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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Depth_below_seafloor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Depth_below_seafloor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Depth below seafloor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Depth_below_seafloor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sediments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sediments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Sediments</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sediments-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sediments subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sediments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Terrigenous_and_biogenous" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terrigenous_and_biogenous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Terrigenous and biogenous</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terrigenous_and_biogenous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydrogenous_and_cosmogenous" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrogenous_and_cosmogenous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Hydrogenous and cosmogenous</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrogenous_and_cosmogenous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Size_classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Size_classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Size classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Size_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benthos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benthos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Benthos</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benthos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Topography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Topography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Features</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Human impact</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human_impact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Human impact subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Human_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Exploration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exploration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Exploration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exploration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plastic_pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plastic_pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Plastic pollution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plastic_pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exploitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exploitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Exploitation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exploitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_art_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_art_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>In art and culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_art_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Seabed</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 52 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-52" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">52 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1" title="قاع البحر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قاع البحر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okean_yata%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Okean yatağı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Okean yatağı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Акіянічнае дно – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Акіянічнае дно" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D1%8A%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Океанско дъно – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Океанско дъно" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llit_mar%C3%AD" title="Llit marí – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llit marí" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havbund" title="Havbund – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Havbund" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozeanboden" title="Ozeanboden – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ozeanboden" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ookeanip%C3%B5hi" title="Ookeanipõhi – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ookeanipõhi" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%85%CE%B8%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Βυθός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βυθός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relieve_oce%C3%A1nico" title="Relieve oceánico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Relieve oceánico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marfundo" title="Marfundo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Marfundo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsas_hondo" title="Itsas hondo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Itsas hondo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="بستر دریا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بستر دریا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fond_marin" title="Fond marin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Fond marin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grinneall_na_farraige" title="Grinneall na farraige – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Grinneall na farraige" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leito_oce%C3%A1nico" title="Leito oceánico – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Leito oceánico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%85" title="Форда бух – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Форда бух" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B4%EC%A0%80" title="해저 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="해저" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B9" title="सागरतह – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सागरतह" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasar_laut" title="Dasar laut – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dasar laut" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafsbotn" title="Hafsbotn – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hafsbotn" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fondale_marino" title="Fondale marino – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fondale marino" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%9D" title="קרקעית הים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קרקעית הים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ოკეანის საგები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ოკეანის საგები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D2%B1%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%82_%D1%82%D2%AF%D0%B1%D1%96" title="Мұхит түбі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Мұхит түбі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakafu_ya_bahari" title="Sakafu ya bahari – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Sakafu ya bahari" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oke%C4%81na_dibens" title="Okeāna dibens – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Okeāna dibens" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandenyno_guolis" title="Vandenyno guolis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vandenyno guolis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zie%C3%ABbaom" title="Zieëbaom – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Zieëbaom" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Океанско дно – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Океанско дно" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D" title="കടൽ അടിത്തട്ട് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കടൽ അടിത്തട്ട്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeebodem" title="Zeebodem – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zeebodem" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%BA%95" title="海底 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="海底" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havbunn" title="Havbunn – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Havbunn" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havbotn" title="Havbotn – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Havbotn" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dno_oceaniczne" title="Dno oceaniczne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dno oceaniczne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevo_oce%C3%A2nico" title="Relevo oceânico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Relevo oceânico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundul_m%C4%83rii" title="Fundul mării – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Fundul mării" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Океанское дно – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Океанское дно" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Seabed" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Океанско дно – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Океанско дно" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambira" title="Gambira – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Gambira" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merenpohja" title="Merenpohja – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Merenpohja" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havsbotten" title="Havsbotten – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Havsbotten" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a 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mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">The bottom of an ocean</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Common_stingray_tenerife.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Common_stingray_tenerife.jpg/220px-Common_stingray_tenerife.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Common_stingray_tenerife.jpg/330px-Common_stingray_tenerife.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Common_stingray_tenerife.jpg/440px-Common_stingray_tenerife.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Common_stingray" title="Common stingray">Common stingray</a> foraging for <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> in <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_sediment" 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Coastal habitats</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">Mangrove forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neritic_zone" title="Neritic zone">Neritic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_ecosystem" title="Ocean surface ecosystem">Ocean surface</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epipelagic_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Epipelagic zone">Epipelagic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Open ocean</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sea floor</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamounts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_sediment" title="Marine sediment">Marine sediment</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Template:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Template talk:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>seabed</b> (also known as the <b>seafloor</b>, <b>sea floor</b>, <b>ocean floor</b>, and <b>ocean bottom</b>) is the bottom of the <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a>. All floors of the ocean are known as 'seabeds'. </p><p>The structure of the seabed of the global ocean is governed by <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>. Most of the ocean is very deep, where the seabed is known as the <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">abyssal plain</a>. Seafloor spreading creates mid-ocean ridges along the center line of major ocean basins, where the seabed is slightly shallower than the surrounding abyssal plain. From the abyssal plain, the seabed slopes upward toward the continents and becomes, in order from deep to shallow, the <a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">continental rise</a>, <a href="/wiki/Continental_slope" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental slope">slope</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">shelf</a>. The depth within the seabed itself, such as the depth down through a <a href="/wiki/Sediment_core" class="mw-redirect" title="Sediment core">sediment core</a>, is known as the "depth below seafloor". The ecological environment of the seabed and the deepest waters are collectively known, as a <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a> for creatures, as the "<a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">benthos</a>". </p><p>Most of the seabed throughout the world's oceans is covered in layers of <a href="/wiki/Marine_sediments" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine sediments">marine sediments</a>. Categorized by where the materials come from or composition, these sediments are classified as either: from land (<a href="/wiki/Terrigenous_sediment" title="Terrigenous sediment">terrigenous</a>), from biological organisms (biogenous), from chemical reactions (hydrogenous), and from space (cosmogenous). Categorized by size, these sediments range from very small particles called <a href="/wiki/Clays" class="mw-redirect" title="Clays">clays</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silts" class="mw-redirect" title="Silts">silts</a>, known as mud, to larger particles from <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a> to <a href="/wiki/Boulders" class="mw-redirect" title="Boulders">boulders</a>. </p><p>Features of the seabed are governed by the physics of <a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">sediment transport</a> and by the biology of the creatures living in the seabed and in the ocean waters above. Physically, seabed sediments often come from the <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> of material on land and from other rarer sources, such as <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">volcanic ash</a>. Sea currents transport sediments, especially in shallow waters where <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tidal energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">wave</a> energy cause resuspension of seabed sediments. Biologically, microorganisms living within the seabed sediments change seabed chemistry. Marine organisms create sediments, both within the seabed and in the water above. For example, <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> with silicate or calcium carbonate shells grow in abundance in the upper ocean, and when they die, their shells sink to the seafloor to become seabed sediments. </p><p>Human impacts on the seabed are diverse. Examples of human effects on the seabed include exploration, plastic pollution, and exploitation by mining and <a href="/wiki/Dredging" title="Dredging">dredging</a> operations. To map the seabed, ships use <a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">acoustic technology</a> to map water depths throughout the world. Submersible vehicles help researchers study unique seabed ecosystems such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vents" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal vents">hydrothermal vents</a>. <a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a> is a global phenomenon, and because the ocean is the ultimate destination for global waterways, much of the world's plastic ends up in the ocean and some sinks to the seabed. Exploitation of the seabed involves extracting valuable minerals from <a href="/wiki/Sulfide_deposit" title="Sulfide deposit">sulfide deposits</a> via deep sea mining, as well as dredging sand from shallow environments for construction and <a href="/wiki/Beach_nourishment" title="Beach nourishment">beach nourishment</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mid-ocean_ridge_system.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Mid-ocean_ridge_system.gif/370px-Mid-ocean_ridge_system.gif" decoding="async" width="370" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Mid-ocean_ridge_system.gif/555px-Mid-ocean_ridge_system.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Mid-ocean_ridge_system.gif/740px-Mid-ocean_ridge_system.gif 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="701" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Bathymetry" title="Bathymetry">Bathymetry</a> of the ocean floor showing the <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">oceanic plateaus</a> (red), the <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridges</a> (yellow-green) and the <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">abyssal plains</a> (blue to purple). Like land terrain, the ocean floor has mountains including volcanoes, ridges, valleys, and plains.</div></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oceanic_divisions.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Drawing showing divisions according to depth and distance from shore" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Oceanic_divisions.svg/260px-Oceanic_divisions.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Oceanic_divisions.svg/390px-Oceanic_divisions.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Oceanic_divisions.svg/520px-Oceanic_divisions.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1114" data-file-height="835" /></a><figcaption>The major oceanic divisions</figcaption></figure> <p>Most of the oceans have a common structure, created by common physical phenomena, mainly from tectonic movement, and sediment from various sources. The structure of the oceans, starting with the continents, begins usually with a <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelf</a>, continues to the <a href="/wiki/Continental_slope" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental slope">continental slope</a> – which is a steep descent into the ocean, until reaching the <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">abyssal plain</a> – a topographic <a href="/wiki/Plain" title="Plain">plain</a>, the beginning of the seabed, and its main area. The border between the continental slope and the abyssal plain usually has a more gradual descent, and is called the <a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">continental rise</a>, which is caused by <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> cascading down the continental slope.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridge</a>, as its name implies, is a mountainous rise through the middle of all the oceans, between the continents. Typically a <a href="/wiki/Rift" title="Rift">rift</a> runs along the edge of this ridge. Along <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plate">tectonic plate</a> edges there are typically <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">oceanic trenches</a> – deep valleys, created by the mantle circulation movement from the mid-ocean mountain ridge to the oceanic trench.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">Hotspot</a> volcanic island ridges are created by volcanic activity, erupting periodically, as the tectonic plates pass over a hotspot. In areas with volcanic activity and in the oceanic trenches there are <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vents" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal vents">hydrothermal vents</a> – releasing high pressure and extremely hot water and chemicals into the typically freezing water around it. </p><p>Deep ocean water is divided into layers or zones, each with typical features of salinity, pressure, temperature and <a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">marine life</a>, according to their depth. Lying along the top of the <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">abyssal plain</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_zone" title="Abyssal zone">abyssal zone</a>, whose lower boundary lies at about 6,000 m (20,000 ft). The <a href="/wiki/Hadal_zone" title="Hadal zone">hadal zone</a> – which includes the oceanic trenches, lies between 6,000 and 11,000 metres (20,000–36,000 ft) and is the deepest oceanic zone.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Depth_below_seafloor">Depth below seafloor <span class="anchor" id="Depth"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Depth below seafloor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Depth below seafloor</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Vertical_coordinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertical coordinate">vertical coordinate</a> used in geology, <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">oceanography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">petrology</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Ocean_drilling" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean drilling">ocean drilling</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Acronym" title="Acronym">acronym</a> "mbsf" (meaning "meters below the seafloor") is a common convention used for depths below the seafloor.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left"> <li class="gallerycaption">Different seabeds in the world's oceans</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 204px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 202px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Il_fondale_di_Giove.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="gravel seabed in Italy"><img alt="gravel seabed in Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Il_fondale_di_Giove.jpg/303px-Il_fondale_di_Giove.jpg" decoding="async" width="202" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Il_fondale_di_Giove.jpg/455px-Il_fondale_di_Giove.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Il_fondale_di_Giove.jpg/606px-Il_fondale_di_Giove.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="535" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> gravel seabed in Italy</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 238px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 236px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stingray_(Myliobatoidei)_in_Cozumel,_Mexico.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="white sand seabed in Mexico"><img alt="white sand seabed in Mexico" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Stingray_%28Myliobatoidei%29_in_Cozumel%2C_Mexico.jpg/354px-Stingray_%28Myliobatoidei%29_in_Cozumel%2C_Mexico.jpg" decoding="async" width="236" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Stingray_%28Myliobatoidei%29_in_Cozumel%2C_Mexico.jpg/531px-Stingray_%28Myliobatoidei%29_in_Cozumel%2C_Mexico.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Stingray_%28Myliobatoidei%29_in_Cozumel%2C_Mexico.jpg/707px-Stingray_%28Myliobatoidei%29_in_Cozumel%2C_Mexico.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2801" data-file-height="1784" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> white sand seabed in Mexico</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sea_floor_sand.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="sand seabed in Greece"><img alt="sand seabed in Greece" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Sea_floor_sand.jpg/300px-Sea_floor_sand.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Sea_floor_sand.jpg/451px-Sea_floor_sand.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Sea_floor_sand.jpg/600px-Sea_floor_sand.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> sand seabed in Greece</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vailulu%27u_vents_(Expl1546_9667420444).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="hydrothermal vents"><img alt="hydrothermal vents" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Vailulu%27u_vents_%28Expl1546_9667420444%29.jpg/300px-Vailulu%27u_vents_%28Expl1546_9667420444%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Vailulu%27u_vents_%28Expl1546_9667420444%29.jpg/451px-Vailulu%27u_vents_%28Expl1546_9667420444%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Vailulu%27u_vents_%28Expl1546_9667420444%29.jpg/600px-Vailulu%27u_vents_%28Expl1546_9667420444%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> hydrothermal vents</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sediments">Sediments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sediments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marine_sediment" title="Marine sediment">Marine sediment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marine_sediment_thickness_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Marine_sediment_thickness_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Marine_sediment_thickness_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Marine_sediment_thickness_%28cropped%29.jpg/495px-Marine_sediment_thickness_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Marine_sediment_thickness_%28cropped%29.jpg/660px-Marine_sediment_thickness_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="707" data-file-height="483" /></a><figcaption>Total sediment thickness of the world's oceans and <a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">continental margins</a> in meters.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Marine_sediment" title="Marine sediment">Sediments in the seabed</a> vary in origin, from eroded land materials carried into the ocean by rivers or wind flow, waste and decompositions of sea creatures, and precipitation of chemicals within the sea water itself, including some from outer space.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are four basic types of sediment of the sea floor: </p> <ol><li><i>Terrigenous</i> (also <i>lithogenous</i>) describes the sediment from continents eroded by rain, rivers, and glaciers, as well as sediment blown into the ocean by the wind, such as dust and volcanic ash.</li> <li><i>Biogenous</i> material is the sediment made up of the hard parts of sea creatures, mainly <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a>, that accumulate on the bottom of the ocean.</li> <li><i>Hydrogenous</i> sediment is material that precipitates in the ocean when oceanic conditions change, or material created in <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vent</a> systems.</li> <li><i>Cosmogenous</i> sediment comes from extraterrestrial sources.<sup id="cite_ref-Marine_Geochemistry_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marine_Geochemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terrigenous_and_biogenous">Terrigenous and biogenous</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Terrigenous and biogenous"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saharan_dust_-_Jun_18,_2020.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Saharan_dust_-_Jun_18%2C_2020.jpg/220px-Saharan_dust_-_Jun_18%2C_2020.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Saharan_dust_-_Jun_18%2C_2020.jpg/330px-Saharan_dust_-_Jun_18%2C_2020.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Saharan_dust_-_Jun_18%2C_2020.jpg/440px-Saharan_dust_-_Jun_18%2C_2020.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4532" data-file-height="3233" /></a><figcaption>Satellite image of wind-blown mineral dust over the Atlantic. Dust may become terrigenous sediment on the seabed.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diatom_algae_(Bacillariophyta).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Diatom_algae_%28Bacillariophyta%29.jpg/220px-Diatom_algae_%28Bacillariophyta%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Diatom_algae_%28Bacillariophyta%29.jpg/330px-Diatom_algae_%28Bacillariophyta%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Diatom_algae_%28Bacillariophyta%29.jpg/440px-Diatom_algae_%28Bacillariophyta%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Phytoplankton grow shells which later sink to the seabed to become biogenous sediments. For example, <a href="/wiki/Diatoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Diatoms">diatoms</a> make <a href="/wiki/Silicate" title="Silicate">silicate</a> shells, which become siliceous ooze.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Terrigenous_sediment" title="Terrigenous sediment">Terrigenous sediment</a> is the most abundant sediment found on the seafloor. Terrigenous sediments come from the continents. These materials are eroded from continents and transported by wind and water to the ocean. Fluvial sediments are transported from land by rivers and glaciers, such as clay, silt, mud, and glacial flour. Aeolian sediments are transported by wind, such as dust and volcanic ash.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biogenous sediment is the next most abundant material on the seafloor. Biogenous sediments are biologically produced by living creatures. Sediments made up of at least 30% biogenous material are called "oozes." There are two types of oozes: Calcareous oozes and Siliceous oozes. <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a> grow in ocean waters and create the materials that become oozes on the seabed. Calcareous oozes are predominantly composed of calcium shells found in phytoplankton such as coccolithophores and zooplankton like the foraminiferans. These calcareous oozes are never found deeper than about 4,000 to 5,000 meters because at further depths the calcium dissolves.<sup id="cite_ref-marinebio_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marinebio-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, Siliceous oozes are dominated by the siliceous shells of phytoplankton like diatoms and zooplankton such as radiolarians. Depending on the productivity of these planktonic organisms, the shell material that collects when these organisms die may build up at a rate anywhere from 1 mm to 1 cm every 1000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-marinebio_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marinebio-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrogenous_and_cosmogenous">Hydrogenous and cosmogenous</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Hydrogenous and cosmogenous"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Minerals_sediments.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Minerals_sediments.jpg/220px-Minerals_sediments.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Minerals_sediments.jpg/330px-Minerals_sediments.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Minerals_sediments.jpg/440px-Minerals_sediments.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Hydrothermal vent fluids cause chemical reactions that precipitate out minerals that form sediments on the surrounding seafloor.</figcaption></figure> <p>Hydrogenous sediments are uncommon. They only occur with changes in oceanic conditions such as temperature and pressure. Rarer still are cosmogenous sediments. Hydrogenous sediments are formed from dissolved chemicals that precipitate from the ocean water, or along the mid-ocean ridges, they can form by metallic elements binding onto rocks that have water of more than 300 °C circulating around them. When these elements mix with the cold sea water they precipitate from the cooling water.<sup id="cite_ref-marinebio_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marinebio-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Known as <a href="/wiki/Manganese_nodule" title="Manganese nodule">manganese nodules</a>, they are composed of layers of different metals like manganese, iron, nickel, cobalt, and copper, and they are always found on the surface of the ocean floor.<sup id="cite_ref-marinebio_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marinebio-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cosmogenous sediments are the remains of space debris such as comets and asteroids, made up of silicates and various metals that have impacted the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Size_classification">Size classification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Size classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sediment-images_hg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Sediment-images_hg.jpg/220px-Sediment-images_hg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Sediment-images_hg.jpg/330px-Sediment-images_hg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Sediment-images_hg.jpg/440px-Sediment-images_hg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="734" data-file-height="525" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">Sediment</a> types from the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a> showing many different grain sizes: A) gravel and sand, B) gravel, C) bioturbated mud and sand, and D) laminated clays and silts.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Another way that sediments are described is through their descriptive classification. These sediments vary in size, anywhere from 1/4096 of a mm to greater than 256 mm. The different types are: boulder, cobble, pebble, granule, sand, silt, and clay, each type becoming finer in grain. The grain size indicates the type of sediment and the environment in which it was created. Larger grains sink faster and can only be pushed by rapid flowing water (high energy environment) whereas small grains sink very slowly and can be suspended by slight water movement, accumulating in conditions where water is not moving so quickly.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that larger grains of sediment may come together in higher energy conditions and smaller grains in lower energy conditions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Benthos">Benthos</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Benthos"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthos</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benthos&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tidepools_Small.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Tidepools_Small.jpg/260px-Tidepools_Small.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Tidepools_Small.jpg/390px-Tidepools_Small.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Tidepools_Small.jpg/520px-Tidepools_Small.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">Seaweed</a> and two <a href="/wiki/Chiton" title="Chiton">chitons</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a> </figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthos</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B2%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B8%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:βένθος">βένθος</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>bénthos</i></span>)</i> 'the depths [of the sea]'), also known as benthon, is the <a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">community</a> of <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> that live on, in, or near the bottom of a sea, <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">river</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lake</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Stream" title="Stream">stream</a>, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">benthic zone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Benthos_caml_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benthos_caml-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This community lives in or near marine or freshwater <a href="/wiki/Depositional_environment" title="Depositional environment">sedimentary environments</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Tidal_pool" class="mw-redirect" title="Tidal pool">tidal pools</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">foreshore</a>, out to the <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelf</a>, and then down to the <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_zone" title="Abyssal zone">abyssal depths</a>. </p><p>Many organisms adapted to deep-water pressure cannot survive in the upper parts of the <a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">water column</a>. The pressure difference can be very significant (approximately one <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmosphere (unit)">atmosphere</a> for every 10 metres of water depth).<sup id="cite_ref-Benthos_NOAA_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benthos_NOAA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because light is <a href="/wiki/Absorption_(electromagnetic_radiation)" title="Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)">absorbed</a> before it can reach deep ocean water, the energy source for deep benthic ecosystems is often organic matter from higher up in the water column that drifts down to the depths. This <a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">dead and decaying matter</a> sustains the benthic <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a>; most organisms in the benthic zone are <a href="/wiki/Scavengers" class="mw-redirect" title="Scavengers">scavengers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Detritivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Detritivores">detritivores</a>. </p> The term <i>benthos</i>, coined by <a href="/wiki/Haeckel" class="mw-redirect" title="Haeckel">Haeckel</a> in 1891,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> comes from the <a href="/wiki/English_words_of_Greek_origin" title="English words of Greek origin">Greek</a> noun <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">βένθος</span></span> 'depth of the sea'.<sup id="cite_ref-Benthos_caml_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benthos_caml-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Benthos</i> is used in <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_Biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater Biology">freshwater biology</a> to refer to organisms at the bottom of freshwater <a href="/wiki/Body_of_water" title="Body of water">bodies of water</a>, such as lakes, rivers, and streams.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also a redundant synonym, <i>Benton</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Topography">Topography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Topography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bathymetry" title="Bathymetry">Bathymetry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">Ocean surface topography</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_map_of_bathymetric_data_-_GEBCO_2014.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/World_map_of_bathymetric_data_-_GEBCO_2014.jpg/220px-World_map_of_bathymetric_data_-_GEBCO_2014.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/World_map_of_bathymetric_data_-_GEBCO_2014.jpg/330px-World_map_of_bathymetric_data_-_GEBCO_2014.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/World_map_of_bathymetric_data_-_GEBCO_2014.jpg/440px-World_map_of_bathymetric_data_-_GEBCO_2014.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1097" /></a><figcaption>World map with ocean topography</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Seabed topography</b> (<b>ocean topography</b> or <b>marine topography</b>) refers to the shape of the land (<a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a>) when it interfaces with the ocean. These shapes are obvious along coastlines, but they occur also in significant ways underwater. The effectiveness of marine habitats is partially defined by these shapes, including the way they interact with and shape <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">ocean currents</a>, and the way sunlight diminishes when these landforms occupy increasing depths. Tidal networks depend on the balance between sedimentary processes and hydrodynamics however, anthropogenic influences can impact the natural system more than any physical driver.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Marine topographies include <a href="/wiki/List_of_landforms#Coastal_and_oceanic_landforms" class="mw-redirect" title="List of landforms">coastal and oceanic landforms</a> ranging from coastal <a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">estuaries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shoreline" class="mw-redirect" title="Shoreline">shorelines</a> to <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a>. Further out in the open ocean, they include underwater and <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">deep sea</a> features such as ocean rises and <a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">seamounts</a>. The submerged surface has mountainous features, including a globe-spanning <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridge</a> system, as well as undersea <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ngdc2006_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ngdc2006-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">oceanic trenches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">submarine canyons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">oceanic plateaus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">abyssal plains</a>. </p><p>The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7001180000000000000♠"></span>18</span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Metric_ton" class="mw-redirect" title="Metric ton">metric tons</a>, or about 1/4400 of the total mass of the Earth. The oceans cover an area of 3.618<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000800000000000000♠"></span>8</span></sup> km<sup>2</sup> with a mean depth of 3,682 m, resulting in an estimated volume of 1.332<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000900000000000000♠"></span>9</span></sup> km<sup>3</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-ocean23_2_112_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocean23_2_112-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Features">Features</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pelagiczone.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Pelagiczone.svg/200px-Pelagiczone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="575" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Pelagiczone.svg/300px-Pelagiczone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Pelagiczone.svg/400px-Pelagiczone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="522" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Layers of the <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">pelagic zone</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Each region of the seabed has typical features such as common sediment composition, typical topography, salinity of water layers above it, marine life, magnetic direction of rocks, and <a href="/wiki/Sedimentation" title="Sedimentation">sedimentation</a>. Some features of the seabed include flat <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">abyssal plains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridges</a>, deep <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">trenches</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a>. </p><p>Seabed topography is flat where layers of sediments cover the tectonic features. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">abyssal plain</a> regions of the ocean are relatively flat and covered in many layers of sediments.<sup id="cite_ref-Braathen_Brekke_2020_pp._21–35_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Braathen_Brekke_2020_pp._21–35-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sediments in these flat areas come from various sources, including but not limited to: land erosion sediments from rivers, chemically precipitated sediments from hydrothermal vents, <a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine microorganism">Microorganism</a> activity, <a href="/wiki/Sea_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea current">sea currents</a> eroding the seabed and transporting sediments to the deeper ocean, and <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> shell materials. </p><p>Where the seafloor is actively spreading and sedimentation is relatively light, such as in the northern and eastern <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>, the original tectonic activity can be clearly seen as straight line "cracks" or "vents" thousands of kilometers long. These underwater mountain ranges are known as <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridges" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid-ocean ridges">mid-ocean ridges</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Marine_Geochemistry_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marine_Geochemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other seabed environments include hydrothermal vents, cold seeps, and shallow areas. Marine life is abundant in the <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">deep sea</a> around <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vents" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal vents">hydrothermal vents</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution_2018_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution_2018-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea communities">deep sea communities</a> of marine life have been discovered around <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Black_smokers_and_white_smokers" title="Hydrothermal vent">black and white smokers</a> – vents emitting chemicals toxic to humans and most <a href="/wiki/Vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrates">vertebrates</a>. This marine life receives its energy both from the extreme temperature difference (typically a drop of 150 degrees) and from <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">chemosynthesis</a> by <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brine_pool" title="Brine pool">Brine pools</a> are another seabed feature,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> usually connected to <a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a>. In shallow areas, the seabed can host sediments created by <a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">marine life</a> such as corals, fish, algae, crabs, marine plants and other organisms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_impact">Human impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Human impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exploration">Exploration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Exploration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_exploration" title="Deep-sea exploration">Deep-sea exploration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oceanography#History" title="Oceanography">Oceanography § History</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM/240px--Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="240" height="180" data-durationhint="238" data-mwtitle="Autonomous_landers,_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Autonomous_landers,_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="960" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1440" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1440" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>A video describing the operation and use of an <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_underwater_vehicle" title="Unmanned underwater vehicle">autonomous lander</a> in deep sea research.</figcaption></figure> <p>The seabed has been explored by submersibles such as <i><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">Alvin</a></i> and, to some extent, <a href="/wiki/Scuba_divers" class="mw-redirect" title="Scuba divers">scuba divers</a> with special equipment. Hydrothermal vents were discovered in 1977 by researchers using an underwater camera platform.<sup id="cite_ref-Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution_2018_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution_2018-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In recent years satellite measurements of <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">ocean surface topography</a> show very clear <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Seafloor mapping">maps of the seabed</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Science_Mission_Directorate_2010_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Science_Mission_Directorate_2010-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and these satellite-derived maps are used extensively in the study and exploration of the ocean floor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plastic_pollution">Plastic pollution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Plastic pollution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2020 scientists created what may be the first scientific estimate of how much <a href="/wiki/Microplastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Microplastic">microplastic</a> currently resides in Earth's <a href="/wiki/Seafloor" class="mw-redirect" title="Seafloor">seafloor</a>, after investigating six areas of ~3 km depth ~300 km off the Australian coast. They found the highly variable microplastic counts to be proportionate to plastic on the surface and the angle of the seafloor slope. By averaging the microplastic mass per cm<sup>3</sup>, they estimated that Earth's seafloor contains ~14 million tons of microplastic – about double the amount they estimated based on data from earlier studies – despite calling both estimates "conservative" as coastal areas are known to contain much more <a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">microplastic pollution</a>. These estimates are about one to two times the amount of plastic thought – per Jambeck et al., 2015 – to currently enter the oceans annually.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exploitation">Exploitation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Exploitation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">Deep sea mining</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deep_sea_mining&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Naval_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval mining">Naval mining</a>.</div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schematic-of-a-polymetallic-nodule-mining-operation-From-top-to-bottom-the-three_(2).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Schematic of a polymetallic nodule mining operation. From top to bottom, the three zoom-in panels illustrate the surface operation vessel, the midwater sediment plume, and the nodule collector operating on the seabed. The midwater plume comprises two stages: (i) the dynamic plume, in which the sediment-laden discharge water rapidly descends and dilutes to a neutral buoyancy depth, and (ii) the subsequent ambient plume that is advected by the ocean current and subject to background turbulence and settling." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Schematic-of-a-polymetallic-nodule-mining-operation-From-top-to-bottom-the-three_%282%29.png/220px-Schematic-of-a-polymetallic-nodule-mining-operation-From-top-to-bottom-the-three_%282%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Schematic-of-a-polymetallic-nodule-mining-operation-From-top-to-bottom-the-three_%282%29.png/330px-Schematic-of-a-polymetallic-nodule-mining-operation-From-top-to-bottom-the-three_%282%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Schematic-of-a-polymetallic-nodule-mining-operation-From-top-to-bottom-the-three_%282%29.png/440px-Schematic-of-a-polymetallic-nodule-mining-operation-From-top-to-bottom-the-three_%282%29.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="857" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of a polymetallic nodule mining operation. From top to bottom, the three zoom-in panels illustrate the surface operation vessel, the midwater sediment plume, and the nodule collector operating on the seabed. The midwater plume comprises two stages: (i) the dynamic plume, in which the sediment-laden discharge water rapidly descends and dilutes to a neutral buoyancy depth, and (ii) the subsequent ambient plume that is advected by the ocean current and subject to background turbulence and settling.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">Deep sea mining</a> is the extraction of minerals from the seabed of the <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">deep sea</a>. The main ores of commercial interest are <a href="/wiki/Polymetallic_nodules" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymetallic nodules">polymetallic nodules</a>, which are found at depths of 4–6 km (2.5–3.7 mi) primarily on the <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">abyssal plain</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Clarion%E2%80%93Clipperton_zone" title="Clarion–Clipperton zone">Clarion–Clipperton zone</a> (CCZ) alone contains over 21 billion metric tons of these nodules, with minerals such as <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a> making up 2.5% of their weight. It is estimated that the global ocean floor holds more than 120 million tons of cobalt, five times the amount found in terrestrial reserves.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of July 2024<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, only exploratory licenses have been issued, with no commercial-scale deep sea mining operations yet. The <a href="/wiki/International_Seabed_Authority" title="International Seabed Authority">International Seabed Authority</a> (ISA) regulates all mineral-related activities in <a href="/wiki/International_waters" title="International waters">international waters</a> and has granted 31 exploration licenses so far: 19 for polymetallic nodules, mostly in the CCZ; 7 for polymetallic sulphides in <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridges</a>; and 5 for cobalt-rich crusts in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Pacific_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Pacific Ocean">Western Pacific Ocean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a push for deep sea mining to commence by 2025, when regulations by the ISA are expected to be completed.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Deep_sea_mining_:1_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deep_sea_mining_:1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Deep sea mining is also possible in the <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone" title="Exclusive economic zone">exclusive economic zone</a> (EEZ) of countries, such as <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>, where it has been approved.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2022, the <a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands" title="Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a> Seabed Minerals Authority (SBMA) granted three exploration licenses for cobalt-rich polymetallic nodules within their EEZ.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a> was the first country to approve a deep sea mining permit for the Solwara 1 project, despite three independent reviews highlighting significant gaps and flaws in the environmental impact statement.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most common commercial model of deep sea mining proposed involves a caterpillar-track hydraulic collector and a riser lift system bringing the harvested ore to a production support vessel with <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_positioning" title="Dynamic positioning">dynamic positioning</a>, and then depositing extra discharge down the water column. Related technologies include robotic mining machines, as surface ships, and offshore and onshore metal refineries.<sup id="cite_ref-Deep_sea_mining_SPC-2013_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deep_sea_mining_SPC-2013-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wind farms, solar energy, <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">electric vehicles</a>, and battery technologies use many of the deep-sea metals.<sup id="cite_ref-Deep_sea_mining_SPC-2013_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deep_sea_mining_SPC-2013-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle_battery" title="Electric vehicle battery">Electric vehicle batteries</a> are the main driver of the critical metals demand that incentivizes deep sea mining.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">environmental impact</a> of deep sea mining is controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Environmental advocacy groups such as <a href="/wiki/Greenpeace" title="Greenpeace">Greenpeace</a> and the Deep Sea Mining Campaign<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> claimed that seabed mining has the potential to damage <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea ecosystem">deep sea ecosystems</a> and spread pollution from heavy metal-laden plumes.<sup id="cite_ref-Deep_sea_mining_Halfar_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deep_sea_mining_Halfar-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics have called for moratoria<sup id="cite_ref-Deep_sea_mining_theguardian.com_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deep_sea_mining_theguardian.com-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or permanent bans.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Opposition campaigns enlisted the support of some industry figures, including firms reliant on the target metals. Individual countries with significant deposits within their <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone" title="Exclusive economic zone">exclusive economic zones (EEZ's)</a> are exploring the subject.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> As of 2021, the majority of marine mining used dredging operations at depths of about 200 m, where <a href="/wiki/Construction_aggregate" title="Construction aggregate">sand, silt and mud for construction purposes</a> is abundant, along with <a href="/wiki/Heavy_mineral_sands_ore_deposits" title="Heavy mineral sands ore deposits">mineral rich sands</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Ilmenite" title="Ilmenite">ilmenite</a> and diamonds.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_art_and_culture">In art and culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: In art and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some children's play songs include elements such as "There's a hole at the bottom of the sea", or "A sailor went to sea... but all that he could see was the bottom of the deep blue sea". </p><p>On and under the seabed are archaeological sites of historic interest, such as shipwrecks and sunken towns. This underwater cultural heritage is protected by the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_Convention_on_the_Protection_of_the_Underwater_Cultural_Heritage" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage">UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage</a>. The convention aims at preventing looting and the destruction or loss of historic and cultural information by providing an international legal framework.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_trawling" title="Bottom trawling">Bottom trawling</a> – Fishing method by towing a net along the seafloor</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal fish</a> – Fish that live and feed on or near the bottom of seas or lakes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_outpost" title="Human outpost">Human outpost</a> – Human habitats located in environments inhospitable for humans</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_waters" title="International waters">International waters</a> – Water outside of national jurisdiction</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manganese_nodule" title="Manganese nodule">Manganese nodule</a> – Mineral concretion on the sea bottom made of concentric layers of iron/manganese hydroxides</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methane_clathrate" title="Methane clathrate">Methane clathrate</a> – Methane-water lattice compound</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepheloid_layer" title="Nepheloid layer">Nepheloid layer</a> – layer of water in the deep ocean basin, above the ocean floor, that contains significant amounts of suspended sediment<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_foreshore_and_seabed_controversy" title="New Zealand foreshore and seabed controversy">New Zealand foreshore and seabed controversy</a> – Indigenous rights controversy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_geotechnical_engineering" title="Offshore geotechnical engineering">Offshore geotechnical engineering</a> – Sub-field of engineering concerned with human-made structures in the sea</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrological_Database_of_the_Ocean_Floor" title="Petrological Database of the Ocean Floor">Petrological Database of the Ocean Floor</a> (<abbr>PetBD</abbr>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a> – Movement of Earth's lithosphere</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_vessel" title="Research vessel">Research vessel</a> – Ship or boat designed, modified, or equipped to carry out research at sea</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed_characterization" class="mw-redirect" title="Seabed characterization">Seabed characterization</a> – Partitioning of a seabed acoustic image into discrete physical entities or classes<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Seafloor mapping">Seafloor mapping</a> – Study of underwater depth of lake or ocean floors<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_massive_sulfide_deposits" title="Seafloor massive sulfide deposits">Seafloor massive sulfide deposits</a> – Mineral deposits from seafloor hydrothermal vents</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_Profile_Imagery" title="Sediment Profile Imagery">Sediment Profile Imagery</a> (<abbr>SPI</abbr>) – Technique for photographing the interface between the seabed and the overlying water</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKumpKastingCrane2010" class="citation book cs1">Kump, Lee R.; Kasting, James F.; Crane, Robert G. (2010). "Chapter 7. Circulation of the Solid Earth". <i>The Earth System</i> (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. pp. 122–148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-59779-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-59779-3"><bdi>978-0-321-59779-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+7.+Circulation+of+the+Solid+Earth&rft.btitle=The+Earth+System&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pages=122-148&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Pearson+Education%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-321-59779-3&rft.aulast=Kump&rft.aufirst=Lee+R.&rft.au=Kasting%2C+James+F.&rft.au=Crane%2C+Robert+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabed" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/oceans/open-ocean.htm">"Open Ocean – Oceans, Coasts, and Seashores"</a>. National Park Service<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Open+Ocean+%E2%80%93+Oceans%2C+Coasts%2C+and+Seashores&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fsubjects%2Foceans%2Fopen-ocean.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabed" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNOAA" class="citation web cs1">NOAA. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ocean-floor-features">"Ocean floor features"</a>. <i>National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft.atitle=Ocean+floor+features&rft.au=NOAA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.noaa.gov%2Feducation%2Fresource-collections%2Focean-coasts%2Focean-floor-features&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabed" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFloodPiper,_D.J.W.1997" class="citation conference cs1">Flood, Roger D.; Piper, D.J.W. (1997). "Preface: Depth Below Seafloor Conventions". In Flood; Piper; Klaus, A.; Peterson, L.C. (eds.). <i>Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results</i>. Vol. 155. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2973%2Fodp.proc.sr.155.200.1997">10.2973/odp.proc.sr.155.200.1997</a>. <q>we follow Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) meters below seafloor (mbsf) convention</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Preface%3A+Depth+Below+Seafloor+Conventions&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+Ocean+Drilling+Program%2C+Scientific+Results&rft.pages=3&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2973%2Fodp.proc.sr.155.200.1997&rft.aulast=Flood&rft.aufirst=Roger+D.&rft.au=Piper%2C+D.J.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabed" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParkesHenrik_Sass2007" class="citation book cs1">Parkes, R. John; Henrik Sass (2007). Barton, Larry L. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ebooks.cambridge.org/chapter.jsf?bid=CBO9780511541490&cid=CBO9780511541490A018"><i>Sulphate-reducing bacteria environmental and engineered systems</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 329–358. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511541490.012">10.1017/CBO9780511541490.012</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85485-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85485-6"><bdi>978-0-521-85485-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 June</span> 2010</span>. <q>metres below the seafloor (mbsf)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sulphate-reducing+bacteria+environmental+and+engineered+systems&rft.pages=329-358&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9780511541490.012&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85485-6&rft.aulast=Parkes&rft.aufirst=R.+John&rft.au=Henrik+Sass&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Febooks.cambridge.org%2Fchapter.jsf%3Fbid%3DCBO9780511541490%26cid%3DCBO9780511541490A018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabed" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Murray, Richard W. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Oc-Po/Ocean-Floor-Sediments.html#">Ocean-Floor Sediments</a>," Water Encyclopedia</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marine_Geochemistry-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Marine_Geochemistry_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marine_Geochemistry_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChesterJickells2012" class="citation book cs1">Chester, Roy; Jickells, Tim (2012). "Chapter 15. The components of marine sediments". <i>Marine Geochemistry</i> (3rd ed.). Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. 321–351. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8734-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8734-3"><bdi>978-1-4051-8734-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+15.+The+components+of+marine+sediments&rft.btitle=Marine+Geochemistry&rft.pages=321-351&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing+Ltd&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-8734-3&rft.aulast=Chester&rft.aufirst=Roy&rft.au=Jickells%2C+Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabed" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChesterJickells2012" class="citation book cs1">Chester, Roy; Jickells, Tim (2012). "Chapter 13. Marine sediments". <i>Marine Geochemistry</i> (3rd ed.). 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Plankton-Studien. 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Retrieved 12 September 2012.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Roger Hekinian: <i>Sea Floor Exploration: Scientific Adventures Diving into the Abyss.</i> Springer, 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-03202-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-03202-3">978-3-319-03202-3</a> (print); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-03203-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-03203-0">978-3-319-03203-0</a> (eBook)</li> <li>Stéphane Sainson: <i>Electromagnetic Seabed Logging. A new tool for geoscientists.</i> Springer, 2016. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-45353-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-45353-8">978-3-319-45353-8</a> (print); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-45355-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-45355-2">978-3-319-45355-2</a> (eBook)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabed&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/seabed" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/seabed">seabed</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cosee-central-gom.org/online_presentations/2003/presentation4/slides.pdf">Understanding the Seafloor</a> presentation from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cosee-central-gom.org/">Cosee</a> – the Center for Ocean Sciences Educational Excellence.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/">Ocean Explorer (www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov)</a> – Public outreach site for explorations sponsored by the Office of Ocean Exploration.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/gallery/gallery.html">NOAA, Ocean Explorer Gallery</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/06fire/logs/photolog/photolog.html">Submarine Ring of Fire 2006 Gallery</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/04fire/logs/photolog/photolog.html">Submarine Ring of Fire 2004 Gallery</a> – A rich collection of images, video, audio and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/podcast/oceanexplorer_podcast.xml">podcast</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/oceanexplorergov">NOAA, Ocean Explorer YouTube Channel</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/06fire/background/marianaarc/marianaarc.html">Submarine Ring of Fire, Mariana Arc</a> – Explore the volcanoes of the Mariana Arc, Submarine Ring of Fire.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo45167">Age of the Ocean Floor</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Geophysical_Data_Center" title="National Geophysical Data Center">National Geophysical Data Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ted.com/talks/mike_degruy_hooked_by_octopus.html">Astonishing deep sea life</a> on <a href="/wiki/TED_(conference)" title="TED (conference)">TED (conference)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physical_oceanography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physical_oceanography" title="Template talk:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physical_oceanography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Waves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airy_wave_theory" title="Airy wave theory">Airy wave theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballantine_scale" title="Ballantine scale">Ballantine scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modulational_instability" title="Modulational instability">Benjamin–Feir instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boussinesq_approximation_(water_waves)" title="Boussinesq approximation (water waves)">Boussinesq approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">Breaking wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clapotis" title="Clapotis">Clapotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke%27s_variational_principle" title="Luke's variational principle">Luke's variational principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild-slope_equation" title="Mild-slope equation">Mild-slope equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_stress" title="Radiation stress">Radiation stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby-gravity_waves" title="Rossby-gravity waves">Rossby-gravity waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_state" title="Sea state">Sea state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Significant_wave_height" title="Significant wave height">Significant wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_problem" title="Stokes problem">Stokes problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_nonlinearity" title="Wave nonlinearity">Wave nonlinearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_setup" title="Wind setup">Wind setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Upwelling"><img alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/120px-Upwelling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/180px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/240px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></a></span><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antarctic bottom water"><img alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/120px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/180px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/240px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generated_current" title="Wind generated current">Wind generated current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Seabed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate<br />tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">Fracture zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">Mesopelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">Sea level</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea-level_curve" title="Sea-level curve">Sea-level curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical oceanography">Acoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography" title="Ocean acoustic tomography">Ocean acoustic tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofar_bomb" title="Sofar bomb">Sofar bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOFAR_channel" title="SOFAR channel">SOFAR channel</a></li> 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