution)" title="Lineage (evolution)">Lineage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_lineage" title="Ghost lineage">Ghost lineage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_population" title="Ghost population">Ghost population</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inference methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_parsimony_(phylogenetics)" title="Maximum parsimony (phylogenetics)">Maximum parsimony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_reconciliation" title="Phylogenetic reconciliation">Phylogenetic reconciliation</a></li> <li>Probabilistic methods <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_likelihood" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximum likelihood">Maximum likelihood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_inference_in_phylogeny" title="Bayesian inference in phylogeny">Bayesian inference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distance_matrices_in_phylogeny" title="Distance matrices in phylogeny">Distance-matrix methods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neighbor-joining" class="mw-redirect" title="Neighbor-joining">Neighbor-joining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UPGMA" title="UPGMA">UPGMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Least_squares_inference_in_phylogeny" title="Least squares inference in phylogeny">Least squares</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-taxon_analysis" title="Three-taxon analysis">Three-taxon analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/PhyloCode" title="PhyloCode">PhyloCode</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_barcoding" title="DNA barcoding">DNA barcoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">Molecular phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_comparative_methods" title="Phylogenetic comparative methods">Phylogenetic comparative methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_niche_conservatism" title="Phylogenetic niche conservatism">Phylogenetic niche conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_signal" title="Phylogenetic signal">Phylogenetic signal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_phylogenetics_software" title="List of phylogenetics software">Phylogenetics software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenomics" title="Phylogenomics">Phylogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogeography" title="Phylogeography">Phylogeography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Group traits</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_(phylogenetics)" title="Primitive (phylogenetics)">Primitive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plesiomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Plesiomorphy">Plesiomorphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symplesiomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Symplesiomorphy">Symplesiomorphy</a></li></ul></li> <li>Derived <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synapomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapomorphy">Apomorphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synapomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapomorphy">Synapomorphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autapomorphy" title="Autapomorphy">Autapomorphy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Group types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">Monophyly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraphyly" title="Paraphyly">Paraphyly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyphyly" title="Polyphyly">Polyphyly</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nomenclature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_nomenclature" title="Phylogenetic nomenclature">Phylogenetic nomenclature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_group" title="Crown group">Crown group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sister_group" title="Sister group">Sister group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basal_(phylogenetics)" title="Basal (phylogenetics)">Basal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supertree" title="Supertree">Supertree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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