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vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Name" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Name"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Name </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Name-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prelude_(1370–1569)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prelude_(1370–1569)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Prelude (1370–1569) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prelude_(1370–1569)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Union_of_Lublin_(1569)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Union_of_Lublin_(1569)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Union of Lublin (1569) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Union_of_Lublin_(1569)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Apex_and_the_Golden_Age_(1573–1648)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apex_and_the_Golden_Age_(1573–1648)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Apex and the Golden Age (1573–1648) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apex_and_the_Golden_Age_(1573–1648)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deluge,_rebellions_and_Vienna_(1648–1696)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deluge,_rebellions_and_Vienna_(1648–1696)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Deluge, rebellions and Vienna (1648–1696) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deluge,_rebellions_and_Vienna_(1648–1696)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_turmoil_and_the_enlightenment_(1697–1771)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_turmoil_and_the_enlightenment_(1697–1771)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Political turmoil and the enlightenment (1697–1771) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_turmoil_and_the_enlightenment_(1697–1771)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Partitions_(1772–1795)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Partitions_(1772–1795)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Partitions (1772–1795) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Partitions_(1772–1795)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_organization_and_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_organization_and_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 State organization and politics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-State_organization_and_politics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle State organization and politics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-State_organization_and_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Golden_Liberty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Golden_Liberty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Golden Liberty </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Golden_Liberty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnate_oligarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnate_oligarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Magnate oligarchy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnate_oligarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Late reforms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Economy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Science_and_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_and_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Science and literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_and_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art_and_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_and_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Art and music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art_and_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Architecture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Szlachta_and_Sarmatism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Szlachta_and_Sarmatism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Szlachta and Sarmatism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Szlachta_and_Sarmatism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Demographics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administrative_divisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_divisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Administrative divisions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_divisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Geography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Image_gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Image_gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Image gallery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Image_gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 93 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-93" aria-hidden="true" > 93 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pools-Litause_Gemenebes" title="Pools-Litause Gemenebes – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Pools-Litause Gemenebes" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polen-Litauen" title="Polen-Litauen – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Polen-Litauen" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%88%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AB_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="الكومنولث البولندي الليتواني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الكومنولث البولندي الليتواني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republica_d%27as_Dos_Nacions" title="Republica d'as Dos Nacions – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Republica d'as Dos Nacions" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%BAblica_de_les_Dos_Naciones" title="República de les Dos Naciones – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="República de les Dos Naciones" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re%C3%A7_Pospolita" title="Reç Pospolita – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Reç Pospolita" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="لهیستان-لیتوانی بیرلیگی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="لهیستان-لیتوانی بیرلیگی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pho-l%C3%A2n_Lietuva" title="Pho-lân Lietuva – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Pho-lân Lietuva" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%8C_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F" title="Речь Посполитая – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Речь Посполитая" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8D%D1%87_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F" title="Рэч Паспалітая – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рэч Паспалітая" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8D%D1%87_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F" title="Рэч Паспалітая – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Рэч Паспалітая" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Жечпосполита – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Жечпосполита" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poljsko-Litvanska_Unija" title="Poljsko-Litvanska Unija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Poljsko-Litvanska Unija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republik_an_Div_Vroad" title="Republik an Div Vroad – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Republik an Div Vroad" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederaci%C3%B3_de_Pol%C3%B2nia_i_Litu%C3%A0nia" title="Confederació de Polònia i Lituània – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Confederació de Polònia i Lituània" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polsko-litevsk%C3%A1_unie_(1569%E2%80%931795)" title="Polsko-litevská unie (1569–1795) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Polsko-litevská unie (1569–1795)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_Gymanwlad_Bwylaidd%E2%80%93Lithwanaidd" title="Y Gymanwlad Bwylaidd–Lithwanaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Y Gymanwlad Bwylaidd–Lithwanaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_polsk-litauiske_realunion" title="Den polsk-litauiske realunion – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Den polsk-litauiske realunion" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polen-Litauen" title="Polen-Litauen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Polen-Litauen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republika_Dweju_Narodowu" title="Republika Dweju Narodowu – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Republika Dweju Narodowu" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rzeczpospolita" title="Rzeczpospolita – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rzeczpospolita" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE-%CE%9B%CE%B9%CE%B8%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Πολωνική-Λιθουανική Κοινοπολιτεία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πολωνική-Λιθουανική Κοινοπολιτεία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%BAblica_de_las_Dos_Naciones" title="República de las Dos Naciones – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="República de las Dos Naciones" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respubliko_de_Amba%C5%AD_Nacioj" title="Respubliko de Ambaŭ Nacioj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Respubliko de Ambaŭ Nacioj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi_Nazioen_Errepublika" title="Bi Nazioen Errepublika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bi Nazioen Errepublika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%B1%DA%A9%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B9_%D9%84%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%93%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="مشترک‌المنافع لهستان–لیتوانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مشترک‌المنافع لهستان–لیتوانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9publique_des_Deux_Nations" title="République des Deux Nations – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="République des Deux Nations" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poalsk-Litouske_Mienebest" title="Poalsk-Litouske Mienebest – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Poalsk-Litouske Mienebest" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comhlathas_na_Polainne_-_na_Liotu%C3%A1ine" title="Comhlathas na Polainne - na Liotuáine – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Comhlathas na Polainne - na Liotuáine" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-fhlaitheas_na_P%C3%B2lainn_-_Liotu%C3%A0inia" title="Co-fhlaitheas na Pòlainn - Liotuàinia – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Co-fhlaitheas na Pòlainn - Liotuàinia" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mancomunidade_de_Polonia_e_Lituania" title="Mancomunidade de Polonia e Lituania – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Mancomunidade de Polonia e Lituania" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%B4%EB%9E%80%EB%93%9C-%EB%A6%AC%ED%88%AC%EC%95%84%EB%8B%88%EC%95%84" title="폴란드-리투아니아 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="폴란드-리투아니아" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%A5%D5%B9_%D5%8A%D5%B8%D5%BD%D5%BA%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1" title="Ռեչ Պոսպոլիտա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռեչ Պոսպոլիտա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B3lsko-Litawska" title="Pólsko-Litawska – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Pólsko-Litawska" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poljsko-Litavska_Unija" title="Poljsko-Litavska Unija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Poljsko-Litavska Unija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonia-Lituania" title="Polonia-Lituania – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Polonia-Lituania" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persemakmuran_Polandia-Lituania" title="Persemakmuran Polandia-Lituania – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Persemakmuran Polandia-Lituania" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%8C_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%C3%A6" title="Речь Посполитæ – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Речь Посполитæ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B3lsk-lit%C3%A1%C3%ADska_samveldi%C3%B0" title="Pólsk-litáíska samveldið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Pólsk-litáíska samveldið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederazione_polacco-lituana" title="Confederazione polacco-lituana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Confederazione polacco-lituana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%97%D7%95%D7%93_%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A0%D7%99-%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%98%D7%90%D7%99" title="האיחוד הפולני-ליטאי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האיחוד הפולני-ליטאי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%8C_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Речь Посполита – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Речь Посполита" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97-%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="პოლონეთ-ლიტვის თანამეგობრობა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პოლონეთ-ლიტვის თანამეგობრობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%8C_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Речь посполита – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Речь посполита" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ltg mw-list-item"><a href="https://ltg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puolejis-L%C4%ABtovys_Sadraudzeiba" title="Puolejis-Lītovys Sadraudzeiba – Latgalian" lang="ltg" hreflang="ltg" data-title="Puolejis-Lītovys Sadraudzeiba" data-language-autonym="Latgaļu" data-language-local-name="Latgalian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latgaļu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Res_Publica_Utriusque_Nationis" title="Res Publica Utriusque Nationis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Res Publica Utriusque Nationis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polijas%E2%80%94Lietuvas_%C5%ABnija" title="Polijas—Lietuvas ūnija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Polijas—Lietuvas ūnija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiej%C5%B3_Taut%C5%B3_Respublika" title="Abiejų Tautų Respublika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Abiejų Tautų Respublika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Полско-литванска Државна Заедница – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Полско-литванска Државна Заедница" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6-%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B2" title="पोलिश-लिथुएनियन राष्ट्रकुल – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="पोलिश-लिथुएनियन राष्ट्रकुल" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A9_%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90" title="რეჩ პოსპოლიტა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="რეჩ პოსპოლიტა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%88%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AB_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%89" title="الكومنولث البولندى الليتوانى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الكومنولث البولندى الليتوانى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86-%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%B1%DA%A9%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B9" title="لهستون-لیتوانی مشترک‌المنافع – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="لهستون-لیتوانی مشترک‌المنافع" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komanwel_Poland%E2%80%93Lithuania" title="Komanwel Poland–Lithuania – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Komanwel Poland–Lithuania" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pools-Litouwse_Gemenebest" title="Pools-Litouwse Gemenebest – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Pools-Litouwse Gemenebest" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6-%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5" title="पोलिश-लिथुआनियन कमनवेल्थ – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="पोलिश-लिथुआनियन कमनवेल्थ" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9D%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AA%E3%83%88%E3%82%A2%E3%83%8B%E3%82%A2%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%BD" title="ポーランド・リトアニア共和国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ポーランド・リトアニア共和国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polen-Litauen" title="Polen-Litauen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Polen-Litauen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_polsk-litauiske_samveldet" title="Det polsk-litauiske samveldet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Det polsk-litauiske samveldet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republica_de_las_Doas_Nacions" title="Republica de las Doas Nacions – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Republica de las Doas Nacions" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rech_Pospolita" title="Rech Pospolita – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Rech Pospolita" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%88-%D9%84%D8%AA%DA%BE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%B1%DA%A9%DB%81" title="پولینڈ-لتھوانیا دولت مشترکہ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پولینڈ-لتھوانیا دولت مشترکہ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%DA%89_-_%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%AF_%DA%AB%DA%89%D9%88_%DA%AB%D9%BC%D9%88_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA" title="د پولينډ - ليتوانيا د ګډو ګټو دولت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د پولينډ - ليتوانيا د ګډو ګټو دولت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rzeczpospolita_Obojga_Narod%C3%B3w" title="Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%BAblica_das_Duas_Na%C3%A7%C3%B5es" title="República das Duas Nações – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="República das Duas Nações" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Je%C3%A7_Pospolita" title="Jeç Pospolita – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Jeç Pospolita" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniunea_statal%C4%83_polono-lituanian%C4%83" title="Uniunea statală polono-lituaniană – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Uniunea statală polono-lituaniană" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_(1569%E2%80%931795)" title="Польско-литовска уния (1569–1795) – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Польско-литовска уния (1569–1795)" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%8C_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F" title="Речь Посполитая – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Речь Посполитая" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunfederatzione_Polacu-Lituana" title="Cunfederatzione Polacu-Lituana – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Cunfederatzione Polacu-Lituana" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komonuelthi_Polako-Lituanez" title="Komonuelthi Polako-Lituanez – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Komonuelthi Polako-Lituanez" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%BD%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AD%E2%80%93%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%94%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA_%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A9%E0%B6%BD%E0%B6%BA" title="පෝලන්ත–ලිතුවේනියානු පොදු රාජ්‍ය මණ්ඩලය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පෝලන්ත–ලිතුවේනියානු පොදු රාජ්‍ය මණ්ඩලය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republika_oboch_n%C3%A1rodov" title="Republika oboch národov – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Republika oboch národov" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republika_obeh_narodov" title="Republika obeh narodov – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Republika obeh narodov" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%99%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%B8_%D0%9B%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5" title="Државна заједница Пољске и Литваније – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Државна заједница Пољске и Литваније" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poljsko-Litvanska_Unija" title="Poljsko-Litvanska Unija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Poljsko-Litvanska Unija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puola-Liettua" title="Puola-Liettua – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Puola-Liettua" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polsk-litauiska_samv%C3%A4ldet" title="Polsk-litauiska samväldet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Polsk-litauiska samväldet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81-%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="போலந்து-லித்துவேனியா பொதுநலவாயம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="போலந்து-லித்துவேனியா பொதுநலவாயம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re%C3%A7_Pospolita" title="Reç Pospolita – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Reç Pospolita" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%9E%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%8C%E2%80%93%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="เครือจักรภพโปแลนด์–ลิทัวเนีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เครือจักรภพโปแลนด์–ลิทัวเนีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonya-Litvanya_Birli%C4%9Fi" title="Polonya-Litvanya Birliği – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Polonya-Litvanya Birliği" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%96%D1%87_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Річ Посполита – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Річ Посполита" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%88-%D9%84%D8%AA%DA%BE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%B1%DA%A9%DB%81" title="پولینڈ-لتھوانیا دولت مشترکہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="پولینڈ-لتھوانیا دولت مشترکہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederasion_po%C5%82aco-lituana" title="Confederasion połaco-lituana – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Confederasion połaco-lituana" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%C3%AAn_bang_Ba_Lan_v%C3%A0_Lietuva" title="Liên bang Ba Lan và Lietuva – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Liên bang Ba Lan và Lietuva" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poola-Leedu_riik" title="Poola-Leedu riik – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Poola-Leedu riik" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komonwelt_han_Polonya-Lituania" title="Komonwelt han Polonya-Lituania – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Komonwelt han Polonya-Lituania" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E5%85%B0%E7%AB%8B%E9%99%B6%E5%AE%9B" title="波兰立陶宛 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="波兰立陶宛" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E8%98%AD%E7%AB%8B%E9%99%B6%E5%AE%9B%E8%81%AF%E9%82%A6" title="波蘭立陶宛聯邦 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="波蘭立陶宛聯邦" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abidv%C4%97ju_Taut%C5%AB_Respobl%C4%97ka" title="Abidvėju Tautū Respoblėka – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Abidvėju Tautū Respoblėka" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E8%98%AD%E7%AB%8B%E9%99%B6%E5%AE%9B%E8%81%AF%E9%82%A6" title="波蘭立陶宛聯邦 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="波蘭立陶宛聯邦" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q172107#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="View the content page [c]" 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Poland-Lithuania_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Poland-Lithuania (disambiguation)">Poland-Lithuania (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania</div><div class="ib-country-names"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Królestwo Polskie i Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>)</li><li>Regnum Poloniae Magnusque Ducatus Lithuaniae (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>)</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1569–1795<a href="#cite_note-EB-Partitions-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chor%C4%85giew_kr%C3%B3lewska_kr%C3%B3la_Zygmunta_III_Wazy.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth"><img alt="Flag of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Chor%C4%85giew_kr%C3%B3lewska_kr%C3%B3la_Zygmunta_III_Wazy.svg/148px-Chor%C4%85giew_kr%C3%B3lewska_kr%C3%B3la_Zygmunta_III_Wazy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="148" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Chor%C4%85giew_kr%C3%B3lewska_kr%C3%B3la_Zygmunta_III_Wazy.svg/222px-Chor%C4%85giew_kr%C3%B3lewska_kr%C3%B3la_Zygmunta_III_Wazy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Chor%C4%85giew_kr%C3%B3lewska_kr%C3%B3la_Zygmunta_III_Wazy.svg/296px-Chor%C4%85giew_kr%C3%B3lewska_kr%C3%B3la_Zygmunta_III_Wazy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Banner_of_Poland" title="Banner of Poland">Royal banner</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1605 – 1668)</div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Polish_House_of_Vasa_Coa.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Royal coat of arms (c. 1587 – 1668) of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth"><img alt="Royal coat of arms (c. 1587 – 1668) of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Polish_House_of_Vasa_Coa.svg/85px-Polish_House_of_Vasa_Coa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Polish_House_of_Vasa_Coa.svg/128px-Polish_House_of_Vasa_Coa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Polish_House_of_Vasa_Coa.svg/170px-Polish_House_of_Vasa_Coa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="1012" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Coat of arms of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Royal coat of arms</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1587 – 1668)</div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Motto: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Si Deus nobiscum quis contra nos</li><li>"If God is with us, then who is against us"</li></ul></div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pro_Fide,_Lege_et_Rege" title="Pro Fide, Lege et Rege">Pro Fide, Lege et Rege</a></li><li>"For faith, law and king"</li></ul></div></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem">Anthem: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaude_Mater_Polonia" title="Gaude Mater Polonia">Gaude Mater Polonia</a></li><li>"Rejoice, oh Mother Poland"</li></ul></div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="107" data-mwtitle="Gaude_Mater_Polonia_-_Educatus.opus" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b4/Gaude_Mater_Polonia_-_Educatus.opus/Gaude_Mater_Polonia_-_Educatus.opus.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Gaude_Mater_Polonia_-_Educatus.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs="opus"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b4/Gaude_Mater_Polonia_-_Educatus.opus/Gaude_Mater_Polonia_-_Educatus.opus.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AGaude_Mater_Polonia_-_Educatus.opus&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AGaude_Mater_Polonia_-_Educatus.opus&lang=la&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="la" label="Latina ‪(la)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AGaude_Mater_Polonia_-_Educatus.opus&lang=pl&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pl" label="polski ‪(pl)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_(1619%E2%80%931621).png" class="mw-file-description" title="The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (green) and its vassal states (light green) in 1619"><img alt="The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (green) and its vassal states (light green) in 1619" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Map_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_%281619%E2%80%931621%29.png/250px-Map_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_%281619%E2%80%931621%29.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Map_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_%281619%E2%80%931621%29.png/375px-Map_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_%281619%E2%80%931621%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Map_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_%281619%E2%80%931621%29.png/500px-Map_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_%281619%E2%80%931621%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2027" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (green) and its vassal states (light green) in 1619</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a><a href="#cite_note-warsaw-capital-1596-2">[2]</a> (1569–1596)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a><a href="#cite_note-warsaw-capital-1596-2">[2]</a> (1596–1795)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ruthenian_language" title="Ruthenian language">Ruthenian</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a></li><li>(see <a href="#Languages">§ Languages</a>)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> (official)<a href="#cite_note-Richters-3">[3]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Federal_monarchy" title="Federal monarchy">Federal</a> parliamentary <a href="/wiki/Elective_monarchy" title="Elective monarchy">elective monarchy</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[a]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_monarchs" title="List of Polish monarchs">King</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Lithuanian_monarchs" title="List of Lithuanian monarchs">Grand Duke</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1569–1572 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sigismund_II_Augustus" title="Sigismund II Augustus">Sigismund II Augustus</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1764–1795 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław II August</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Grand_Chancellor_of_the_Crown" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Chancellor of the Crown">Grand Chancellor of the Crown</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1569–1576 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Walenty_Dembi%C5%84ski" title="Walenty Dembiński">Walenty Dembiński</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1793–1795 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Su%C5%82kowski_(chancellor)" title="Antoni Sułkowski (chancellor)">Antoni Sułkowski</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Grand_Chancellor_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Chancellor of Lithuania">Grand Chancellor of Lithuania</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1569–1584 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Miko%C5%82aj_%22the_Red%22_Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł">Mikołaj Radziwiłł</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1764–1795 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Chreptowicz" title="Joachim Chreptowicz">Joachim Chreptowicz</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sejm_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">General sejm</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">Upper house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Poland#History" title="Senate of Poland">Senate</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">Lower house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data">Chamber of Deputies</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Lublin" title="Union of Lublin">Union of Lublin</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1 July 1569</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/First_Partition_of_Poland" title="First Partition of Poland">First Partition</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">5 August 1772</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_3_May_1791" title="Constitution of 3 May 1791">3 May Constitution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">3 May 1791</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Second_Partition_of_Poland" title="Second Partition of Poland">Second Partition</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">23 January 1793<a href="#cite_note-EB-Partitions-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Third_Partition_of_Poland" title="Third Partition of Poland">Third Partition</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">24 October 1795<a href="#cite_note-EB-Partitions-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1582<a href="#cite_note-Panstwowe-8">[7]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">815,000 km2 (315,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1618<a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">1,000,000 km2 (390,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1582<a href="#cite_note-Panstwowe-8">[7]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">8,000,000</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="319" data-file-height="239" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Crown of the Kingdom of Poland">Crown of the Kingdom of Poland</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Royal_banner_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania.svg/20px-Royal_banner_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Royal_banner_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania.svg/30px-Royal_banner_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Royal_banner_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania.svg/40px-Royal_banner_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="320" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia_and_Lodomeria" title="Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria">Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Galicia_%28Central_Europe%2C_1849-1918%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Galicia_%28Central_Europe%2C_1849-1918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Galicia_%28Central_Europe%2C_1849-1918%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Galicia_%28Central_Europe%2C_1849-1918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Galicia_%28Central_Europe%2C_1849-1918%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Galicia_%28Central_Europe%2C_1849-1918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/20px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281750-1801%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281750-1801%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281750-1801%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281750-1801%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281750-1801%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281750-1801%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth,<a href="#cite_note-10">[b]</a> formally known as the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania<a href="#cite_note-11">[c]</a> and also referred to as Poland–Lithuania or the First Polish Republic,<a href="#cite_note-12">[d]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[10]</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">federative</a> <a href="/wiki/Real_union" title="Real union">real union</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[11]</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Crown of the Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a>, existing from 1569 to 1795. This state was among the largest<a href="#cite_note-16">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wandycz2001-66-17">[13]</a> and most populated countries of 16th- to 17th-century Europe. At its peak in the early 17th century, the Commonwealth spanned nearly 1,000,000 square kilometers (about 400,000 square miles)<a href="#cite_note-Benedict1919-18">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[15]</a> and supported a multi-ethnic population of approximately 12 million as of 1618.<a href="#cite_note-Pogonowski-20">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[17]</a> The official languages of the Commonwealth were <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin Language">Latin</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> as the state religion. The Commonwealth was established as a single entity by the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Lublin" title="Union of Lublin">Union of Lublin</a> on 1 July 1569. The two nations had previously been in a <a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">personal union</a> since the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Krewo" title="Union of Krewo">Krewo Agreement</a> of 1385 and the subsequent marriage of Queen <a href="/wiki/Jadwiga_of_Poland" title="Jadwiga of Poland">Jadwiga of Poland</a> to Grand Duke <a href="/wiki/Jogaila" class="mw-redirect" title="Jogaila">Jogaila of Lithuania</a>, who was crowned <a href="/wiki/Jure_uxoris" title="Jure uxoris">jure uxoris</a> King of Poland.<a href="#cite_note-22">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[19]</a> Their descendant, <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_II_Augustus" title="Sigismund II Augustus">Sigismund II Augustus</a>, enforced the merger to strengthen frontiers of his dominion and maintain unity as he remained childless. His death in 1572 marked the end of the <a href="/wiki/Jagiellonian_dynasty" title="Jagiellonian dynasty">Jagiellonian dynasty</a> and introduced an <a href="/wiki/Elective_monarchy" title="Elective monarchy">elective monarchy</a>, whereupon members of domestic noble families or external dynasties were <a href="/wiki/Royal_elections_in_Poland" title="Royal elections in Poland">elected to the throne</a> for life. The Commonwealth's <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary system of government</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elective_monarchy" title="Elective monarchy">elective monarchy</a>, called the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a>, was an early example of <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Sejm_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">General Sejm</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bicameralism" title="Bicameralism">bicameral</a> <a href="/wiki/Parliament" title="Parliament">Parliament</a>, held legislative power; its lower house was elected by all <a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">szlachta</a> (some 15% of the population). The king and his government were bound by a constitutional statute, the <a href="/wiki/Henrician_Articles" title="Henrician Articles">Henrician Articles</a>, which tightly circumscribed royal authority. The country also exhibited unusual levels of ethnic diversity and great <a href="/wiki/Religious_tolerance" title="Religious tolerance">religious tolerance</a> by European standards, guaranteed by the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Confederation" title="Warsaw Confederation">Warsaw Confederation Act of 1573</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:1-24">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Richters-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sanford-25">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Norman_Davies_1795-26">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stephan-27">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-faith-28">[e]</a> though the practical degree of religious freedom varied.<a href="#cite_note-Feliks_Gross-29">[24]</a> Poland acted as the dominant partner in the union.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-30">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Polonization" title="Polonization">Polonization</a> of nobles was generally voluntary,<a href="#cite_note-31">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Smith-30">[25]</a> but state efforts at religious conversion were sometimes resisted.<a href="#cite_note-Rieber-32">[27]</a> After a long period of prosperity,<a href="#cite_note-33">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Slavs_in_European_History_and_Civilization-34">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-A_social_and_religious_history_of_the_Jews-35">[30]</a> the Commonwealth entered a period of protracted political,<a href="#cite_note-Sanford-25">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Republicanism-36">[31]</a> military, and economic decline.<a href="#cite_note-Domar-37">[32]</a> Its growing weakness led to its <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">partitioning</a> among its neighbours, <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a>, during the late 18th century. Shortly before its demise, the Commonwealth adopted a major reform effort and enacted the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_3_May_1791" title="Constitution of 3 May 1791">3 May Constitution</a>, which was the first codified constitution in modern European history and the second in modern world history after the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">United States Constitution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Markoff-40">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_699-41">[36]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2></div> The official name of the state was the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Królestwo Polskie i Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie, <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>: Lenkijos Karalystė ir Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė, <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Regnum Poloniae Magnusque Ducatus Lithuaniae). The Latin term was usually employed in international treaties and diplomacy.<a href="#cite_note-sjp-42">[37]</a> By concluding the 1569 Union of Lublin the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a> remained a separate state from the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Crown of the Kingdom of Poland">Crown of the Kingdom of Poland</a> with its own name, laws, and territory.<a href="#cite_note-43">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-VleLDK-44">[39]</a> The name 'Commonwealth of Two Nations' (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów) came into force during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Stephen_B%C3%A1thory" title="Stephen Báthory">Stephen Báthory</a> (since 1582, and was officially used until 1795).<a href="#cite_note-ATR-45">[40]</a> On 28 January 1588, <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_III_Vasa" title="Sigismund III Vasa">Sigismund III Vasa</a> has confirmed the <a href="/wiki/Statutes_of_Lithuania#Third_Statute" title="Statutes of Lithuania">Third Statute of Lithuania</a> in which it was stated that the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth is a <a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">federation</a> of two countries – Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland where both countries have equal rights within it.<a href="#cite_note-3S-46">[41]</a> In the 17th century and later it was also known as the 'Most Serene Commonwealth of Poland' (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Najjaśniejsza <a href="/wiki/Rzeczpospolita" title="Rzeczpospolita">Rzeczpospolita</a> Polska, <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Serenissima Res Publica Poloniae),<a href="#cite_note-Ferrand-47">[42]</a> the Commonwealth of the Polish Kingdom,<a href="#cite_note-48">[43]</a> or the Commonwealth of Poland.<a href="#cite_note-49">[44]</a> Western Europeans often simplified the name to 'Poland' and in most past and modern sources it is referred to as the Kingdom of Poland, or just Poland.<a href="#cite_note-sjp-42">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[46]</a> The terms 'Commonwealth of Poland' and 'Commonwealth of Two Nations' (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów, <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Res Publica Utriusque Nationis) were used in the <a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_Guarantee_of_Two_Nations" title="Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations">Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations</a> (1791).<a href="#cite_note-52">[47]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Preamble" title="Preamble">preamble</a> of the Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations (1791) the dualistic nature of the state was confirmed and separate monarchial titles of <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław August Poniatowski</a> were included: King of Poland (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Krol Polski) and Grand Duke of Lithuania (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Wielki xiązę litewski), also the land envoys of the Polish Crown and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: posłow ziemskich Korony Polskiey, y Wielkiego Xięstwa Litewskiego) were mentioned.<a href="#cite_note-53">[48]</a> The English term Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and German Polen–Litauen are seen as renderings of the 'Commonwealth of Two Nations' variant.<a href="#cite_note-sjp-42">[37]</a> Other informal names include the 'Republic of Nobles' (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Rzeczpospolita szlachecka) and the 'First Commonwealth' (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: I Rzeczpospolita) or 'First Polish Republic' (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Pierwsza Rzeczpospolita), the latter relatively common in historiography to distinguish it from the <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Second Polish Republic</a>. In Lithuania, the state is referred to as 'Republic of Both Nations' (<a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>: Abiejų Tautų Respublika).<a href="#cite_note-VleLDK-44">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-ATR-45">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_(1569%E2%80%931648)" title="History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)">History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_(1648%E2%80%931764)" title="History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1648–1764)">(1648–1764)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_(1764%E2%80%931795)" title="History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1764–1795)">(1764–1795)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prelude_(1370–1569)">Prelude (1370–1569)</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poland_and_Lithuania_in_1526.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Poland_and_Lithuania_in_1526.PNG/300px-Poland_and_Lithuania_in_1526.PNG" decoding="async" width="300" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Poland_and_Lithuania_in_1526.PNG/450px-Poland_and_Lithuania_in_1526.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Poland_and_Lithuania_in_1526.PNG/600px-Poland_and_Lithuania_in_1526.PNG 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1568" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Crown of the Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a> in 1526.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a> underwent an alternating series of wars and alliances across the 13th and 14th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-54">[49]</a> The relations between the two states differed at times as each strived and competed for political, economic or military dominance of the region.<a href="#cite_note-55">[50]</a> In turn, Poland had remained a staunch ally of its southern neighbour, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a>. The last Polish monarch from the native <a href="/wiki/Piast_dynasty" title="Piast dynasty">Piast</a> dynasty, <a href="/wiki/Casimir_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Casimir the Great">Casimir the Great</a>, died on 5 November 1370 without fathering a legitimate male heir.<a href="#cite_note-Halecki_1991_52-56">[51]</a> Consequently, the crown passed onto his Hungarian nephew, <a href="/wiki/Louis_I_of_Hungary" title="Louis I of Hungary">Louis of Anjou</a>, who ruled the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Kingdom of Hungary</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Hungary_and_Poland" title="Union of Hungary and Poland">personal union with Poland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Halecki_1991_52-56">[51]</a> A fundamental step in developing extensive ties with Lithuania was a succession crisis arising in the 1380s.<a href="#cite_note-57">[52]</a> Louis died on 10 September 1382 and, like his uncle, did not produce a son to succeed him. His two daughters, <a href="/wiki/Mary,_Queen_of_Hungary" title="Mary, Queen of Hungary">Mary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jadwiga_of_Poland" title="Jadwiga of Poland">Jadwiga</a> (Hedwig), held claims to the vast dual realm.<a href="#cite_note-Halecki_1991_52-56">[51]</a> The Polish lords rejected Mary in favour of her younger sister Jadwiga, partly due to Mary's association with <a href="/wiki/Sigismund,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor">Sigismund of Luxembourg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[53]</a> The future <a href="/wiki/Queen_regnant" title="Queen regnant">queen regnant</a> was betrothed to young <a href="/wiki/William,_Duke_of_Austria" title="William, Duke of Austria">William Habsburg, Duke of Austria</a>, but certain factions of the nobility remained apprehensive believing that William would not secure domestic interests.<a href="#cite_note-59">[54]</a> Instead, they turned to <a href="/wiki/Jogaila" class="mw-redirect" title="Jogaila">Jogaila</a>, the Grand Duke of Lithuania. Jogaila was a lifelong <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan</a> and vowed to <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">adopt Catholicism</a> upon marriage by signing the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Krewo" title="Union of Krewo">Union of Krewo</a> on 14 August 1385.<a href="#cite_note-60">[55]</a> The Act imposed Christianity in Lithuania and transformed Poland into a <a href="/wiki/Diarchy" title="Diarchy">diarchy</a>, a kingdom ruled over by two sovereigns; their descendants and successive monarchs held the titles of king and grand duke respectively.<a href="#cite_note-61">[56]</a> The ultimate clause dictated that Lithuania was to be merged in perpetuity (perpetuo applicare) with the Polish Kingdom; however, this did not take effect until 1569.<a href="#cite_note-62">[57]</a> Jogaila was crowned as Władysław II Jagiełło at <a href="/wiki/Wawel_Cathedral" title="Wawel Cathedral">Wawel Cathedral</a> on 4 March 1386.<a href="#cite_note-63">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Union_of_Lublin_(1569)">Union of Lublin (1569)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Lublin" title="Union of Lublin">Union of Lublin</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unia_Lubelska_1569_r..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Unia_Lubelska_1569_r..jpg/220px-Unia_Lubelska_1569_r..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Unia_Lubelska_1569_r..jpg/330px-Unia_Lubelska_1569_r..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Unia_Lubelska_1569_r..jpg/440px-Unia_Lubelska_1569_r..jpg 2x" data-file-width="9704" data-file-height="7716" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Lublin" title="Union of Lublin">Union of Lublin</a> joined the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1385%E2%80%931569)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)">Kingdom of Poland</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a> in 1569.</figcaption></figure> Several minor agreements were struck before unification, notably the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Krak%C3%B3w_and_Vilnius" class="mw-redirect" title="Union of Kraków and Vilnius">Union of Kraków and Vilnius</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Vilnius_and_Radom" class="mw-redirect" title="Union of Vilnius and Radom">Union of Vilnius and Radom</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Grodno_(1432)" title="Union of Grodno (1432)">Union of Grodno</a>. Lithuania's vulnerable position and rising tensions on its eastern flank persuaded the nobles to seek a closer bond with Poland.<a href="#cite_note-64">[59]</a> The idea of a federation presented better economic opportunities, whilst securing Lithuania's borders from hostile states to the north, south and east.<a href="#cite_note-65">[60]</a> Lesser Lithuanian nobility were eager to share the personal privileges and political liberties enjoyed by the Polish <a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">szlachta</a>, but did not accept Polish demands for the incorporation of the Grand Duchy into Poland as a mere province, with no sense of autonomy.<a href="#cite_note-66">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Miko%C5%82aj_%22the_Red%22_Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł">Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł</a> (Radvila Rudasis) and his cousin <a href="/wiki/Miko%C5%82aj_%22the_Black%22_Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł">Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł</a>, two prominent nobles and military commanders in Lithuania, vocally opposed the union.<a href="#cite_note-67">[62]</a> A fierce proponent of a single unified Commonwealth was <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_II_Augustus" title="Sigismund II Augustus">Sigismund II Augustus</a>, who was childless and ailing. According to historians, it was his active involvement which hastened the process and made the union possible.<a href="#cite_note-68">[63]</a> A parliament (<a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">sejm</a>) convened on 10 January 1569 in the city of <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a>, attended by envoys from both nations. It was agreed that the merger will take place the same year and both parliaments will be fused into a joint assembly.<a href="#cite_note-Butterwick_2021_21-69">[64]</a> No independent parliamentary convocation or <a href="/wiki/Diet_(assembly)" title="Diet (assembly)">diet</a> was henceforth permitted.<a href="#cite_note-Butterwick_2021_21-69">[64]</a> Subjects of the Polish Crown were no longer restricted in purchasing land on Lithuanian territory and a single <a href="/wiki/Currency" title="Currency">currency</a> was established.<a href="#cite_note-70">[65]</a> Whilst the military remained separate, a unified foreign policy meant that Lithuanian troops were obliged to contribute during a conflict not to their advantage.<a href="#cite_note-71">[66]</a> As a result, several Lithuanian <a href="/wiki/Magnate" title="Magnate">magnates</a> deplored the accords and left the assembly in protest.<a href="#cite_note-Maniecky_1869_504-72">[67]</a> Sigismund II used his authority as grand duke and enforced the Act of Union <a href="/wiki/Contumacy" title="Contumacy">in contumaciam</a>. In fear, the absent nobles promptly returned to the negotiations.<a href="#cite_note-73">[68]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Lublin" title="Union of Lublin">Union of Lublin</a> was passed by the gathered deputies and signed by attendees on 1 July, thus creating the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.<a href="#cite_note-Maniecky_1869_504-72">[67]</a> Sigismund's death in 1572 was followed by an <a href="/wiki/Interregnum" title="Interregnum">interregnum</a> during which adjustments were made to the constitutional system; these adjustments significantly increased the power of the <a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">Polish nobility</a> and established a truly <a href="/wiki/Elective_monarchy" title="Elective monarchy">elective monarchy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Elective_Monarchy-74">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Apex_and_the_Golden_Age_(1573–1648)">Apex and the Golden Age (1573–1648)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polish_Golden_Age" title="Polish Golden Age">Polish Golden Age</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_in_1619.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_in_1619.PNG/300px-Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_in_1619.PNG" decoding="async" width="300" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_in_1619.PNG/450px-Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_in_1619.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_in_1619.PNG/600px-Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_in_1619.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1996" data-file-height="1558" /></a><figcaption>The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth at its greatest extent in 1619.</figcaption></figure> On 11 May 1573, <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_France" title="Henry III of France">Henry de Valois</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_France" title="Henry II of France">Henry II of France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catherine_de%27_Medici" title="Catherine de' Medici">Catherine de' Medici</a>, was proclaimed King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania in the first royal election outside <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>. Approximately 40,000 nobles cast a vote in what was to become a centuries-long tradition of a nobles' democracy (<a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a>). Henry already posed as a candidate before Sigismund's death and received widespread support from the pro-French factions. The choice was a political move aimed at curtailing <a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburg</a> hegemony, ending skirmishes with the French-allied <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottomans</a>, and profiting from the lucrative trade with France. It was also believed that an Austrian Archduke could be too powerful and attempt to limit noble privileges. French envoys had also offered large amounts of bribes, amounting to several hundred thousand <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cu" title="Écu">ecus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-75">[70]</a> Upon ascending the throne, Henry signed the contractual agreement known as the <a href="/wiki/Pacta_conventa" title="Pacta conventa">Pacta conventa</a> and approbated the <a href="/wiki/Henrician_Articles" title="Henrician Articles">Henrician Articles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[71]</a> The Act stated the fundamental principles of governance and <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">constitutional law</a> in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.<a href="#cite_note-Bardach_1987_216–217-77">[72]</a> In June 1574, Henry abandoned Poland and headed back to claim the French crown following the death of his brother and predecessor, <a href="/wiki/Charles_IX_of_France" title="Charles IX of France">Charles IX</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[73]</a> The throne was subsequently declared vacant. The interregnum concluded on 12 December 1575 when primate <a href="/wiki/Jakub_Ucha%C5%84ski" title="Jakub Uchański">Jakub Uchański</a> declared <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor">Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor</a>, as the next king.<a href="#cite_note-79">[74]</a> The decision was condemned by the anti-Habsburg coalition, which demanded a "native" candidate, known as "Piasts".<a href="#cite_note-:0-75">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-Besala_2005_116-80">[75]</a> As a compromise, on 13 December 1575 <a href="/wiki/Anna_Jagiellon" title="Anna Jagiellon">Anna Jagiellon</a> – sister of Sigismund Augustus and a member of the <a href="/wiki/Jagiellonian_dynasty" title="Jagiellonian dynasty">Jagiellonian dynasty</a> – became the new monarch.<a href="#cite_note-81">[76]</a> The nobles simultaneously elected <a href="/wiki/Stephen_B%C3%A1thory" title="Stephen Báthory">Stephen Báthory</a> as co-regent, who ruled <a href="/wiki/Jure_uxoris" title="Jure uxoris">jure uxoris</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Besala_2005_116-80">[75]</a> Báthory's election proved controversial – Lithuania and <a href="/wiki/Ducal_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ducal Prussia">Ducal Prussia</a> initially refused to recognise the Transylvanian as their ruler.<a href="#cite_note-82">[77]</a> <a href="/wiki/Piotr_Zborowski" title="Piotr Zborowski">Piotr Zborowski</a> supported Bathory as he wanted to promote a princely or ducal candidate. He also endorsed the <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Ferrara" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Ferrara">Duke of Ferrara</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-75">[70]</a> The wealthy port city of <a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk" title="Gdańsk">Gdańsk</a> (Danzig) staged a <a href="/wiki/Danzig_rebellion" title="Danzig rebellion">revolt</a>, and, with the help of <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, blockaded maritime trade to neutral <a href="/wiki/Elbl%C4%85g" title="Elbląg">Elbląg</a> (Elbing).<a href="#cite_note-Besala_2005_118–119-83">[78]</a> Báthory, unable to penetrate the city's extensive fortifications, succumbed to the demands for greater privileges and freedoms.<a href="#cite_note-Besala_2005_118–119-83">[78]</a> However, his successful <a href="/wiki/Livonian_War" title="Livonian War">Livonian campaign</a> ended in the annexation of <a href="/wiki/Livonia" title="Livonia">Livonia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Courland_and_Semigallia" title="Duchy of Courland and Semigallia">Duchy of Courland and Semigallia</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>, respectively), thus expanding the Commonwealth's influence into the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_states" title="Baltic states">Baltics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[79]</a> Most importantly, Poland gained the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Riga" title="Riga">Riga</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sigismund_of_Poland.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Sigismund_of_Poland.JPG/170px-Sigismund_of_Poland.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Sigismund_of_Poland.JPG/255px-Sigismund_of_Poland.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Sigismund_of_Poland.JPG/340px-Sigismund_of_Poland.JPG 2x" data-file-width="647" data-file-height="1022" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sigismund_III_Vasa" title="Sigismund III Vasa">Sigismund III Vasa</a>, who reigned between 1587 and 1632, presided over an era of prosperity and territorial expansion of the Commonwealth.</figcaption></figure> In 1587, <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_Vasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sigismund Vasa">Sigismund Vasa</a> – the son of <a href="/wiki/John_III_of_Sweden" title="John III of Sweden">John III of Sweden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Jagiellon" title="Catherine Jagiellon">Catherine Jagiellon</a> – won the election, but his claim was overtly contested by <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_III_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximilian III of Austria">Maximilian III of Austria</a>, who launched a <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Polish_Succession_(1587%E2%80%9388)" class="mw-redirect" title="War of the Polish Succession (1587–88)">military expedition</a> to challenge the new king.<a href="#cite_note-85">[80]</a> His <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Byczyna" title="Battle of Byczyna">defeat</a> in 1588 at the hands of <a href="/wiki/Jan_Zamoyski" title="Jan Zamoyski">Jan Zamoyski</a> sealed Sigismund's right to the throne of Poland and Sweden.<a href="#cite_note-86">[81]</a> Sigismund's long reign marked an end to the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Golden_Age" title="Polish Golden Age">Polish Golden Age</a> and the beginning of the Silver Age.<a href="#cite_note-87">[82]</a> A devout Catholic, he hoped to restore <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolutism</a> and imposed <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Roman Catholicism</a> during the height of the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[83]</a> His intolerance towards the <a href="/wiki/Protestants" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestants">Protestants</a> in Sweden sparked a <a href="/wiki/War_against_Sigismund" title="War against Sigismund">war of independence</a>, which ended the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Swedish_union" title="Polish–Swedish union">Polish–Swedish union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[84]</a> As a consequence, he was deposed in Sweden by his uncle <a href="/wiki/Charles_IX_Vasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles IX Vasa">Charles IX Vasa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[85]</a> In Poland, the <a href="/wiki/Zebrzydowski_rebellion" title="Zebrzydowski rebellion">Zebrzydowski rebellion</a> was brutally suppressed.<a href="#cite_note-91">[86]</a> Sigismund III then initiated a policy of <a href="/wiki/Expansionism" title="Expansionism">expansionism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Russian_War_(1609%E2%80%931618)" title="Polish–Russian War (1609–1618)">invaded Russia</a> in 1609 when that country was plagued by a civil war known as the <a href="/wiki/Time_of_Troubles" title="Time of Troubles">Time of Troubles</a>. In July 1610, the outnumbered Polish force comprising <a href="/wiki/Polish_hussars" title="Polish hussars">winged hussars</a> defeated the Russians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Klushino" title="Battle of Klushino">Battle of Klushino</a>, which enabled the Poles to take and occupy <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> for the next two years.<a href="#cite_note-92">[87]</a> The disgraced <a href="/wiki/Vasili_IV_of_Russia" title="Vasili IV of Russia">Vasili IV of Russia</a> was transported in a cage to Warsaw where he paid a tribute to Sigismund; Vasili was later murdered in captivity.<a href="#cite_note-93">[88]</a> The Commonwealth forces were eventually driven out on 4 November 1612 (celebrated as <a href="/wiki/Unity_Day_(Russia)" title="Unity Day (Russia)">Unity Day</a> in Russia). The war concluded with a <a href="/wiki/Truce_of_Deulino" title="Truce of Deulino">truce</a> that granted Poland–Lithuania extensive territories in the east and marked its largest territorial expansion.<a href="#cite_note-94">[89]</a> At least five million Russians died between 1598 and 1613, the result of continuous conflict, famine and Sigismund's invasion.<a href="#cite_note-95">[90]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polish_Sejm_1622.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Polish_Sejm_1622.jpg/220px-Polish_Sejm_1622.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Polish_Sejm_1622.jpg/330px-Polish_Sejm_1622.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Polish_Sejm_1622.jpg/440px-Polish_Sejm_1622.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1185" data-file-height="935" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sejm_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Sejm</a> (parliament) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the early 17th century</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ottoman_War_(1620%E2%80%9321)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish–Ottoman War (1620–21)">Polish–Ottoman War (1620–21)</a> forced Poland to withdraw from <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a> in southeastern Europe, but Sigismund's victory over the Turks at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Khotyn_(1621)" title="Battle of Khotyn (1621)">Khotyn</a> diminished the supremacy of the Sultanate and eventually led to the murder of <a href="/wiki/Osman_II" title="Osman II">Osman II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[91]</a> This secured the Turkish frontier for the duration of Sigismund's rule. In spite of the victories in the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Swedish_War_(1626%E2%80%931629)" title="Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629)">Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629)</a>, the exhausted Commonwealth army signed the <a href="/wiki/Truce_of_Altmark" title="Truce of Altmark">Treaty of Altmark</a> which ceded much of Livonia to Sweden under <a href="/wiki/Gustavus_Adolphus" title="Gustavus Adolphus">Gustavus Adolphus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[92]</a> At the same time, the country's powerful <a href="/wiki/Sejm_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">parliament</a> was dominated by nobles (<a href="#Image_gallery">Pic. 2</a>) who were reluctant to get involved in the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a>; this neutrality spared the country from the ravages of a political-religious conflict that devastated most of contemporary Europe.<a href="#cite_note-98">[93]</a> During this period, Poland was experiencing a cultural awakening and extensive developments in arts and architecture; the first <a href="/wiki/House_of_Vasa" title="House of Vasa">Vasa</a> king openly sponsored foreign painters, craftsmen, musicians and engineers, who settled in the Commonwealth at his request.<a href="#cite_note-99">[94]</a> Sigismund's eldest son, <a href="/wiki/Ladislaus_IV_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Ladislaus IV of Poland">Ladislaus</a> succeeded him as Władysław IV in 1632 with no major opposition.<a href="#cite_note-100">[95]</a> A skilled tactician, he invested in <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a>, modernised the army and fiercely defended the Commonwealth's eastern borders.<a href="#cite_note-101">[96]</a> Under the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Stuhmsdorf" title="Treaty of Stuhmsdorf">Treaty of Stuhmsdorf</a>, he reclaimed regions of Livonia and the Baltics which were lost during the Polish-Swedish wars.<a href="#cite_note-102">[97]</a> Unlike his father who worshipped the Habsburgs, Władysław sought closer ties with France and married <a href="/wiki/Marie_Louise_Gonzaga" title="Marie Louise Gonzaga">Marie Louise Gonzaga</a>, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_Gonzaga,_Duke_of_Mantua" title="Charles I Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua">Charles I Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua</a>, in 1646.<a href="#cite_note-103">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deluge,_rebellions_and_Vienna_(1648–1696)">Deluge, rebellions and Vienna (1648–1696)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Deluge" class="mw-redirect" title="Swedish Deluge">Swedish Deluge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna_(1683)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Vienna (1683)">Battle of Vienna (1683)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siemiginowski_Sobieski_at_the_Battle_of_Vienna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Siemiginowski_Sobieski_at_the_Battle_of_Vienna.jpg/170px-Siemiginowski_Sobieski_at_the_Battle_of_Vienna.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Siemiginowski_Sobieski_at_the_Battle_of_Vienna.jpg/255px-Siemiginowski_Sobieski_at_the_Battle_of_Vienna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Siemiginowski_Sobieski_at_the_Battle_of_Vienna.jpg/340px-Siemiginowski_Sobieski_at_the_Battle_of_Vienna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="561" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_III_Sobieski" title="John III Sobieski">John III Sobieski</a>, victor over the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Turks</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna_(1683)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Vienna (1683)">Battle of Vienna</a> in 1683.</figcaption></figure> The Commonwealth's power and stability began waning after a series of blows during the following decades. Władysław's brother, <a href="/wiki/John_II_Casimir" class="mw-redirect" title="John II Casimir">John II Casimir</a>, proved to be weak and impotent. The multicultural and mega-diverse federation already suffered domestic problems. As persecution of religious and ethnic minorities strengthened, several groups started to rebel.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A major rebellion of self-governed <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Cossacks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian Cossacks">Ukrainian Cossacks</a> inhabiting south-eastern borderlands of the Commonwealth rioted against Polish and Catholic oppression of Orthodox <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> in 1648, in what came to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Khmelnytsky_Uprising" title="Khmelnytsky Uprising">Khmelnytsky Uprising</a>. It resulted in a Ukrainian request, under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Pereyaslav" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Pereyaslav">Treaty of Pereyaslav</a>, for protection by the Russian Tsar. In 1651, in the face of a growing threat from Poland, and forsaken by his Tatar allies, <a href="/wiki/Bohdan_Khmelnytsky" title="Bohdan Khmelnytsky">Khmelnytsky</a> asked the Tsar to incorporate Ukraine as an autonomous duchy under Russian protection. Russian annexation of Zaporizhian Ukraine gradually supplanted Polish influence in that part of Europe. In the years following, Polish settlers, nobles, Catholics and <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> became the victims of retaliation massacres instigated by the Cossacks in their dominions. The other blow to the Commonwealth was a Swedish invasion in 1655, known as the <a href="/wiki/Deluge_(history)" title="Deluge (history)">Deluge</a>, which was supported by troops of <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvanian</a> Duke <a href="/wiki/George_II_R%C3%A1k%C3%B3czi" title="George II Rákóczi">George II Rákóczi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William,_Elector_of_Brandenburg" title="Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg">Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg</a>. Under the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bromberg" title="Treaty of Bromberg">Treaty of Bromberg</a> in 1657, Catholic Poland was forced to renounce its <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerainty</a> over Protestant <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>; in 1701 the once-insignificant duchy was transformed into the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a>, which became a major European power in the 18th century and proved to be Poland's most enduring foe.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the late 17th century, the king of the weakened Commonwealth, <a href="/wiki/John_III_Sobieski" title="John III Sobieski">John III Sobieski</a>, allied with Holy Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Leopold_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor">Leopold I</a> to deal crushing defeats to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. In 1683, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna" title="Battle of Vienna">Battle of Vienna</a> marked the final turning point in the 250-year struggle between the forces of Christian Europe and the <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> Ottomans. For its centuries-long opposition to Muslim advances, the Commonwealth would gain the name of <a href="/wiki/Antemurale_Christianitatis" title="Antemurale Christianitatis">Antemurale Christianitatis</a> (bulwark of Christianity).<a href="#cite_note-Gella-104">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[100]</a> During the next 16 years, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Turkish_War" title="Great Turkish War">Great Turkish War</a> would drive the Turks permanently south of the <a href="/wiki/Danube_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Danube River">Danube River</a>, never again to threaten central Europe.<a href="#cite_note-The_Essential_World_History:_Volume_II:_Since_1500-106">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_turmoil_and_the_enlightenment_(1697–1771)">Political turmoil and the enlightenment (1697–1771)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Enlightenment in Poland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Personal_union_of_Poland_and_Saxony" title="Personal union of Poland and Saxony">Personal union of Poland and Saxony</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silvestre_Augustus_II_the_Strong.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Silvestre_Augustus_II_the_Strong.jpg/170px-Silvestre_Augustus_II_the_Strong.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Silvestre_Augustus_II_the_Strong.jpg/255px-Silvestre_Augustus_II_the_Strong.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Silvestre_Augustus_II_the_Strong.jpg/340px-Silvestre_Augustus_II_the_Strong.jpg 2x" data-file-width="564" data-file-height="730" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Augustus_II_the_Strong" title="Augustus II the Strong">Augustus II the Strong</a>, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, wearing the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_White_Eagle_(Poland)" title="Order of the White Eagle (Poland)">Order of the White Eagle</a> which he established in 1705.</figcaption></figure> John Sobieski's death in 1696 arguably ended the period of national sovereignty, and Poland's relative authority over the region dwindled swiftly. By the 18th century, destabilization of its political system brought the Commonwealth to the brink of <a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil war</a> and the state became increasingly susceptible to foreign influence.<a href="#cite_note-107">[102]</a> The remaining European powers perpetually meddled in the country's affairs.<a href="#cite_note-108">[103]</a> Upon the death of a king, several royal houses actively intruded in the hope of securing votes for their desired candidates.<a href="#cite_note-109">[104]</a> The practice was common and apparent, and the selection was often the result of hefty bribes directed at corrupt nobles.<a href="#cite_note-110">[105]</a> <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV of France</a> heavily invested in <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Louis,_Prince_of_Conti" title="François Louis, Prince of Conti">François Louis, Prince of Conti</a>, in opposition to <a href="/wiki/James_Louis_Sobieski" title="James Louis Sobieski">James Louis Sobieski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_II_Emanuel,_Elector_of_Bavaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria">Maximilian Emanuel of Bavaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augustus_II_the_Strong" title="Augustus II the Strong">Frederick Augustus of Saxony</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[106]</a> The latter's conversion from <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a> to Catholicism awed the conservative magnates and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_XII" title="Pope Innocent XII">Pope Innocent XII</a>, who in turn voiced their endorsement.<a href="#cite_note-112">[107]</a> Imperial Russia and <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg Austria</a> also contributed by financing Frederick, whose election took place in June 1697. Many questioned the legality of his elevation to the throne; it was speculated that the Prince of Conti had received more votes and was the rightful heir. Frederick hurried with <a href="/wiki/Royal_Saxon_Army" title="Royal Saxon Army">his armies</a> to Poland to quell any opposition. He was crowned as Augustus II in September and Conti's brief military engagement near Gdańsk in November of the same year proved fruitless.<a href="#cite_note-113">[108]</a> The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wettin" title="House of Wettin">House of Wettin</a> ruled Poland–Lithuania and Saxony simultaneously, dividing power between the two states. In spite of his controversial means of attaining power, Augustus II lavishly spent on the arts and left an extensive cultural and architectural (<a href="/wiki/Baroque_architecture" title="Baroque architecture">Baroque</a>) legacy in both countries. In Poland, he expanded <a href="/wiki/Wilan%C3%B3w_Palace" title="Wilanów Palace">Wilanów</a> and facilitated the refurbishment of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Castle,_Warsaw" title="Royal Castle, Warsaw">Warsaw Royal Castle</a> into a modern palatial residence.<a href="#cite_note-114">[109]</a> Countless landmarks and monuments in the city bear a name referencing the Saxon kings, notably <a href="/wiki/Saxon_Garden" title="Saxon Garden">Saxon Garden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxon_Axis" title="Saxon Axis">Saxon Axis</a> and the former <a href="/wiki/Saxon_Palace" title="Saxon Palace">Saxon Palace</a>.<a href="#cite_note-115">[110]</a> The period saw the development of urban planning, street allocation, hospitals, schools (<a href="/wiki/Collegium_Nobilium_(Warsaw)" title="Collegium Nobilium (Warsaw)">Collegium Nobilium</a>), public parks and libraries (<a href="/wiki/Za%C5%82uski_Library" title="Załuski Library">Załuski Library</a>). First manufactories producing on a mass scale were opened to satisfy the demands of the nobility as consumers.<a href="#cite_note-116">[111]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:220px;max-width:220px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Bernardo_Bellotto_-_Church_of_the_Holy_Cross_in_Warsaw_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Bernardo_Bellotto_-_Church_of_the_Holy_Cross_in_Warsaw_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/218px-Bernardo_Bellotto_-_Church_of_the_Holy_Cross_in_Warsaw_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="218" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Bernardo_Bellotto_-_Church_of_the_Holy_Cross_in_Warsaw_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/327px-Bernardo_Bellotto_-_Church_of_the_Holy_Cross_in_Warsaw_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Bernardo_Bellotto_-_Church_of_the_Holy_Cross_in_Warsaw_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/436px-Bernardo_Bellotto_-_Church_of_the_Holy_Cross_in_Warsaw_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3137" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:220px;max-width:220px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Bellotto_Cracow_Suburb_leading_to_the_Castle_Square.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Bellotto_Cracow_Suburb_leading_to_the_Castle_Square.jpg/218px-Bellotto_Cracow_Suburb_leading_to_the_Castle_Square.jpg" decoding="async" width="218" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Bellotto_Cracow_Suburb_leading_to_the_Castle_Square.jpg/327px-Bellotto_Cracow_Suburb_leading_to_the_Castle_Square.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Bellotto_Cracow_Suburb_leading_to_the_Castle_Square.jpg/436px-Bellotto_Cracow_Suburb_leading_to_the_Castle_Square.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1357" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> near the end of the Commonwealth's existence. Paintings by <a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Bellotto" title="Bernardo Bellotto">Bernardo Bellotto</a>, 1770s</div></div></div></div> At the height of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</a> a coalition (<a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Confederation_(1704)" title="Warsaw Confederation (1704)">Warsaw Confederation</a>) against Augustus II was formed by <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Leszczy%C5%84ski" title="Stanisław Leszczyński">Stanisław Leszczyński</a> and other magnates sponsored by Sweden. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was formally neutral at this point, as Augustus entered the war as Elector of Saxony. Disregarding Polish negotiation proposals supported by the Swedish parliament, Charles crossed into the Commonwealth and vanquished the Saxe-Polish forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Klisz%C3%B3w" title="Battle of Kliszów">Battle of Kliszów</a> in 1702 and at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pu%C5%82tusk_(1703)" title="Battle of Pułtusk (1703)">Battle of Pułtusk</a> in 1703.<a href="#cite_note-117">[112]</a> Charles then succeeded in dethroning Augustus and coercing the Sejm (parliament) to replace him with Stanisław in 1704.<a href="#cite_note-118">[113]</a> Augustus regained the throne in 1709,<a href="#cite_note-119">[114]</a> but his own death in 1733 sparked the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Polish_Succession" title="War of the Polish Succession">War of the Polish Succession</a> in which Stanisław once more attempted to seize the crown, this time with the support of France.<a href="#cite_note-120">[115]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pacification_Sejm_(1736)" title="Pacification Sejm (1736)">Pacification Sejm</a> culminated in <a href="/wiki/Augustus_III_of_Poland" title="Augustus III of Poland">Augustus III</a> succeeding his father.<a href="#cite_note-121">[116]</a> The relative peace and inactivity that followed only weakened Poland's reputation on the world stage.<a href="#cite_note-Brückner_1931_157-122">[117]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aleksander_Br%C3%BCckner" title="Aleksander Brückner">Aleksander Brückner</a> noted that Polish customs and traditions were abandoned in favour of everything foreign, and neighbouring states continued to exploit Poland to their advantage.<a href="#cite_note-Brückner_1931_157-122">[117]</a> Moreover, Western Europe's increasing exploitation of resources in the Americas rendered the Commonwealth's supplies less crucial which resulted in financial losses.<a href="#cite_note-Migrants_and_citizens:_demographic_change_in_the_European_state_system-123">[118]</a> Augustus III spent little time in the Commonwealth, instead preferring the Saxon city of <a href="/wiki/Dresden" title="Dresden">Dresden</a>. He appointed <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Br%C3%BChl" title="Heinrich von Brühl">Heinrich von Brühl</a> as viceroy and minister of Polish affairs who in turn left the politics to Polish magnate families, such as the <a href="/wiki/Czartoryski" title="Czartoryski">Czartoryskis</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82_family" title="Radziwiłł family">Radziwiłłs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-124">[119]</a> It was also during this period that the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Enlightenment" title="Polish Enlightenment">Polish Enlightenment</a> began to sprout. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Partitions_(1772–1795)">Partitions (1772–1795)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png/300px-Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png/450px-Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png/600px-Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png 2x" data-file-width="1906" data-file-height="1568" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a> in <a href="/wiki/First_Partition_of_Poland" title="First Partition of Poland">1772</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Partition_of_Poland" title="Second Partition of Poland">1793</a> and <a href="/wiki/Third_Partition_of_Poland" title="Third Partition of Poland">1795</a>.</figcaption></figure> In 1764, aristocrat <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław August Poniatowski</a> was elected monarch with the connivance and support of his former lover <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a>, a German noblewoman who became Empress of Russia.<a href="#cite_note-125">[120]</a> Poniatowski's attempts at reform were met with staunch resistance both internally and externally. Any goal of stabilizing the Commonwealth was dangerous for its ambitious and aggressive neighbours. Like his predecessors, he sponsored artists and architects. In 1765 he founded the <a href="/wiki/Corps_of_Cadets_(Warsaw)" title="Corps of Cadets (Warsaw)">Warsaw Corps of Cadets</a>, the first state school in Poland for all classes of society.<a href="#cite_note-126">[121]</a> In 1773 the king and parliament formed the <a href="/wiki/Commission_of_National_Education" title="Commission of National Education">Commission of National Education</a>, the first Ministry of Education in European history.<a href="#cite_note-127">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[123]</a> In 1792, the king ordered the creation of <a href="/wiki/Virtuti_Militari" title="Virtuti Militari">Virtuti Militari</a>, the oldest military decoration still in use.<a href="#cite_note-129">[124]</a> Stanisław August also admired the culture of ancient kingdoms, particularly Rome and Greece; <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture" title="Neoclassical architecture">Neoclassicism</a> became the dominant form of architectural and cultural expression. Politically, however, the vast Commonwealth was in steady decline and by 1768, it started to be considered by Russians as a <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> despite the fact that it was still an independent state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESužiedėlis2011xxv-130">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[126]</a> A majority of control over Poland was central to Catherine's diplomatic and military strategies.<a href="#cite_note-132">[127]</a> Attempts at reform, such as the <a href="/wiki/Four-Year_Sejm" class="mw-redirect" title="Four-Year Sejm">Four-Year Sejm</a>'s <a href="/wiki/May_Constitution_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="May Constitution of Poland">May Constitution</a>, came too late. The country was <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">partitioned in three stages</a> by the Russian Empire, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">German Kingdom of Prussia</a>, and the Austrian <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a>. By 1795, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had been completely erased from the map of Europe. Poland and Lithuania were not re-established as independent countries until 1918.<a href="#cite_note-133">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="State_organization_and_politics">State organization and politics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Offices_in_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Offices in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Offices in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Golden_Liberty">Golden Liberty</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poland-00808_-_Castle_Square_(31215382745).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Poland-00808_-_Castle_Square_%2831215382745%29.jpg/220px-Poland-00808_-_Castle_Square_%2831215382745%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Poland-00808_-_Castle_Square_%2831215382745%29.jpg/330px-Poland-00808_-_Castle_Square_%2831215382745%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Poland-00808_-_Castle_Square_%2831215382745%29.jpg/440px-Poland-00808_-_Castle_Square_%2831215382745%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Castle_in_Warsaw" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Castle in Warsaw">Royal Castle in Warsaw</a> was the formal residence of <a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_monarchs" title="List of Polish monarchs">Polish kings</a> after the capital was transferred from <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a> in 1596</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lublin._Stary_ratusz_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Lublin._Stary_ratusz_%281%29.jpg/220px-Lublin._Stary_ratusz_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Lublin._Stary_ratusz_%281%29.jpg/330px-Lublin._Stary_ratusz_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Lublin._Stary_ratusz_%281%29.jpg/440px-Lublin._Stary_ratusz_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Crown_Tribunal" title="Crown Tribunal">Crown Tribunal</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a> was the highest court of appeal in the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Crown of the Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LDK_vyriausiasis_tribunolas_Pilies_vartai.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/LDK_vyriausiasis_tribunolas_Pilies_vartai.jpg/220px-LDK_vyriausiasis_tribunolas_Pilies_vartai.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/LDK_vyriausiasis_tribunolas_Pilies_vartai.jpg/330px-LDK_vyriausiasis_tribunolas_Pilies_vartai.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/LDK_vyriausiasis_tribunolas_Pilies_vartai.jpg/440px-LDK_vyriausiasis_tribunolas_Pilies_vartai.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="343" /></a><figcaption>The Palace of the <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Tribunal" title="Lithuanian Tribunal">Lithuanian Tribunal</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a>, which exclusively was the highest <a href="/wiki/Appeal_court" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal court">appeal court</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_nobility" title="Lithuanian nobility">Lithuanian nobility</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a></figcaption></figure> The political doctrine of the Commonwealth was our state is a republic under the presidency of the King. <a href="/wiki/Kanclerz" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanclerz">Chancellor</a> <a href="/wiki/Jan_Zamoyski" title="Jan Zamoyski">Jan Zamoyski</a> summed up this doctrine when he said that Rex regnat et non-gubernat ("The King reigns but [lit. 'and'] does not govern").<a href="#cite_note-Dictionary_of_Quotations_(Classical)-134">[129]</a> The Commonwealth had a parliament, the Sejm, as well as a <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Poland#History" title="Senate of Poland">Senat</a> and an elected king (<a href="#Image_gallery">Pic. 1</a>). The king was obliged to respect citizens' rights specified in <a href="/wiki/King_Henry%27s_Articles" class="mw-redirect" title="King Henry's Articles">King Henry's Articles</a> as well as in <a href="/wiki/Pacta_conventa" title="Pacta conventa">pacta conventa</a>, negotiated at the time of his election.<a href="#cite_note-Bardach_1987_216–217-77">[72]</a> The monarch's power was limited in favour of a sizable noble class. Each new king had to pledge to uphold the Henrician Articles, which were the basis of Poland's political system (and included near-unprecedented guarantees of <a href="/wiki/Religious_toleration" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious toleration">religious tolerance</a>). Over time, the Henrician Articles were merged with the pacta conventa, specific pledges agreed to by the king-elect. From that point onwards, the king was effectively a partner with the noble class and was constantly supervised by a group of <a href="/wiki/Senate" title="Senate">senators</a>. The Sejm could veto the king on important matters, including legislation (the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs, declaration of war, and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levying of new ones).<a href="#cite_note-Bardach_1987_216–217-77">[72]</a> The foundation of the Commonwealth's political system, the "<a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Aurea Libertas or <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Złota Wolność, a term used from 1573 on), included: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_elections_in_Poland" title="Royal elections in Poland">election</a> of the king by all nobles wishing to participate, known as wolna elekcja (free election);</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sejm_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Sejm</a>, the Commonwealth parliament which the king was required to hold every two years;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacta_conventa" title="Pacta conventa">pacta conventa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>), "agreed-to agreements" negotiated with the king-elect, including a bill of rights, binding on the king, derived from the earlier <a href="/wiki/Henrician_Articles" title="Henrician Articles">Henrician Articles</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_toleration" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious toleration">religious freedom</a> guaranteed by <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Confederation" title="Warsaw Confederation">Warsaw Confederation Act 1573</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Norman_Davies_1795-26">[22]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rokosz" title="Rokosz">rokosz</a> (<a href="/wiki/Insurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Insurrection">insurrection</a>), the right of <a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">szlachta</a> to form a legal rebellion against a king who violated their guaranteed freedoms;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberum_veto" title="Liberum veto">liberum veto</a> (Latin), the right of an individual Sejm deputy to oppose a decision by the majority in a Sejm session; the voicing of such a "free veto" nullified all the legislation that had been passed at that session; during the crisis of the second half of the 17th century, Polish nobles could also use the <a href="/wiki/Liberum_veto" title="Liberum veto">liberum veto</a> in provincial <a href="/wiki/Sejmik" title="Sejmik">sejmiks</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederation (Poland)">konfederacja</a> (from the Latin <a href="/wiki/Confederatio" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederatio">confederatio</a>), the right to form an organization to force through a common political aim.</li></ul> The three regions (see below) of the Commonwealth enjoyed a degree of <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_entity" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous entity">autonomy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pacy_and_McHugh_2001-135">[130]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Each <a href="/wiki/Voivodship" class="mw-redirect" title="Voivodship">voivodship</a> had its own parliament (sejmik), which exercised serious political power, including choice of <a href="/wiki/Pose%C5%82" class="mw-redirect" title="Poseł">poseł</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies" title="Chamber of Deputies">deputy</a>) to the national Sejm and charging of the deputy with specific voting instructions. The <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a> had its own separate army, treasury and most other official institutions.<a href="#cite_note-136">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[132]</a> Golden Liberty created a state that was unusual for its time, although somewhat similar <a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">political systems</a> existed in the contemporary <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Olk-138">[133]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Both states were styled "Serenissima Respublica" or the "<a href="/wiki/Most_Serene_Republic" title="Most Serene Republic">Most Serene Republic</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Notes-139">[134]</a> At a time when most European countries were headed toward <a href="/wiki/Centralization" class="mw-redirect" title="Centralization">centralization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a> and religious and dynastic warfare, the Commonwealth experimented with <a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">decentralization</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Gella-104">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Confederation" title="Confederation">confederation</a> and federation, democracy and <a href="/wiki/Religious_toleration" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious toleration">religious tolerance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Frost-140">[135]</a> This political system unusual for its time stemmed from the ascendance of the szlachta <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">noble class</a> over other social classes and over the <a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">political system</a> of monarchy. In time, the szlachta accumulated enough privileges (such as those established by the <a href="/wiki/Nihil_novi" title="Nihil novi">Nihil novi</a> Act of 1505) that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power. The Commonwealth's political system is difficult to fit into a simple category, but it can be tentatively described as a mixture of: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederation" title="Confederation">confederation</a> and federation, with regard to the broad autonomy of its regions. It is, however, difficult to decisively call the Commonwealth either confederation or federation, as it had some qualities of both;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a>, as only the szlachta (nobility) – around 15% of the population – had political rights;<a href="#cite_note-Gella-104">[99]</a></li> <li>democracy, since all the szlachta were equal in rights and privileges, and the Sejm could veto the king on important matters, including legislation (the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs, declaration of war, and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levying of new ones). Also, the 15% of Commonwealth population who enjoyed those political rights (the szlachta)<a href="#cite_note-The_headless_state:_aristocratic_orders,_kinship_society,_&_misrepresentations_of_nomadic_inner_Asia-141">[136]</a> was a substantially larger percentage than in majority European countries even in the nineteenth century;<a href="#cite_note-Rich_noble,_poor_noble-142">[137]</a> note that in 1820 in France only about 1.5% of the male adult population had the right to vote, and in 1840 in Belgium, only about 5%.<a href="#cite_note-The_headless_state:_aristocratic_orders,_kinship_society,_&_misrepresentations_of_nomadic_inner_Asia-141">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rich_noble,_poor_noble-142">[137]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elective_monarchy" title="Elective monarchy">elective monarchy</a>, since the monarch, elected by the szlachta, was Head of State;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>, since the monarch was bound by pacta conventa and other laws, and the szlachta could disobey any king's decrees they deemed illegal.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnate_oligarchy">Magnate oligarchy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pot%C4%99ga_Rzeczypospolitej_u_zenitu._Z%C5%82ota_wolno%C5%9B%C4%87._Elekcja_R.P._1573.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Pot%C4%99ga_Rzeczypospolitej_u_zenitu._Z%C5%82ota_wolno%C5%9B%C4%87._Elekcja_R.P._1573.jpg/220px-Pot%C4%99ga_Rzeczypospolitej_u_zenitu._Z%C5%82ota_wolno%C5%9B%C4%87._Elekcja_R.P._1573.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Pot%C4%99ga_Rzeczypospolitej_u_zenitu._Z%C5%82ota_wolno%C5%9B%C4%87._Elekcja_R.P._1573.jpg/330px-Pot%C4%99ga_Rzeczypospolitej_u_zenitu._Z%C5%82ota_wolno%C5%9B%C4%87._Elekcja_R.P._1573.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Pot%C4%99ga_Rzeczypospolitej_u_zenitu._Z%C5%82ota_wolno%C5%9B%C4%87._Elekcja_R.P._1573.jpg/440px-Pot%C4%99ga_Rzeczypospolitej_u_zenitu._Z%C5%82ota_wolno%C5%9B%C4%87._Elekcja_R.P._1573.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="507" /></a><figcaption>The Republic at the Zenith of Its Power, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_elections_in_Poland" title="Royal elections in Poland">Royal Election</a> of 1573</figcaption></figure> The end of the <a href="/wiki/Jagiellonian_dynasty" title="Jagiellonian dynasty">Jagiellonian dynasty</a> in 1572 – after nearly two centuries – disrupted the fragile equilibrium of the Commonwealth's government. Power increasingly slipped away from the central government to the nobility.<a href="#cite_note-Bardach_1987_216–217-77">[72]</a> When presented with periodic opportunities to fill the throne, the szlachta exhibited a preference for foreign candidates who would not establish a strong and long-lasting <a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">dynasty</a>. This policy often produced monarchs who were either totally ineffective or in constant debilitating conflict with the nobility.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Furthermore, aside from notable exceptions such as the able <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Batory" class="mw-redirect" title="Stefan Batory">Stefan Batory</a> from <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvania</a> (1576–86), the kings of foreign origin were inclined to subordinate the interests of the Commonwealth to those of their own country and ruling house. This was especially visible in the policies and actions of the first two elected kings from the Swedish <a href="/wiki/House_of_Vasa" title="House of Vasa">House of Vasa</a>, whose politics brought the Commonwealth into conflict with Sweden, culminating in the war known as the <a href="/wiki/The_Deluge_(Polish_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Deluge (Polish history)">Deluge</a> (1655), one of the events that mark the end of the Commonwealth's Golden Age and the beginning of the Commonwealth's decline.<a href="#cite_note-143">[138]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Zebrzydowski_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Zebrzydowski Rebellion">Zebrzydowski Rebellion</a> (1606–1607) marked a substantial increase in the power of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_magnate" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish magnate">Polish magnates</a>, and the transformation of szlachta democracy into magnate oligarchy. The Commonwealth's political system was vulnerable to outside interference, as Sejm deputies <a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">bribed</a><a href="#cite_note-Bullitt-144">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adams-145">[140]</a> by foreign powers might use their liberum veto to block attempted reforms. This sapped the Commonwealth and plunged it into political paralysis and anarchy for over a century, from the mid-17th century to the end of the 18th, while its neighbours stabilised their internal affairs and increased their military might.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_reforms">Late reforms</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manuscript_of_the_Constitution_of_the_3rd_May_1791.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Manuscript_of_the_Constitution_of_the_3rd_May_1791.PNG/170px-Manuscript_of_the_Constitution_of_the_3rd_May_1791.PNG" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Manuscript_of_the_Constitution_of_the_3rd_May_1791.PNG/255px-Manuscript_of_the_Constitution_of_the_3rd_May_1791.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Manuscript_of_the_Constitution_of_the_3rd_May_1791.PNG/340px-Manuscript_of_the_Constitution_of_the_3rd_May_1791.PNG 2x" data-file-width="554" data-file-height="842" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_3_May_1791" title="Constitution of 3 May 1791">Constitution of 3 May</a> adopted in 1791 was the first modern constitution in Europe.</figcaption></figure> The Commonwealth did eventually make a serious effort to reform its political system, adopting in 1791 the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_3_May_1791" title="Constitution of 3 May 1791">Constitution of 3 May 1791</a>, which historian <a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a> calls the first of its kind in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_699-41">[36]</a> The revolutionary Constitution recast the erstwhile Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a Polish–Lithuanian federal state with a <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy" title="Hereditary monarchy">hereditary monarchy</a> and abolished many of the deleterious features of the old system. The new constitution: <ul><li>abolished the <a href="/wiki/Liberum_veto" title="Liberum veto">liberum veto</a> and banned the szlachta's confederations;</li> <li>provided for a <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> among <a href="/wiki/Legislative" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative">legislative</a>, executive and <a href="/wiki/Judicial" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial">judicial</a> branches of government;</li> <li>established "<a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">popular sovereignty</a>" and extended political rights to include not only the <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a> but the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a>;</li> <li>increased the rights of the <a href="/wiki/Peasantry" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasantry">peasantry</a>;</li> <li>preserved <a href="/wiki/Religious_toleration" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious toleration">religious tolerance</a> (but with a condemnation of <a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">apostasy</a> from the Catholic faith).</li></ul> These reforms came too late, however, as the Commonwealth was immediately invaded from all sides by its neighbors, which had been content to leave the Commonwealth alone as a weak buffer state, but reacted strongly to attempts by king <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław August Poniatowski</a> and other reformers to strengthen the country.<a href="#cite_note-Pacy_and_McHugh_2001-135">[130]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Russia feared the revolutionary implications of the 3 May Constitution's political reforms and the prospect of the Commonwealth regaining its position as a European power. <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a> regarded the May constitution as fatal to her influence<a href="#cite_note-Bourne-146">[141]</a> and declared the Polish constitution <a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(politics)" title="Jacobin (politics)">Jacobinical</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Menzel-147">[142]</a> <a href="/wiki/Grigori_Aleksandrovich_Potemkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Grigori Aleksandrovich Potemkin">Grigori Aleksandrovich Potemkin</a> drafted the act for the <a href="/wiki/Targowica_Confederation" title="Targowica Confederation">Targowica Confederation</a>, referring to the constitution as the "contagion of democratic ideas".<a href="#cite_note-Madariaga-148">[143]</a> Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Austria</a> used it as a pretext for further territorial expansion.<a href="#cite_note-Menzel-147">[142]</a> Prussian minister <a href="/wiki/Ewald_Friedrich_von_Hertzberg" title="Ewald Friedrich von Hertzberg">Ewald Friedrich von Hertzberg</a> called the constitution "a blow to the Prussian monarchy",<a href="#cite_note-Buffalo-149">[144]</a> fearing that a strengthened Poland would once again dominate Prussia.<a href="#cite_note-Bourne-146">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wandycz-150">[145]</a> In the end, the 3 May Constitution was never fully implemented, and the Commonwealth entirely ceased to exist only four years after its adoption.<a href="#cite_note-151">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Transportation_and_travel_during_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Transportation and travel during the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Transportation and travel during the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:220px;max-width:220px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Port_gda%C5%84ski,_XVII_w.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Port_gda%C5%84ski%2C_XVII_w.jpg/218px-Port_gda%C5%84ski%2C_XVII_w.jpg" decoding="async" width="218" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Port_gda%C5%84ski%2C_XVII_w.jpg/327px-Port_gda%C5%84ski%2C_XVII_w.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Port_gda%C5%84ski%2C_XVII_w.jpg/436px-Port_gda%C5%84ski%2C_XVII_w.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="597" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:220px;max-width:220px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Gda%C5%84sk,_ul._D%C5%82ugi_Targ_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Gda%C5%84sk%2C_ul._D%C5%82ugi_Targ_2.jpg/218px-Gda%C5%84sk%2C_ul._D%C5%82ugi_Targ_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="218" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Gda%C5%84sk%2C_ul._D%C5%82ugi_Targ_2.jpg/327px-Gda%C5%84sk%2C_ul._D%C5%82ugi_Targ_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Gda%C5%84sk%2C_ul._D%C5%82ugi_Targ_2.jpg/436px-Gda%C5%84sk%2C_ul._D%C5%82ugi_Targ_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk" title="Gdańsk">Gdańsk</a> (Danzig), the Commonwealth's chief seaport and trading centre from which goods would be transported along the <a href="/wiki/Vistula_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Vistula River">Vistula River</a> to <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a> and other towns in the country.</div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cereals_export_through_Gda%C5%84sk_1619-1799.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Cereals_export_through_Gda%C5%84sk_1619-1799.png/220px-Cereals_export_through_Gda%C5%84sk_1619-1799.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Cereals_export_through_Gda%C5%84sk_1619-1799.png/330px-Cereals_export_through_Gda%C5%84sk_1619-1799.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Cereals_export_through_Gda%C5%84sk_1619-1799.png/440px-Cereals_export_through_Gda%C5%84sk_1619-1799.png 2x" data-file-width="1967" data-file-height="899" /></a><figcaption>Cereals exports in the years 1619–1799. Agriculture, once extremely profitable to the nobility, became much less so after the mid-17th century.</figcaption></figure> The economy of the Commonwealth was predominantly based on agricultural output and trade, though there was an abundance of <a href="/wiki/Artisan" title="Artisan">artisan</a> workshops and manufactories – notably <a href="/wiki/Paper_mill" title="Paper mill">paper mills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tanning_(leather)" title="Tanning (leather)">leather tanneries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ironworks" title="Ironworks">ironworks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glassworks" class="mw-redirect" title="Glassworks">glassworks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brickyard" title="Brickyard">brickyards</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sobiech_2018-152">[147]</a> Some major cities were home to craftsmen, jewellers and clockmakers.<a href="#cite_note-Sobiech_2018-152">[147]</a> The majority of industries and trades were concentrated in the Kingdom of Poland; the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was more rural and its economy was driven by farming and clothmaking.<a href="#cite_note-Sobiech_2018-152">[147]</a> Mining developed in the south-west region of Poland which was rich in natural resources such as <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>, coal, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> and salt.<a href="#cite_note-153">[148]</a> The currency used in Poland–Lithuania was the <a href="/wiki/Polish_z%C5%82oty" title="Polish złoty">złoty</a> (meaning "the golden") and its subunit, the <a href="/wiki/Groschen" title="Groschen">grosz</a>. Foreign coins in the form of <a href="/wiki/Ducat" title="Ducat">ducats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thaler" title="Thaler">thalers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shilling" title="Shilling">shillings</a> were widely accepted and exchanged.<a href="#cite_note-154">[149]</a> The city of <a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk" title="Gdańsk">Gdańsk</a> had the privilege of minting its own coinage.<a href="#cite_note-155">[150]</a> In 1794, <a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Ko%C5%9Bciuszko" title="Tadeusz Kościuszko">Tadeusz Kościuszko</a> began issuing the first Polish banknotes.<a href="#cite_note-156">[151]</a> The country played a significant role in the supply of <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> by the export of grain (rye), cattle (oxen), furs, timber, <a href="/wiki/Linen" title="Linen">linen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cannabis" title="Cannabis">cannabis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ash" title="Ash">ash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tar" title="Tar">tar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carminic_acid" title="Carminic acid">carminic acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">amber</a>.<a href="#cite_note-157">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-pach-159">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-acta-160">[155]</a> Cereals, cattle and fur amounted to nearly 90% of the country's exports to European markets by overland and maritime trade in the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-pach-159">[154]</a> From Gdańsk, ships carried cargo to the major ports of the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Rise_and_Decline_of_the_Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth_due_to_Grain_Trade3-161">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rzeczpospolita_spichlerzem_Europy-162">[157]</a> The land routes, mostly to the German provinces of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> such as the cities of <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a>, were used for the export of live cattle (herds of around 50,000 head) <a href="/wiki/Hide_(skin)" title="Hide (skin)">hides</a>, salt, tobacco, <a href="/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">hemp</a> and cotton from the <a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland" title="Greater Poland">Greater Poland</a> region.<a href="#cite_note-The_Lithuanian-Rus'commonwealth,_the_Polish_domination,_and_the_Cossack-Hetman_state-163">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[159]</a> In turn, the Commonwealth imported wine, beer, fruit, exotic spices, <a href="/wiki/Luxury_good" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxury good">luxury goods</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Tapestry" title="Tapestry">tapestries</a>, <a href="#Image_gallery">Pic. 5</a>), furniture, fabrics as well as industrial products like steel and tools.<a href="#cite_note-165">[160]</a> The agricultural sector was dominated by <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a> based on the <a href="/wiki/Plantation_economy" title="Plantation economy">plantation system</a> (<a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfs</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Domar-37">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a> was forbidden in Poland in the 15th century, and formally abolished in Lithuania in 1588,<a href="#cite_note-Welcome_to_Encyclopædia_Britannica's_Guide_to_History-166">[161]</a> replaced by the second enserfment. Typically a nobleman's landholding comprised a <a href="/wiki/Folwark" title="Folwark">folwark</a>, a large farmstead worked by <a href="/wiki/Serf" class="mw-redirect" title="Serf">serfs</a> to produce surpluses for internal and external trade. This economic arrangement worked well for the ruling classes and nobles in the early years of the Commonwealth, which was one of the most prosperous eras of the <a href="/wiki/Grain_trade" title="Grain trade">grain trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lineages_of_the_absolutist_state-167">[162]</a> The economic strength of Commonwealth grain trade waned from the late 17th century on. Trade relationships were disrupted by the wars, and the Commonwealth proved unable to improve its transport infrastructure or its agricultural practices.<a href="#cite_note-bidel-168">[163]</a> Serfs in the region were increasingly tempted to flee.<a href="#cite_note-yves-169">[164]</a> The Commonwealth's major attempts at countering this problem and improving productivity consisted of increasing serfs' workload and further restricting their freedoms in a process known as export-led serfdom.<a href="#cite_note-bidel-168">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-yves-169">[164]</a> The owner of a <a href="/wiki/Folwark" title="Folwark">folwark</a> usually signed a contract with merchants of Gdańsk, who controlled 80% of this inland trade, to ship the grain north to that seaport on the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Rise_and_Decline_of_the_Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth_due_to_Grain_Trade-170">[165]</a> Countless rivers and waterways in the Commonwealth were used for shipping purposes, including the <a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pilica_(river)" title="Pilica (river)">Pilica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bug_(river)" title="Bug (river)">Bug</a>, <a href="/wiki/San_(river)" title="San (river)">San</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nida_(river)" title="Nida (river)">Nida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wieprz" title="Wieprz">Wieprz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neman" title="Neman">Neman</a>. The rivers had relatively developed infrastructure, with <a href="/wiki/Inland_port" title="Inland port">river ports</a> and <a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">granaries</a>. Most of the river shipping moved north, southward transport being less profitable, and barges and rafts were often sold off in Gdańsk for lumber. <a href="/wiki/Grodno" title="Grodno">Grodno</a> become an important site after formation of a customs post at <a href="/wiki/August%C3%B3w" title="Augustów">Augustów</a> in 1569, which became a checkpoint for merchants travelling to the Crown lands from the Grand Duchy.<a href="#cite_note-Russia's_foreign_trade_and_economic_expansion_in_the_seventeenth_century:_windows_on_the_world-171">[166]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:161px;max-width:161px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:156px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:15_ducats_of_Sigismund_III_Vasa_from_1617.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Ducat" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/15_ducats_of_Sigismund_III_Vasa_from_1617.png/159px-15_ducats_of_Sigismund_III_Vasa_from_1617.png" decoding="async" width="159" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/15_ducats_of_Sigismund_III_Vasa_from_1617.png/239px-15_ducats_of_Sigismund_III_Vasa_from_1617.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/15_ducats_of_Sigismund_III_Vasa_from_1617.png/318px-15_ducats_of_Sigismund_III_Vasa_from_1617.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1770" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Coat of arms of the Commonwealth on a 15 <a href="/wiki/Ducat" title="Ducat">ducat</a> coin, 1617</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:87px;max-width:87px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:156px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:POL-A1a-Bilet_Skarbowy-5_Zlotych_(1794_First_Issue).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Banknote" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/POL-A1a-Bilet_Skarbowy-5_Zlotych_%281794_First_Issue%29.jpg/85px-POL-A1a-Bilet_Skarbowy-5_Zlotych_%281794_First_Issue%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="85" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/POL-A1a-Bilet_Skarbowy-5_Zlotych_%281794_First_Issue%29.jpg/128px-POL-A1a-Bilet_Skarbowy-5_Zlotych_%281794_First_Issue%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/POL-A1a-Bilet_Skarbowy-5_Zlotych_%281794_First_Issue%29.jpg/170px-POL-A1a-Bilet_Skarbowy-5_Zlotych_%281794_First_Issue%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3228" data-file-height="5982" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">5-<a href="/wiki/Polish_z%C5%82oty" title="Polish złoty">złoty</a> banknote issued in 1794</div></div></div></div></div> Urban population of the Commonwealth was low compared to Western Europe. Exact numbers depend on calculation methods. According to one source, the urban population of the Commonwealth was about 20% of the total in the 17th century, compared to approximately 50% in the Netherlands and Italy (<a href="#Image_gallery">Pic. 7</a>).<a href="#cite_note-acta-160">[155]</a> Another source suggests much lower figures: 4–8% urban population in Poland, 34–39% in the Netherlands and 22–23% in Italy.<a href="#cite_note-172">[167]</a> The Commonwealth's preoccupation with agriculture, coupled with the nobles' privileged position when compared to the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a>, resulted in a fairly slow process of urbanization and thus a rather slow development of <a href="/wiki/Industry_(economics)" title="Industry (economics)">industries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-acta-160">[155]</a> The nobility could also regulate the price of grain for their advantage, thus acquiring much wealth. Some of the largest <a href="/wiki/Trade_fair" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade fair">trade fairs</a> in the Commonwealth were held at <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-173">[168]</a> Several ancient <a href="/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">trading routes</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Amber_Road" title="Amber Road">Amber Road</a> (<a href="#Image_gallery">Pic. 4</a>)<a href="#cite_note-174">[169]</a> extended across Poland–Lithuania, which was situated in the heart of Europe and attracted foreign merchants or settlers.<a href="#cite_note-175">[170]</a> Countless goods and cultural artefacts continued to pass from one region to another via the Commonwealth, particularly that the country was a link between the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-176">[171]</a> For instance, <a href="/wiki/Isfahan_rug" title="Isfahan rug">Isfahan rugs</a> imported from <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> to the Commonwealth were incorrectly known as "Polish rugs" (French: Polonaise) in Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-177">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Military of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Military of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="List of wars involving the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">List of wars involving the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:220px;max-width:220px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Polska_rullen_-_Livrustkammaren_-_21467.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Polska_rullen_-_Livrustkammaren_-_21467.tif/lossy-page1-218px-Polska_rullen_-_Livrustkammaren_-_21467.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="218" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Polska_rullen_-_Livrustkammaren_-_21467.tif/lossy-page1-327px-Polska_rullen_-_Livrustkammaren_-_21467.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Polska_rullen_-_Livrustkammaren_-_21467.tif/lossy-page1-436px-Polska_rullen_-_Livrustkammaren_-_21467.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3775" data-file-height="2746" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Winged_Hussars" class="mw-redirect" title="Winged Hussars">Winged Hussars</a> were a <a href="/wiki/Heavy_cavalry" title="Heavy cavalry">heavy cavalry</a> formation serving the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland throughout the 16th and 17th centuries.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:220px;max-width:220px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Milicje_krakowskie_Rolka_sztokholmska.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Milicje_krakowskie_Rolka_sztokholmska.jpg/218px-Milicje_krakowskie_Rolka_sztokholmska.jpg" decoding="async" width="218" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Milicje_krakowskie_Rolka_sztokholmska.jpg/327px-Milicje_krakowskie_Rolka_sztokholmska.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Milicje_krakowskie_Rolka_sztokholmska.jpg/436px-Milicje_krakowskie_Rolka_sztokholmska.jpg 2x" data-file-width="921" data-file-height="601" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a> Militia, a local guard formation in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth during the 16th and 17th centuries</div></div></div></div></div> The military in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth evolved from the merger of the armies from the Polish Kingdom and from the Grand Lithuanian Duchy, though each state maintained its own division.<a href="#cite_note-Stachowicz_1894_279-178">[173]</a> The united armed forces comprised the Crown Army (armia koronna), recruited in Poland, and the Lithuanian Army (armia litewska) in the Grand Duchy.<a href="#cite_note-Stachowicz_1894_279-178">[173]</a> The military was headed by the <a href="/wiki/Hetmans_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Hetmans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Hetman</a>, a rank equivalent to that of a <a href="/wiki/General" class="mw-redirect" title="General">general</a> or supreme commander in other countries. <a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_monarchs" title="List of Polish monarchs">Monarchs</a> could not declare war or summon an army without the consent of the <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a> parliament or the <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Poland" title="Senate of Poland">Senate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-179">[174]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_Navy" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy</a> never played a major role in the military structure from the mid-17th century onwards.<a href="#cite_note-180">[175]</a> The most prestigious formation of the two respective armes were their 16th- and 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Heavy_cavalry" title="Heavy cavalry">heavy cavalry</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Polish_hussars" title="Polish hussars">Winged Hussars</a> (husaria), whereas the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Guards_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Guards (Poland)">Polish Royal Guards</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Royal_Guards_(Lithuania)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Royal Guards (Lithuania) (page does not exist)">Lithuanian Guards</a> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regiment_Gwardii_Pieszej_Wielkiego_Ksi%C4%99stwa_Litewskiego" class="extiw" title="pl:Regiment Gwardii Pieszej Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego">pl</a>] were the elite of the <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a>; the regiments were supervised by the king and his family.<a href="#cite_note-181">[176]</a> In 1788, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Sejm" title="Great Sejm">Great Sejm</a> approved landslide reforms and defined future structures of the military; the Crown Army was to be split into four <a href="/wiki/Division_(military)" title="Division (military)">divisions</a>, with seventeen field infantry <a href="/wiki/Regiment" title="Regiment">regiments</a> and eight cavalry <a href="/wiki/Brigade" title="Brigade">brigades</a> excluding special units; the Lithuanian Army was to be subdivided into two divisions, eight field regiments and two cavalry brigades excluding special units.<a href="#cite_note-182">[177]</a> If implemented, the reform predicted an army of almost 100,000 men.<a href="#cite_note-183">[178]</a> The armies of those states differed from the organization common in other parts of Europe; according to Bardach, the <a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">mercenary</a> formations (wojsko najemne), common in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>, never gained widespread popularity in Poland.<a href="#cite_note-bardach229-184">[179]</a> Brzezinski, however, notes that foreign mercenaries did form a significant portion of the more elite infantry units, at least until the early 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-brz2-6-185">[180]</a> In 16th-century Poland, several other formations formed the core of the military.<a href="#cite_note-bardach229-230-186">[181]</a> There was a small standing army, obrona potoczna ("continuous defense") about 1,500–3,000 strong, paid for by the king, and primarily stationed at the troubled southern and eastern borders.<a href="#cite_note-bardach229-230-186">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-brz1-10-187">[182]</a> It was supplemented by two formations mobilised in case of war – the <a href="/wiki/Pospolite_ruszenie" title="Pospolite ruszenie">pospolite ruszenie</a> (Polish for <a href="/wiki/Lev%C3%A9e_en_masse" title="Levée en masse">levée en masse</a> – <a href="/wiki/Feudal_levy" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal levy">feudal levy</a> of mostly noble knights-landholders), and the wojsko zaciężne, recruited by the Polish commanders for the conflict. It differed from other European mercenary formations in that it was commanded by Polish officers, and dissolved after the conflict has ended.<a href="#cite_note-bardach229-230-186">[181]</a> Several years before the Union of Lublin, the Polish obrona potoczna was reformed, as the <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a> (national parliament of Poland) legislated in 1562–1563 the creation of <a href="/wiki/Wojsko_kwarciane" title="Wojsko kwarciane">wojsko kwarciane</a>, named after <a href="/wiki/Kwarta" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwarta">kwarta</a> tax levied on the <a href="/wiki/Kr%C3%B3lewszczyzna" class="mw-redirect" title="Królewszczyzna">royal lands</a> for the purpose of maintaining this formation.<a href="#cite_note-bardach229-230-186">[181]</a> This formation was also paid for by the king, and in the peacetime, numbered about 3,500–4,000 men according to Bardach;<a href="#cite_note-bardach229-230-186">[181]</a> Brzezinski gives the range of 3,000–5,000.<a href="#cite_note-brz1-10-187">[182]</a> It was composed mostly of the light cavalry units manned by nobility (<a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">szlachta</a>) and commanded by <a href="/wiki/Hetman" title="Hetman">hetmans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bardach229-230-186">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-bardach227-188">[183]</a> Often, in wartime, the Sejm would legislate a temporary increase in the size of the wojsko kwarciane.<a href="#cite_note-bardach229-230-186">[181]</a> Following the end of the Commonwealth, the Polish–Lithuanian military tradition would be continued by the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Legions_(Napoleonic_period)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Legions (Napoleonic period)">Napoleonic Polish Legions</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Duchy_of_Warsaw" title="Army of the Duchy of Warsaw">Army of the Duchy of Warsaw</a>.<a href="#cite_note-189">[184]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Poland" title="Renaissance in Poland">Renaissance in Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baroque_in_Poland" title="Baroque in Poland">Baroque in Poland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polish_Enlightenment" title="Polish Enlightenment">Polish Enlightenment</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_and_literature">Science and literature</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siemenowicz_rocket.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Siemenowicz_rocket.png/60px-Siemenowicz_rocket.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="353" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Siemenowicz_rocket.png/90px-Siemenowicz_rocket.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Siemenowicz_rocket.png 2x" data-file-width="99" data-file-height="582" /></a><figcaption>Multi-stage rocket from Artis Magnæ Artilleriæ pars prima by <a href="/wiki/Kazimierz_Siemienowicz" title="Kazimierz Siemienowicz">Kazimierz Siemienowicz</a></figcaption></figure> The Commonwealth was an important European center for the development of modern social and political ideas. It was famous for its rare quasi-democratic political system, praised by <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophers</a>, and during the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> was known for near-unparalleled <a href="/wiki/Religious_toleration" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious toleration">religious tolerance</a>, with peacefully coexisting <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Jewish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Orthodox Christian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Muslim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi</a>) communities. In the 18th century, the French Catholic <a href="/wiki/Claude-Carloman_de_Rulhi%C3%A8re" title="Claude-Carloman de Rulhière">Rulhiere</a> wrote of 16th century Poland: "This country, which in our day we have seen divided on the pretext of religion, is the first state in Europe that exemplified tolerance. In this state, mosques arose between churches and synagogues."[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Commonwealth gave rise to the famous Christian <a href="/wiki/Sect" title="Sect">sect</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Brethren" title="Polish Brethren">Polish Brethren</a>, antecedents of British and American <a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fedorowicz-190">[185]</a> With its political system, the Commonwealth gave birth to <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Andrzej_Frycz_Modrzewski" title="Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski">Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski</a> (1503–1572) (<a href="#Image_gallery">Pic. 9</a>), <a href="/wiki/Wawrzyniec_Grzyma%C5%82a_Go%C5%9Blicki" class="mw-redirect" title="Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki">Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki</a> (1530–1607) and <a href="/wiki/Piotr_Skarga" title="Piotr Skarga">Piotr Skarga</a> (1536–1612). Later, works by <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Stanisław Staszic</a> (1755–1826) and <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Hugo Kołłątaj</a> (1750–1812) helped pave the way for the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_3_May_1791" title="Constitution of 3 May 1791">Constitution of 3 May 1791</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a> calls the first of its kind in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_699-41">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Jagiellonian_University" title="Jagiellonian University">Jagiellonian University</a> is one of the oldest universities in the world (established in 1364),<a href="#cite_note-Linear_induction_drives-191">[186]</a> together with the <a href="/wiki/Vilnius_University" title="Vilnius University">Jesuit Academy of Wilno</a> (established in 1579) they were the major scholarly and scientific centers in the Commonwealth. The <a href="/wiki/Commission_of_National_Education" title="Commission of National Education">Komisja Edukacji Narodowej</a>, Polish for Commission for National Education, formed in 1773, was the world's first national Ministry of Education.<a href="#cite_note-Playground-192">[187]</a> Commonwealth scientists included: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Kromer" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Kromer">Martin Kromer</a> (1512–1589), historian and <a href="/wiki/Cartographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartographer">cartographer</a>; <a href="/wiki/Michael_Sendivogius" title="Michael Sendivogius">Michael Sendivogius</a> (1566–1636), <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemist</a> and chemist; <a href="/wiki/Jan_Bro%C5%BCek" title="Jan Brożek">Jan Brożek</a> (Ioannes Broscius in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>) (1585–1652), <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a>: a mathematician, physician and <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomer</a>; <a href="/wiki/Krzysztof_Arciszewski" title="Krzysztof Arciszewski">Krzysztof Arciszewski</a> (Crestofle d'Artischau Arciszewski in <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>) (1592–1656), engineer, <a href="/wiki/Ethnographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnographer">ethnographer</a>, general and admiral of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_Indies_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch West Indies Company">Dutch West Indies Company</a> army in the war with the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> for control of <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Setting_Sail-193">[188]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kazimierz_Siemienowicz" title="Kazimierz Siemienowicz">Kazimierz Siemienowicz</a> (1600–1651), military engineer, <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> specialist and a founder of <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rocketry</a>; <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Hevelius" title="Johannes Hevelius">Johannes Hevelius</a> (1611–1687), <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomer</a>, founder of <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">lunar</a> <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a>; <a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Boym" title="Michał Boym">Michał Boym</a> (1612–1659), <a href="/wiki/Oriental_studies" title="Oriental studies">orientalist</a>, cartographer, <a href="/wiki/Naturalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalist">naturalist</a> and diplomat in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming">Ming Dynasty</a>'s service (<a href="#Image_gallery">Pic. 11</a>); <a href="/wiki/Adam_Adamandy_Kocha%C5%84ski" title="Adam Adamandy Kochański">Adam Adamandy Kochański</a> (1631–1700), mathematician and engineer; <a href="/wiki/Baal_Shem_Tov" title="Baal Shem Tov">Baal Shem Tov</a> (הבעל שם טוב in <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>) (1698–1760), considered to be the founder of <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic Judaism</a>; <a href="/wiki/Marcin_Odlanicki_Poczobutt" title="Marcin Odlanicki Poczobutt">Marcin Odlanicki Poczobutt</a> (1728–1810), <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomer</a> and mathematician (<a href="#Image_gallery">Pic. 12</a>); <a href="/wiki/Jan_Krzysztof_Kluk" title="Jan Krzysztof Kluk">Jan Krzysztof Kluk</a> (1739–1796), <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">naturalist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agronomist" class="mw-redirect" title="Agronomist">agronomist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Entomology" title="Entomology">entomologist</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Jonston" title="John Jonston">John Jonston</a> (1603–1675) scholar and <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">physician</a>, descended from <a href="/wiki/Scottish_nobility" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish nobility">Scottish nobility</a>. In 1628 the <a href="/wiki/Czechs" title="Czechs">Czech</a> teacher, scientist, educator, and writer <a href="/wiki/John_Amos_Comenius" title="John Amos Comenius">John Amos Comenius</a> took refuge in the Commonwealth, when the <a href="/wiki/Protestants" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestants">Protestants</a> were persecuted under the Counter Reformation.<a href="#cite_note-fedorowicz-190">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-peucker-194">[189]</a> The works of many Commonwealth authors are considered classics, including those of <a href="/wiki/Jan_Kochanowski" title="Jan Kochanowski">Jan Kochanowski</a> (<a href="#Image_gallery">Pic. 10</a>), <a href="/wiki/Wac%C5%82aw_Potocki" title="Wacław Potocki">Wacław Potocki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Ignacy Krasicki</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Julian_Ursyn_Niemcewicz" title="Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz">Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz</a>. Many <a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">szlachta</a> members wrote memoirs and <a href="/wiki/Diary" title="Diary">diaries</a>. Perhaps the most famous are the Memoirs of Polish History by <a href="/wiki/Albrycht_Stanis%C5%82aw_Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82" title="Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł">Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł</a> (1595–1656) and the Memoirs of <a href="/wiki/Jan_Chryzostom_Pasek" title="Jan Chryzostom Pasek">Jan Chryzostom Pasek</a> (ca. 1636–ca. 1701). <a href="/wiki/Jakub_Sobieski" title="Jakub Sobieski">Jakub Sobieski</a> (1590–1646) (father of <a href="/wiki/John_III_Sobieski" title="John III Sobieski">John III Sobieski</a>) wrote notable diaries. During the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Khotyn_(1621)" title="Battle of Khotyn (1621)">Khotyn expedition</a> in 1621 he wrote a diary called Commentariorum chotinensis belli libri tres (Diary of the Chocim War), which was published in 1646 in <a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk" title="Gdańsk">Gdańsk</a>. It was used by <a href="/wiki/Wac%C5%82aw_Potocki" title="Wacław Potocki">Wacław Potocki</a> as a basis for his epic poem, Transakcja wojny chocimskiej (The Progress of the War of Chocim). He also authored instructions for the journey of his sons to Kraków (1640) and France (1645), a good example of liberal education of the era.<a href="#cite_note-195">[190]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art_and_music">Art and music</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:272px;max-width:272px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:136px;max-width:136px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Dress_and_Petticoat_(Robe_a_la_Polonaise)_LACMA_M.2007.211.720a-b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Polonaise dress" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Dress_and_Petticoat_%28Robe_a_la_Polonaise%29_LACMA_M.2007.211.720a-b.jpg/134px-Dress_and_Petticoat_%28Robe_a_la_Polonaise%29_LACMA_M.2007.211.720a-b.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Dress_and_Petticoat_%28Robe_a_la_Polonaise%29_LACMA_M.2007.211.720a-b.jpg/201px-Dress_and_Petticoat_%28Robe_a_la_Polonaise%29_LACMA_M.2007.211.720a-b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Dress_and_Petticoat_%28Robe_a_la_Polonaise%29_LACMA_M.2007.211.720a-b.jpg/268px-Dress_and_Petticoat_%28Robe_a_la_Polonaise%29_LACMA_M.2007.211.720a-b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1448" data-file-height="2100" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles,_appartements_de_la_Dauphine,_chambre,_lit,_Nicolas_Heurtaut.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Polonaise bed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles%2C_appartements_de_la_Dauphine%2C_chambre%2C_lit%2C_Nicolas_Heurtaut.jpg/130px-Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles%2C_appartements_de_la_Dauphine%2C_chambre%2C_lit%2C_Nicolas_Heurtaut.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles%2C_appartements_de_la_Dauphine%2C_chambre%2C_lit%2C_Nicolas_Heurtaut.jpg/195px-Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles%2C_appartements_de_la_Dauphine%2C_chambre%2C_lit%2C_Nicolas_Heurtaut.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles%2C_appartements_de_la_Dauphine%2C_chambre%2C_lit%2C_Nicolas_Heurtaut.jpg/260px-Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles%2C_appartements_de_la_Dauphine%2C_chambre%2C_lit%2C_Nicolas_Heurtaut.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2283" data-file-height="3425" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Polonaise_(clothing)" title="Polonaise (clothing)">Polonaise dress</a> (left) and the <a href="/wiki/Polish_bed" title="Polish bed">Polish bed</a> (right), both from the 18th century</div></div></div></div> The art and music of the Commonwealth was largely shaped by prevailing European trends, though the country's minorities, foreigners as well as native folk cultures also contributed to its versatile nature. A common art form of the <a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatian</a> period were <a href="/wiki/Coffin_portraits" class="mw-redirect" title="Coffin portraits">coffin portraits</a> (portrety trumienne) used in funerals and other important ceremonies.<a href="#cite_note-leszno-196">[191]</a> As a rule, such portraits were nailed to sheet metal, six- or eight- sided in shape, fixed to the front of a coffin placed on a high, ornate catafalque.<a href="#cite_note-Baroque_in_Poland-197">[192]</a> These were a unique and distinguishable feature of the Commonwealth's high culture, not found elsewhere in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Łyczak_233–242-198">[193]</a> A similar tradition was only practiced in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Łyczak_233–242-198">[193]</a> Polish monarchs and nobles frequently invited and sponsored foreign painters and artisans, notably from the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>), Germany or Italy.<a href="#cite_note-199">[194]</a> The interiors of upper-class residences, palaces and manors were adorned by wall <a href="/wiki/Tapestry" title="Tapestry">tapestries</a> (arrasy or tapiseria) imported from Western Europe; the most renowned collection are the <a href="/wiki/Jagiellonian_tapestries" title="Jagiellonian tapestries">Jagiellonian tapestries</a> exhibited at <a href="/wiki/Wawel_Royal_Castle" class="mw-redirect" title="Wawel Royal Castle">Wawel Royal Castle</a> in Kraków.<a href="#cite_note-200">[195]</a> The economic, cultural and political ties between <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a> and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth gave rise to the term à la polonaise, French for "Polish-styled".<a href="#cite_note-201">[196]</a> With the marriage of <a href="/wiki/Marie_Leszczy%C5%84ska" title="Marie Leszczyńska">Marie Leszczyńska</a> to <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XV of France">Louis XV of France</a> in 1725, Polish culture began to flourish at the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Palace of Versailles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-202">[197]</a> <a href="/wiki/Polish_bed" title="Polish bed">Polish beds</a> (lit à la polonaise) draped with <a href="/wiki/Baldachin" title="Baldachin">baldachins</a> became a centrepiece of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV_furniture" title="Louis XV furniture">Louis XV furniture</a> in French <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau" title="Château">chateaus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-203">[198]</a> Folk flower motifs as well as Polish fashion were popularised in the form of a back-draped <a href="/wiki/Polonaise_(clothing)" title="Polonaise (clothing)">polonaise dress</a> (robe à la polonaise) worn by aristocrats at Versailles.<a href="#cite_note-204">[199]</a> The religious cultures of Poland–Lithuania coexisted and penetrated each other for the entirety of the Commonwealth's history – the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Jews_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jews in Poland">Jews</a> adopted elements of the national dress,<a href="#cite_note-205">[200]</a> loanwords and <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calques</a> became commonplace and Roman Catholic churches in regions with significant <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> populations were much simpler in décor than those in other parts of Poland–Lithuania.<a href="#cite_note-206">[201]</a> Mutual influence was further reflected in the great popularity of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> <a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">icons</a> (<a href="#Image_gallery">Pic. 13</a>) and the icons resembling effigies of <a href="/wiki/Mary_(mother_of_Jesus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary (mother of Jesus)">Mary</a> in the predominantly Latin territories of today's Poland (<a href="/wiki/Black_Madonna_of_Cz%C4%99stochowa" title="Black Madonna of Częstochowa">Black Madonna</a>) and Lithuania (<a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_the_Gate_of_Dawn" title="Our Lady of the Gate of Dawn">Our Lady of the Gate of Dawn</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Polska_sztuka_ludowa_(Polish_Folk_Art)-207">[202]</a> Conversely, Latin infiltration into Ruthenian Orthodox and Protestant art was also conventional (<a href="#Image_gallery">Pic. 3</a>).<a href="#cite_note-A_history_of_Ukraine-208">[203]</a> Music was a common feature of religious and secular events. To that end many noblemen founded church and school choirs, and employed their own ensembles of musicians. Some, like <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Lubomirski_(1583%E2%80%931649)" title="Stanisław Lubomirski (1583–1649)">Stanisław Lubomirski</a> built their own opera houses (in <a href="/wiki/Nowy_Wi%C5%9Bnicz" title="Nowy Wiśnicz">Nowy Wiśnicz</a>). Others, like <a href="/wiki/Janusz_Skumin_Tyszkiewicz" title="Janusz Skumin Tyszkiewicz">Janusz Skumin Tyszkiewicz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Krzysztof_Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82" title="Krzysztof Radziwiłł">Krzysztof Radziwiłł</a> were known for their sponsorship of arts which manifested itself in their permanently retained orchestras, at their courts in <a href="/wiki/Wilno" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilno">Wilno</a> (Vilnius).<a href="#cite_note-mikos-209">[204]</a> Musical life further flourished under the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Vasa" title="House of Vasa">House of Vasa</a>. Both foreign and domestic composers were active in the Commonwealth. <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_III_Vasa" title="Sigismund III Vasa">Sigismund III</a> brought in Italian composers and conductors, such as <a href="/wiki/Luca_Marenzio" title="Luca Marenzio">Luca Marenzio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Annibale_Stabile" title="Annibale Stabile">Annibale Stabile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asprilio_Pacelli" title="Asprilio Pacelli">Asprilio Pacelli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marco_Scacchi" title="Marco Scacchi">Marco Scacchi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diomedes_Cato" title="Diomedes Cato">Diomedes Cato</a> for the royal orchestra. Notable home grown musicians, who also composed and played for the King's court, included <a href="/wiki/Bart%C5%82omiej_P%C4%99kiel" title="Bartłomiej Pękiel">Bartłomiej Pękiel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacek_R%C3%B3%C5%BCycki" title="Jacek Różycki">Jacek Różycki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adam_Jarz%C4%99bski" title="Adam Jarzębski">Adam Jarzębski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marcin_Mielczewski" title="Marcin Mielczewski">Marcin Mielczewski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Sylwester_Szarzy%C5%84ski" title="Stanisław Sylwester Szarzyński">Stanisław Sylwester Szarzyński</a>, Damian Stachowicz, <a href="/wiki/Miko%C5%82aj_Ziele%C5%84ski" title="Mikołaj Zieleński">Mikołaj Zieleński</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grzegorz_Gorczycki" class="mw-redirect" title="Grzegorz Gorczycki">Grzegorz Gorczycki</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mikos-209">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture">Architecture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Baroque_in_Poland" title="Baroque in Poland">Baroque in Poland–Lithuania</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Krasiczyn_od_fosy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Krasiczyn_od_fosy.jpg/220px-Krasiczyn_od_fosy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Krasiczyn_od_fosy.jpg/330px-Krasiczyn_od_fosy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Krasiczyn_od_fosy.jpg/440px-Krasiczyn_od_fosy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3080" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Krasiczyn_Castle" title="Krasiczyn Castle">Krasiczyn Castle</a> was built between 1580 and 1631 in the <a href="/wiki/Mannerism" title="Mannerism">mannerist</a> style.</figcaption></figure> The architecture of the cities in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth reflected a combination of Polish, German and Italian trends. <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of Italy">Italian Mannerism</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Late_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Renaissance">Late Renaissance</a> had a profound impact on traditional burgher architecture which can be observed to this day – castles and <a href="/wiki/Tenements" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenements">tenements</a> were fitted with central Italianate courtyards composed of arched <a href="/wiki/Loggia" title="Loggia">loggias</a>, colonnades, <a href="/wiki/Bay_window" title="Bay window">bay windows</a>, balconies, portals and ornamental balustrades.<a href="#cite_note-210">[205]</a> Ceiling <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">frescos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sgraffito" title="Sgraffito">sgraffito</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plafond" title="Plafond">plafonds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coffer" title="Coffer">coffering</a> (patterned ceilings; Polish kaseton; from Italian cassettone) were widespread.<a href="#cite_note-211">[206]</a> Rooftops were generally covered with <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a> rooftiles. The most distinguishable feature of Polish Mannerism are decorative "<a href="/wiki/Attic_(architecture)" title="Attic (architecture)">attics</a>" above the cornice on the façade.<a href="#cite_note-212">[207]</a> Cities in northern Poland–Lithuania and in Livonia adopted the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic</a> (or "Dutch") style as their primary form of architectural expression, comparable to that of the Netherlands, Belgium, northern Germany and <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-213">[208]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wilanow_palace_-_panoramio_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Wilanow_palace_-_panoramio_%282%29.jpg/220px-Wilanow_palace_-_panoramio_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Wilanow_palace_-_panoramio_%282%29.jpg/330px-Wilanow_palace_-_panoramio_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Wilanow_palace_-_panoramio_%282%29.jpg/440px-Wilanow_palace_-_panoramio_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wilan%C3%B3w_Palace" title="Wilanów Palace">Wilanów Palace</a>, completed in 1696, exemplifies the opulence of royal and <a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">noble</a> residences in the Commonwealth.</figcaption></figure> The introduction of <a href="/wiki/Baroque_architecture" title="Baroque architecture">Baroque architecture</a> was marked by construction of several <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> and Roman Catholic churches across Poland and Lithuania, notably the <a href="/wiki/Saints_Peter_and_Paul_Church,_Krak%C3%B3w" title="Saints Peter and Paul Church, Kraków">Peter and Paul Church</a> in <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Christi_Church,_Nesvizh" class="mw-redirect" title="Corpus Christi Church, Nesvizh">Corpus Christi Church</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nesvizh" class="mw-redirect" title="Nesvizh">Nesvizh</a>, <a href="/wiki/St._John_the_Baptist_Cathedral,_Lublin" title="St. John the Baptist Cathedral, Lublin">Lublin Cathedral</a> and UNESCO-enlisted <a href="/wiki/Calvary_(sanctuary)" title="Calvary (sanctuary)">sanctuary</a> at <a href="/wiki/Kalwaria_Zebrzydowska" title="Kalwaria Zebrzydowska">Kalwaria Zebrzydowska</a>. Fine examples of decorative Baroque and <a href="/wiki/Rococo" title="Rococo">Rococo</a> include <a href="/wiki/Church_of_St._Anne,_Krak%C3%B3w" title="Church of St. Anne, Kraków">Saint Anne's</a> in Kraków and the <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84_Fara" title="Poznań Fara">Fara Church</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a>. Another characteristic is the common usage of black marble.<a href="#cite_note-214">[209]</a> Altars, fonts, portals, balustrades, columns, monuments, tombstones, headstones and whole rooms (e.g. Marble Room at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Castle,_Warsaw" title="Royal Castle, Warsaw">Royal Castle</a> in Warsaw, <a href="/wiki/St._Casimir_Chapel" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Casimir Chapel">St. Casimir Chapel</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Vilnius_Cathedral" title="Vilnius Cathedral">Vilnius Cathedral</a> and Vasa Chapel at <a href="/wiki/Wawel_Cathedral" title="Wawel Cathedral">Wawel Cathedral</a>) were extensively decorated with black marble, which became popular after the mid-17th century.<a href="#cite_note-215">[210]</a> <a href="/wiki/Magnate" title="Magnate">Magnates</a> often undertook construction projects as monuments to themselves: churches, cathedrals, <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monasteries</a> (<a href="#Image_gallery">Pic. 14</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Palace" title="Palace">palaces</a> like the present-day <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Palace,_Warsaw" title="Presidential Palace, Warsaw">Presidential Palace in Warsaw</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pidhirtsi_Castle" title="Pidhirtsi Castle">Pidhirtsi Castle</a> built by Grand Hetman <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Koniecpolski" title="Stanisław Koniecpolski">Stanisław Koniecpolski</a>. The largest projects involved entire towns, although in time many of them would lapse into obscurity or were abandoned. These towns were generally named after the sponsoring magnate. Among the most prominent is <a href="/wiki/Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87" title="Zamość">Zamość</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Zamoyski" title="Jan Zamoyski">Jan Zamoyski</a> and designed by the Italian architect <a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Morando" title="Bernardo Morando">Bernardo Morando</a> as an <a href="/wiki/Ideal_city" title="Ideal city">ideal city</a>. The magnates throughout Poland competed with the kings. The monumental castle <a href="/wiki/Krzy%C5%BCtop%C3%B3r" title="Krzyżtopór">Krzyżtopór</a>, built in the style palazzo in fortezza between 1627 and 1644, had several courtyards surrounded by fortifications. Similar fortified complexes include castles in <a href="/wiki/%C5%81a%C5%84cut_Castle" title="Łańcut Castle">Łańcut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Krasiczyn_Castle" title="Krasiczyn Castle">Krasiczyn</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polska_Niebor%C3%B3w_022.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Polska_Niebor%C3%B3w_022.jpg/220px-Polska_Niebor%C3%B3w_022.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Polska_Niebor%C3%B3w_022.jpg/330px-Polska_Niebor%C3%B3w_022.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Polska_Niebor%C3%B3w_022.jpg/440px-Polska_Niebor%C3%B3w_022.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2324" data-file-height="1388" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Niebor%C3%B3w_Palace" title="Nieborów Palace">Nieborów Palace</a> designed by Dutch architect <a href="/wiki/Tylman_van_Gameren" title="Tylman van Gameren">Tylman van Gameren</a> and built in 1697</figcaption></figure> The fascination with the culture and art of the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Orient</a> in the late Baroque period is reflected by <a href="/wiki/Marie_Casimire_Louise_de_la_Grange_d%27Arquien" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie Casimire Louise de la Grange d'Arquien">Queen Marie's</a> <a href="/wiki/Zolochiv_Castle" title="Zolochiv Castle">Chinese Palace</a> in <a href="/wiki/Zolochiv,_Lviv_Oblast" title="Zolochiv, Lviv Oblast">Zolochiv</a> (Złoczów).<a href="#cite_note-Palaces_and_Castles_in_a_Lion_Country-216">[211]</a> 18th-century magnate palaces represents the characteristic type of <a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> suburban residence built <a href="/wiki/Cour_d%27honneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Cour d'honneur">entre cour et jardin</a> (between the entrance court and the garden). Its architecture – a merger of European art with old Commonwealth building traditions are visible in <a href="/wiki/Wilan%C3%B3w_Palace" title="Wilanów Palace">Wilanów Palace</a> in <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> (<a href="#Image_gallery">Pic. 15</a>), <a href="/wiki/Branicki_Palace,_Bia%C5%82ystok" title="Branicki Palace, Białystok">Branicki Palace</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok" title="Białystok">Białystok</a>, Potocki Palace in <a href="/wiki/Radzy%C5%84_Podlaski" title="Radzyń Podlaski">Radzyń Podlaski</a>, Raczyński Palace in <a href="/wiki/Rogalin" title="Rogalin">Rogalin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niebor%C3%B3w_Palace" title="Nieborów Palace">Nieborów Palace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Koz%C5%82%C3%B3wka_Palace" title="Kozłówka Palace">Kozłówka Palace</a> near <a href="/wiki/Lubart%C3%B3w" title="Lubartów">Lubartów</a>. Lesser nobility resided in country manor houses known as <a href="/wiki/Manor_houses_of_Polish_nobility" title="Manor houses of Polish nobility">dworek</a>. <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture" title="Neoclassical architecture">Neoclassicism</a> replaced Baroque by the second half of the 18th century – the last ruler of the Poland–Lithuania, <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław August Poniatowski</a>, greatly admired the classical architecture of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> and promoted it as a symbol of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Enlightenment" title="Polish Enlightenment">Polish Enlightenment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-217">[212]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Palace_on_the_Isle" title="Palace on the Isle">Palace on the Isle</a> and the exterior of <a href="/wiki/St._Anne%27s_Church,_Warsaw" title="St. Anne's Church, Warsaw">St. Anne's Church</a> in Warsaw are part of the neoclassical legacy of the former Commonwealth. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Szlachta_and_Sarmatism">Szlachta and Sarmatism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">Szlachta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:312px;max-width:312px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:159px;max-width:159px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:203px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Anonymous_El%C5%BCbieta_Sieniawska_as_Minerva.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Sarmatian woman" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Anonymous_El%C5%BCbieta_Sieniawska_as_Minerva.png/157px-Anonymous_El%C5%BCbieta_Sieniawska_as_Minerva.png" decoding="async" width="157" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Anonymous_El%C5%BCbieta_Sieniawska_as_Minerva.png/236px-Anonymous_El%C5%BCbieta_Sieniawska_as_Minerva.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Anonymous_El%C5%BCbieta_Sieniawska_as_Minerva.png/314px-Anonymous_El%C5%BCbieta_Sieniawska_as_Minerva.png 2x" data-file-width="402" data-file-height="522" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The First Lady of the Republic<a href="#cite_note-218">[213]</a> – <a href="/wiki/El%C5%BCbieta_Sieniawska" title="Elżbieta Sieniawska">Elżbieta Sieniawska</a> portrayed in <a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmata</a> pose and in a male coat called <a href="/wiki/Delia_(clothing)" title="Delia (clothing)">delia</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:149px;max-width:149px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:203px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Marcello_Bacciarelli_-_Portret_Franciszka_Salezego_Potockiego.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Sarmatian man" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Marcello_Bacciarelli_-_Portret_Franciszka_Salezego_Potockiego.jpg/147px-Marcello_Bacciarelli_-_Portret_Franciszka_Salezego_Potockiego.jpg" decoding="async" width="147" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Marcello_Bacciarelli_-_Portret_Franciszka_Salezego_Potockiego.jpg/221px-Marcello_Bacciarelli_-_Portret_Franciszka_Salezego_Potockiego.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Marcello_Bacciarelli_-_Portret_Franciszka_Salezego_Potockiego.jpg/294px-Marcello_Bacciarelli_-_Portret_Franciszka_Salezego_Potockiego.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1110" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatian style</a> for men; moustache, red <a href="/wiki/Kontusz" title="Kontusz">kontusz</a> coat, gold-silk <a href="/wiki/Pas_kontuszowy" title="Pas kontuszowy">pas</a> with blue sash of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_White_Eagle_(Poland)" title="Order of the White Eagle (Poland)">Order of the White Eagle</a></div></div></div></div></div> The prevalent ideology of the szlachta became "<a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatism</a>", named after the <a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a>, alleged ancestors of the Poles.<a href="#cite_note-Wandycz-150">[145]</a> This belief system was an important part of szlachta culture, penetrating all aspects of its life. Sarmatism enshrined equality among szlachta, horseback riding, tradition, provincial quaint life in <a href="/wiki/Manor_houses_of_Polish_nobility" title="Manor houses of Polish nobility">manor houses</a>, peace and <a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifism</a>; championed <a href="/wiki/Orient" title="Orient">oriental</a>-inspired souvenirs or attire for men (<a href="/wiki/%C5%BBupan" title="Żupan">żupan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kontusz" title="Kontusz">kontusz</a>, sukmana, <a href="/wiki/Pas_kontuszowy" title="Pas kontuszowy">pas kontuszowy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delia_(clothing)" title="Delia (clothing)">delia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Szabla" title="Szabla">szabla</a>); favoured European Baroque architecture; endorsed <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> as a language of thought or expression; and served to integrate the multi-ethnic nobility by creating an almost <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalistic</a> sense of unity and of pride in <a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wandycz-150">[145]</a> In its early, idealistic form, Sarmatism represented a positive cultural movement: it supported religious belief, honesty, national pride, courage, equality and freedom. In time, however, it became distorted. Late extreme Sarmatism turned belief into bigotry, honesty into political naïveté, pride into arrogance, courage into stubbornness and freedom into anarchy.<a href="#cite_note-Wasko-219">[214]</a> The faults of Sarmatism were blamed for the demise of the country from the late 18th century onwards. Criticism, often one-sided and exaggerated, was used by the Polish reformists to push for radical changes. This self-deprecation was accompanied by works of German, Russian and Austrian historians, who tried to prove that it was Poland itself that was to blame for its fall.<a href="#cite_note-220">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demographics">Demographics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Poland#Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth_(1569–1795)" title="Demographic history of Poland">Demographic history of Poland § Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lamentation_over_the_dead_credit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Lamentation_over_the_dead_credit.jpg/220px-Lamentation_over_the_dead_credit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Lamentation_over_the_dead_credit.jpg/330px-Lamentation_over_the_dead_credit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Lamentation_over_the_dead_credit.jpg/440px-Lamentation_over_the_dead_credit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1342" data-file-height="795" /></a><figcaption>Social strata in the Commonwealth's society in 1655. From left: Jew, <a href="/wiki/Barber_surgeon" title="Barber surgeon">barber surgeon</a>, painter, butcher, musician, tailor, barmaid, pharmacist, shoemaker, <a href="/wiki/Goldsmith" title="Goldsmith">goldsmith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Merchant" title="Merchant">merchant</a> and Armenian</figcaption></figure> The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was immensely <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multicultural</a> throughout its existence – it comprised countless religious identities and ethnic minorities inhabiting the country's vast territory.<a href="#cite_note-221">[216]</a> The precise number of minority groups and their populations can only be hypothesised.<a href="#cite_note-222">[217]</a> Statistically, the most prominent groups were the Poles, Lithuanians, <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ruthenians" title="Ruthenians">Ruthenians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kopczyński_2010-223">[218]</a> There were also considerable numbers of <a href="/wiki/Czechs" title="Czechs">Czechs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungarians" title="Hungarians">Hungarians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Livonians" title="Livonians">Livonians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Romanis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vlachs" title="Vlachs">Vlachs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_people" title="Scottish people">Scots</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_people" title="Dutch people">Dutch</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ol%C4%99drzy" class="mw-redirect" title="Olędrzy">Olędrzy</a>), who were either categorised as merchants, settlers or refugees fleeing religious persecution.<a href="#cite_note-Kopczyński_2010-223">[218]</a> Prior to the union with Lithuania, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a> was much more homogenous; approximately 70% of the population was Polish and <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Roman Catholic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-224">[219]</a> With the creation of the Commonwealth, the number of Poles in comparison to the total population decreased to 50%.<a href="#cite_note-Kopczyński_2010_237-225">[220]</a> In 1569, the population stood at 7 million, with roughly 4.5 million Poles, 750,000 Lithuanians, 700,000 Jews and 2 million Ruthenians.<a href="#cite_note-Ftazee-226">[221]</a> Historians Michał Kopczyński and Wojciech Tygielski suggest that with the territorial expansion after the <a href="/wiki/Truce_of_Deulino" title="Truce of Deulino">Truce of Deulino</a> in 1618, the Commonwealth's population reached 12 million people, of which Poles constituted only 40%.<a href="#cite_note-Kopczyński_2010_237-225">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pogonowski-20">[16]</a> At that time the nobility made up 10% of the entire population and the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">burghers</a> around 15%.<a href="#cite_note-Pogonowski-20">[16]</a> The average population density per square kilometer was: 24 in <a href="/wiki/Mazovia" title="Mazovia">Mazovia</a>, 23 in <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Poland" title="Lesser Poland">Lesser Poland</a>, 19 in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland" title="Greater Poland">Greater Poland</a>, 12 in Lublin palatinate, 10 in the <a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lwów</a> area, 7 in <a href="/wiki/Podolia" title="Podolia">Podolia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volhynia" title="Volhynia">Volhynia</a>, and 3 in the <a href="/wiki/Kiev_Voivodeship" title="Kiev Voivodeship">Kiev Voivodeship</a>. There was a tendency for the people from the more densely inhabited western territories to migrate eastwards.<a href="#cite_note-227">[222]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_density_of_the_urban_network_per_voivodeship_of_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_ca._1650_(Eng).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/The_density_of_the_urban_network_per_voivodeship_of_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_ca._1650_%28Eng%29.png/300px-The_density_of_the_urban_network_per_voivodeship_of_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_ca._1650_%28Eng%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/The_density_of_the_urban_network_per_voivodeship_of_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_ca._1650_%28Eng%29.png/450px-The_density_of_the_urban_network_per_voivodeship_of_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_ca._1650_%28Eng%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/The_density_of_the_urban_network_per_voivodeship_of_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_ca._1650_%28Eng%29.png/600px-The_density_of_the_urban_network_per_voivodeship_of_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_ca._1650_%28Eng%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3505" data-file-height="3100" /></a><figcaption>Density of urban network of the Commonwealth per each <a href="/wiki/Voivodeship" title="Voivodeship">voivodeship</a> in 1650</figcaption></figure> A sudden change in the country's demographics occurred in the mid-17th century.<a href="#cite_note-Pogonowski-20">[16]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Second_Northern_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Northern War">Second Northern War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Deluge" class="mw-redirect" title="Swedish Deluge">Deluge</a> followed by famine in the period from 1648 to 1657 were accountable for at least 4 million deaths.<a href="#cite_note-Pogonowski-20">[16]</a> Coupled with further territorial losses, by 1717 the population had fallen to 9 million.<a href="#cite_note-Pogonowski-20">[16]</a> The population slowly recovered throughout the 18th century; just before the first partition of Poland in 1772, the Commonwealth's population was 14 million, including around 1 million nobles.<a href="#cite_note-Romaniello-228">[223]</a> In 1792, the population of Poland was around 11 million and included 750,000 nobles.<a href="#cite_note-Romaniello-228">[223]</a> The most multicultural and robust city in the country was <a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk" title="Gdańsk">Gdańsk</a>, a major <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic</a> seaport on the Baltic and Poland's wealthiest region. Gdańsk at the time was inhabited by a German-speaking majority<a href="#cite_note-229">[224]</a> and further hosted large numbers of foreign merchants, particularly of Scottish, Dutch or <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> extraction.<a href="#cite_note-230">[225]</a> Historically, the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a> was more diverse than the Kingdom of Poland, and was deemed a melting pot of many cultures and religions.<a href="#cite_note-231">[226]</a> Hence, the inhabitants of the Grand Duchy were collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Litvins" class="mw-redirect" title="Litvins">Litvins</a> regardless of their nationality, with the exception of Jews residing in Lithuania who were called <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Jews">Litvaks</a>. Despite guaranteed <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Confederation" title="Warsaw Confederation">religious tolerance</a>, gradual <a href="/wiki/Polonization" title="Polonization">Polonization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> sought to minimise the Commonwealth's diversity; the aim was to root out some minorities by imposing the <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, Polish culture and the Roman Catholic religion where possible.<a href="#cite_note-Kopczyński_2010_29–38-232">[227]</a> By the late 18th century, the <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian language</a>, culture and identity became vulnerable;<a href="#cite_note-Kopczyński_2010_29–38-232">[227]</a> the country's name was changed to "Commonwealth of Poland" in 1791. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Confederation" title="Warsaw Confederation">Warsaw Confederation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20200512_Ko%C5%9Bci%C3%B3%C5%82_%C5%9Awi%C4%99tych_Aposto%C5%82%C3%B3w_Piotra_i_Paw%C5%82a_w_Krakowie_1731_9916_DxO.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/20200512_Ko%C5%9Bci%C3%B3%C5%82_%C5%9Awi%C4%99tych_Aposto%C5%82%C3%B3w_Piotra_i_Paw%C5%82a_w_Krakowie_1731_9916_DxO.jpg/170px-20200512_Ko%C5%9Bci%C3%B3%C5%82_%C5%9Awi%C4%99tych_Aposto%C5%82%C3%B3w_Piotra_i_Paw%C5%82a_w_Krakowie_1731_9916_DxO.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/20200512_Ko%C5%9Bci%C3%B3%C5%82_%C5%9Awi%C4%99tych_Aposto%C5%82%C3%B3w_Piotra_i_Paw%C5%82a_w_Krakowie_1731_9916_DxO.jpg/255px-20200512_Ko%C5%9Bci%C3%B3%C5%82_%C5%9Awi%C4%99tych_Aposto%C5%82%C3%B3w_Piotra_i_Paw%C5%82a_w_Krakowie_1731_9916_DxO.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/20200512_Ko%C5%9Bci%C3%B3%C5%82_%C5%9Awi%C4%99tych_Aposto%C5%82%C3%B3w_Piotra_i_Paw%C5%82a_w_Krakowie_1731_9916_DxO.jpg/340px-20200512_Ko%C5%9Bci%C3%B3%C5%82_%C5%9Awi%C4%99tych_Aposto%C5%82%C3%B3w_Piotra_i_Paw%C5%82a_w_Krakowie_1731_9916_DxO.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3378" data-file-height="3754" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Saints_Peter_and_Paul_Church,_Krak%C3%B3w" title="Saints Peter and Paul Church, Kraków">Saints Peter and Paul Church</a> in <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a> was built between 1597 and 1619 by the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuit order</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Confederation" title="Warsaw Confederation">Warsaw Confederation</a> signed on 28 January 1573 secured the rights of minorities and religions;<a href="#cite_note-:1-24">[20]</a> it allowed all persons to practice any faith freely, though religious tolerance varied at times. As outlined by <a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a>, "the wording and substance of the declaration of the Confederation of Warsaw of were extraordinary with regards to prevailing conditions elsewhere in Europe; and they governed the principles of religious life in the Republic for over two hundred years."<a href="#cite_note-233">[228]</a> Subsequently, the Catholic church initiated a <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation_in_Poland" title="Counter-Reformation in Poland">Counter-Reformation in Poland</a>, relying heavily on methods of persuasion and legal means. As a result, compared to many other European countries, the conflict between the Catholics and the Protestants in Poland was relatively peaceful.<a href="#cite_note-Magocsi2010-234">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-Labno2011-36-235">[230]</a> Poland retained religious freedom laws during an era when religious persecution was an everyday occurrence in the rest of Europe.<a href="#cite_note-236">[231]</a> The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a place where the most radical religious sects, trying to escape persecution in other countries of the Christian world, sought refuge.<a href="#cite_note-portal.unesco.org-237">[232]</a> In 1561 Giovanni Bernardino Bonifacio d'Oria, a religious exile living in Poland, wrote of his adopted country's virtues to a colleague back in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>: "You could live here in accordance with your ideas and preferences, in great, even the greatest freedoms, including writing and publishing. No one is a censor here."[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Others, particularly the leaders of the Roman Catholic church, the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> and <a href="/wiki/Papal_legate" title="Papal legate">papal legates</a>, were less optimistic about Poland's religious frivolity. <blockquote>"This country became a place of shelter for heretics" – <a href="/wiki/Stanislaus_Hosius" title="Stanislaus Hosius">Cardinal Stanislaus Hosius</a>, papal legate to Poland.<a href="#cite_note-portal.unesco.org-237">[232]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Konfederacja_Warszawska.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Konfederacja_Warszawska.jpg/220px-Konfederacja_Warszawska.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Konfederacja_Warszawska.jpg/330px-Konfederacja_Warszawska.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Konfederacja_Warszawska.jpg/440px-Konfederacja_Warszawska.jpg 2x" data-file-width="11393" data-file-height="7772" /></a><figcaption>Original act of the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Confederation" title="Warsaw Confederation">Warsaw Confederation</a> in 1573, the first act of religious freedom in Europe</figcaption></figure> To be Polish, in remote and multi-ethnic parts of the Commonwealth, was then much less an index of <a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">ethnicity</a> than of religion and <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">rank</a>; it was a designation largely reserved for the <a href="/wiki/Landed_noble_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Landed noble class">landed noble class</a> (szlachta), which included Poles, but also many members of non-Polish origin who <a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">converted to Catholicism</a> in increasing numbers with each following generation. For the non-Polish <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">noble</a> such conversion meant a final step of <a href="/wiki/Polonization" title="Polonization">Polonization</a> that followed the adoption of the Polish language and <a href="/wiki/Polish_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish culture">culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gordon-238">[233]</a> Poland, as the culturally most advanced part of the Commonwealth, with the royal court, the capital, the largest cities, the second-oldest university in Central Europe (after <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a>), and the more liberal and democratic <a href="/wiki/Social_institutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Social institutions">social institutions</a> had proven an irresistible magnet for the non-Polish nobility in the Commonwealth.<a href="#cite_note-Gella-104">[99]</a> Many referred to themselves as "gente Ruthenus, natione Polonus" (Ruthenian by blood, Polish by nationality) since the 16th century onwards.<a href="#cite_note-The_origins_of_the_Slavic_nations:_premodern_identities_in_Russia,_Ukraine,_and_Belarus-239">[234]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:124px;max-width:124px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:SoborSwJuraLwow2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/SoborSwJuraLwow2.jpg/122px-SoborSwJuraLwow2.jpg" decoding="async" width="122" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/SoborSwJuraLwow2.jpg/183px-SoborSwJuraLwow2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/SoborSwJuraLwow2.jpg/244px-SoborSwJuraLwow2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Greek-Catholic</a> <a href="/wiki/St._George%27s_Cathedral,_Lviv" title="St. George's Cathedral, Lviv">St. George's Cathedral</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w" class="mw-redirect" title="Lwów">Lwów</a> was constructed between 1746 and 1762 following the Act of Unification of the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Catholic_Archeparchy_of_Lviv" title="Ukrainian Catholic Archeparchy of Lviv">Lwów</a> <a href="/wiki/Eparchy" title="Eparchy">archeparchy</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lemberg-240">[235]</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:124px;max-width:124px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Church_of_Ss._Peter_%26_Paul_(Kamianets_Old_Town).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Church_of_Ss._Peter_%26_Paul_%28Kamianets_Old_Town%29.jpg/122px-Church_of_Ss._Peter_%26_Paul_%28Kamianets_Old_Town%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="122" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Church_of_Ss._Peter_%26_Paul_%28Kamianets_Old_Town%29.jpg/183px-Church_of_Ss._Peter_%26_Paul_%28Kamianets_Old_Town%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Church_of_Ss._Peter_%26_Paul_%28Kamianets_Old_Town%29.jpg/244px-Church_of_Ss._Peter_%26_Paul_%28Kamianets_Old_Town%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The church in <a href="/wiki/Kamieniec_Podolski" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamieniec Podolski">Kamieniec Podolski</a> was converted into a mosque during the Turkish occupation between 1672 and 1699, with the 33-meter <a href="/wiki/Minaret" title="Minaret">minaret</a> being added at that time.<a href="#cite_note-Ukraine_and_Ukrainians-241">[236]</a></div></div></div></div></div> As a result, in the eastern territories a Polish (or Polonised) aristocracy dominated a peasantry whose great majority was neither Polish nor Catholic. Moreover, the decades of peace brought huge <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a> efforts to the eastern territories (nowadays roughly <a href="/wiki/Western_Ukraine" title="Western Ukraine">western</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Ukraine" title="Central Ukraine">central Ukraine</a>),<a href="#cite_note-242">[237]</a> heightening the tensions among <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cossack" class="mw-redirect" title="Cossack">Cossacks</a> (traditionally Orthodox), Polish and Ruthenian peasants. When the latter, deprived of their native protectors among the Ruthenian nobility, turned for protection to <a href="/wiki/Cossack" class="mw-redirect" title="Cossack">cossacks</a> that facilitated violence which in the end broke the Commonwealth. The tensions were aggravated by conflicts between <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Brest" title="Union of Brest">Greek Catholic Church</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Brest" title="Union of Brest">Union of Brest</a>, overall discrimination of Orthodox religions by dominant Catholicism,<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-243">[238]</a> and several <a href="/wiki/Cossack" class="mw-redirect" title="Cossack">Cossack</a> uprisings. In the west and north, many cities had sizable German minorities, often belonging to <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reformed_churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed churches">Reformed churches</a>. The Commonwealth had also one of the largest <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diasporas</a> in the world – by the mid-16th century 80% of the world's Jews lived in Poland (<a href="#Image_gallery">Pic. 16</a>).<a href="#cite_note-European_Jewish_Congress_–_Poland-244">[239]</a> Until the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a>, the szlachta were mostly Catholics (<a href="#Image_gallery">Pic. 13</a>). However, many noble families quickly adopted the <a href="/wiki/Reformed_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed tradition">Reformed</a> religion. After the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a>, when the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> regained power in Poland, the szlachta became almost exclusively Catholic.<a href="#cite_note-Europeanisation,_national_identities,_and_migration:_changes_in_boundary_constructions_between_Western_and_Eastern_Europe-245">[240]</a> The Crown had about double the population of Lithuania and five times the income of the latter's treasury. As with other countries, the borders, area and population of the Commonwealth varied over time. After the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Jam_Zapolski" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace of Jam Zapolski">Peace of Jam Zapolski</a> (1582), the Commonwealth had approximately 815,000 km2 area and a population of 7.5 million.<a href="#cite_note-Tereskinas-246">[241]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Truce_of_Deulino" title="Truce of Deulino">Truce of Deulino</a> (1618), the Commonwealth had an area of some 990,000 km2 and a population of 11–12 million (including some 4 million Poles and close to a million Lithuanians).<a href="#cite_note-Gieysztor88-247">[242]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Languages">Languages</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anniversary_anthem_of_Constitution_of_May_3_1791.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Anniversary_anthem_of_Constitution_of_May_3_1791.jpg/220px-Anniversary_anthem_of_Constitution_of_May_3_1791.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Anniversary_anthem_of_Constitution_of_May_3_1791.jpg/330px-Anniversary_anthem_of_Constitution_of_May_3_1791.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Anniversary_anthem_of_Constitution_of_May_3_1791.jpg/440px-Anniversary_anthem_of_Constitution_of_May_3_1791.jpg 2x" data-file-width="719" data-file-height="536" /></a><figcaption>First anniversary anthem of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_3_May_1791" title="Constitution of 3 May 1791">Constitution of 3 May 1791</a> (1792) in Hebrew, Polish, German and French</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a> – officially recognised;<a href="#cite_note-Lieven-248">[243]</a> dominant language, used by most of the Commonwealth's nobility<a href="#cite_note-Lieven-248">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barbour-249">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-DahlB-250">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-Price-251">[246]</a> and by the peasantry in the Crown province;<a href="#cite_note-Teich-252">[247]</a> official language in the Crown chancellery and since 1697 in the Grand Duchy chancellery.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-253">[248]</a> Dominant language in the towns.<a href="#cite_note-Teich-252">[247]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> – officially recognised;<a href="#cite_note-Lieven-248">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stone-254">[249]</a> commonly used in foreign relations<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-253">[248]</a> and popular as a second language among some of the nobility.<a href="#cite_note-Friedrich-255">[250]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> – not officially recognised; replaced Latin at the royal court in Warsaw in the beginning of the 18th century as a language used in foreign relations and as <a href="/wiki/World_language" title="World language">genuine spoken language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Politics_of_Language_and_Nationalism_in_Modern_Central_Europe-256">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-Acta_Poloniae_historica-257">[252]</a> It was commonly used as a language of science and literature and as a second language among some of the nobility.<a href="#cite_note-258">[253]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruthenian_language" title="Ruthenian language">Ruthenian</a> – also known as Chancellery Slavonic;<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-253">[248]</a> officially recognised;<a href="#cite_note-Lieven-248">[243]</a> official language in the Grand Duchy chancellery until 1697 (when replaced by Polish) and in <a href="/wiki/Brac%C5%82aw_Voivodeship" title="Bracław Voivodeship">Bratslav</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chernihiv_Voivodeship" title="Chernihiv Voivodeship">Chernihiv</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kiev_Voivodeship" title="Kiev Voivodeship">Kiev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volhynian_Voivodeship_(1569%E2%80%931795)" title="Volhynian Voivodeship (1569–1795)">Volhynian voivodeships</a> until 1673;<a href="#cite_note-259">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-260">[255]</a> used in some foreign relations<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-253">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stone-254">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-261">[256]</a> its dialects (modern <a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>) were widely used in the Grand Duchy and eastern parts of the Crown as spoken language.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a> – not officially recognised;<a href="#cite_note-Lieven-248">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dahl-262">[257]</a> but used in some official documents in the Grand Duchy<a href="#cite_note-Zigmas-263">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-264">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[260]</a> and, mostly, used as a spoken language in the northernmost part of the country (in <a href="/wiki/Lithuania_Proper" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuania Proper">Lithuania Proper</a>)<a href="#cite_note-Stone2-266">[261]</a> and the northern part of <a href="/wiki/Ducal_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ducal Prussia">Ducal Prussia</a> (Polish <a href="/wiki/Fief" title="Fief">fief</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> – officially recognised;<a href="#cite_note-Lieven-248">[243]</a> used in some foreign relations,<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-253">[248]</a> in Ducal Prussia and by German minorities especially in the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Prussia" title="Royal Prussia">Royal Prussia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland" title="Greater Poland">Greater Poland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Teich-252">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-Milosz-267">[262]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> – officially recognised;<a href="#cite_note-Lieven-248">[243]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> used by Jews for religious, scholarly, and legal matters.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> – not officially recognised;<a href="#cite_note-Ostrowski-268">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-269">[264]</a> used by Jews in their daily life.<a href="#cite_note-Teich-252">[247]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> – not officially recognised; used in some foreign relations and by Italian minorities in cities.<a href="#cite_note-270">[265]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> – officially recognised;<a href="#cite_note-Lieven-248">[243]</a> used by <a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_Poland" title="Armenians in Poland">the Armenian minority</a>.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-269">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-Polish_roots-271">[266]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> – not officially recognized; used in some foreign relations<a href="#cite_note-Art_in_Poland,_1572-1764:_land_of_the_winged_horsemen-272">[267]</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tatars</a> in their religious matters, they also wrote <a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Arabic_alphabet" title="Belarusian Arabic alphabet">Ruthenian in the Arabic script</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ethnic_identity:_problems_and_prospects_for_the_twenty-first_century-273">[268]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Intermarium" title="Intermarium">Intermarium</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw" title="Duchy of Warsaw">Duchy of Warsaw</a>, established in 1807 by <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a>, traced its origins to the Commonwealth. Other revival movements appeared during the <a href="/wiki/November_Uprising" title="November Uprising">November Uprising</a> (1830–31), the <a href="/wiki/January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">January Uprising</a> (1863–64) and in the 1920s, with <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski" title="Józef Piłsudski">Józef Piłsudski</a>'s failed attempt to create a Polish-led <a href="/wiki/Intermarium" title="Intermarium">Intermarium</a> (Międzymorze) federation that, at its largest extent, would span from <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> in the north to the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> in the south.<a href="#cite_note-274">[269]</a> The contemporary <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Poland">Republic of Poland</a> considers itself a successor to the Commonwealth,<a href="#cite_note-Constitution-275">[270]</a> whereas the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Lithuania">Republic of Lithuania</a>, re-established at the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, saw the participation of the Lithuanian state in the old Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth mostly in a negative light at the early stages of regaining its independence,<a href="#cite_note-276">[271]</a> although this attitude has been changing in recent years.<a href="#cite_note-277">[272]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Administrative_divisions">Administrative divisions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Administrative_division_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative division of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Administrative division of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Offices_in_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Offices in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Offices in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rzeczpospolita2nar.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Rzeczpospolita2nar.png/220px-Rzeczpospolita2nar.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Rzeczpospolita2nar.png/330px-Rzeczpospolita2nar.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Rzeczpospolita2nar.png/440px-Rzeczpospolita2nar.png 2x" data-file-width="3507" data-file-height="2480" /></a><figcaption>Outline of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> with its major subdivisions after the 1618 <a href="/wiki/Truce_of_Deulino" title="Truce of Deulino">Truce of Deulino</a>, superimposed on present-day national borders. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Crown of the Kingdom of Poland">Crown of the Kingdom of Poland</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Livonia" title="Duchy of Livonia">Duchy of Livonia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Prussia" title="Duchy of Prussia">Duchy of Prussia</a>, Polish <a href="/wiki/Fief" title="Fief">fief</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Courland_and_Semigallia" title="Duchy of Courland and Semigallia">Duchy of Courland and Semigallia</a>, Commonwealth fief</div> </figcaption></figure> While the term "Poland" was also commonly used to denote this whole polity, Poland was in fact only part of a greater whole – the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which comprised primarily two parts: <ul><li>the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_the_Polish_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown of the Polish Kingdom">Crown of the Polish Kingdom</a> (Poland proper), colloquially "the Crown"</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a>, colloquially "Lithuania"</li></ul> The Commonwealth was further divided into smaller administrative units known as <a href="/wiki/Voivodeship" title="Voivodeship">voivodeships</a> (województwa). Each voivodeship was governed by a <a href="/wiki/Voivode" title="Voivode">Voivode</a> (wojewoda, governor). Voivodeships were further divided into <a href="/wiki/Starostwo" title="Starostwo">starostwa</a>, each starostwo being governed by a <a href="/wiki/Starosta" title="Starosta">starosta</a>. Cities were governed by <a href="/wiki/Castellan" title="Castellan">castellans</a>. There were frequent exceptions to these rules, often involving the <a href="/wiki/Ziemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ziemia">ziemia</a> subunit of administration.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The lands that once belonged to the Commonwealth are now largely distributed among several <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">East European</a> countries: Poland, Ukraine, Moldova (Transnistria), Belarus, Russia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia.<a href="#cite_note-Ukraine-278">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_newly_independent_states_of_Eurasia:_handbook_of_former_Soviet_republics-279">[274]</a> Also some small towns in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Hungary" title="Upper Hungary">Upper Hungary</a> (today mostly <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>), became a part of Poland in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lubowla" title="Treaty of Lubowla">Treaty of Lubowla</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spi%C5%A1" title="Spiš">Spiš</a> towns). Other notable parts of the Commonwealth, without respect to region or voivodeship divisions, include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lesser_Poland_Province_of_the_Polish_Crown" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesser Poland Province of the Polish Crown">Lesser Poland Province</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Małopolska), southern Poland, with two largest cities, its capital at <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a> in the north-east;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_Province_of_the_Polish_Crown" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Poland Province of the Polish Crown">Greater Poland Province</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Wielkopolska), west–central Poland around <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Warta_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Warta River">Warta River</a> system;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazovia" title="Mazovia">Mazovia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Mazowsze), central Poland, with its capital at <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuania_proper" title="Lithuania proper">Lithuania Proper</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>: Didžioji Lietuva), northwest Grand Duchy, its most Catholic and ethnically <a href="/wiki/Lithuanians" title="Lithuanians">Lithuanian</a> part, capital <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Samogitia" title="Duchy of Samogitia">Duchy of Samogitia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>: Žemaitija; <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Żmudź), westernmost and most autonomous part of Grand Duchy of Lithuania, also the western part of Lithuania Proper, capital <a href="/wiki/Raseiniai" title="Raseiniai">Raseiniai</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Prussia" title="Royal Prussia">Royal Prussia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Prusy Królewskie), at the southern shore of the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>, was an <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomous</a> area since the <a href="/wiki/Second_Peace_of_Thorn_(1466)" title="Second Peace of Thorn (1466)">Second Peace of Thorn (1466)</a>, incorporated into the Crown in 1569 with the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Lublin" title="Union of Lublin">Commonwealth's formation</a>; <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pomerelia" title="Pomerelia">Pomerelia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Pomorze Gdańskie), <a href="/wiki/Pomerania" title="Pomerania">Pomerania</a> around <a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk" title="Gdańsk">Gdańsk</a>, western part of Royal Prussia;</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruthenia" title="Ruthenia">Ruthenia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Ruś), the eastern Commonwealth, adjoining Russia;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Livonia" title="Duchy of Livonia">Duchy of Livonia</a> (Inflanty), a joint domain of the Crown and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Parts lost to Sweden in the 1620s and in 1660;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Courland_and_Semigallia" title="Duchy of Courland and Semigallia">Duchy of Courland and Semigallia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>: Kuršas ir Žiemgala; <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Kurlandia i Semigalia), a northern <a href="/wiki/Fief" title="Fief">fief</a> of the Commonwealth. It established a colony in <a href="/wiki/Tobago" title="Tobago">Tobago</a> in 1637 and on <a href="/wiki/Kunta_Kinteh_Island" title="Kunta Kinteh Island">St. Andrews Island</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Gambia_River" title="Gambia River">Gambia River</a> in 1651 (see <a href="/wiki/Couronian_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Couronian colonization">Couronian colonization</a>);</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Śląsk) was not within the Commonwealth, but small parts belonged to various Commonwealth kings; in particular, the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Vasa" title="House of Vasa">Vasa</a> kings were <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Opole" title="Duke of Opole">dukes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Opole" title="Opole">Opole</a> (Oppeln), <a href="/wiki/Prudnik" title="Prudnik">Prudnik</a> (Neustadt) and <a href="/wiki/Racib%C3%B3rz" title="Racibórz">Racibórz</a> (Ratibor) from 1645 to 1666.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia_of_witchcraft:_the_Western_tradition-280">[275]</a></li></ul> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poland1764physical.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Poland1764physical.jpg/300px-Poland1764physical.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Poland1764physical.jpg/450px-Poland1764physical.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Poland1764physical.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="452" /></a><figcaption>Topographical map of the Commonwealth in 1764</figcaption></figure> Commonwealth borders shifted with wars and treaties, sometimes several times in a decade, especially in the eastern and southern parts. After the Peace of Jam Zapolski (1582), the Commonwealth had approximately 815,000 km2 area and a population of 7.5 million.<a href="#cite_note-Tereskinas-246">[241]</a> After the Truce of Deulino (1618), the Commonwealth had an area of some 1 million km2 (990,000 km2) and a population of about 11 million.<a href="#cite_note-Gieysztor88-247">[242]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2></div> In the 16th century, the Polish bishop and <a href="/wiki/Cartographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartographer">cartographer</a> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Kromer" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Kromer">Martin Kromer</a>, who studied in <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>, published a Latin <a href="/wiki/Atlas_(cartography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlas (cartography)">atlas</a>, entitled <a href="/wiki/Polonia_sive_de_situ,_populis,_moribus,_magistratibus_et_Republica_regni_Polonici_libri_duo" title="Polonia sive de situ, populis, moribus, magistratibus et Republica regni Polonici libri duo">Poland: about Its Location, People, Culture, Offices and the Polish Commonwealth</a>, which was regarded as one of the most comprehensive guides to the country.<a href="#cite_note-281">[276]</a> Kromer's works and other contemporary maps, such as those of <a href="/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator" title="Gerardus Mercator">Gerardus Mercator</a>, show the Commonwealth as mostly <a href="/wiki/Plain" title="Plain">plains</a>. The Commonwealth's southeastern part, the <a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">Kresy</a>, was famous for its <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppes</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains" title="Carpathian Mountains">Carpathian Mountains</a> formed part of the southern border, with the <a href="/wiki/Tatra_Mountains" title="Tatra Mountains">Tatra Mountain</a> chain the highest, and the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> formed the Commonwealth's northern border. As with most European countries at the time, the Commonwealth had extensive forest cover, especially in the east. Today, what remains of the <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82owie%C5%BCa_Forest" title="Białowieża Forest">Białowieża Forest</a> constitutes the last largely intact <a href="/wiki/Old-growth_forest" title="Old-growth forest">primeval forest</a> in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Pollution_and_property:_comparing_ownership_institutions_for_environmental_protection-282">[277]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Image_gallery">Image gallery</h2></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional" style="max-width: 1158px;"> <li class="gallerycaption">Politics and economy</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Statuta_Regni_Poloniae.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Statuta Regni Poloniae in ordinem alphabeti digesta (Statutes of the Polish Kingdom, Arranged in Alphabetical Order), 1563"><img alt="Statuta Regni Poloniae in ordinem alphabeti digesta (Statutes of the Polish Kingdom, Arranged in Alphabetical Order), 1563" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Statuta_Regni_Poloniae.jpg/97px-Statuta_Regni_Poloniae.jpg" decoding="async" width="97" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Statuta_Regni_Poloniae.jpg/146px-Statuta_Regni_Poloniae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Statuta_Regni_Poloniae.jpg/195px-Statuta_Regni_Poloniae.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1036" data-file-height="1594" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Statuta Regni Poloniae in ordinem alphabeti digesta (Statutes of the Polish Kingdom, Arranged in Alphabetical Order), 1563</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Kostecki_%C5%81ukasz_Opali%C5%84ski.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Grand Marshal of the Crown Łukasz Opaliński portraited with the insignium of his power in the parliament – the Marshal's cane, 1640"><img alt="Grand Marshal of the Crown Łukasz Opaliński portraited with the insignium of his power in the parliament – the Marshal's cane, 1640" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Kostecki_%C5%81ukasz_Opali%C5%84ski.jpg/97px-Kostecki_%C5%81ukasz_Opali%C5%84ski.jpg" decoding="async" width="97" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Kostecki_%C5%81ukasz_Opali%C5%84ski.jpg/146px-Kostecki_%C5%81ukasz_Opali%C5%84ski.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Kostecki_%C5%81ukasz_Opali%C5%84ski.jpg/195px-Kostecki_%C5%81ukasz_Opali%C5%84ski.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1122" data-file-height="1725" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Marsza%C5%82ek" title="Marszałek">Grand Marshal of the Crown</a> <a href="/wiki/%C5%81ukasz_Opali%C5%84ski_(1581%E2%80%931654)" title="Łukasz Opaliński (1581–1654)">Łukasz Opaliński</a> portraited with the insignium of his power in the parliament – the Marshal's cane, 1640</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Orthodox_Church_of_the_Holy_Spirit_1,_Vilnius,_Lithuania_-_Diliff.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rococo iconostasis in the Orthodox Church of the Holy Spirit in Vilnius, designed by Johann Christoph Glaubitz, 1753–1756"><img alt="Rococo iconostasis in the Orthodox Church of the Holy Spirit in Vilnius, designed by Johann Christoph Glaubitz, 1753–1756" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Orthodox_Church_of_the_Holy_Spirit_1%2C_Vilnius%2C_Lithuania_-_Diliff.jpg/142px-Orthodox_Church_of_the_Holy_Spirit_1%2C_Vilnius%2C_Lithuania_-_Diliff.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Orthodox_Church_of_the_Holy_Spirit_1%2C_Vilnius%2C_Lithuania_-_Diliff.jpg/213px-Orthodox_Church_of_the_Holy_Spirit_1%2C_Vilnius%2C_Lithuania_-_Diliff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Orthodox_Church_of_the_Holy_Spirit_1%2C_Vilnius%2C_Lithuania_-_Diliff.jpg/285px-Orthodox_Church_of_the_Holy_Spirit_1%2C_Vilnius%2C_Lithuania_-_Diliff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6345" data-file-height="6689" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Rococo" title="Rococo">Rococo</a> <a href="/wiki/Iconostasis" title="Iconostasis">iconostasis</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Church_of_the_Holy_Spirit_in_Vilnius" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthodox Church of the Holy Spirit in Vilnius">Orthodox Church of the Holy Spirit</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a>, designed by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Christoph_Glaubitz" title="Johann Christoph Glaubitz">Johann Christoph Glaubitz</a>, 1753–1756</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Malbork_(DerHexer)_2010-07-14_067.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="18th century amber casket. Gdańsk patronised by the Polish court flourished as the center for amber working in the 17th century.[278]"><img alt="18th century amber casket. Gdańsk patronised by the Polish court flourished as the center for amber working in the 17th century.[278]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Malbork_%28DerHexer%29_2010-07-14_067.jpg/150px-Malbork_%28DerHexer%29_2010-07-14_067.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Malbork_%28DerHexer%29_2010-07-14_067.jpg/225px-Malbork_%28DerHexer%29_2010-07-14_067.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Malbork_%28DerHexer%29_2010-07-14_067.jpg/300px-Malbork_%28DerHexer%29_2010-07-14_067.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2928" data-file-height="2729" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">18th century <a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">amber</a> casket. <a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk" title="Gdańsk">Gdańsk</a> patronised by the Polish court flourished as the center for amber working in the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-gordon_campbell-283">[278]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Kauffman_Stanis%C5%82aw_Poniatowski.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stanisław Poniatowski, Commander of the Royal Guards and Grand Treasurer. Painted by Angelika Kauffmann in 1786."><img alt="Stanisław Poniatowski, Commander of the Royal Guards and Grand Treasurer. Painted by Angelika Kauffmann in 1786." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Kauffman_Stanis%C5%82aw_Poniatowski.jpg/125px-Kauffman_Stanis%C5%82aw_Poniatowski.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Kauffman_Stanis%C5%82aw_Poniatowski.jpg/188px-Kauffman_Stanis%C5%82aw_Poniatowski.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Kauffman_Stanis%C5%82aw_Poniatowski.jpg/250px-Kauffman_Stanis%C5%82aw_Poniatowski.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1646" data-file-height="1972" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Poniatowski_(1754%E2%80%931833)" title="Stanisław Poniatowski (1754–1833)">Stanisław Poniatowski</a>, Commander of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Guards_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Guards (Poland)">Royal Guards</a> and Grand Treasurer. Painted by <a href="/wiki/Angelika_Kauffmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Angelika Kauffmann">Angelika Kauffmann</a> in 1786. </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Sigismund_at_horse.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Equestrian portrait of King Sigismund III of Poland, by Peter Paul Rubens, 1624"><img alt="Equestrian portrait of King Sigismund III of Poland, by Peter Paul Rubens, 1624" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Sigismund_at_horse.jpg/103px-Sigismund_at_horse.jpg" decoding="async" width="103" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Sigismund_at_horse.jpg/155px-Sigismund_at_horse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Sigismund_at_horse.jpg/206px-Sigismund_at_horse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="482" data-file-height="700" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Equestrian portrait of King <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_III_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Sigismund III of Poland">Sigismund III of Poland</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Paul_Rubens" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Peter Paul Rubens</a>, 1624</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Tapestry_with_the_Arms_of_Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_Pac.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Tapestry with the arms of Michał Kazimierz Pac, Jan Leyniers, Brussels, 1667–1669"><img alt="Tapestry with the arms of Michał Kazimierz Pac, Jan Leyniers, Brussels, 1667–1669" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Tapestry_with_the_Arms_of_Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_Pac.png/114px-Tapestry_with_the_Arms_of_Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_Pac.png" decoding="async" width="114" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Tapestry_with_the_Arms_of_Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_Pac.png/172px-Tapestry_with_the_Arms_of_Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_Pac.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Tapestry_with_the_Arms_of_Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_Pac.png/229px-Tapestry_with_the_Arms_of_Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_Pac.png 2x" data-file-width="2039" data-file-height="2672" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Tapestry with the arms of <a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_Pac" title="Michał Kazimierz Pac">Michał Kazimierz Pac</a>, Jan Leyniers, <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, 1667–1669</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Museum_in_Poznan_-_Kufel_01.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Silver tankard by Józef Ceypler, Kraków, 1739–1745"><img alt="Silver tankard by Józef Ceypler, Kraków, 1739–1745" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Museum_in_Poznan_-_Kufel_01.JPG/112px-Museum_in_Poznan_-_Kufel_01.JPG" decoding="async" width="112" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Museum_in_Poznan_-_Kufel_01.JPG/169px-Museum_in_Poznan_-_Kufel_01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Museum_in_Poznan_-_Kufel_01.JPG/225px-Museum_in_Poznan_-_Kufel_01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Silver tankard by Józef Ceypler, <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>, 1739–1745</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Lublin_Kamienica_Konopnic%C3%B3w.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Example of the merchant architecture: Konopnica's tenement house in Lublin, 1575"><img alt="Example of the merchant architecture: Konopnica's tenement house in Lublin, 1575" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Lublin_Kamienica_Konopnic%C3%B3w.jpg/112px-Lublin_Kamienica_Konopnic%C3%B3w.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Lublin_Kamienica_Konopnic%C3%B3w.jpg/169px-Lublin_Kamienica_Konopnic%C3%B3w.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Lublin_Kamienica_Konopnic%C3%B3w.jpg/225px-Lublin_Kamienica_Konopnic%C3%B3w.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Example of the merchant architecture: Konopnica's tenement house in <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a>, 1575</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Zbroje_husarskie.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Hussars' armours, first half of the 17th century"><img alt="Hussars' armours, first half of the 17th century" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Zbroje_husarskie.JPG/115px-Zbroje_husarskie.JPG" decoding="async" width="115" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Zbroje_husarskie.JPG/172px-Zbroje_husarskie.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Zbroje_husarskie.JPG/230px-Zbroje_husarskie.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1485" data-file-height="1940" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Polish_hussars" title="Polish hussars">Hussars'</a> armours, first half of the 17th century</div> </li> </ul> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional" style="max-width: 1158px;"> <li class="gallerycaption">Science, art and architecture</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Andreae_Fricii_Modreuij_Commentariorum_de_Republica_emendanda_Libri_quinque_1554_(46355727)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="De republica emendanda (1554) by Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski, proposed a deep programme of reforms of the state, society and church."><img alt="De republica emendanda (1554) by Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski, proposed a deep programme of reforms of the state, society and church." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Andreae_Fricii_Modreuij_Commentariorum_de_Republica_emendanda_Libri_quinque_1554_%2846355727%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/86px-Andreae_Fricii_Modreuij_Commentariorum_de_Republica_emendanda_Libri_quinque_1554_%2846355727%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="86" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Andreae_Fricii_Modreuij_Commentariorum_de_Republica_emendanda_Libri_quinque_1554_%2846355727%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/129px-Andreae_Fricii_Modreuij_Commentariorum_de_Republica_emendanda_Libri_quinque_1554_%2846355727%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Andreae_Fricii_Modreuij_Commentariorum_de_Republica_emendanda_Libri_quinque_1554_%2846355727%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/172px-Andreae_Fricii_Modreuij_Commentariorum_de_Republica_emendanda_Libri_quinque_1554_%2846355727%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3903" data-file-height="6817" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">De republica emendanda (1554) by <a href="/wiki/Andrzej_Frycz_Modrzewski" title="Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski">Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski</a>, proposed a deep programme of reforms of the state, society and church.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Merkuriusz_Gloger_t.1_s_284.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Merkuriusz Polski Ordynaryjny, the first Polish newspaper published on the orders of Queen Marie Louise Gonzaga in 1661"><img alt="Merkuriusz Polski Ordynaryjny, the first Polish newspaper published on the orders of Queen Marie Louise Gonzaga in 1661" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Merkuriusz_Gloger_t.1_s_284.jpg/104px-Merkuriusz_Gloger_t.1_s_284.jpg" decoding="async" width="104" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Merkuriusz_Gloger_t.1_s_284.jpg/156px-Merkuriusz_Gloger_t.1_s_284.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Merkuriusz_Gloger_t.1_s_284.jpg/207px-Merkuriusz_Gloger_t.1_s_284.jpg 2x" data-file-width="831" data-file-height="1201" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Merkuriusz_Polski_Ordynaryjny" title="Merkuriusz Polski Ordynaryjny">Merkuriusz Polski Ordynaryjny</a>, the first Polish newspaper published on the orders of Queen <a href="/wiki/Marie_Louise_Gonzaga" title="Marie Louise Gonzaga">Marie Louise Gonzaga</a> in 1661</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Kochanowski_-_Treny_(1583).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Title page of Treny (1580) by Jan Kochanowski, a series of elegies upon the death of his beloved daughter, is an acknowledged masterpiece."><img alt="Title page of Treny (1580) by Jan Kochanowski, a series of elegies upon the death of his beloved daughter, is an acknowledged masterpiece." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Kochanowski_-_Treny_%281583%29.jpg/97px-Kochanowski_-_Treny_%281583%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="97" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Kochanowski_-_Treny_%281583%29.jpg/145px-Kochanowski_-_Treny_%281583%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Kochanowski_-_Treny_%281583%29.jpg/194px-Kochanowski_-_Treny_%281583%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2883" data-file-height="4464" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Title page of Treny (1580) by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Kochanowski" title="Jan Kochanowski">Jan Kochanowski</a>, a series of elegies upon the death of his beloved daughter, is an acknowledged masterpiece.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mango_-_Flora_Sinensis_1656_(2950680).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A plate from Michał Boym's Flora Sinensis (1656), the first description of an ecosystem of the Far East published in Europe[279]"><img alt="A plate from Michał Boym's Flora Sinensis (1656), the first description of an ecosystem of the Far East published in Europe[279]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Mango_-_Flora_Sinensis_1656_%282950680%29.jpg/108px-Mango_-_Flora_Sinensis_1656_%282950680%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="108" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Mango_-_Flora_Sinensis_1656_%282950680%29.jpg/163px-Mango_-_Flora_Sinensis_1656_%282950680%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Mango_-_Flora_Sinensis_1656_%282950680%29.jpg/217px-Mango_-_Flora_Sinensis_1656_%282950680%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3926" data-file-height="5427" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A plate from <a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Boym" title="Michał Boym">Michał Boym's</a> <a href="/wiki/Flora_Sinensis" title="Flora Sinensis">Flora Sinensis</a> (1656), the first description of an ecosystem of the Far East published in Europe<a href="#cite_note-284">[279]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Taurus_Poniatovii.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Taurus Poniatovii, constellation originated by Marcin Poczobutt in 1777 to honor the king Stanisław II Augustus[280]"><img alt="Taurus Poniatovii, constellation originated by Marcin Poczobutt in 1777 to honor the king Stanisław II Augustus[280]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Taurus_Poniatovii.PNG/150px-Taurus_Poniatovii.PNG" decoding="async" width="150" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Taurus_Poniatovii.PNG/225px-Taurus_Poniatovii.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Taurus_Poniatovii.PNG/300px-Taurus_Poniatovii.PNG 2x" data-file-width="428" data-file-height="376" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Taurus_Poniatovii" title="Taurus Poniatovii">Taurus Poniatovii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">constellation</a> originated by <a href="/wiki/Marcin_Odlanicki_Poczobutt" title="Marcin Odlanicki Poczobutt">Marcin Poczobutt</a> in 1777 to honor the king <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław II Augustus</a><a href="#cite_note-285">[280]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Pa%C5%82ac_Branickich_w_Bia%C5%82ymstoku_-_12_VIII_2022_r._7.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Branicki Palace in Białystok, designed by Tylman van Gameren, is sometimes referred to as the "Polish Versailles"."><img alt="Branicki Palace in Białystok, designed by Tylman van Gameren, is sometimes referred to as the "Polish Versailles"." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Pa%C5%82ac_Branickich_w_Bia%C5%82ymstoku_-_12_VIII_2022_r._7.jpg/150px-Pa%C5%82ac_Branickich_w_Bia%C5%82ymstoku_-_12_VIII_2022_r._7.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Pa%C5%82ac_Branickich_w_Bia%C5%82ymstoku_-_12_VIII_2022_r._7.jpg/225px-Pa%C5%82ac_Branickich_w_Bia%C5%82ymstoku_-_12_VIII_2022_r._7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Pa%C5%82ac_Branickich_w_Bia%C5%82ymstoku_-_12_VIII_2022_r._7.jpg/300px-Pa%C5%82ac_Branickich_w_Bia%C5%82ymstoku_-_12_VIII_2022_r._7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="2016" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Branicki_Palace,_Bia%C5%82ystok" title="Branicki Palace, Białystok">Branicki Palace</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok" title="Białystok">Białystok</a>, designed by <a href="/wiki/Tylman_van_Gameren" title="Tylman van Gameren">Tylman van Gameren</a>, is sometimes referred to as the "Polish Versailles".</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Pa%C5%BEaislis_Monastery_exterior,_Kaunas,_Lithuania_-_Diliff.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pažaislis Monastery in Kaunas, Pietro Puttini, built 1674–1712"><img alt="Pažaislis Monastery in Kaunas, Pietro Puttini, built 1674–1712" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Pa%C5%BEaislis_Monastery_exterior%2C_Kaunas%2C_Lithuania_-_Diliff.jpg/150px-Pa%C5%BEaislis_Monastery_exterior%2C_Kaunas%2C_Lithuania_-_Diliff.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Pa%C5%BEaislis_Monastery_exterior%2C_Kaunas%2C_Lithuania_-_Diliff.jpg/225px-Pa%C5%BEaislis_Monastery_exterior%2C_Kaunas%2C_Lithuania_-_Diliff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Pa%C5%BEaislis_Monastery_exterior%2C_Kaunas%2C_Lithuania_-_Diliff.jpg/300px-Pa%C5%BEaislis_Monastery_exterior%2C_Kaunas%2C_Lithuania_-_Diliff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12503" data-file-height="11580" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Pa%C5%BEaislis_Monastery" title="Pažaislis Monastery">Pažaislis Monastery</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kaunas" title="Kaunas">Kaunas</a>, Pietro Puttini, built 1674–1712</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Peeter-Pauli_kirik_Vilniuses.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Church of St. Peter and St. Paul in Vilnius, Pietro Puttini, built 1675–1704"><img alt="Church of St. Peter and St. Paul in Vilnius, Pietro Puttini, built 1675–1704" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Peeter-Pauli_kirik_Vilniuses.jpg/150px-Peeter-Pauli_kirik_Vilniuses.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Peeter-Pauli_kirik_Vilniuses.jpg/225px-Peeter-Pauli_kirik_Vilniuses.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Peeter-Pauli_kirik_Vilniuses.jpg/300px-Peeter-Pauli_kirik_Vilniuses.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3438" data-file-height="2579" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Church_of_St._Peter_and_St._Paul,_Vilnius" title="Church of St. Peter and St. Paul, Vilnius">Church of St. Peter and St. Paul</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a>, Pietro Puttini, built 1675–1704</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ratusz_Zamosc.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Zamość City Hall, designed by Bernardo Morando, is a unique example of Renaissance architecture in Europe, consistently built in accordance with the Italian theories of an "ideal town".[281]"><img alt="Zamość City Hall, designed by Bernardo Morando, is a unique example of Renaissance architecture in Europe, consistently built in accordance with the Italian theories of an "ideal town".[281]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Ratusz_Zamosc.jpg/150px-Ratusz_Zamosc.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Ratusz_Zamosc.jpg/225px-Ratusz_Zamosc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Ratusz_Zamosc.jpg/300px-Ratusz_Zamosc.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1392" data-file-height="933" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87" title="Zamość">Zamość City Hall</a>, designed by <a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Morando" title="Bernardo Morando">Bernardo Morando</a>, is a unique example of <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> architecture in Europe, consistently built in accordance with the Italian theories of an "ideal town".<a href="#cite_note-unesco.org-286">[281]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Siemiginowski_Allegory_of_Spring.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Plafond Allegory of Spring, Jerzy Siemiginowski, 1680s, Wilanów Palace"><img alt="Plafond Allegory of Spring, Jerzy Siemiginowski, 1680s, Wilanów Palace" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Siemiginowski_Allegory_of_Spring.jpg/123px-Siemiginowski_Allegory_of_Spring.jpg" decoding="async" width="123" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Siemiginowski_Allegory_of_Spring.jpg/185px-Siemiginowski_Allegory_of_Spring.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Siemiginowski_Allegory_of_Spring.jpg/247px-Siemiginowski_Allegory_of_Spring.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1117" data-file-height="1357" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Plafond" title="Plafond">Plafond</a> Allegory of Spring, <a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Siemiginowski-Eleuter" title="Jerzy Siemiginowski-Eleuter">Jerzy Siemiginowski</a>, 1680s, <a href="/wiki/Wilan%C3%B3w_Palace" title="Wilanów Palace">Wilanów Palace</a> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:%C5%81a%C5%84cut_synagoga_06.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Łańcut Synagogue was established by Stanisław Lubomirski, 1733.[282]"><img alt="Łańcut Synagogue was established by Stanisław Lubomirski, 1733.[282]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/%C5%81a%C5%84cut_synagoga_06.jpg/100px-%C5%81a%C5%84cut_synagoga_06.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/%C5%81a%C5%84cut_synagoga_06.jpg/150px-%C5%81a%C5%84cut_synagoga_06.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/%C5%81a%C5%84cut_synagoga_06.jpg/200px-%C5%81a%C5%84cut_synagoga_06.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="2100" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/%C5%81a%C5%84cut_Synagogue" title="Łańcut Synagogue">Łańcut Synagogue</a> was established by <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Lubomirski_(1722%E2%80%931782)" title="Stanisław Lubomirski (1722–1782)">Stanisław Lubomirski</a>, 1733.<a href="#cite_note-287">[282]</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Poland" title="Category:History of Poland">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="">History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth"><img alt="Coat of arms of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.svg/140px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.svg/210px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.svg/280px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1194" data-file-height="1181" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_(1569%E2%80%931648)" title="History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)">1569–1648</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_(1648%E2%80%931764)" title="History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1648–1764)">1648–1764</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_(1764%E2%80%9395)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1764–95)">1764–1795</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/16px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/24px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, 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the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)">History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_(1648%E2%80%931764)" title="History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1648–1764)">History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1648–1764)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_(1764%E2%80%931795)" title="History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1764–1795)">History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1764–1795)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">List of medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armorial_of_Polish_nobility" title="Armorial of Polish nobility">Armorial of Polish nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_szlachta" title="List of szlachta">List of szlachta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_heraldry" title="Polish heraldry">Polish heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_nobility" title="Lithuanian nobility">Lithuanian nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_Poland" title="Armenians in Poland">Armenians in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Germans_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Germans in Poland">History of the Germans in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">History of the Jews in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">History of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">History of Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian%E2%80%93Ruthenian_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian%E2%80%93Muscovite_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian–Muscovite Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian–Muscovite Commonwealth</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy" title="Hereditary monarchy">Hereditary</a> until 1572<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Georg_Ziaja_p._9-5">[5]</a> and between 1791 and 1792<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: <a href="/wiki/Rzeczpospolita" title="Rzeczpospolita">Rzeczpospolita</a> Obojga Narodów;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>: Res Publica Utriusque Nationis;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>: Abiejų Tautų Respublika, Žečpospolita;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: Republik beider Nationen, Republik beider Völker, Republik Polen–Litauen;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>: Річ Посполита;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a>: Рэч Паспалітая;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruthenian_language" title="Ruthenian language">Ruthenian</a>: Рѣчъ Посполита</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Królestwo Polskie i Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>: Regnum Poloniae Magnusque Ducatus Lithuaniae;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>: Lenkijos Karalystė ir Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: Königreich Polen und des Großfürstentums Litauen</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>: Королівство Польське і Велике князівство Литовське;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a>: Польскае Каралеўства і Вялікае Княства Літоўскае</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: I Rzeczpospolita Polska</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-faith-28"><a href="#cite_ref-faith_28-0">^</a> This quality of the Commonwealth was recognized by its contemporaries. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burton_(scholar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Burton (scholar)">Robert Burton</a>, in his <a href="/wiki/The_Anatomy_of_Melancholy" title="The Anatomy of Melancholy">The Anatomy of Melancholy</a>, first published in 1621, writes of Poland: "Poland is a receptacle of all religions, where Samosetans, Socinians, Photinians ..., Arians, Anabaptists are to be found"; "In Europe, Poland and Amsterdam are the common sanctuaries [for Jews]". </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-EB-Partitions-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB-Partitions_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB-Partitions_1-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/466910">Partitions of Poland</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-warsaw-capital-1596-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-warsaw-capital-1596_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-warsaw-capital-1596_2-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Jagiellonian_University" title="Jagiellonian University">Jagiellonian University</a> Centre for <a href="/wiki/European_studies" title="European studies">European studies</a>, "A Very Short History of Kraków", see: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090312094359/http://www.ces.uj.edu.pl/european/krakow/krakow_history.htm">"1596 administrative capital, the tiny village of Warsaw"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ces.uj.edu.pl/european/krakow/krakow_history.htm">the original</a> on 12 March 2009. Retrieved 29 November 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1596+administrative+capital%2C+the+tiny+village+of+Warsaw&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ces.uj.edu.pl%2Feuropean%2Fkrakow%2Fkrakow_history.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Richters-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Richters_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richters_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichters2012" class="citation book cs1">Richters, Katja (2012). The Post-Soviet Russian Orthodox Church: Politics, Culture and Greater Russia. Routledge. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-29636-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-29636-9"><bdi>978-1-136-29636-9</bdi></a>. <q>formed part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth which was ruled by Catholic monarchs who made Roman Catholicism the state religion</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Post-Soviet+Russian+Orthodox+Church%3A+Politics%2C+Culture+and+Greater+Russia&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-136-29636-9&rft.aulast=Richters&rft.aufirst=Katja&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-4"><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-0">^</a> Janusz Sykała: Od Polan mieszkających w lasach – historia Polski – aż do króla Stasia, Gdansk, 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-Georg_Ziaja_p._9-5"><a href="#cite_ref-Georg_Ziaja_p._9_5-0">^</a> Georg Ziaja: Lexikon des polnischen Adels im Goldenen Zeitalter 1500–1600, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Poland/The-First-Partition">"Poland - Partition, Sovereignty, Revolution | Britannica"</a>. www.britannica.com. 7 September 2024. Retrieved 8 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Poland+-+Partition%2C+Sovereignty%2C+Revolution+%7C+Britannica&rft.date=2024-09-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FPoland%2FThe-First-Partition&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Panstwowe-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Panstwowe_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Panstwowe_8-1">b</a> Panstwowe Przedsiebiorstwo Wydawnictw Kartograficznych: Atlas Historyczny Polski, wydanie X, 1990, p. 14, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-7000-016-9" title="Special:BookSources/83-7000-016-9">83-7000-016-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Bertram Benedict (1919): A history of the great war. Bureau of national literature, inc. p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward2016" class="citation book cs1">Howard, Peter (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=heq_CwAAQBAJ&dq=First+Polish+Republic+1795&pg=PT356">The Routledge Research Companion to Heritage and Identity</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-04323-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-04323-2"><bdi>978-1-317-04323-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Research+Companion+to+Heritage+and+Identity&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-04323-2&rft.aulast=Howard&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dheq_CwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DFirst%2BPolish%2BRepublic%2B1795%26pg%3DPT356&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBardach2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bardach, Juliusz (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c1ScQgAACAAJ">Historia ustroju i prawa polskiego</a> (in Polish). Wydawn. Prawnicze LexisNexis. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-88296-02-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-88296-02-4"><bdi>978-83-88296-02-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+ustroju+i+prawa+polskiego&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Wydawn.+Prawnicze+LexisNexis&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-83-88296-02-4&rft.aulast=Bardach&rft.aufirst=Juliusz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc1ScQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Zbigniew Pucek: Państwo i społeczeństwo 2012/1, Krakow, 2012, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Norman Davies, Europe: A History, Pimlico 1997, p. 554: "Poland–Lithuania was another country which experienced its 'Golden Age' during the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. The realm of the last Jagiellons was absolutely the largest state in Europe" </li> <li id="cite_note-Wandycz2001-66-17"><a href="#cite_ref-Wandycz2001-66_17-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiotr_Wandycz2001" class="citation book cs1">Piotr Wandycz (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m5plR3x6jLAC&pg=PA66">The price of freedom</a>. Psychology Press. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25491-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25491-5"><bdi>978-0-415-25491-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 13 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+price+of+freedom&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-415-25491-5&rft.au=Piotr+Wandycz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm5plR3x6jLAC%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Benedict1919-18"><a href="#cite_ref-Benedict1919_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertram_Benedict1919" class="citation book cs1">Bertram Benedict (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ahistorygreatwa02benegoog">A history of the great war</a>. Bureau of national literature, inc. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ahistorygreatwa02benegoog/page/n51">21</a>. Retrieved 13 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+the+great+war&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Bureau+of+national+literature%2C+inc.&rft.date=1919&rft.au=Bertram+Benedict&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fahistorygreatwa02benegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> According to Panstwowe Przedsiebiorstwo Wydawnictw Kartograficznych: Atlas Historyczny Polski, wydanie X, 1990, p. 16, 990.000 km2 </li> <li id="cite_note-Pogonowski-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pogonowski_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pogonowski_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pogonowski_20-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pogonowski_20-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pogonowski_20-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pogonowski_20-5">f</a> Based on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepage.interaccess.com/%7Enetpol/POLISH/historia/MAPY/1618.jpg">1618 population map</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130217222629/http://homepage.interaccess.com/~netpol/POLISH/historia/MAPY/1618.jpg">Archived</a> 17 February 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (p. 115), 1618 languages map (p. 119), 1657–67 losses map (p. 128) and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepage.interaccess.com/%7Enetpol/POLISH/historia/MAPY/1717.jpg">1717 map</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130217222634/http://homepage.interaccess.com/~netpol/POLISH/historia/MAPY/1717.jpg">Archived</a> 17 February 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (p. 141) from <a href="/wiki/Iwo_Cyprian_Pogonowski" title="Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski">Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski</a>, Poland a Historical Atlas, Hippocrene Books, 1987, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0880293942" title="Special:BookSources/0880293942">0880293942</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> According to Panstwowe Przedsiebiorstwo Wydawnictw Kartograficznych: Atlas Historyczny Polski, wydanie X, 1990, p. 16, just over 9 million in 1618. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGudavičius" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gudavičius, Edvardas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vrm.lrv.lt/uploads/vrm/documents/files/LT_versija/Veikla/Vidaus%20reikal%C5%B3%20istorija/2dalis.pdf">"Lietuvos feodalinės visuomenės ir jos valdymo sistemos genezė: 2 dalis"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Interior_(Lithuania)" title="Ministry of the Interior (Lithuania)">Ministry of the Interior (Lithuania)</a> (in Lithuanian). p. 8. Retrieved 18 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ministry+of+the+Interior+%28Lithuania%29&rft.atitle=Lietuvos+feodalin%C4%97s+visuomen%C4%97s+ir+jos+valdymo+sistemos+genez%C4%97%3A+2+dalis&rft.pages=8&rft.aulast=Gudavi%C4%8Dius&rft.aufirst=Edvardas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvrm.lrv.lt%2Fuploads%2Fvrm%2Fdocuments%2Ffiles%2FLT_versija%2FVeikla%2FVidaus%2520reikal%25C5%25B3%2520istorija%2F2dalis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpečiūnas" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Spečiūnas, Vytautas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/jonas-albrechtas/">"Jonas Albrechtas"</a>. Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 18 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Visuotin%C4%97+lietuvi%C5%B3+enciklopedija&rft.atitle=Jonas+Albrechtas&rft.aulast=Spe%C4%8Di%C5%ABnas&rft.aufirst=Vytautas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vle.lt%2Fstraipsnis%2Fjonas-albrechtas%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_24-1">b</a> Stone, Daniel, The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386–1795, Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 2001. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sanford-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sanford_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sanford_25-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Sanford_(scholar)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Sanford (scholar)">George Sanford</a>, Democratic Government in Poland: Constitutional Politics Since 1989, Palgrave, 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-77475-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-77475-2">0-333-77475-2</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tOaXi0hX1RAC&dq=Poland+%22constitutional+monarchy%22&pg=PA11">Google print p. 11 – constitutional monarchy</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tOaXi0hX1RAC&dq=Poland+anarchy&pg=PA3">p. 3 – anarchy</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Norman_Davies_1795-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_Davies_1795_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_Davies_1795_26-1">b</a> Norman Davies, God's Playground. A History of Poland, Vol. 1: "The Origins to 1795", Vol. 2: "1795 to the Present". Oxford: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-925339-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-925339-0">0-19-925339-0</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-925340-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-925340-4">0-19-925340-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stephan-27"><a href="#cite_ref-Stephan_27-0">^</a> Halina Stephan, Living in Translation: Polish Writers in America, Rodopi, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-420-1016-9" title="Special:BookSources/90-420-1016-9">90-420-1016-9</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y6DiiTcheBsC&dq=%22Polish-Lithuanian+Commonwealth%22+%22religious+tolerance%22&pg=PA373">Google Print p. 373</a>. Quoting from <a href="/wiki/Sarmatian_Review" title="Sarmatian Review">Sarmatian Review</a> academic journal mission statement: "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was ... characterized by religious tolerance unusual in premodern Europe" </li> <li id="cite_note-Feliks_Gross-29"><a href="#cite_ref-Feliks_Gross_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGross1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Feliks_Gross" title="Feliks Gross">Gross, Feliks</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I6wM4X9UQ8QC&dq=Polish-Lithuanian+Commonwealth+religious+tolerance&pg=PA122">Citizenship and Ethnicity: The Growth and Development of a Democratic Multiethnic Institution (notes)</a>. Greenwood Press. p. 122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-30932-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-30932-9"><bdi>0-313-30932-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Citizenship+and+Ethnicity%3A+The+Growth+and+Development+of+a+Democratic+Multiethnic+Institution+%28notes%29&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-313-30932-9&rft.aulast=Gross&rft.aufirst=Feliks&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI6wM4X9UQ8QC%26dq%3DPolish-Lithuanian%2BCommonwealth%2Breligious%2Btolerance%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_30-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._SmithPabriksPursLane2002" class="citation book cs1">J. Smith, David; Pabriks, Artis; Purs, Aldirs; Lane, Thomas (2002). The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. xxiii–xxiv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415285801" title="Special:BookSources/0415285801"><bdi>0415285801</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Baltic+States%3A+Estonia%2C+Latvia+and+Lithuania&rft.pages=xxiii-xxiv&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0415285801&rft.aulast=J.+Smith&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Pabriks%2C+Artis&rft.au=Purs%2C+Aldirs&rft.au=Lane%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiszman1988" class="citation book cs1">Fiszman, Samuel (1988). The Polish Renaissance in Its European Context. <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0253346274" title="Special:BookSources/0253346274"><bdi>0253346274</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Polish+Renaissance+in+Its+European+Context&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0253346274&rft.aulast=Fiszman&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rieber-32"><a href="#cite_ref-Rieber_32-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRieber2014" class="citation book cs1">Rieber, Alfred J. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s6roAgAAQBAJ">The Struggle for the Eurasian Borderlands. From the Rise of Early Modern Empires to the End of the First World War</a>. Cambridge: University Press. pp. 158–161. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107043091" title="Special:BookSources/9781107043091"><bdi>9781107043091</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Struggle+for+the+Eurasian+Borderlands.+From+the+Rise+of+Early+Modern+Empires+to+the+End+of+the+First+World+War&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=158-161&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781107043091&rft.aulast=Rieber&rft.aufirst=Alfred+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds6roAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> "In the mid-1500s, united Poland was the largest state in Europe and perhaps the continent's most powerful state politically and militarily". "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/466681/Poland">Poland</a>". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 26 June 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Slavs_in_European_History_and_Civilization-34"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Slavs_in_European_History_and_Civilization_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancis_Dvornik1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Dvornik" title="Francis Dvornik">Francis Dvornik</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LACpYP-g1y8C">The Slavs in European History and Civilization</a>. Rutgers University Press. p. 300. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8135-0799-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8135-0799-5"><bdi>0-8135-0799-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Slavs+in+European+History+and+Civilization&rft.pages=300&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8135-0799-5&rft.au=Francis+Dvornik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLACpYP-g1y8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-A_social_and_religious_history_of_the_Jews-35"><a href="#cite_ref-A_social_and_religious_history_of_the_Jews_35-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalo_Wittmayer_Baron1976" class="citation book cs1">Salo Wittmayer Baron (1976). A social and religious history of the Jews. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-08853-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-08853-1"><bdi>0-231-08853-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+social+and+religious+history+of+the+Jews&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-231-08853-1&rft.au=Salo+Wittmayer+Baron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Republicanism-36"><a href="#cite_ref-Republicanism_36-0">^</a> Martin Van Gelderen, <a href="/wiki/Quentin_Skinner" title="Quentin Skinner">Quentin Skinner</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sLO_aRQiDwgC&dq=Polish+anarchy&pg=PA54">Republicanism: A Shared European Heritage</a>, Cambridge University Press, 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-80756-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-80756-5">0-521-80756-5</a> p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-Domar-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Domar_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Domar_37-1">b</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/movable_type/2003_archives/001447.html">The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis</a>" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071215054739/http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/movable_type/2003_archives/001447.html">Archived</a> 15 December 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (discussion and full online text) of <a href="/wiki/Evsey_Domar" title="Evsey Domar">Evsey Domar</a> (1970). <a href="/wiki/Economic_History_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic History Review">Economic History Review</a> 30:1 (March), pp. 18–32. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlaustein1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Blaustein" title="Albert Blaustein">Blaustein, Albert</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2xCMVAFyGi8C&q=May+second+constitution+1791&pg=PA15">Constitutions of the World</a>. Fred B. Rothman & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8377-0362-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8377-0362-6"><bdi>978-0-8377-0362-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutions+of+the+World&rft.pub=Fred+B.+Rothman+%26+Co.&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8377-0362-6&rft.aulast=Blaustein&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2xCMVAFyGi8C%26q%3DMay%2Bsecond%2Bconstitution%2B1791%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Isaac Kramnick, Introduction, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadison1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison, James</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/federalistpapers00madi">The Federalist Papers</a>. Penguin Classics. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/federalistpapers00madi/page/13">13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-044495-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-044495-5"><bdi>0-14-044495-5</bdi></a>. <q>May second oldest constitution.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Federalist+Papers&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-14-044495-5&rft.aulast=Madison&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffederalistpapers00madi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Markoff-40"><a href="#cite_ref-Markoff_40-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Markoff_(professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Markoff (professor)">John Markoff</a> describes the advent of modern codified national constitutions as one of the milestones of democracy, and states that "The first European country to follow the U.S. example was Poland in 1791." John Markoff, Waves of Democracy, 1996, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8039-9019-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8039-9019-7">0-8039-9019-7</a>, p. 121. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_699-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_699_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_699_41-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_699_41-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1996" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Norman (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/europehistory00davi_0">Europe: A History</a>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/europehistory00davi_0/page/699">699</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820171-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-820171-0"><bdi>0-19-820171-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe%3A+A+History&rft.pages=699&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-19-820171-0&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feuropehistory00davi_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sjp-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sjp_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sjp_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sjp_42-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sjp.pwn.pl/slowniki/Regnum%20Poloniae%20Magnusque%20Ducatus%20Lithuaniae.html">"Regnum Poloniae Magnusque Ducatus Lithuaniae – definicja, synonimy, przykłady użycia"</a>. sjp.pwn.pl. Retrieved 27 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sjp.pwn.pl&rft.atitle=Regnum+Poloniae+Magnusque+Ducatus+Lithuaniae+%E2%80%93+definicja%2C+synonimy%2C+przyk%C5%82ady+u%C5%BCycia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsjp.pwn.pl%2Fslowniki%2FRegnum%2520Poloniae%2520Magnusque%2520Ducatus%2520Lithuaniae.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJasas" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jasas, Rimantas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/liublino-unija/">"Liublino unija"</a>. Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 18 November 2024. <q>LDK liko atskira valstybė, turinti pavadinimą, herbą, teritoriją, valdymo aparatą, iždą, įstatymus, teismus, kariuomenę, antspaudą.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Visuotin%C4%97+lietuvi%C5%B3+enciklopedija&rft.atitle=Liublino+unija&rft.aulast=Jasas&rft.aufirst=Rimantas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vle.lt%2Fstraipsnis%2Fliublino-unija%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-VleLDK-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-VleLDK_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-VleLDK_44-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetrauskas" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Rimvydas_Petrauskas" title="Rimvydas Petrauskas">Petrauskas, Rimvydas</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/lietuvos-didzioji-kunigaikstyste/">"Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė"</a>. Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 18 November 2024. <q>Po unijos LDK išsaugojo savo teritoriją, įstatymus</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Visuotin%C4%97+lietuvi%C5%B3+enciklopedija&rft.atitle=Lietuvos+Did%C5%BEioji+Kunigaik%C5%A1tyst%C4%97&rft.aulast=Petrauskas&rft.aufirst=Rimvydas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vle.lt%2Fstraipsnis%2Flietuvos-didzioji-kunigaikstyste%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ATR-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ATR_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ATR_45-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/abieju-tautu-respublika/">"Abiejų Tautų Respublika"</a>. Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 18 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Visuotin%C4%97+lietuvi%C5%B3+enciklopedija&rft.atitle=Abiej%C5%B3+Taut%C5%B3+Respublika&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vle.lt%2Fstraipsnis%2Fabieju-tautu-respublika%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3S-46"><a href="#cite_ref-3S_46-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndriulis" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Andriulis, Vytautas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/treciasis-lietuvos-statutas/">"Trečiasis Lietuvos Statutas"</a>. Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 21 October 2024. <q>Trečiajame Lietuvos Statute buvo įrašyta lietuviškoji Liublino unijos samprata: kaip 2 lygiateisių valstybių – Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės ir Lenkijos – federacija.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Visuotin%C4%97+lietuvi%C5%B3+enciklopedija&rft.atitle=Tre%C4%8Diasis+Lietuvos+Statutas&rft.aulast=Andriulis&rft.aufirst=Vytautas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vle.lt%2Fstraipsnis%2Ftreciasis-lietuvos-statutas%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ferrand-47"><a href="#cite_ref-Ferrand_47-0">^</a> Ex quo serenissima respublica Poloniae in corpore ad exempluin omnium aliarnm potentiarum, lilulum regiuin Borussiae recognoscere decrevit (...) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntoine-François-Claude_Ferrand1820" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Antoine-François-Claude Ferrand (1820). "Volume 1". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/histoiredestroi00ferrgoog">Histoire des trois démembremens de la Pologne: pour faire suite à l'histoire de l'Anarchie de Pologne par Rulhière</a> (in French). Deterville. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/histoiredestroi00ferrgoog/page/n235">182</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Volume+1&rft.btitle=Histoire+des+trois+d%C3%A9membremens+de+la+Pologne%3A+pour+faire+suite+%C3%A0+l%27histoire+de+l%27Anarchie+de+Pologne+par+Rulhi%C3%A8re&rft.pages=182&rft.pub=Deterville&rft.date=1820&rft.au=Antoine-Fran%C3%A7ois-Claude+Ferrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoiredestroi00ferrgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> the name given by <a href="/wiki/Marcin_Kromer" title="Marcin Kromer">Marcin Kromer</a> in his work Polonia sive de situ, populis, moribus, magistratibus et re publica regni Polonici libri duo, 1577. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> the therm used for instance in Zbior Deklaracyi, Not I Czynnosci Głownieyszych, Ktore Poprzedziły I Zaszły Pod Czas Seymu Pod Węzłem Konfederacyi Odprawuiącego Się Od Dnia 18. Wrzesnia 1772. Do 14 Maia 1773 </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Name used for the common state, Henryk Rutkowski, Terytorium, w: Encyklopedia historii gospodarczej Polski do 1945 roku, t. II, Warszawa 1981, s. 398. </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Richard Buterwick. The Polish Revolution and the Catholic Church, 1788–1792: A Political History. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. 2012. pp. 5, xvii. </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> 1791 document signed by the King Stanislaw August "Zareczenie wzaiemne Oboyga Narodow" pp. 1, 5 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151223050234/http://rcin.org.pl/dlibra/doccontent?id=18498">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTumelis" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Tumelis, Juozas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/abieju-tautu-tarpusavio-izadas/">"Abiejų Tautų tarpusavio įžadas"</a>. Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 18 November 2024. <q>Preambulėje patvirtintas dualistinis valstybės pobūdis</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Visuotin%C4%97+lietuvi%C5%B3+enciklopedija&rft.atitle=Abiej%C5%B3+Taut%C5%B3+tarpusavio+%C4%AF%C5%BEadas&rft.aulast=Tumelis&rft.aufirst=Juozas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vle.lt%2Fstraipsnis%2Fabieju-tautu-tarpusavio-izadas%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJasienica1997" class="citation book cs1">Jasienica, Paweł (1997). Polska Jagiellonów. Polska: Prószyński i Spółka. pp. 30–32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-8123-881-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-8123-881-6"><bdi>978-83-8123-881-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polska+Jagiellon%C3%B3w&rft.place=Polska&rft.pages=30-32&rft.pub=Pr%C3%B3szy%C5%84ski+i+Sp%C3%B3%C5%82ka&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-83-8123-881-6&rft.aulast=Jasienica&rft.aufirst=Pawe%C5%82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJasienica1997">Jasienica 1997</a>, pp. 30–32 </li> <li id="cite_note-Halecki_1991_52-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Halecki_1991_52_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halecki_1991_52_56-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halecki_1991_52_56-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalecki1991">Halecki 1991</a>, p. 52 </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalecki1991">Halecki 1991</a>, p. 71 </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngel2001" class="citation book cs1">Engel, Pál (2001). The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526. I.B. Tauris. p. 170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86064-061-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-86064-061-3"><bdi>1-86064-061-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Realm+of+St+Stephen%3A+A+History+of+Medieval+Hungary%2C+895%E2%80%931526&rft.pages=170&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1-86064-061-3&rft.aulast=Engel&rft.aufirst=P%C3%A1l&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalecki1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Halecki" class="mw-redirect" title="Oscar Halecki">Halecki, Oscar</a> (1991). Jadwiga of Anjou and the Rise of East Central Europe. Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America. pp. 116–117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88033-206-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-88033-206-9"><bdi>0-88033-206-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jadwiga+of+Anjou+and+the+Rise+of+East+Central+Europe&rft.pages=116-117&rft.pub=Polish+Institute+of+Arts+and+Sciences+of+America&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-88033-206-9&rft.aulast=Halecki&rft.aufirst=Oscar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJasienica1997">Jasienica 1997</a>, p. 63 </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalecki1991">Halecki 1991</a>, p. 155 </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManikowska2005" class="citation book cs1">Manikowska, Halina (2005). Historia dla Maturzysty. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Szkolne PWN. p. 141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-7195-853-6" title="Special:BookSources/83-7195-853-6"><bdi>83-7195-853-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+dla+Maturzysty&rft.place=Warszawa&rft.pages=141&rft.pub=Wydawnictwo+Szkolne+PWN&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=83-7195-853-6&rft.aulast=Manikowska&rft.aufirst=Halina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBojtár1999" class="citation cs2">Bojtár, Endre (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Er1_CwAAQBAJ">Foreword to the Past: A Cultural History of the Baltic People</a>, translated by Walter J. Renfroe, Budapest: Central European University Press, p. 182, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9116-42-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9116-42-9"><bdi>978-963-9116-42-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foreword+to+the+Past%3A+A+Cultural+History+of+the+Baltic+People&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pages=182&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-963-9116-42-9&rft.aulast=Bojt%C3%A1r&rft.aufirst=Endre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEr1_CwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFButterwick2021">Butterwick 2021</a>, pp. 12–14 </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFButterwick2021">Butterwick 2021</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButterwick2021" class="citation book cs1">Butterwick, Richard (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g2cOEAAAQBAJ">The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, 1733–1795</a>. Yale University Press. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-25220-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-25220-0"><bdi>978-0-300-25220-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth%2C+1733%E2%80%931795&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-300-25220-0&rft.aulast=Butterwick&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg2cOEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorucki2009" class="citation book cs1">Borucki, Marek (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b9EsAQAAIAAJ&q=mikolaj%20radziwi%C5%82%C5%82%20rudy%20przeciwnik%20unii">Historia Polski do 2009 roku</a>. Polska: Mada. p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-89624-59-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-89624-59-8"><bdi>978-83-89624-59-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+Polski+do+2009+roku&rft.place=Polska&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=Mada&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-83-89624-59-8&rft.aulast=Borucki&rft.aufirst=Marek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db9EsAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dmikolaj%2520radziwi%25C5%2582%25C5%2582%2520rudy%2520przeciwnik%2520unii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGierowski1986a" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Andrzej_Gierowski" title="Józef Andrzej Gierowski">Gierowski, Józef</a> (1986a). Historia Polski 1505–1764. Warsaw: <a href="/wiki/Polish_Scientific_Publishers_PWN" title="Polish Scientific Publishers PWN">PWN</a>. pp. 92–109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-01-03732-6" title="Special:BookSources/83-01-03732-6"><bdi>83-01-03732-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+Polski+1505%E2%80%931764&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.pages=92-109&rft.pub=PWN&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=83-01-03732-6&rft.aulast=Gierowski&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B3zef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Butterwick_2021_21-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Butterwick_2021_21_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Butterwick_2021_21_69-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFButterwick2021">Butterwick 2021</a>, p. 21 </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPernal2010" class="citation book cs1">Pernal, Andrew Boleslaw (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dG1PAQAAIAAJ&q=unia%20lubelska%20waluta%201569">Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów a Ukraina</a>. Polska: Księgarnia Akademicka. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-7188-973-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-7188-973-8"><bdi>978-83-7188-973-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rzeczpospolita+Obojga+Narod%C3%B3w+a+Ukraina&rft.place=Polska&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Ksi%C4%99garnia+Akademicka&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-83-7188-973-8&rft.aulast=Pernal&rft.aufirst=Andrew+Boleslaw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdG1PAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dunia%2520lubelska%2520waluta%25201569&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPernal2010">Pernal 2010</a>, p. 10 </li> <li id="cite_note-Maniecky_1869_504-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maniecky_1869_504_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maniecky_1869_504_72-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFManieckySzajnocha1869">Maniecky & Szajnocha 1869</a>, p. 504 </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManieckySzajnocha1869" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Maniecky, Wojciech; Szajnocha, Karol (1869). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NZX8WU5PDyQC">Dziennik Literacki</a> (in Polish). Ossoliński. p. 504.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dziennik+Literacki&rft.pages=504&rft.pub=Ossoli%C5%84ski&rft.date=1869&rft.aulast=Maniecky&rft.aufirst=Wojciech&rft.au=Szajnocha%2C+Karol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNZX8WU5PDyQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Elective_Monarchy-74"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Elective_Monarchy_74-0">^</a> The death of Sigismund II Augustus in 1572 was followed by a three-year Interregnum during which adjustments were made in the constitutional system. The lower nobility was now included in the selection process, and the power of the monarch was further circumscribed in favor of the expanded noble class. From that point, the king was effectively a partner with the noble class and constantly supervised by a group of senators. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110604230420/http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/longhist3.html">"The Elective Monarchy"</a>. Poland – The Historical Setting. Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. 1992. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/longhist3.html">the original</a> on June 4, 2011. Retrieved July 15, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Poland+%E2%80%93+The+Historical+Setting&rft.atitle=The+Elective+Monarchy&rft.date=1992&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finfo-poland.buffalo.edu%2Fclassroom%2Flonghist3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_75-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_75-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoşu2017" class="citation book cs1">Roşu, Felicia (2017). Elective Monarchy in Transylvania and Poland–Lithuania, 1569–1587. Oxford (GB): Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-878937-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-878937-6"><bdi>978-0-19-878937-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elective+Monarchy+in+Transylvania+and+Poland%E2%80%93Lithuania%2C+1569%E2%80%931587&rft.place=Oxford+%28GB%29&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-878937-6&rft.aulast=Ro%C5%9Fu&rft.aufirst=Felicia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBardach1987" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bardach, Juliusz (1987). Historia państwa i prawa polskiego (in Polish). Warszawa: PWN. pp. 216–217.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+pa%C5%84stwa+i+prawa+polskiego&rft.place=Warszawa&rft.pages=216-217&rft.pub=PWN&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Bardach&rft.aufirst=Juliusz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bardach_1987_216–217-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bardach_1987_216–217_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bardach_1987_216–217_77-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bardach_1987_216–217_77-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bardach_1987_216–217_77-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFBardach1987">Bardach 1987</a>, pp. 216–217 </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone,_Daniel2001" class="citation book cs1">Stone, Daniel (2001). The Polish–Lithuanian state, 1386–1795 [A History of East Central Europe, Volume IV.] Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-295-98093-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-295-98093-1"><bdi>0-295-98093-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+state%2C+1386%E2%80%931795+%5BA+History+of+East+Central+Europe%2C+Volume+IV.%5D&rft.place=Seattle&rft.pages=118&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-295-98093-1&rft.au=Stone%2C+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBesalaBiedrzycka2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Besala, Jerzy; Biedrzycka, Agnieszka (2005). Stefan Batory: Polski Słownik Biograficzny (in Polish). Vol. XLIII. p. 116.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stefan+Batory%3A+Polski+S%C5%82ownik+Biograficzny&rft.pages=116&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Besala&rft.aufirst=Jerzy&rft.au=Biedrzycka%2C+Agnieszka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Besala_2005_116-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Besala_2005_116_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Besala_2005_116_80-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBesalaBiedrzycka2005">Besala & Biedrzycka 2005</a>, p. 116 </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBesalaBiedrzycka2005">Besala & Biedrzycka 2005</a>, p. 117 </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBesalaBiedrzycka2005">Besala & Biedrzycka 2005</a>, pp. 116–117 </li> <li id="cite_note-Besala_2005_118–119-83">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Besala_2005_118–119_83-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Besala_2005_118–119_83-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBesalaBiedrzycka2005">Besala & Biedrzycka 2005</a>, pp. 118–119 </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBesalaBiedrzycka2005">Besala & Biedrzycka 2005</a>, p. 121 </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzujski1894" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Szujski, Józef (1894). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JlAFSS-12xwC">Dzieła Józefa Szujskiego. Dzieje Polski</a> (in Polish). Vol. 3. Kraków: Szujski-Kluczycki. p. 139. Retrieved 9 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dzie%C5%82a+J%C3%B3zefa+Szujskiego.+Dzieje+Polski&rft.place=Krak%C3%B3w&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Szujski-Kluczycki&rft.date=1894&rft.aulast=Szujski&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B3zef&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJlAFSS-12xwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFpisze2013" class="citation web cs1">pisze, Przemek (3 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historia.org.pl/2013/07/03/bitwa-pod-byczyna-zamoyski-upokarza-habsburgow-i-gwarantuje-tron-zygmuntowi-iii/">"Bitwa pod Byczyną. Zamoyski upokarza Habsburgów i gwarantuje tron Zygmuntowi III – HISTORIA.org.pl – historia, kultura, muzea, matura, rekonstrukcje i recenzje historyczne"</a>. Retrieved 16 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bitwa+pod+Byczyn%C4%85.+Zamoyski+upokarza+Habsburg%C3%B3w+i+gwarantuje+tron+Zygmuntowi+III+%E2%80%93+HISTORIA.org.pl+%E2%80%93+historia%2C+kultura%2C+muzea%2C+matura%2C+rekonstrukcje+i+recenzje+historyczne&rft.date=2013-07-03&rft.aulast=pisze&rft.aufirst=Przemek&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistoria.org.pl%2F2013%2F07%2F03%2Fbitwa-pod-byczyna-zamoyski-upokarza-habsburgow-i-gwarantuje-tron-zygmuntowi-iii%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKizwalter1987" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kizwalter, Tomasz (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p7JFAAAAIAAJ&q=srebrn%20wiek%20%20z%C5%82oty%20waz%C3%B3w">Kryzys Oświecenia a początki konserwatyzmu polskiego</a> (in Polish). Warszawa (Warsaw): Uniwersytet Warszawski. p. 21. Retrieved 3 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kryzys+O%C5%9Bwiecenia+a+pocz%C4%85tki+konserwatyzmu+polskiego&rft.place=Warszawa+%28Warsaw%29&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Uniwersytet+Warszawski&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Kizwalter&rft.aufirst=Tomasz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp7JFAAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dsrebrn%2520wiek%2520%2520z%25C5%2582oty%2520waz%25C3%25B3w&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSzujski1894">Szujski 1894</a>, p. 161 </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeterson2014" class="citation book cs1">Peterson, Gary Dean (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FtFDthqmB2wC">Warrior Kings of Sweden. The Rise of an Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries</a>. McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-0411-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-0411-4"><bdi>978-1-4766-0411-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 14 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warrior+Kings+of+Sweden.+The+Rise+of+an+Empire+in+the+Sixteenth+and+Seventeenth+Centuries&rft.pub=McFarland%2C+Incorporated%2C+Publishers&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4766-0411-4&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Gary+Dean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFtFDthqmB2wC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPeterson2014">Peterson 2014</a>, p. 107 </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJędruch1982" class="citation book cs1">Jędruch, Jacek (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ&q=guz%C3%B3w%20200%20rokosz">Constitutions, Elections, and Legislatures of Poland, 1493–1977</a>. University Press of America. p. 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8191-2509-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8191-2509-5"><bdi>978-0-8191-2509-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 1 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutions%2C+Elections%2C+and+Legislatures+of+Poland%2C+1493%E2%80%931977&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-8191-2509-5&rft.aulast=J%C4%99druch&rft.aufirst=Jacek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJl6OAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dguz%25C3%25B3w%2520200%2520rokosz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDabrowski2014" class="citation book cs1">Dabrowski, Patrice M. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X__-DwAAQBAJ">Poland. The First Thousand Years</a>. US: Cornell University Press. p. 168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-5740-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-5740-2"><bdi>978-1-5017-5740-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 18 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poland.+The+First+Thousand+Years&rft.place=US&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-5017-5740-2&rft.aulast=Dabrowski&rft.aufirst=Patrice+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX__-DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShubin2009" class="citation book cs1">Shubin, Daniel H. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wq1NBAAAQBAJ">Tsars and Imposters. Russia's Time of Troubles</a>. New York: Algora. p. 201. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87586-687-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87586-687-1"><bdi>978-0-87586-687-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 1 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tsars+and+Imposters.+Russia%27s+Time+of+Troubles&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=201&rft.pub=Algora&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-87586-687-1&rft.aulast=Shubin&rft.aufirst=Daniel+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dwq1NBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper1979" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, J. P. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gbU8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA595">The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 4, The Decline of Spain and the Thirty Years War, 1609–48/49</a>. CUP Archive. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29713-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29713-4"><bdi>978-0-521-29713-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 11 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+Modern+History%3A+Volume+4%2C+The+Decline+of+Spain+and+the+Thirty+Years+War%2C+1609%E2%80%9348%2F49&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29713-4&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=J.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgbU8AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA595&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillespie2017" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Gillespie" title="Alexander Gillespie">Gillespie, Alexander</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i3UpDwAAQBAJ">The Causes of War</a>. Vol. III: 1400 CE to 1650 CE. Portland: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5099-1766-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5099-1766-2"><bdi>978-1-5099-1766-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 18 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Causes+of+War&rft.place=Portland&rft.pages=194&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-5099-1766-2&rft.aulast=Gillespie&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di3UpDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyer1861" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Dyer, Thomas Henry (1861). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kQZOAAAAcAAJ">The History of Modern Europe</a>. Vol. From the Fall of Constantinople, in 1453, to the War in the Crimea, in 1857. Volume 2. London: J. Murray. p. 504. Retrieved 20 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Modern+Europe&rft.place=London&rft.pages=504&rft.pub=J.+Murray&rft.date=1861&rft.aulast=Dyer&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkQZOAAAAcAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPodhorodecki1985" class="citation book cs1">Podhorodecki, Leszek (1985). Rapier i koncerz: z dziejów wojen polsko-szwedzkich. Warsaw: Książka i Wiedza. pp. 191–200. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-05-11452-X" title="Special:BookSources/83-05-11452-X"><bdi>83-05-11452-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rapier+i+koncerz%3A+z+dziej%C3%B3w+wojen+polsko-szwedzkich&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.pages=191-200&rft.pub=Ksi%C4%85%C5%BCka+i+Wiedza&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=83-05-11452-X&rft.aulast=Podhorodecki&rft.aufirst=Leszek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGillespie2017">Gillespie 2017</a>, p. 141 </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiłobędzki1980" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Miłobędzki, Adam (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zh8qAQAAIAAJ&q=zygmunt%20III%20architekutra">Dzieje sztuki polskiej: Architektura polska XVII wieku</a> (in Polish). Polska: Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. p. 115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-01-01363-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-01-01363-9"><bdi>978-83-01-01363-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 8 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dzieje+sztuki+polskiej%3A+Architektura+polska+XVII+wieku&rft.place=Polska&rft.pages=115&rft.pub=Panstwowe+Wydawnictwo+Naukowe&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-83-01-01363-9&rft.aulast=Mi%C5%82ob%C4%99dzki&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZh8qAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dzygmunt%2520III%2520architekutra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCzapliński1976" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Czapli%C5%84ski" title="Władysław Czapliński">Czapliński, Władysław</a> (1976). Władysław IV i jego czasy [Władysław IV and His Times] (in Polish). Warsaw: PW "Wiedza Poweszechna". pp. 102–118.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw+IV+i+jego+czasy&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.pages=102-118&rft.pub=PW+%22Wiedza+Poweszechna%22&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Czapli%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCzapliński1976">Czapliński 1976</a>, p. 170 </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCzapliński1976">Czapliński 1976</a>, p. 202 </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCzapliński1976">Czapliński 1976</a>, pp. 353–356 </li> <li id="cite_note-Gella-104">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gella_104-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gella_104-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gella_104-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gella_104-3">d</a> Aleksander Gella, Development of Class Structure in Eastern Europe: Poland and Her Southern Neighbors, SUNY Press, 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88706-833-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-88706-833-2">0-88706-833-2</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8keIXDyF_EoC&dq=Polish-Lithuanian+Commonwealth+%22federation%22+Gella&pg=PA13">Google Print, p. 13</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/polandknightamon00vannuoft/polandknightamon00vannuoft_djvu.txt">Poland, the knight among nations</a>, Louis Edwin Van Norman, New York: 1907, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Essential_World_History:_Volume_II:_Since_1500-106"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Essential_World_History:_Volume_II:_Since_1500_106-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_J._Duiker,_Jackson_J._Spielvogel2006" class="citation book cs1">William J. Duiker, Jackson J. Spielvogel (2006). The Essential World History: Volume II: Since 1500. Cengage Learning. p. 336. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-495-09766-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-495-09766-7"><bdi>0-495-09766-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Essential+World+History%3A+Volume+II%3A+Since+1500&rft.pages=336&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-495-09766-7&rft.au=William+J.+Duiker%2C+Jackson+J.+Spielvogel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGintel1971" class="citation book cs1">Gintel, Jan (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6DTUAAAAMAAJ&q=XVIII%20wiek%20obce%20mocarstw%20wp%C5%82ywy%20szlachta%20elekcja">Wiek XVIII–XIX</a>. Polska: Wydawnictwo Literackie. p. 143.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wiek+XVIII%E2%80%93XIX&rft.place=Polska&rft.pages=143&rft.pub=Wydawnictwo+Literackie&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Gintel&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6DTUAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DXVIII%2520wiek%2520obce%2520mocarstw%2520wp%25C5%2582ywy%2520szlachta%2520elekcja&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGintel1971">Gintel 1971</a>, p. 143 </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInstytut_Badań_Literackich1969" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Instytut Badań Literackich (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z3niAAAAMAAJ&q=obce%20mocarstwa%20wyb%C3%B3r%20kr%C3%B3la%20elekcja%20kandydat">Studia staropolskie</a>. Vol. 24, 25. Polska: Zakład Ossolińskich. p. 172.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studia+staropolskie&rft.place=Polska&rft.pages=172&rft.pub=Zak%C5%82ad+Ossoli%C5%84skich&rft.date=1969&rft.au=Instytut+Bada%C5%84+Literackich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz3niAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dobce%2520mocarstwa%2520wyb%25C3%25B3r%2520kr%25C3%25B3la%2520elekcja%2520kandydat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInstytut_Badań_Literackich1969">Instytut Badań Literackich 1969</a>, p. 172 </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorucki1976" class="citation book cs1">Borucki, Marek (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TMMmAAAAMAAJ&q=conti+august+kr%C3%B3l">Jak w dawnej Polsce królów obierano</a>. Polska: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza. pp. 138–143.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jak+w+dawnej+Polsce+kr%C3%B3l%C3%B3w+obierano&rft.place=Polska&rft.pages=138-143&rft.pub=Ludowa+Sp%C3%B3%C5%82dzielnia+Wydawnicza&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Borucki&rft.aufirst=Marek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTMMmAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dconti%2Baugust%2Bkr%25C3%25B3l&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpórna2003" class="citation book cs1">Spórna (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P70jAQAAIAAJ&q=august%20conti%20papie%C5%BC%20innocenty%20xii">Słownik władców Polski i pretendentów do tronu polskiego</a>. Polska: Zielona Sowa. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-7220-560-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-7220-560-5"><bdi>978-83-7220-560-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=S%C5%82ownik+w%C5%82adc%C3%B3w+Polski+i+pretendent%C3%B3w+do+tronu+polskiego&rft.place=Polska&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Zielona+Sowa&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-83-7220-560-5&rft.au=Sp%C3%B3rna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP70jAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Daugust%2520conti%2520papie%25C5%25BC%2520innocenty%2520xii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBorucki1976">Borucki 1976</a>, pp. 138–143 </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobrowolski1962" class="citation book cs1">Dobrowolski (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uKUjAAAAMAAJ&q=August%20wilanow%20pa%C5%82ac%20saski">Historia sztuki polskiej w zarysie: Sztuka nowożytna</a>. Polska: Wydawnictwo Literackie.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+sztuki+polskiej+w+zarysie%3A+Sztuka+nowo%C5%BCytna&rft.place=Polska&rft.pub=Wydawnictwo+Literackie&rft.date=1962&rft.au=Dobrowolski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuKUjAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DAugust%2520wilanow%2520pa%25C5%2582ac%2520saski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1992" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Norman (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pgAWAQAAMAAJ&q=August%20wilanow%20pa%C5%82ac%20saski">Boże igrzysko. Historia Polski. Od początków do roku 1795</a>. Polska: Znak. p. 412. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-7006-384-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-7006-384-9"><bdi>978-83-7006-384-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bo%C5%BCe+igrzysko.+Historia+Polski.+Od+pocz%C4%85tk%C3%B3w+do+roku+1795&rft.place=Polska&rft.pages=412&rft.pub=Znak&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-83-7006-384-9&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpgAWAQAAMAAJ%26q%3DAugust%2520wilanow%2520pa%25C5%2582ac%2520saski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrückner1931" class="citation book cs1">Brückner, Aleksander (1931). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f0ZFAAAAIAAJ&q=sas%C3%B3w%20fabryki">Dzieje kultury polskiej. Czasy nowsze do roku 1831</a>. Polska: Wiedza Powszechna. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-214-0861-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-214-0861-3"><bdi>978-83-214-0861-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dzieje+kultury+polskiej.+Czasy+nowsze+do+roku+1831&rft.place=Polska&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Wiedza+Powszechna&rft.date=1931&rft.isbn=978-83-214-0861-3&rft.aulast=Br%C3%BCckner&rft.aufirst=Aleksander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df0ZFAAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dsas%25C3%25B3w%2520fabryki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrost2000" class="citation book cs1">Frost, Robert I (2000). The Northern Wars. War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe 1558–1721. Harlow: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-06429-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-06429-4"><bdi>978-0-582-06429-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Northern+Wars.+War%2C+State+and+Society+in+Northeastern+Europe+1558%E2%80%931721&rft.place=Harlow&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-582-06429-4&rft.aulast=Frost&rft.aufirst=Robert+I&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2010" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, S.C. (2010). A Global Chronology of Conflict, Vol. Two. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, LLC. p. 694. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-667-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-667-1"><bdi>978-1-85109-667-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Global+Chronology+of+Conflict%2C+Vol.+Two&rft.place=Santa+Barbara&rft.pages=694&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO%2C+LLC&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-667-1&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=S.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTucker2010">Tucker 2010</a>, p. 710 </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Polish_Succession_War">"Polish Succession War" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 981–982.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Polish+Succession+War&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=981-982&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Lindsey, J. O. (ed). The Cambridge New Modern History, Volume 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brückner_1931_157-122">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brückner_1931_157_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brückner_1931_157_122-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrückner1931">Brückner 1931</a>, p. 157 </li> <li id="cite_note-Migrants_and_citizens:_demographic_change_in_the_European_state_system-123"><a href="#cite_ref-Migrants_and_citizens:_demographic_change_in_the_European_state_system_123-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRey_Koslowski2000" class="citation book cs1">Rey Koslowski (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/migrantscitizens00kosl">Migrants and citizens: demographic change in the European state system</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/migrantscitizens00kosl/page/51">51</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3714-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3714-4"><bdi>978-0-8014-3714-4</bdi></a>. <q>polish lithuanian commonwealth americas western europe.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Migrants+and+citizens%3A+demographic+change+in+the+European+state+system&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-3714-4&rft.au=Rey+Koslowski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmigrantscitizens00kosl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpórna2003">Spórna 2003</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartłomiej_Szyndler2009" class="citation book cs1">Bartłomiej Szyndler (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-KpBxHzAB1gC&pg=PA64">Racławice 1794</a>. Bellona Publishing. pp. 64–65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-11-11606-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-11-11606-1"><bdi>978-83-11-11606-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 26 September 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rac%C5%82awice+1794&rft.pages=64-65&rft.pub=Bellona+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-83-11-11606-1&rft.au=Bart%C5%82omiej+Szyndler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-KpBxHzAB1gC%26pg%3DPA64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartłomiej_Kaczorowski2004" class="citation book cs1">Bartłomiej Kaczorowski (2004). Nowa encyklopedia powszechna PWN: Sud-żyz. Polska: PWN. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-01-14187-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-01-14187-5"><bdi>978-83-01-14187-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nowa+encyklopedia+powszechna+PWN%3A+Sud-%C5%BCyz&rft.place=Polska&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=PWN&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-83-01-14187-5&rft.au=Bart%C5%82omiej+Kaczorowski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman_Davies2005" class="citation book cs1">Norman Davies (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godsplaygroundhi00norm_0">God's Playground: 1795 to the present</a>. Columbia University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godsplaygroundhi00norm_0/page/167">167</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-12819-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-12819-3"><bdi>978-0-231-12819-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%27s+Playground%3A+1795+to+the+present&rft.pages=167&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-231-12819-3&rft.au=Norman+Davies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgodsplaygroundhi00norm_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTed_TapperDavid_Palfreyman2005" class="citation book cs1">Ted Tapper; David Palfreyman (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=riv0UCM90AMC&pg=RA2-PA140">Understanding Mass Higher Education: Comparative Perspectives On Access</a>. Routledge Falmer. p. 140. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35491-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35491-2"><bdi>978-0-415-35491-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Mass+Higher+Education%3A+Comparative+Perspectives+On+Access&rft.pages=140&rft.pub=Routledge+Falmer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-415-35491-2&rft.au=Ted+Tapper&rft.au=David+Palfreyman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Driv0UCM90AMC%26pg%3DRA2-PA140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKitowicz2019" class="citation book cs1">Kitowicz, Jędrzej (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M_2ZDwAAQBAJ">Customs and Culture in Poland Under the Last Saxon King</a>. Central European University Press. p. 262. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-386-276-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-386-276-6"><bdi>978-963-386-276-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Customs+and+Culture+in+Poland+Under+the+Last+Saxon+King&rft.pages=262&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-963-386-276-6&rft.aulast=Kitowicz&rft.aufirst=J%C4%99drzej&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM_2ZDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESužiedėlis2011xxv-130"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESužiedėlis2011xxv_130-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSužiedėlis2011">Sužiedėlis 2011</a>, p. xxv. </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Andrzej Jezierski, Cecylia Leszczyńska, Historia gospodarcza Polski, 2003, s. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historytoday.com/MainArticle.aspx?m=13698&amid=13698">Russia's Rise as a European Power, 1650–1750</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200405080426/http://www.historytoday.com/MainArticle.aspx?m=13698&amid=13698">Archived</a> 5 April 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Jeremy Black, History Today, Vol. 36 Issue: 8, August 1986. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoman2003" class="citation book cs1">Roman, Wanda Krystyna (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K9cWAQAAIAAJ&q=polska%20litwa%20niepodleg%C5%82o%C5%9B%C4%87%201918">Działalność niepodległościowa żołnierzy polskich na Litwie i Wileńszczyźnie</a>. Polska: Naukowe Wydawn. Piotrkowskie. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-88865-08-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-88865-08-4"><bdi>978-83-88865-08-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 13 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dzia%C5%82alno%C5%9B%C4%87+niepodleg%C5%82o%C5%9Bciowa+%C5%BCo%C5%82nierzy+polskich+na+Litwie+i+Wile%C5%84szczy%C5%BAnie&rft.place=Polska&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Naukowe+Wydawn.+Piotrkowskie&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-83-88865-08-4&rft.aulast=Roman&rft.aufirst=Wanda+Krystyna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK9cWAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dpolska%2520litwa%2520niepodleg%25C5%2582o%25C5%259B%25C4%2587%25201918&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dictionary_of_Quotations_(Classical)-134"><a href="#cite_ref-Dictionary_of_Quotations_(Classical)_134-0">^</a> Jan Zamoyski's speech in the Parliament, 1605 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarbottle_Thomas_Benfield2009" class="citation book cs1">Harbottle Thomas Benfield (2009). Dictionary of Quotations (Classical). BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 254. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-113-14791-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-113-14791-2"><bdi>978-1-113-14791-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Quotations+%28Classical%29&rft.pages=254&rft.pub=BiblioBazaar%2C+LLC&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-113-14791-2&rft.au=Harbottle+Thomas+Benfield&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pacy_and_McHugh_2001-135">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pacy_and_McHugh_2001_135-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pacy_and_McHugh_2001_135-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPacyJames_T._McHugh2001" class="citation book cs1">Pacy, James S.; James T. McHugh (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wRbdAwtxVIAC&q=Union+of+Lublin&pg=PA18">Diplomats without a Country: Baltic Diplomacy, International Law, and the Cold War</a>. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-31878-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-31878-6"><bdi>0-313-31878-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 3 September 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diplomats+without+a+Country%3A+Baltic+Diplomacy%2C+International+Law%2C+and+the+Cold+War&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-313-31878-6&rft.aulast=Pacy&rft.aufirst=James+S.&rft.au=James+T.+McHugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwRbdAwtxVIAC%26q%3DUnion%2Bof%2BLublin%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJosef_Macha1974" class="citation book cs1">Josef Macha (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KxFiAAAAMAAJ&q=They+continued+a+separate+treasury+and+army+.+Lithuania+%27+s+legal+code+%2C+the+Statut+Litovski+%2C+remained+in+force+.+Only+the+Constitution+of+1791+established+a+unitary+state">Ecclesiastical Unification</a>. Pont. Institutum Orientalium Studiorum. p. 154.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ecclesiastical+Unification&rft.pages=154&rft.pub=Pont.+Institutum+Orientalium+Studiorum&rft.date=1974&rft.au=Josef+Macha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKxFiAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DThey%2Bcontinued%2Ba%2Bseparate%2Btreasury%2Band%2Barmy%2B.%2BLithuania%2B%2527%2Bs%2Blegal%2Bcode%2B%252C%2Bthe%2BStatut%2BLitovski%2B%252C%2Bremained%2Bin%2Bforce%2B.%2BOnly%2Bthe%2BConstitution%2Bof%2B1791%2Bestablished%2Ba%2Bunitary%2Bstate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrej_Kotljarchuk2006" class="citation book cs1">Andrej Kotljarchuk (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W00qAQAAMAAJ&q=Union+the+Grand+Duchy+had+kept+its+own+%2C+separate+legal+system+%2C+as+well+as+other+institutions+such+as+its+own+army+%2C+treasury+%2C+tax+collection">In the Shadows of Poland and Russia: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Sweden in the European Crisis of the Mid-17th Century</a>. Stockholm University. pp. 37, 87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-89-31563-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-91-89-31563-1"><bdi>978-91-89-31563-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Shadows+of+Poland+and+Russia%3A+The+Grand+Duchy+of+Lithuania+and+Sweden+in+the+European+Crisis+of+the+Mid-17th+Century&rft.pages=37%2C+87&rft.pub=Stockholm+University&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-91-89-31563-1&rft.au=Andrej+Kotljarchuk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW00qAQAAMAAJ%26q%3DUnion%2Bthe%2BGrand%2BDuchy%2Bhad%2Bkept%2Bits%2Bown%2B%252C%2Bseparate%2Blegal%2Bsystem%2B%252C%2Bas%2Bwell%2Bas%2Bother%2Binstitutions%2Bsuch%2Bas%2Bits%2Bown%2Barmy%2B%252C%2Btreasury%2B%252C%2Btax%2Bcollection&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Olk-138"><a href="#cite_ref-Olk_138-0">^</a> Joanna Olkiewicz, Najaśniejsza Republika Wenecka (Most Serene Republic of Venice), Książka i Wiedza, 1972, Warszawa </li> <li id="cite_note-Notes-139"><a href="#cite_ref-Notes_139-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Conrad" title="Joseph Conrad">Joseph Conrad</a>, Notes on Life and Letters: Notes on Life and Letters, Cambridge University Press, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-56163-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-56163-9">0-521-56163-9</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x8oAq189BcwC&dq=autonomy+Polish-Lithuanian+Commonwealth&pg=PA422">Google Print, p. 422 (notes)</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-Frost-140"><a href="#cite_ref-Frost_140-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrost" class="citation book cs1">Frost, Robert I. The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in northeastern Europe, 1558–1721. Harlow, England; New York: Longman's.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Northern+Wars%3A+War%2C+State+and+Society+in+northeastern+Europe%2C+1558%E2%80%931721&rft.place=Harlow%2C+England%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Longman%27s&rft.aulast=Frost&rft.aufirst=Robert+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> 2000. Especially pp. 9–11, 114, 181, 323. </li> <li id="cite_note-The_headless_state:_aristocratic_orders,_kinship_society,_&_misrepresentations_of_nomadic_inner_Asia-141">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_headless_state:_aristocratic_orders,_kinship_society,_&_misrepresentations_of_nomadic_inner_Asia_141-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_headless_state:_aristocratic_orders,_kinship_society,_&_misrepresentations_of_nomadic_inner_Asia_141-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Sneath2007" class="citation book cs1">David Sneath (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OR14qaApQbgC">The headless state: aristocratic orders, kinship society, & misrepresentations of nomadic inner Asia</a>. Columbia University Press. p. 188. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14054-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14054-6"><bdi>978-0-231-14054-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+headless+state%3A+aristocratic+orders%2C+kinship+society%2C+%26+misrepresentations+of+nomadic+inner+Asia&rft.pages=188&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-231-14054-6&rft.au=David+Sneath&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOR14qaApQbgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rich_noble,_poor_noble-142">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rich_noble,_poor_noble_142-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rich_noble,_poor_noble_142-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._L._Bush1988" class="citation book cs1">M. L. Bush (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TIG7AAAAIAAJ">Rich noble, poor noble</a>. Manchester University Press. pp. 8–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-2381-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-2381-5"><bdi>0-7190-2381-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rich+noble%2C+poor+noble&rft.pages=8-9&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-7190-2381-5&rft.au=M.+L.+Bush&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTIG7AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrost2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_I._Frost" title="Robert I. Frost">Frost, Robert I.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IfIbP8sfC0wC">After the Deluge; Poland–Lithuania and the Second Northern War, 1655–1660</a>. Cambridge: University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54402-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54402-3"><bdi>978-0-521-54402-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+the+Deluge%3B+Poland%E2%80%93Lithuania+and+the+Second+Northern+War%2C+1655%E2%80%931660&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-54402-3&rft.aulast=Frost&rft.aufirst=Robert+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIfIbP8sfC0wC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bullitt-144"><a href="#cite_ref-Bullitt_144-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Christian_Bullitt,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="William Christian Bullitt, Jr.">William Christian Bullitt, Jr.</a>, The Great Globe Itself: A Preface to World Affairs, Transaction Publishers, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4128-0490-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-4128-0490-6">1-4128-0490-6</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=guYU3I5f2ZgC&dq=bribe+Polish+parliament&pg=PA42">Google Print, pp. 42–43</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Adams-145"><a href="#cite_ref-Adams_145-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a>, The Political Writings of John Adams, Regnery Gateway, 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89526-292-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-89526-292-4">0-89526-292-4</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zwKs6Wf2NUEC&dq=May+Constitution+reason+for+partitions+of+Poland&pg=PA242">Google Print, p. 242</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bourne-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bourne_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bourne_146-1">b</a> Henry Eldridge Bourne, The Revolutionary Period in Europe 1763 to 1815, Kessinger Publishing, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4179-3418-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-4179-3418-2">1-4179-3418-2</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dgYqPfGuNy8C&dq=feared+the+Polish+May+Constitution&pg=PA161">Google Print p. 161</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-Menzel-147">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Menzel_147-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Menzel_147-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Menzel" title="Wolfgang Menzel">Wolfgang Menzel</a>, Germany from the Earliest Period Vol. 4, Kessinger Publishing, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4191-2171-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-4191-2171-5">1-4191-2171-5</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E6YFqBUYecoC&dq=feared+the+Polish+May+Constitution&pg=PA33">Google Print, p. 33</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-Madariaga-148"><a href="#cite_ref-Madariaga_148-0">^</a> Isabel de Madariaga, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great, Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84212-511-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-84212-511-7">1-84212-511-7</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OA0yDoVBW0QC&q=%223+May%22&pg=PA431">Google Print p. 431</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-Buffalo-149"><a href="#cite_ref-Buffalo_149-0">^</a> Carl L. Bucki, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/constitution.html">The Constitution of May 3, 1791</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081205130036/http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/constitution.html">Archived</a> 5 December 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Text of a presentation made at the Polish Arts Club of Buffalo on the occasion of the celebrations of Poland's Constitution Day on 3 May 1996. Retrieved 20 March 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-Wandycz-150">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wandycz_150-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wandycz_150-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wandycz_150-2">c</a> <a href="/wiki/Piotr_Stefan_Wandycz" class="mw-redirect" title="Piotr Stefan Wandycz">Piotr Stefan Wandycz</a>. The Price of Freedom: A History of East Central Europe from the Middle Ages to the Present, Routledge (UK), 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-25491-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-25491-4">0-415-25491-4</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vdS_WBHGBcYC&dq=feared+the+Polish+May+Constitution&pg=PA130">Google Print p. 131</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HhBpAAAAMAAJ&q=konstytucja%203%20maja%20nie%20zosta%C5%82a%20w%20pe%C5%82ni%20wprowadzona">Niepodległość</a>. Vol. 6. Polska: Fundacja "Polonia Restituta,". 1991. Retrieved 13 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Niepodleg%C5%82o%C5%9B%C4%87&rft.place=Polska&rft.pub=Fundacja+%22Polonia+Restituta%2C%22&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHhBpAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dkonstytucja%25203%2520maja%2520nie%2520zosta%25C5%2582a%2520w%2520pe%25C5%2582ni%2520wprowadzona&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sobiech_2018-152">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sobiech_2018_152-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sobiech_2018_152-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sobiech_2018_152-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSobiech2018" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sobiech, Marcin (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.exgeo.pl/blog/jak-powstawala-i-co-zawiera-mapa-rzeczpospolitej-obojga-narodow-ron">"Jak powstawała i co zawiera mapa Rzeczpospolitej Obojga Narodów"</a>. Exgeo (in Polish). Marcin Sobiech. Retrieved 16 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Exgeo&rft.atitle=Jak+powstawa%C5%82a+i+co+zawiera+mapa+Rzeczpospolitej+Obojga+Narod%C3%B3w&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Sobiech&rft.aufirst=Marcin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.exgeo.pl%2Fblog%2Fjak-powstawala-i-co-zawiera-mapa-rzeczpospolitej-obojga-narodow-ron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKucharczuk2011">Kucharczuk 2011</a>, p. 64 </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.linguee.com/english-polish/translation/shillings.html">"shillings – Polish translation – Linguee"</a>. Linguee.com. 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Polska: Nasza Księgarnia. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-10-08779-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-10-08779-9"><bdi>978-83-10-08779-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bastion+u+wr%C3%B3t+Gda%C5%84ska&rft.place=Polska&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Nasza+Ksi%C4%99garnia&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-83-10-08779-9&rft.aulast=Flisowski&rft.aufirst=Zbigniew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-7pBAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Dgda%25C5%2584sk%2520prawo%2520do%2520bicia%2520monet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.skarbnicanarodowa.pl/kroniki-numizmatyczne/292-pierwsze-polskie-banknoty#:~:text=Zupe%C5%82n%C4%85%20nowo%C5%9Bci%C4%85%20w%20polskim%20systemie,kt%C3%B3re%20r%C3%B3%C5%BCni%C5%82y%20si%C4%99%20odcieniem%20papieru.">"Pierwsze polskie banknoty"</a>. Skarbnica Narodowa (in Polish). Retrieved 16 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Skarbnica+Narodowa&rft.atitle=Pierwsze+polskie+banknoty&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.skarbnicanarodowa.pl%2Fkroniki-numizmatyczne%2F292-pierwsze-polskie-banknoty%23%3A~%3Atext%3DZupe%25C5%2582n%25C4%2585%2520nowo%25C5%259Bci%25C4%2585%2520w%2520polskim%2520systemie%2Ckt%25C3%25B3re%2520r%25C3%25B3%25C5%25BCni%25C5%2582y%2520si%25C4%2599%2520odcieniem%2520papieru.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGdańskie_Towarzystwo_Naukowe1991" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gdańskie Towarzystwo Naukowe (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6TloAAAAMAAJ&q=Seria%20popularno-naukowa%20%22Pomorze%20Gda%C5%84skie%22">Seria popularno-naukowa "Pomorze Gdańskie"</a> (in Polish). Vol. 19. Gdańsk: Towarzystwo Naukowe. p. 149. Retrieved 16 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seria+popularno-naukowa+%22Pomorze+Gda%C5%84skie%22&rft.place=Gda%C5%84sk&rft.pages=149&rft.pub=Towarzystwo+Naukowe&rft.date=1991&rft.au=Gda%C5%84skie+Towarzystwo+Naukowe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6TloAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DSeria%2520popularno-naukowa%2520%2522Pomorze%2520Gda%25C5%2584skie%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKucharczuk2011" class="citation book cs1">Kucharczuk, Katarzyna (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZelNAQAAIAAJ&q=konopii%20rzeczpospolita%20obojga%20narodow">Polska samorządna; ilustrowane dzieje administracji i samorządu terytorialnego na tle historii Polski</a>. Carta Blanca. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-7705-120-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-7705-120-7"><bdi>978-83-7705-120-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 16 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polska+samorz%C4%85dna%3B+ilustrowane+dzieje+administracji+i+samorz%C4%85du+terytorialnego+na+tle+historii+Polski&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Carta+Blanca&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-83-7705-120-7&rft.aulast=Kucharczuk&rft.aufirst=Katarzyna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZelNAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dkonopii%2520rzeczpospolita%2520obojga%2520narodow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pach-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pach_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pach_159-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZsigmond_Pál_Pach,_Zs._P._Pach1970" class="citation book cs1">Zsigmond Pál Pach, Zs. P. Pach (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xFZ9AAAAMAAJ">The role of East-Central Europe in international trade, 16th and 17th centuries</a>. Akadémiai Kiadó. p. 220.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+role+of+East-Central+Europe+in+international+trade%2C+16th+and+17th+centuries&rft.pages=220&rft.pub=Akad%C3%A9miai+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=1970&rft.au=Zsigmond+P%C3%A1l+Pach%2C+Zs.+P.+Pach&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxFZ9AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-acta-160">^ <a href="#cite_ref-acta_160-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-acta_160-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-acta_160-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInstitute_of_History_(Polish_Academy_of_Sciences)1991" class="citation book cs1">Institute of History (<a href="/wiki/Polish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Polish Academy of Sciences">Polish Academy of Sciences</a>) (1991). "Volumes 63–66". Acta Poloniae historica. <a href="/wiki/Ossolineum" title="Ossolineum">National Ossoliński Institute</a>. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88033-186-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-88033-186-0"><bdi>0-88033-186-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Volumes+63%E2%80%9366&rft.btitle=Acta+Poloniae+historica&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=National+Ossoli%C5%84ski+Institute&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-88033-186-0&rft.au=Institute+of+History+%28Polish+Academy+of+Sciences%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Rise_and_Decline_of_the_Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth_due_to_Grain_Trade3-161"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Rise_and_Decline_of_the_Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth_due_to_Grain_Trade3_161-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrzysztof_Olszewski2007" class="citation book cs1">Krzysztof Olszewski (2007). The Rise and Decline of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth due to Grain Trade. pp. 6–7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Decline+of+the+Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth+due+to+Grain+Trade&rft.pages=6-7&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Krzysztof+Olszewski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rzeczpospolita_spichlerzem_Europy-162"><a href="#cite_ref-Rzeczpospolita_spichlerzem_Europy_162-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaciej_Kobyliński" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Maciej Kobyliński. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.polinow.pl/przelom_bugu-bugiem_do_gdanska">"Rzeczpospolita spichlerzem Europy"</a>. www.polinow.pl (in Polish). Retrieved 28 December 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.polinow.pl&rft.atitle=Rzeczpospolita+spichlerzem+Europy&rft.au=Maciej+Kobyli%C5%84ski&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.polinow.pl%2Fprzelom_bugu-bugiem_do_gdanska&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Lithuanian-Rus'commonwealth,_the_Polish_domination,_and_the_Cossack-Hetman_state-163"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Lithuanian-Rus'commonwealth,_the_Polish_domination,_and_the_Cossack-Hetman_state_163-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholas_L._Chirovsky1984" class="citation book cs1">Nicholas L. Chirovsky (1984). The Lithuanian-Rus'commonwealth, the Polish domination, and the Cossack-Hetman state. Philosophical Library. p. 367. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8022-2407-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8022-2407-5"><bdi>0-8022-2407-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lithuanian-Rus%27commonwealth%2C+the+Polish+domination%2C+and+the+Cossack-Hetman+state&rft.pages=367&rft.pub=Philosophical+Library&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-8022-2407-5&rft.au=Nicholas+L.+Chirovsky&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSven-Olof_Lindquist,_Birgitta_Radhe1989" class="citation book cs1">Sven-Olof Lindquist, Birgitta Radhe (1989). 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Gotlands Fornsal. p. 367. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/91-971048-8-4" title="Special:BookSources/91-971048-8-4"><bdi>91-971048-8-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economy+and+culture+in+the+Baltic%2C+1650%E2%80%931700%3A+papers+of+the+VIIIth+Visby+Symposium+held+at+Gotland%27s+Historical+Museum%2C+Visby%2C+August+18th%E2%80%9322th+%5Bsic%5D%2C+1986&rft.pages=367&rft.pub=Gotlands+Fornsal&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=91-971048-8-4&rft.au=Sven-Olof+Lindquist%2C+Birgitta+Radhe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSowa2015" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sowa, Jan (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QRtGCQAAQBAJ">Inna Rzeczpospolita jest możliwa! Widma przeszłości, wizje przyszłości</a> (in Polish). Polska: WAB. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-280-2203-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-280-2203-4"><bdi>978-83-280-2203-4</bdi></a>. 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Revolt and revolution in early modern Europe: an essay on the history of political violence. <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchester University">Manchester University</a> Press. p. 151.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolt+and+revolution+in+early+modern+Europe%3A+an+essay+on+the+history+of+political+violence&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.au=Yves-Marie+Berc%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Rise_and_Decline_of_the_Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth_due_to_Grain_Trade-170"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Rise_and_Decline_of_the_Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth_due_to_Grain_Trade_170-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrzysztof_Olszewski2007" class="citation book cs1">Krzysztof Olszewski (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://venus.unive.it/olszewski/Polish%20Grain%20Trade%20-%20Krzysztof%20Olszewski.pdf">The Rise and Decline of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth due to Grain Trade</a> (PDF). p. 7. 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Polska: Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-86268-27-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-86268-27-6"><bdi>978-83-86268-27-6</bdi></a>. 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CUP Archive. p. 209. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-24093-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-24093-X"><bdi>0-521-24093-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Republic+of+nobles%3A+studies+in+Polish+history+to+1864&rft.pages=209&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-521-24093-X&rft.au=J.+K.+Fedorowicz&rft.au=Maria+Bogucka&rft.au=Henryk+Samsonowicz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp7U8AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Linear_induction_drives-191"><a href="#cite_ref-Linear_induction_drives_191-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacek_F._Gieras1994" class="citation book cs1">Jacek F. Gieras (1994). 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Columbia University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godsplaygroundhi00norm_0/page/167">167</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-12819-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-12819-3"><bdi>0-231-12819-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%27s+Playground%3A+A+History+of+Poland&rft.pages=167&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-231-12819-3&rft.au=Norman+Davies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgodsplaygroundhi00norm_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Setting_Sail-193"><a href="#cite_ref-Setting_Sail_193-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080126150531/http://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/2437/">"Setting Sail"</a>. www.warsawvoice.pl. 29 May 2003. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/2437/">the original</a> on 26 January 2008. Retrieved 21 May 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.warsawvoice.pl&rft.atitle=Setting+Sail&rft.date=2003-05-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.warsawvoice.pl%2Fview%2F2437%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-peucker-194"><a href="#cite_ref-peucker_194-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Peucker" class="citation web cs1">Paul Peucker. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090902190417/http://www.moravian.org/news/2007/550_resources/Jan_Amos_Comenius_Bulletin_Insert.pdf">"Jan Amos Comenius (1592–1670)"</a> (PDF). www.moravian.org. 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University Press of America. p. 125. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-08-19-12509-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-08-19-12509-5"><bdi>978-08-19-12509-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutions%2C+Elections%2C+and+Legislatures+of+Poland%2C+1493%E2%80%931977%3A+A+Guide+to+Their+History&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-08-19-12509-5&rft.au=Jacek+J%C4%99druch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJl6OAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dand%2Binstructions%2Bwritten%2Bfor%2Bthe%2Bjourney%2Bof%2Bhis%2Bsons%2Bto%2BCracow%2B%2528%2B1640%2B%2529%2Band%2BFrance%2B%2528%2B1645&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-leszno-196"><a href="#cite_ref-leszno_196-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muzeum.leszno.pl/new/_index.php?wer=en&op=zbiory">"Portraits collection"</a>. muzeum.leszno.pl. 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Good Press – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=French+and+English+furniture+distinctive+styles+and+periods+described+and+illustrated&rft.pub=Good+Press&rft.date=2019-12-12&rft.aulast=Singleton&rft.aufirst=Esther&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-SDEDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dlit%2Ba%2Bla%2Bpolonaise%2Bmarie%2Bleszczynska%26pg%3DPT117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dl43AAAAMAAJ&q=lit%20a%20la%20polonaise%20%C5%82o%C5%BCe">Dialog. Miesiȩcznik poświȩcony dramaturgii współczesnej, teatralnej, filmowej, radiowej, telewizyjnej</a>. Vol. 11. Polska: RSW "Prasa". 1966. p. 6. 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London: Routledge. pp. 72–73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87830-026-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-87830-026-0"><bdi>0-87830-026-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cut+of+Women%27s+Clothes&rft.place=London&rft.pages=72-73&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=0-87830-026-0&rft.aulast=Waugh&rft.aufirst=Norah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLubliner1858" class="citation book cs1">Lubliner, Ludwig (1858). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qeoMxoe84RYC">Obrona Żydów zamieszkałych w krajach polskich od niesłusznych zarzutów i fałszywych oskarzeń</a>. Brussels: C. Vanderauwer. p. 7. 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Langewiesche Köster. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7845-7612-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7845-7612-1"><bdi>978-3-7845-7612-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 13 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polska%3B+art%2C+architecture%2C+design+966%E2%80%931990&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Langewiesche+K%C3%B6ster&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-3-7845-7612-1&rft.aulast=Muthesius&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG4D4swu4Z7wC%26q%3Dkoscioly%2520protestanckie%2520polskie%2520bia%25C5%2582e%2520wystr%25C3%25B3j&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Polska_sztuka_ludowa_(Polish_Folk_Art)-207"><a href="#cite_ref-Polska_sztuka_ludowa_(Polish_Folk_Art)_207-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaństwowy_Instytut_Badania_Sztuki_Ludowej1974" class="citation book cs1">Państwowy Instytut Badania Sztuki Ludowej (1974). "Volumes 28–29". Polska sztuka ludowa (Polish Folk Art). Państwowy Instytut Sztuki. p. 259.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Volumes+28%E2%80%9329&rft.btitle=Polska+sztuka+ludowa+%28Polish+Folk+Art%29&rft.pages=259&rft.pub=Pa%C5%84stwowy+Instytut+Sztuki&rft.date=1974&rft.au=Pa%C5%84stwowy+Instytut+Badania+Sztuki+Ludowej&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-A_history_of_Ukraine-208"><a href="#cite_ref-A_history_of_Ukraine_208-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Robert_Magocsi1996" class="citation book cs1">Paul Robert Magocsi (1996). A history of Ukraine. University of Toronto Press. pp. 286–287. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8020-7820-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8020-7820-6"><bdi>0-8020-7820-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Ukraine&rft.pages=286-287&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-8020-7820-6&rft.au=Paul+Robert+Magocsi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mikos-209">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mikos_209-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mikos_209-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_J._Mikoś" class="citation web cs1">Michael J. Mikoś. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.staropolska.pl/ang/baroque/Mikos_baroque/Cultural_b.html">"Baroque"</a>. www.staropolska.pl. Retrieved 13 May 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.staropolska.pl&rft.atitle=Baroque&rft.au=Michael+J.+Miko%C5%9B&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.staropolska.pl%2Fang%2Fbaroque%2FMikos_baroque%2FCultural_b.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRolska-Boruch2003" class="citation book cs1">Rolska-Boruch, Irena (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PhEWAQAAIAAJ&q=architektura%20polska%20w%C5%82oskie%20loggie">"Domy pańskie" na Lubelszczyźnie od późnego gotyku do wczesnego baroku</a>. Polska: Wydawnictwo KUL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-7363-029-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-7363-029-1"><bdi>978-83-7363-029-1</bdi></a>. 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Polska: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich. p. 119. Retrieved 13 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sebastiano+Serlio+a+sztuka+polska&rft.place=Polska&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=Zak%C5%82ad+Narodowy+im.+Ossoli%C5%84skich&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Kowalczyk&rft.aufirst=Jerzy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0aefAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dkasetony%2520w%25C5%2582oska%2520polska&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiłobędzki1994" class="citation book cs1">Miłobędzki, Adam (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QAMtAQAAIAAJ&q=architektura%20polska%20attyki">The architecture of Poland: a chapter of the European heritage</a>. Kraków: International Cultural Centre. p. 110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-85739-14-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-85739-14-2"><bdi>978-83-85739-14-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+architecture+of+Poland%3A+a+chapter+of+the+European+heritage&rft.place=Krak%C3%B3w&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=International+Cultural+Centre&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-83-85739-14-2&rft.aulast=Mi%C5%82ob%C4%99dzki&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQAMtAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Darchitektura%2520polska%2520attyki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZdzisław_KlimczukJózef_Garliński1996" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zdzisław Klimczuk; Józef Garliński (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YdmAAAAAIAAJ&q=architektura%20gda%C5%84ska%20holandia">Most Holandia – Polska</a> (in Polish). Polska: Bis Press. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-901494-2-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-901494-2-4"><bdi>978-83-901494-2-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 13 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Most+Holandia+%E2%80%93+Polska&rft.place=Polska&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Bis+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-83-901494-2-4&rft.au=Zdzis%C5%82aw+Klimczuk&rft.au=J%C3%B3zef+Garli%C5%84ski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYdmAAAAAIAAJ%26q%3Darchitektura%2520gda%25C5%2584ska%2520holandia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarpowicz1994" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Karpowicz, Mariusz (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jQgvAQAAIAAJ&q=czarny+marmur+rzeczpospolita+obojga+narodow">Sztuki polskiej drogi dziwne</a> (in Polish). Excalibur. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-900152-8-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-900152-8-6"><bdi>978-83-900152-8-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 13 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sztuki+polskiej+drogi+dziwne&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Excalibur&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-83-900152-8-6&rft.aulast=Karpowicz&rft.aufirst=Mariusz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjQgvAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dczarny%2Bmarmur%2Brzeczpospolita%2Bobojga%2Bnarodow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeliks_GryglewiczRomuald_ŁukaszykWincenty_GranatZygmunt_Sułowski1973" class="citation book cs1">Feliks Gryglewicz; Romuald Łukaszyk; Wincenty Granat; Zygmunt Sułowski (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2ssPAQAAIAAJ&q=czarny%20marmur%20kaplica%20waz%C3%B3w%20zamek%20warszawa">Encyklopedia katolicka: Kinszasa-Krzymuska</a>. Lublin: Tow. Nauk. Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego. p. 1189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-7306-068-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-7306-068-5"><bdi>978-83-7306-068-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 13 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyklopedia+katolicka%3A+Kinszasa-Krzymuska&rft.place=Lublin&rft.pages=1189&rft.pub=Tow.+Nauk.+Katolickiego+Uniwersytetu+Lubelskiego&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-83-7306-068-5&rft.au=Feliks+Gryglewicz&rft.au=Romuald+%C5%81ukaszyk&rft.au=Wincenty+Granat&rft.au=Zygmunt+Su%C5%82owski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2ssPAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dczarny%2520marmur%2520kaplica%2520waz%25C3%25B3w%2520zamek%2520warszawa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Palaces_and_Castles_in_a_Lion_Country-216"><a href="#cite_ref-Palaces_and_Castles_in_a_Lion_Country_216-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200425073036/http://www.lvivtoday.com.ua/exploring-lviv/336">"Palaces and Castles in a Lion Country"</a>. www.lvivtoday.com.ua. 2 June 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lvivtoday.com.ua/exploring-lviv/336">the original</a> on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.lvivtoday.com.ua&rft.atitle=Palaces+and+Castles+in+a+Lion+Country&rft.date=2008-06-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lvivtoday.com.ua%2Fexploring-lviv%2F336&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnopek1999" class="citation book cs1">Snopek, Jerzy (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AYxMAAAAMAAJ&q=klasycyzm%20poniatowski">Oświecenie</a>. Polska: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-01-12917-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-01-12917-0"><bdi>978-83-01-12917-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 13 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=O%C5%9Bwiecenie&rft.place=Polska&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=Wydawnictwo+Naukowe+PWN&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-83-01-12917-0&rft.aulast=Snopek&rft.aufirst=Jerzy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAYxMAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dklasycyzm%2520poniatowski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKazimierz_Maliszewski1990" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kazimierz Maliszewski (1990). Obraz świata i Rzeczypospolitej w polskich gazetach rękopiśmiennych z okresu późnego baroku: studium z dziejów kształtowania się i rozpowszechniania sarmackich stereotypów wiedzy i informacji o "theatrum mundi" (in Polish). Schr. p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-231-0239-2" title="Special:BookSources/83-231-0239-2"><bdi>83-231-0239-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Obraz+%C5%9Bwiata+i+Rzeczypospolitej+w+polskich+gazetach+r%C4%99kopi%C5%9Bmiennych+z+okresu+p%C3%B3%C5%BAnego+baroku%3A+studium+z+dziej%C3%B3w+kszta%C5%82towania+si%C4%99+i+rozpowszechniania+sarmackich+stereotyp%C3%B3w+wiedzy+i+informacji+o+%22theatrum+mundi%22&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Schr&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=83-231-0239-2&rft.au=Kazimierz+Maliszewski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> W każdym razie "królowa bez korony i pierwsza dama Rzeczypospolitej", jak współcześni określali Sieniawską, zasługuje na biografię naukową. </li> <li id="cite_note-Wasko-219"><a href="#cite_ref-Wasko_219-0">^</a> Andrzej Wasko, Sarmatism or the Enlightenment: <space>The Dilemma of Polish Culture, <a href="/wiki/Sarmatian_Review" title="Sarmatian Review">Sarmatian Review</a> XVII:2, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sarmatia/497/wasko.html">online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.polityka.pl/archive/do/registry/secure/showArticle?id=3353925">Dziejochciejstwo, dziejokrętactwo</a>, Janusz Tazbir, <a href="/wiki/Polityka" title="Polityka">Polityka</a> 6 (2591) 10 February 2007 (in Polish) </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParadowski2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Paradowski, Ryszard (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G6MVAQAAIAAJ&q=rzeczypospolitej%20obojga%20narod%C3%B3w%20wielokulturowa">Unia Europejska a społeczeństwo obywatelskie</a> (in Polish). Poznań: Wydawn. Nauk. Instytutu Nauk Politycznych i Dziennikarstwa Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza. p. 168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-87704-94-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-87704-94-0"><bdi>978-83-87704-94-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unia+Europejska+a+spo%C5%82ecze%C5%84stwo+obywatelskie&rft.place=Pozna%C5%84&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=Wydawn.+Nauk.+Instytutu+Nauk+Politycznych+i+Dziennikarstwa+Uniwersytetu+im.+Adama+Mickiewicza&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-83-87704-94-0&rft.aulast=Paradowski&rft.aufirst=Ryszard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG6MVAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Drzeczypospolitej%2520obojga%2520narod%25C3%25B3w%2520wielokulturowa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKopczyńskiTygielski2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kopczyński, Michał; Tygielski, Wojciech (2010). Pod wspólnym niebem. Narody dawnej Rzeczypospolitej (in Polish). Warszawa: Bellona. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-11-11724-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-11-11724-2"><bdi>978-83-11-11724-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pod+wsp%C3%B3lnym+niebem.+Narody+dawnej+Rzeczypospolitej&rft.place=Warszawa&rft.pub=Bellona&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-83-11-11724-2&rft.aulast=Kopczy%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Micha%C5%82&rft.au=Tygielski%2C+Wojciech&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kopczyński_2010-223">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kopczyński_2010_223-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kopczyński_2010_223-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKopczyńskiTygielski2010">Kopczyński & Tygielski 2010</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKopczyńskiTygielski2010">Kopczyński & Tygielski 2010</a>, p. 236 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kopczyński_2010_237-225">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kopczyński_2010_237_225-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kopczyński_2010_237_225-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKopczyńskiTygielski2010">Kopczyński & Tygielski 2010</a>, p. 237 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ftazee-226"><a href="#cite_ref-Ftazee_226-0">^</a> Total and Jewish population based on Frazee; others are estimations from Pogonowski (see the following reference). Charles A. Frazee, World History the Easy Way, Barron's Educational Series, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8120-9766-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8120-9766-1">0-8120-9766-1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Br-ElA3OpEMC&dq=demographics+Poland+Lithuania+7000000&pg=PA50">Google Print, 50</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> R. B. Wernham, The new Cambridge modern history: The Counter-Reformation and price revolution, 1559–1610, 1968, Cambridge University Press, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z-48AAAAIAAJ&dq=Cambridge+Mazovia+density&pg=PA377">Google print p. 377</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Romaniello-228">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Romaniello_228-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Romaniello_228-1">b</a> Matthew P. Romaniello, Charles Lipp. Contested Spaces of Nobility in Early Modern Europe. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. 2011. p. 233. </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iJYhAQAAIAAJ&q=german%20speaking%20majority%20gdansk%2017th%20century">Polish Sociological Review</a> (in Polish). Polish Sociological Association. 2007. p. 96.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polish+Sociological+Review&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Polish+Sociological+Association&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiJYhAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dgerman%2520speaking%2520majority%2520gdansk%252017th%2520century&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKopczyńskiTygielski2010">Kopczyński & Tygielski 2010</a>, p. 201 </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKopczyńskiTygielski2010">Kopczyński & Tygielski 2010</a>, pp. 25–83 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kopczyński_2010_29–38-232">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kopczyński_2010_29–38_232-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kopczyński_2010_29–38_232-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKopczyńskiTygielski2010">Kopczyński & Tygielski 2010</a>, pp. 29–38 </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a>, God's Playground. A History of Poland, Vol. 1: The Origins to 1795, Vol. 2: 1795 to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 126. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199253390" title="Special:BookSources/0199253390">0199253390</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199253404" title="Special:BookSources/0199253404">0199253404</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Magocsi2010-234"><a href="#cite_ref-Magocsi2010_234-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_R._Magocsi2010" class="citation book cs1">Paul R. Magocsi (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TA1zVKTTsXUC&pg=PA169">A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples</a>. University of Toronto Press. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-1021-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-1021-7"><bdi>978-1-4426-1021-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ukraine%3A+The+Land+and+Its+Peoples&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-1021-7&rft.au=Paul+R.+Magocsi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTA1zVKTTsXUC%26pg%3DPA169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Labno2011-36-235"><a href="#cite_ref-Labno2011-36_235-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeannie_Labno2011" class="citation book cs1">Jeannie Labno (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rW7QEmWtFSsC&pg=PA36">Commemorating the Polish Renaissance Child: Funeral Monuments and Their European Context</a>. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6825-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6825-1"><bdi>978-0-7546-6825-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commemorating+the+Polish+Renaissance+Child%3A+Funeral+Monuments+and+Their+European+Context&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-6825-1&rft.au=Jeannie+Labno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrW7QEmWtFSsC%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiekarski1979" class="citation book cs1">Piekarski, Adam (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dp1JAAAAIAAJ&q=persecution%20religious%20in%20Europe%20poland%20freedom">Freedom of Conscience and Religion in Poland</a>. Interpress Publishers. p. 31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+of+Conscience+and+Religion+in+Poland&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Interpress+Publishers&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Piekarski&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDp1JAAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dpersecution%2520religious%2520in%2520Europe%2520poland%2520freedom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-portal.unesco.org-237">^ <a href="#cite_ref-portal.unesco.org_237-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-portal.unesco.org_237-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=23126&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html">"Memory of the World Register Nomination Form"</a>. portal.unesco.org. Retrieved 2 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=portal.unesco.org&rft.atitle=Memory+of+the+World+Register+Nomination+Form&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.unesco.org%2Fci%2Fen%2Fev.php-URL_ID%3D23126%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gordon-238"><a href="#cite_ref-Gordon_238-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Linda_Gordon" title="Linda Gordon">Linda Gordon</a>, Cossack Rebellions: Social Turmoil in the Sixteenth Century Ukraine, SUNY Press, 1983, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87395-654-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-87395-654-0">0-87395-654-0</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qq0c9viLrB4C&dq=Polish-Lithuanian+Commonwealth+religious+tolerance&pg=PA51">Google Print, p. 51</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_origins_of_the_Slavic_nations:_premodern_identities_in_Russia,_Ukraine,_and_Belarus-239"><a href="#cite_ref-The_origins_of_the_Slavic_nations:_premodern_identities_in_Russia,_Ukraine,_and_Belarus_239-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerhii_Plokhy2006" class="citation book cs1">Serhii Plokhy (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pCdUmCWxwJ8C">The origins of the Slavic nations: premodern identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-86403-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-86403-8"><bdi>0-521-86403-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+origins+of+the+Slavic+nations%3A+premodern+identities+in+Russia%2C+Ukraine%2C+and+Belarus&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-521-86403-8&rft.au=Serhii+Plokhy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpCdUmCWxwJ8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lemberg-240"><a href="#cite_ref-Lemberg_240-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09144a.htm">"Lemberg"</a>. Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 3 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lemberg&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F09144a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ukraine_and_Ukrainians-241"><a href="#cite_ref-Ukraine_and_Ukrainians_241-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Kardash,_Brett_Lockwood1988" class="citation book cs1">Peter Kardash, Brett Lockwood (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pl1pAAAAMAAJ">Ukraine and Ukrainians</a>. Fortuna. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7316-7503-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7316-7503-6"><bdi>978-0-7316-7503-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ukraine+and+Ukrainians&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=Fortuna&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-7316-7503-6&rft.au=Peter+Kardash%2C+Brett+Lockwood&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPl1pAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagocsi2010" class="citation book cs1">Magocsi, Paul R. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TA1zVKTTsXUC&pg=PA190">A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press" title="University of Toronto Press">University of Toronto Press</a>. p. 190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-1021-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-1021-7"><bdi>978-1-4426-1021-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ukraine%3A+The+Land+and+Its+Peoples&rft.pages=190&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-1021-7&rft.aulast=Magocsi&rft.aufirst=Paul+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTA1zVKTTsXUC%26pg%3DPA190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica-243"><a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_243-0">^</a> "Poland, history of", <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> from Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9108559">[2]</a>. Retrieved 10 February 2006 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041101184823/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9108559">Archived</a> 1 November 2004 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and "Ukraine", <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> from Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=30063">[3]</a>. Retrieved 14 February 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050124042641/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=30063">Archived</a> 24 January 2005 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-European_Jewish_Congress_–_Poland-244"><a href="#cite_ref-European_Jewish_Congress_–_Poland_244-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081211201802/http://www.eurojewcong.org/ejc/news.php?id_article=107">"European Jewish Congress – Poland"</a>. Eurojewcong.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eurojewcong.org/ejc/news.php?id_article=107">the original</a> on 11 December 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=European+Jewish+Congress+%E2%80%93+Poland&rft.pub=Eurojewcong.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurojewcong.org%2Fejc%2Fnews.php%3Fid_article%3D107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Europeanisation,_national_identities,_and_migration:_changes_in_boundary_constructions_between_Western_and_Eastern_Europe-245"><a href="#cite_ref-Europeanisation,_national_identities,_and_migration:_changes_in_boundary_constructions_between_Western_and_Eastern_Europe_245-0">^</a> Thus, at the time of the first partition in 1772, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth consisted of 43 per cent Latin Catholics, 33 per cent Greek Catholics, 10 per cent Christian Orthodox, 9 per cent Jews and 4 per cent Protestant <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillfried_Spohn,_Anna_Triandafyllidou2003" class="citation book cs1">Willfried Spohn, Anna Triandafyllidou (2003). Europeanisation, national identities, and migration: changes in boundary constructions between Western and Eastern Europe. Routledge. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-29667-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-29667-6"><bdi>0-415-29667-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europeanisation%2C+national+identities%2C+and+migration%3A+changes+in+boundary+constructions+between+Western+and+Eastern+Europe&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-415-29667-6&rft.au=Willfried+Spohn%2C+Anna+Triandafyllidou&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tereskinas-246">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tereskinas_246-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tereskinas_246-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArtūras_Tereškinas2005" class="citation book cs1">Artūras Tereškinas (2005). Imperfect communities: identity, discourse and nation in the seventeenth-century Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9955-475-94-3" title="Special:BookSources/9955-475-94-3"><bdi>9955-475-94-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperfect+communities%3A+identity%2C+discourse+and+nation+in+the+seventeenth-century+Grand+Duchy+of+Lithuania&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Lietuvi%C5%B3+literat%C5%ABros+ir+tautosakos+institutas&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9955-475-94-3&rft.au=Art%C5%ABras+Tere%C5%A1kinas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gieysztor88-247">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gieysztor88_247-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gieysztor88_247-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAleksander_Gieysztor1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aleksander_Gieysztor" title="Aleksander Gieysztor">Aleksander Gieysztor</a>, ed. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a8BBAAAAYAAJ">Rzeczpospolita w dobie Jana III (Commonwealth during the reign of John III)</a>. <a href="/wiki/Royal_Castle,_Warsaw" title="Royal Castle, Warsaw">Royal Castle in Warsaw</a>. p. 45.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rzeczpospolita+w+dobie+Jana+III+%28Commonwealth+during+the+reign+of+John+III%29&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Royal+Castle+in+Warsaw&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da8BBAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lieven-248">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lieven_248-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lieven_248-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lieven_248-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lieven_248-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lieven_248-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lieven_248-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lieven_248-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lieven_248-7">h</a> Anatol Lieven, The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence, Yale University Press, 1994, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-06078-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-06078-5">0-300-06078-5</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iz3NACNOpCAC&dq=Polish+Latin+Ruthene+German+Armenian+Hebrew&pg=PA48">Google Print, p. 48</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barbour-249"><a href="#cite_ref-Barbour_249-0">^</a> Stephen Barbour, Cathie Carmichael, Language and Nationalism in Europe, Oxford University Press, 2000, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-925085-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-925085-5">0-19-925085-5</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1ixmu8Iga7gC&dq=Polish-Lithuanian+%22Polish+language%22&pg=PA194">Google Print p. 184</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-DahlB-250"><a href="#cite_ref-DahlB_250-0">^</a> Östen Dahl, <a href="/wiki/Maria_Koptjevskaja-Tamm" title="Maria Koptjevskaja-Tamm">Maria Koptjevskaja-Tamm</a>, The Circum-Baltic Languages: Typology and Contact, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-272-3057-9" title="Special:BookSources/90-272-3057-9">90-272-3057-9</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CsesLE3efLwC&dq=Polish-Lithuanian+%22Polish+language%22&pg=PA45">Google Print, p. 45</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Price-251"><a href="#cite_ref-Price_251-0">^</a> Glanville Price, Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe, Blackwell Publishing, 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-22039-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-22039-9">0-631-22039-9</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CPX2xgmVe9IC&dq=Polish-Lithuanian+%22Polish+language%22&pg=PA30">Google Print, p. 30</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Teich-252">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Teich_252-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Teich_252-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Teich_252-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Teich_252-3">d</a> <a href="/wiki/Mikulas_Teich" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikulas Teich">Mikulas Teich</a> & <a href="/wiki/Roy_Porter" title="Roy Porter">Roy Porter</a>, The National Question in Europe in Historical Context, Cambridge University Press, 1993, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36713-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-36713-1">0-521-36713-1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hu2SnETtV3kC&q=variety+of+languages&pg=PA295">Google Print, p. 295</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-OConnor-253">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OConnor_253-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OConnor_253-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OConnor_253-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OConnor_253-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OConnor_253-4">e</a> Kevin O'Connor, Culture And Customs of the Baltic States, Greenwood Press, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-33125-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-33125-1">0-313-33125-1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IpR0-OrrwssC&q=Lithuanian+language+commonwealth&pg=PA115">Google Print, p. 115</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stone-254">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stone_254-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stone_254-1">b</a> Daniel. Z Stone, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LFgB_l4SdHAC&dq=%22official+language%22+Poland+Lithuania&pg=PA46">A History of East Central Europe</a>, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedrich-255"><a href="#cite_ref-Friedrich_255-0">^</a> Karin Friedrich et al., The Other Prussia: Royal Prussia, Poland and Liberty, 1569–1772, Cambridge University Press, 2000, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-58335-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-58335-7">0-521-58335-7</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qsBco40rMPcC&dq=Latin+language+szlachta&pg=PA88">Google Print, p. 88</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Politics_of_Language_and_Nationalism_in_Modern_Central_Europe-256"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Politics_of_Language_and_Nationalism_in_Modern_Central_Europe_256-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTomasz_Kamusella2008" class="citation book cs1">Tomasz Kamusella (2008). The Politics of Language and Nationalism in Modern Central Europe. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-55070-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-55070-4"><bdi>978-0-230-55070-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Language+and+Nationalism+in+Modern+Central+Europe&rft.pages=115&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-230-55070-4&rft.au=Tomasz+Kamusella&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Acta_Poloniae_historica-257"><a href="#cite_ref-Acta_Poloniae_historica_257-0">^</a> L'union personnelle polono-saxonne contribua davantage à faire connaître en Pologne le français que l'allemand. Cette fonction de la langue française, devenue l'instrument de communication entre les groupes dirigeants des deux pays. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolish_Academy_of_Sciences_Institute_of_History1970" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Polish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Polish Academy of Sciences">Polish Academy of Sciences</a> Institute of History (1970). "Volume 22". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5ffUAAAAMAAJ">Acta Poloniae historica</a> (in French). <a href="/wiki/Ossolineum" title="Ossolineum">National Ossoliński Institute</a>. p. 79.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Volume+22&rft.btitle=Acta+Poloniae+historica&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=National+Ossoli%C5%84ski+Institute&rft.date=1970&rft.au=Polish+Academy+of+Sciences+Institute+of+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5ffUAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> They were the first Catholic schools in which one of the main languages of instruction was Polish. [...] Although he followed Locke in attaching weight to the native language, in general Latin lost ground to French rather than Polish. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Butterwick1998" class="citation book cs1">Richard Butterwick (1998). Poland's last king and English culture: Stanisław August Poniatowski, 1732–1798. Oxford University Press. p. 70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820701-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-820701-8"><bdi>0-19-820701-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poland%27s+last+king+and+English+culture%3A+Stanis%C5%82aw+August+Poniatowski%2C+1732%E2%80%931798&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-19-820701-8&rft.au=Richard+Butterwick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFУкраїни" class="citation web cs1">України, ЦДЕА. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archives.gov.ua/ua">"Державна архівна служба України"</a>. archives.gov.ua.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archives.gov.ua&rft.atitle=%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B1%D0%B0+%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B8&rft.aulast=%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B8&rft.aufirst=%D0%A6%D0%94%D0%95%D0%90&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchives.gov.ua%2Fua&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> Although still sometimes in use by the end of the XVII century and lack of official decree like one for Grand Duchy chancellery, there was no separate Ruthenian Metrica since 1673. </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> Piotr Eberhardt, Jan Owsinski, Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, Analysis, M.E. Sharpe, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7656-0665-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7656-0665-8">0-7656-0665-8</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC&q=language+replaced&pg=RA1-PA177">Google Print, p. 177</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dahl-262"><a href="#cite_ref-Dahl_262-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/%C3%96sten_Dahl" title="Östen Dahl">Östen Dahl</a>, Maria Koptjevskaja-Tamm, The Circum-Baltic Languages: Typology and Contact, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-272-3057-9" title="Special:BookSources/90-272-3057-9">90-272-3057-9</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CsesLE3efLwC&dq=Lithuanian+language+commonwealth&pg=PA41">Google Print, p. 41</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zigmas-263"><a href="#cite_ref-Zigmas_263-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZinkevičius1993" class="citation book cs1">Zinkevičius, Z. (1993). Rytų Lietuva praeityje ir dabar. Vilnius: <a href="/wiki/Mokslo_ir_enciklopedij%C5%B3_leidykla" class="mw-redirect" title="Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla">Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla</a>. p. 70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-420-01085-2" title="Special:BookSources/5-420-01085-2"><bdi>5-420-01085-2</bdi></a>. <q>Official usage of Lithuanian language in the 16th century Lithuania's cities proves magistrate's decree of <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a> city, which was sealed by <a href="/wiki/%C5%BDygimantas_Augustas" class="mw-redirect" title="Žygimantas Augustas">Žygimantas Augustas</a>' in 1552...//Courts juratory were written in Lithuanian language. In fact, such [courts juratory written in Lithuanian] survived from the 17th century...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ryt%C5%B3+Lietuva+praeityje+ir+dabar&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=Vilnius%3A+Mokslo+ir+enciklopedij%C5%B3+leidykla&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=5-420-01085-2&rft.aulast=Zinkevi%C4%8Dius&rft.aufirst=Z.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://i34.photobucket.com/albums/d101/no_name_2/Edt1458.jpg">""Mes Wladislaus..." a letter from Wladyslaw Vasa issued in 1639 written in Lithuanian language"</a>. Retrieved 3 September 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Mes+Wladislaus...%22+a+letter+from+Wladyslaw+Vasa+issued+in+1639+written+in+Lithuanian+language&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fi34.photobucket.com%2Falbums%2Fd101%2Fno_name_2%2FEdt1458.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlišauskasL._JovaišaM._PaknysR._Petrauskas2001" class="citation book cs1">Ališauskas, V.; L. Jovaiša; M. Paknys; R. Petrauskas; E. Raila; et al. (2001). Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštijos kultūra. Tyrinėjimai ir vaizdai. Vilnius. p. 500. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9955-445-26-2" title="Special:BookSources/9955-445-26-2"><bdi>9955-445-26-2</bdi></a>. <q>In 1794 Government's declarations were carried out and in Lithuanian.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lietuvos+Did%C5%BEiosios+Kunigaik%C5%A1tijos+kult%C5%ABra.+Tyrin%C4%97jimai+ir+vaizdai&rft.place=Vilnius&rft.pages=500&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9955-445-26-2&rft.aulast=Ali%C5%A1auskas&rft.aufirst=V.&rft.au=L.+Jovai%C5%A1a&rft.au=M.+Paknys&rft.au=R.+Petrauskas&rft.au=E.+Raila&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Stone2-266"><a href="#cite_ref-Stone2_266-0">^</a> Daniel. Z Stone, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LFgB_l4SdHAC&q=Lithuanian&pg=PA4">A History of East Central Europe</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-Milosz-267"><a href="#cite_ref-Milosz_267-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Czes%C5%82aw_Mi%C5%82osz" title="Czesław Miłosz">Czesław Miłosz</a>, The History of Polish Literature, University of California Press, 1983, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-04477-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-04477-0">0-520-04477-0</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=11MVdBYUX5oC&dq=languages+Polish-Lithuanian+German&pg=PA108">Google Print, p. 108</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ostrowski-268"><a href="#cite_ref-Ostrowski_268-0">^</a> Jan K. Ostrowski, Land of the Winged Horsemen: Art in Poland, 1572–1764, Yale University Press, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-07918-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-07918-4">0-300-07918-4</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ucOZCQMVMNIC&dq=Polish-Lithuanian+Hebrew+Armenian&pg=PA27">Google Print, p. 27</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-269">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_269-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_269-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoanna_B._Michlic2006" class="citation book cs1">Joanna B. Michlic (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t6h2pI7o_zQC">Poland's threatening other: the image of the Jew from 1880 to the present</a>. U of Nebraska Press. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8032-3240-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8032-3240-3"><bdi>0-8032-3240-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poland%27s+threatening+other%3A+the+image+of+the+Jew+from+1880+to+the+present&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=U+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-8032-3240-3&rft.au=Joanna+B.+Michlic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt6h2pI7o_zQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarol_Zierhoffer,_Zofia_Zierhoffer2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Karol Zierhoffer, Zofia Zierhoffer (2000). Nazwy zachodnioeuropejskie w języku polskim a związki Polski z kulturą Europy (in Polish). Wydawnictwo Poznańskiego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk. p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-7063-286-6" title="Special:BookSources/83-7063-286-6"><bdi>83-7063-286-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nazwy+zachodnioeuropejskie+w+j%C4%99zyku+polskim+a+zwi%C4%85zki+Polski+z+kultur%C4%85+Europy&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Wydawnictwo+Pozna%C5%84skiego+Towarzystwa+Przyjaci%C3%B3%C5%82+Nauk&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=83-7063-286-6&rft.au=Karol+Zierhoffer%2C+Zofia+Zierhoffer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> Podobną opinię przekazał nieco późnej, w 1577 r. Marcin Kromer "Za naszej pamięci weszli [...] do głównych miast Polski kupcy i rzemieślnicy włoscy, a język ich jest także częściowo w użyciu, mianowicie wśród wytworniejszych Polaków, którzy chętnie podróżują do Włoch". </li> <li id="cite_note-Polish_roots-271"><a href="#cite_ref-Polish_roots_271-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosemary_A._Chorzempa1993" class="citation book cs1">Rosemary A. Chorzempa (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polishrootskorze00chor">Polish roots</a>. Genealogical Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8063-1378-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8063-1378-1"><bdi>0-8063-1378-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polish+roots&rft.pub=Genealogical+Pub.&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-8063-1378-1&rft.au=Rosemary+A.+Chorzempa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpolishrootskorze00chor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Art_in_Poland,_1572-1764:_land_of_the_winged_horsemen-272"><a href="#cite_ref-Art_in_Poland,_1572-1764:_land_of_the_winged_horsemen_272-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJan_K._Ostrowski1999" class="citation book cs1">Jan K. Ostrowski, ed. (1999). Art in Poland, 1572–1764: land of the winged horsemen. Art Services International. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88397-131-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-88397-131-3"><bdi>0-88397-131-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+in+Poland%2C+1572%E2%80%931764%3A+land+of+the+winged+horsemen&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Art+Services+International&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-88397-131-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> In 1600 the son of the chancellor of Poland was learning four languages: Latin, Greek, Turkish, and Polish. By the time he had completed his studies, he was fluent not only in Turkish but also in Tatar and Arabic. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ethnic_identity:_problems_and_prospects_for_the_twenty-first_century-273"><a href="#cite_ref-Ethnic_identity:_problems_and_prospects_for_the_twenty-first_century_273-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLola_Romanucci-RossGeorge_A._De_VosTakeyuki_Tsuda2006" class="citation book cs1">Lola Romanucci-Ross; George A. De Vos; Takeyuki Tsuda (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AajCaf34k3oC&q=arabic+Tatars+Polish+Lithuanian+Commonwealth&pg=PA84">Ethnic identity: problems and prospects for the twenty-first century</a>. Rowman Altamira. p. 84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7591-0973-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7591-0973-7"><bdi>0-7591-0973-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnic+identity%3A+problems+and+prospects+for+the+twenty-first+century&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Rowman+Altamira&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-7591-0973-7&rft.au=Lola+Romanucci-Ross&rft.au=George+A.+De+Vos&rft.au=Takeyuki+Tsuda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAajCaf34k3oC%26q%3Darabic%2BTatars%2BPolish%2BLithuanian%2BCommonwealth%26pg%3DPA84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarile2019" class="citation book cs1">Barile, Davide (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kXu9DwAAQBAJ">Historic Power Europe; A Post-Hegelian Interpretation of European Integration</a>. New York: Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-73113-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-73113-2"><bdi>978-1-000-73113-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historic+Power+Europe%3B+A+Post-Hegelian+Interpretation+of+European+Integration&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-000-73113-2&rft.aulast=Barile&rft.aufirst=Davide&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkXu9DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Constitution-275"><a href="#cite_ref-Constitution_275-0">^</a> A. stated, for instance by the preamble of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Republic of Poland">Constitution of the Republic of Poland</a> of 1997. </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Alfonsas_Eidintas" title="Alfonsas Eidintas">Alfonsas Eidintas</a>, Vytautas Zalys, Lithuania in European Politics: The Years of the First Republic, 1918–1940, Palgrave, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0312224583" title="Special:BookSources/0312224583">0312224583</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0_i8yez8udgC&q=Polish-Lithuanian+Commonwealth+negative&pg=PA78">Print, p. 78</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrzegorz_Górny2008" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Grzegorz Górny (23 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150710071513/http://www.rp.pl/artykul/180354.html">"Zobaczyć Kresy"</a> (in Polish). Rzeczpospolita. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rp.pl/artykul/180354.html">the original</a> on 10 July 2015. Retrieved 1 February 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Zobaczy%C4%87+Kresy&rft.pub=Rzeczpospolita&rft.date=2008-08-23&rft.au=Grzegorz+G%C3%B3rny&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rp.pl%2Fartykul%2F180354.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ukraine-278"><a href="#cite_ref-Ukraine_278-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarah_Johnstone2008" class="citation book cs1">Sarah Johnstone (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ukraine00john/page/27">Ukraine</a>. Lonely Planet. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ukraine00john/page/27">27</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-74104-481-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-74104-481-2"><bdi>978-1-74104-481-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ukraine&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Lonely+Planet&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-74104-481-2&rft.au=Sarah+Johnstone&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fukraine00john%2Fpage%2F27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_newly_independent_states_of_Eurasia:_handbook_of_former_Soviet_republics-279"><a href="#cite_ref-The_newly_independent_states_of_Eurasia:_handbook_of_former_Soviet_republics_279-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_K._Batalden,_Sandra_L._Batalden1997" class="citation book cs1">Stephen K. Batalden, Sandra L. Batalden (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newlyindependent00bata/page/45">The newly independent states of Eurasia: handbook of former Soviet republics</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newlyindependent00bata/page/45">45</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89774-940-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-89774-940-5"><bdi>0-89774-940-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+newly+independent+states+of+Eurasia%3A+handbook+of+former+Soviet+republics&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-89774-940-5&rft.au=Stephen+K.+Batalden%2C+Sandra+L.+Batalden&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewlyindependent00bata%2Fpage%2F45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Encyclopedia_of_witchcraft:_the_Western_tradition-280"><a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_of_witchcraft:_the_Western_tradition_280-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_M._Golden2006" class="citation book cs1">Richard M. Golden (2006). "Volume 4". Encyclopedia of witchcraft: the Western tradition. ABC-CLIO. p. 1039. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57607-243-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-57607-243-6"><bdi>1-57607-243-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Volume+4&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+witchcraft%3A+the+Western+tradition&rft.pages=1039&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-57607-243-6&rft.au=Richard+M.+Golden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGirolamo_ImbrugliaRolando_MinutiLuisa_Simonutti2007" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Girolamo Imbruglia; Rolando Minuti; Luisa Simonutti (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FiNSAQAAIAAJ&q=Nel+1555+,+presso+Oporino+,+Marcin+Kromer+aveva+pubblicato+De+Origine+et+rebus+gestis+Polonorum+libri+XXX+,+in+un+latino+elegante+e+con+lo+spirito+critico+che+gli+veniva+da+un%27eccellente+formazione+umanistica+conseguita+in+gioventù+a+Bologna">Traduzioni e circolazione delle idee nella cultura europea tra '500 e '700</a> (in Italian). Bibliopolis. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-70-88537-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-70-88537-8"><bdi>978-88-70-88537-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Traduzioni+e+circolazione+delle+idee+nella+cultura+europea+tra+%27500+e+%27700&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Bibliopolis&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-88-70-88537-8&rft.au=Girolamo+Imbruglia&rft.au=Rolando+Minuti&rft.au=Luisa+Simonutti&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFiNSAQAAIAAJ%26q%3DNel%2B1555%2B%2C%2Bpresso%2BOporino%2B%2C%2BMarcin%2BKromer%2Baveva%2Bpubblicato%2BDe%2BOrigine%2Bet%2Brebus%2Bgestis%2BPolonorum%2Blibri%2BXXX%2B%2C%2Bin%2Bun%2Blatino%2Belegante%2Be%2Bcon%2Blo%2Bspirito%2Bcritico%2Bche%2Bgli%2Bveniva%2Bda%2Bun%2527eccellente%2Bformazione%2Bumanistica%2Bconseguita%2Bin%2Bgiovent%C3%B9%2Ba%2BBologna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pollution_and_property:_comparing_ownership_institutions_for_environmental_protection-282"><a href="#cite_ref-Pollution_and_property:_comparing_ownership_institutions_for_environmental_protection_282-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_H._Cole2002" class="citation book cs1">Daniel H. Cole (2002). Pollution and property: comparing ownership institutions for environmental protection. Cambridge University Press. p. 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-00109-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-00109-9"><bdi>0-521-00109-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pollution+and+property%3A+comparing+ownership+institutions+for+environmental+protection&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-521-00109-9&rft.au=Daniel+H.+Cole&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-gordon_campbell-283"><a href="#cite_ref-gordon_campbell_283-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon_Campbell2006" class="citation book cs1">Gordon Campbell (2006). The Grove encyclopedia of decorative arts. Oxford University Press US. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-518948-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-518948-5"><bdi>0-19-518948-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Grove+encyclopedia+of+decorative+arts&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-19-518948-5&rft.au=Gordon+Campbell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGwei-Djen_LuJoseph_NeedhamVivienne_Lo2002" class="citation book cs1">Gwei-Djen Lu; Joseph Needham; Vivienne Lo (2002). Celestial lancets: a history and rationale of acupuncture and moxa. Routledge. p. 284. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7007-1458-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7007-1458-8"><bdi>0-7007-1458-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celestial+lancets%3A+a+history+and+rationale+of+acupuncture+and+moxa&rft.pages=284&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7007-1458-8&rft.au=Gwei-Djen+Lu&rft.au=Joseph+Needham&rft.au=Vivienne+Lo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIan_Ridpath" class="citation web cs1">Ian Ridpath. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/poniatowski.htm">"Taurus Poniatovii – Poniatowski's bull"</a>. www.ianridpath.com. Retrieved 18 May 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ianridpath.com&rft.atitle=Taurus+Poniatovii+%E2%80%93+Poniatowski%27s+bull&rft.au=Ian+Ridpath&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ianridpath.com%2Fstartales%2Fponiatowski.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-unesco.org-286"><a href="#cite_ref-unesco.org_286-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/564">"Old City of Zamość"</a>. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 23 September 2009. Retrieved 15 September 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Old+City+of+Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87&rft.pub=UNESCO+World+Heritage+Centre&rft.date=2009-09-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Flist%2F564&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> After a fire had destroyed a wooden synagogue in 1733 Stanislaw Lubomirski decided to found a new bricked synagogue building. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolin_Travel" class="citation web cs1">Polin Travel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewish-guide.pl/sites/lancut">"Lancut"</a>. www.jewish-guide.pl. Retrieved 2 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewish-guide.pl&rft.atitle=Lancut&rft.au=Polin+Travel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewish-guide.pl%2Fsites%2Flancut&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_history_of_Poland" title="Bibliography of the history of Poland">Bibliography of the history of Poland</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBardachLesnodorskiPietrzak1987" class="citation book cs1">Bardach, Juliusz; Lesnodorski, Boguslaw; Pietrzak, Michal (1987). Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego. Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-01-07919-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-01-07919-2"><bdi>978-83-01-07919-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+panstwa+i+prawa+polskiego&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.pub=Paristwowe+Wydawnictwo+Naukowe&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-83-01-07919-2&rft.aulast=Bardach&rft.aufirst=Juliusz&rft.au=Lesnodorski%2C+Boguslaw&rft.au=Pietrzak%2C+Michal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrzezinski1987" class="citation book cs1">Brzezinski, Richard (1987). Polish Armies (1): 1569–1696. Men-At-Arms Series. Vol. 184. Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85045-736-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-85045-736-X"><bdi>0-85045-736-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polish+Armies+%281%29%3A+1569%E2%80%931696&rft.series=Men-At-Arms+Series&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-85045-736-X&rft.aulast=Brzezinski&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrzezinski1988" class="citation book cs1">Brzezinski, Richard (1988). Polish Armies (2): 1569–1696. Men-At-Arms Series. Vol. 188. Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85045-744-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-85045-744-0"><bdi>0-85045-744-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polish+Armies+%282%29%3A+1569%E2%80%931696&rft.series=Men-At-Arms+Series&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-85045-744-0&rft.aulast=Brzezinski&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrost2015" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Frost, Robert (2015). The Oxford History of Poland–Lithuania. Vol. I: The Making of the Polish–Lithuanian Union, 1385–1569. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820869-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820869-3"><bdi>978-0-19-820869-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Poland%E2%80%93Lithuania&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-820869-3&rft.aulast=Frost&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLitwin2016" class="citation journal cs1">Litwin, Henryk (October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.msz.gov.pl/resource/49da65c5-9917-40de-b542-5c89751cacf6:JCR">"Central European Superpower"</a>. BUM Magazine.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BUM+Magazine&rft.atitle=Central+European+Superpower&rft.date=2016-10&rft.aulast=Litwin&rft.aufirst=Henryk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.msz.gov.pl%2Fresource%2F49da65c5-9917-40de-b542-5c89751cacf6%3AJCR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorkus2017" class="citation book cs1">Norkus, Zenonas (2017). An Unproclaimed Empire: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania: From the Viewpoint of Comparative Historical Sociology of Empires. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-28154-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-28154-7"><bdi>978-1-138-28154-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Unproclaimed+Empire%3A+The+Grand+Duchy+of+Lithuania%3A+From+the+Viewpoint+of+Comparative+Historical+Sociology+of+Empires&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-138-28154-7&rft.aulast=Norkus&rft.aufirst=Zenonas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowell2014" class="citation book cs1">Rowell, S. C. (2014). Lithuania Ascending: A Pagan Empire within East-Central Europe, 1295–1345. Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought: Fourth Series. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-65876-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-65876-9"><bdi>978-1-107-65876-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lithuania+Ascending%3A+A+Pagan+Empire+within+East-Central+Europe%2C+1295%E2%80%931345&rft.series=Cambridge+Studies+in+Medieval+Life+and+Thought%3A+Fourth+Series&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-107-65876-9&rft.aulast=Rowell&rft.aufirst=S.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowellBaronas2015" class="citation book cs1">Rowell, S. C.; Baronas, Darius (2015). The Conversion of Lithuania. From Pagan Barbarians to Late Medieval Christians. Vilnius: Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-609-425-152-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-609-425-152-8"><bdi>978-609-425-152-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Conversion+of+Lithuania.+From+Pagan+Barbarians+to+Late+Medieval+Christians&rft.place=Vilnius&rft.pub=Institute+of+Lithuanian+Literature+and+Folklore&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-609-425-152-8&rft.aulast=Rowell&rft.aufirst=S.+C.&rft.au=Baronas%2C+Darius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone2014" class="citation book cs1">Stone, Daniel Z. (2014). The Polish–Lithuanian State, 1386–1795. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington_Press" title="University of Washington Press">University of Washington Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-80362-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-80362-3"><bdi>978-0-295-80362-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+State%2C+1386%E2%80%931795&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-295-80362-3&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=Daniel+Z.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSužiedėlis2011" class="citation book cs1">Sužiedėlis, Saulius A. (2011). Historical Dictionary of Lithuania (2 ed.). Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7536-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7536-4"><bdi>978-0-8108-7536-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Lithuania&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-7536-4&rft.aulast=Su%C5%BEied%C4%97lis&rft.aufirst=Saulius+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.commonwealth.pl">Commonwealth of Diverse Cultures: Poland's Heritage</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110624022527/http://www.commonwealth.pl/">Archived</a> 24 June 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (in Polish and English)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wilanow-palac.pl/pasaz">Knowledge passage</a> (in Polish)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rzecz-pospolita.com/">The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth – Maps, history of cities in Poland, Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417044200/http://rzecz-pospolita.com/">Archived</a> 17 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (in Polish)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m0010f8z">The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth on BBC Radio 4 "In Our Time"</a> 14 Oct. 2021, <a href="/wiki/Melvyn_Bragg" title="Melvyn Bragg">Melvyn Bragg</a> with <a href="/wiki/Robert_I._Frost" title="Robert I. Frost">Robert I. Frost</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Aberdeen" title="University of Aberdeen">University of Aberdeen</a>, Katarzyna Kosior, <a href="/wiki/Northumbria_University" title="Northumbria University">Northumbria University</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth&params=50_03_14_N_19_56_05_E_type:country">50°03′14″N 19°56′05″E / 50.05389°N 19.93472°E / 50.05389; 19.93472</a> <div 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href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li>Magadha <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir-Suzdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Muscovy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Perm" title="Great Perm">Permian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Kiev" title="Principality of Kiev">Kyivan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Monarchies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Monarchies" title="Template:Monarchies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Monarchies" title="Template talk:Monarchies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Monarchies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Monarchies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Monarchies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarch" title="Monarch">Monarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial,_royal_and_noble_ranks" title="Imperial, royal and noble ranks">Imperial, royal and noble ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_monarchs_of_sovereign_states" title="List of current monarchs of sovereign states">List of current sovereign monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_non-sovereign_monarchs" title="List of current non-sovereign monarchs">List of current non-sovereign monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchy_referendums" title="List of monarchy referendums">List of monarchy referendums</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Type</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diarchy" title="Diarchy">Diarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elective_monarchy" title="Elective monarchy">Elective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_monarchy" title="Federal monarchy">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy" title="Hereditary monarchy">Hereditary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-sovereign_monarchy" title="Non-sovereign monarchy">Non-sovereign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">Personal union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">Regency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdication" title="Abdication">Abdication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_monarchy" title="Abolition of monarchy">Abolition of monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy_(class)" title="Aristocracy (class)">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_monarchy" title="Criticism of monarchy">Criticism of monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">Head of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy (political)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_succession" title="Order of succession">Order of succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-proclaimed_monarchy" title="Self-proclaimed monarchy">Self-proclaimed monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Titles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chhatrapati" title="Chhatrapati">Chhatrapati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor" title="Emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King" title="King">King</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_regnant" title="Queen regnant">Queen regnant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_regnant" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince regnant">Prince regnant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raja" title="Raja">Raja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">Tsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">Shah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Africa" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarchies_in_Africa" title="Monarchies in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ngwenyama" title="Ngwenyama">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Lesotho" title="List of monarchs of Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Morocco" title="King of Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_constituent_African_monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="List of current constituent African monarchs">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarchies_in_Asia" title="Monarchies in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Bahrain" title="King of Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Bhutan" title="King of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sultans_of_Brunei" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Sultans of Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Cambodia" title="Monarchy of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Japan" title="Emperor of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Jordan" title="List of kings of Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emir_of_Kuwait" title="Emir of Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong" class="mw-redirect" title="Yang di-Pertuan Agong">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Oman" title="List of rulers of Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emir_of_Qatar" title="Emir of Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="King of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Thailand" title="Monarchy of Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="President of the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_non-sovereign_Asian_monarchs" title="List of current non-sovereign Asian monarchs">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarchies_in_Europe" title="Monarchies in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Co-Princes_of_Andorra" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-Princes of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Belgium" title="Monarchy of Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Denmark" title="Monarchy of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Liechtenstein" title="Monarchy of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Luxembourg" title="Monarchy of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Monaco" title="Monarchy of Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Monarchy of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Norway" title="Monarchy of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Spain" title="Monarchy of Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Sweden" title="Monarchy of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereigns_of_Vatican_City_State" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sovereigns of Vatican City State">Vatican City (Holy See)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarchies_in_Oceania" title="Monarchies in Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Tonga" title="List of monarchs of Tonga">Tonga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_realm" title="Commonwealth realm">Commonwealth realms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Monarchy of Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Australia" title="Monarchy of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_Bahamas" title="Monarchy of the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Belize" title="Monarchy of Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Canada" title="Monarchy of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Grenada" title="Monarchy of Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Jamaica" title="Monarchy of Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_New_Zealand" title="Monarchy of New Zealand">New Zealand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Monarchy in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Niuean_monarchs" title="List of Niuean monarchs">Niue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Monarchy of Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Monarchy of Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Saint_Lucia" title="Monarchy of Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Monarchy of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Solomon_Islands" title="Monarchy of Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Tuvalu" title="Monarchy of Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_monarchy" title="Abolition of monarchy">Former</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adamawa_Emirate" title="Adamawa Emirate">Adamawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ankole" title="Ankole">Ankole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Aussa" title="Sultanate of Aussa">Aussa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barotseland" title="Barotseland">Barotseland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Bagirmi" title="Sultanate of Bagirmi">Bagirmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Burundi" title="Kingdom of Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Kingdom of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gomma" title="Kingdom of Gomma">Gomma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gumma" title="Kingdom of Gumma">Gumma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kaffa" title="Kingdom of Kaffa">Kaffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Libya" title="Kingdom of Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Luba" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Luba">Luba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merina_Kingdom" title="Merina Kingdom">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayotte#History" title="Mayotte">Maore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maravi" title="Maravi">Maravi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moh%C3%A9li#History" title="Mohéli">Mwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anjouan#Early_and_colonial_history" title="Anjouan">Ndzuwani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grande_Comore#History" title="Grande Comore">Ngazidja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rwanda" title="Kingdom of Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shilluk_Kingdom" title="Shilluk Kingdom">Shilluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islands_of_Refreshment" title="Islands of Refreshment">Islands of Refreshment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tunisia" title="Kingdom of Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wituland" title="Wituland">Wituland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wassoulou_Empire" title="Wassoulou Empire">Wassoulou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeke_Kingdom" title="Yeke Kingdom">Yeke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Zanzibar" title="Sultanate of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Zimbabwe" title="Kingdom of Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_pre-colonial_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa">and other</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Araucan%C3%ADa_and_Patagonia" title="Kingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia">Araucanía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito_Coast" title="Mosquito Coast">Miskito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriname_(Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands)" title="Suriname (Kingdom of the Netherlands)">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Talamanca" title="Kingdom of Talamanca">Talamanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Trinidad" title="Principality of Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_Emirate_of_Asir" title="Idrisid Emirate of Asir">Asir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Sultanate" title="Bengal Sultanate">Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Bukhara" title="Emirate of Bukhara">Bukhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cebu_(historical_polity)" title="Cebu (historical polity)">Cebu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihab_dynasty" title="Shihab dynasty">Chehab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_China" title="Monarchy of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dapitan_Kingdom" title="Dapitan Kingdom">Dapitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hejaz" title="Kingdom of Hejaz">Hejaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indonesian_monarchies" title="List of Indonesian monarchies">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Iran</a> (<a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Jabal_Shammar" title="Emirate of Jabal Shammar">Jabal Shammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathiri" title="Kathiri">Kathiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Khiva" title="Khanate of Khiva">Khiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumul_Khanate" title="Kumul Khanate">Kumul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kurdistan" title="Kingdom of Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Laos" title="Kingdom of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Maguindanao" title="Sultanate of Maguindanao">Maguindanao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahra_Sultanate" title="Mahra Sultanate">Mahra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Maldivian_monarchs" title="List of Maldivian monarchs">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Najran" title="Principality of Najran">Najran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nepal" title="Kingdom of Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qu%27aiti" title="Qu'aiti">Qu'aiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Kingdom" title="Ryukyu Kingdom">Ryukyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raj_of_Sarawak" title="Raj of Sarawak">Sarawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shan_States" title="Shan States">Shan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sikkim" title="Kingdom of Sikkim">Sikkim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_monarchy" title="Sinhalese monarchy">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sip_Song_Chau_Tai" title="Sip Song Chau Tai">Sip Song Chau Tai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sulu" title="Sultanate of Sulu">Sulu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Kingdom_of_Syria" title="Arab Kingdom of Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheikdom_of_Upper_Asir" title="Sheikdom of Upper Asir">Upper Asir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Yafa" title="Upper Yafa">Upper Yafa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Vietnam" title="List of monarchs of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutawakkilite_Kingdom_of_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirates_of_South_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirates of South Arabia">Emirates of South Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_South_Arabia" title="Federation of South Arabia">South Arabia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_Kingdom_(1928%E2%80%931939)" title="Albanian Kingdom (1928–1939)">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Asturias" title="Kingdom of Asturias">Asturias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Bavaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bosnia" title="Kingdom of Bosnia">Bosnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brittany" title="Duchy of Brittany">Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Corsica_(1736)" title="Kingdom of Corsica (1736)">Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cyprus" title="Kingdom of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Finland_(1918)" title="Kingdom of Finland (1918)">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia" title="Kingdom of Galicia">Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece" title="Kingdom of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hanover" title="Kingdom of Hanover">Hanover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iceland" title="Kingdom of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Imereti" title="Kingdom of Imereti">Imereti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Ireland" title="Monarchy of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli-Kakheti" title="Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti">Kartli-Kakheti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lithuania_(1918)" title="Kingdom of Lithuania (1918)">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Isles" title="Kingdom of the Isles">Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Montenegro" title="Kingdom of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Navarre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Neuch%C3%A2tel#History" title="Canton of Neuchâtel">Neuchâtel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Piedmont-Sardinia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Poland–Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Samos" title="Principality of Samos">Samos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony">Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia" title="Kingdom of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tavolara" title="Kingdom of Tavolara">Tavolara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Two Sicilies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Baltic_Duchy" title="United Baltic Duchy">United Baltic Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia" title="Kingdom of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Kingdom of Württemberg">Württemberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abemama" title="Abemama">Abemama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bora_Bora" title="Kingdom of Bora Bora">Bora Bora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Easter_Island" title="King of Easter Island">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Fiji" title="Kingdom of Fiji">Kingdom of Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Kingdom" title="Hawaiian Kingdom">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huahine" title="Huahine">Huahine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangareva" title="Mangareva">Mangareva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niue" title="Niue">Niuē-Fekai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuku_Hiva" title="Nuku Hiva">Nuku Hiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Raiatea" title="List of monarchs of Raiatea">Raiatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Iti" title="Rapa Iti">Rapa Iti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rarotonga" title="Kingdom of Rarotonga">Rarotonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rimatara" title="Rimatara">Rimatara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rurutu" title="Rurutu">Rurutu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahuata" title="Tahuata">Tahuata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tahiti" title="Kingdom of Tahiti">Tahiti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commonwealth realms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Barbados" title="Monarchy of Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Ceylon_(1948%E2%80%931972)" title="Monarchy of Ceylon (1948–1972)">Ceylon</a> (Sri Lanka)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Fiji" title="Monarchy of Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_the_Gambia" title="Queen of the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Ghana" title="Queen of Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Guyana" title="Queen of Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_India" title="Dominion of India">India</a> (<a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_princely_states_of_British_India_(alphabetical)" title="List of princely states of British India (alphabetical)">princely states</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Free_State" title="Irish Free State">Irish Free State</a> / <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Kenya" title="Queen of Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Malawi" title="Queen of Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Malta" title="Queen of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Mauritius" title="Queen of Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen of Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Pakistan" title="Monarchy of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Rhodesia" title="Queen of Rhodesia">Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Sierra_Leone" title="Queen of Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_South_Africa" title="Monarchy of South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Tanganyika" title="Queen of Tanganyika">Tanganyika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Queen of Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Uganda" title="Queen of Uganda">Uganda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Belarus_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Belarus_topics" title="Template:Belarus topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Belarus_topics" title="Template talk:Belarus topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Belarus_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Belarus topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Belarus_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Belarus-related_topics" title="List of Belarus-related topics">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belarus" title="History of Belarus">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neuri" title="Neuri">Neuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androphagi" title="Androphagi">Androphagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Polotsk" title="Principality of Polotsk">Principality of Polotsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Turov" title="Principality of Turov">Principality of Turov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_history_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Belarusian history in the Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russification_of_Belarus" title="Russification of Belarus">Russification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Democratic_Republic" title="Belarusian Democratic Republic">Belarusian Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Belorussia" title="Western Belorussia">Western Belorussia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_annexation_of_Western_Belorussia" title="Soviet annexation of Western Belorussia">Annexation of Western Belarus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belarus#Republic_of_Belarus" title="History of Belarus">Republic of Belarus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Belarus" title="Geography of Belarus">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_and_largest_towns_in_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="List of cities and largest towns in Belarus">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_Belarus" title="List of extreme points of Belarus">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Belarus" title="Geology of Belarus">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Belarus" title="Protected areas of Belarus">Protected areas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Network_of_Biosphere_Reserves_in_Europe_and_North_America#Belarus" title="World Network of Biosphere Reserves in Europe and North America">Biosphere Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Belarus" title="List of national parks of Belarus">National parks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Belarus" title="List of rivers of Belarus">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swamps_of_Belarus" title="Swamps of Belarus">Swamps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Belarus" title="Politics of Belarus">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Belarus" title="Regions of Belarus">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Belarus" title="Censorship in Belarus">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Belarus" title="Constitution of Belarus">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Belarus" title="Elections in Belarus">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Election_Commission_of_Belarus" title="Central Election Commission of Belarus">Central Election Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Belarus" title="Foreign relations of Belarus">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Belarus" title="Government of Belarus">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Belarus" title="Human rights in Belarus">Human rights</a> (<a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Belarus">LGBT</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Belarus" title="Law enforcement in Belarus">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_Security_Committee_of_the_Republic_of_Belarus" title="State Security Committee of the Republic of Belarus">State Security Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Belarus)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Belarus)">Ministry of Internal Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_Troops_of_Belarus" title="Internal Troops of Belarus">Internal Troops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militsiya_(Belarus)" title="Militsiya (Belarus)">Militsiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Security_Service_(Belarus)" title="Presidential Security Service (Belarus)">Presidential Security Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Belarus" title="Armed Forces of Belarus">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_the_Republic_of_Belarus" title="National Assembly of the Republic of Belarus">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Belarus" title="List of political parties in Belarus">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Belarus" title="President of Belarus">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Belarus" title="Prime Minister of Belarus">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Belarus" title="List of prime ministers of Belarus">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_State" title="Union State">Union State of Russia and Belarus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Belarus" title="Economy of Belarus">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Belarus" title="Agriculture in Belarus">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Belarus" title="List of banks in Belarus">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Bank_of_the_Republic_of_Belarus" title="National Bank of the Republic of Belarus">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_ruble" title="Belarusian ruble">Ruble (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belarus" title="Telecommunications in Belarus">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Belarus" title="Energy in Belarus">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_of_Belarus" title="Industry of Belarus">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_and_organizations_sanctioned_in_relation_to_human_rights_violations_in_Belarus" title="List of people and organizations sanctioned in relation to human rights violations in Belarus">International sanctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Currency_and_Stock_Exchange" title="Belarusian Currency and Stock Exchange">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Belarus" title="Transport in Belarus">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Belarus" title="Category:Society of Belarus">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Belarus" title="Demographics of Belarus">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusians" title="Belarusians">Belarusians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Belarus" title="Education in Belarus">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Belarus" title="Healthcare in Belarus">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belarus" title="Religion in Belarus">Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Belarus" title="Culture of Belarus">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_Belarus" title="Orders, decorations, and medals of Belarus">Awards and decorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_name" title="Belarusian name">Belarusian names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_cuisine" title="Belarusian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_folk_dance" title="Belarusian folk dance">Folk dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Belarus" title="Languages of Belarus">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_literature" title="Belarusian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Belarus" title="Music of Belarus">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Belarus" title="Cinema of Belarus">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Belarus" title="Mass media in Belarus">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Belarus" title="National symbols of Belarus">National symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Belarus" title="Public holidays in Belarus">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Belarus" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Belarus">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Belarus" title="Outline of Belarus">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Belarus-related_topics" title="List of Belarus-related topics">Index</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Belarusian_history" title="Bibliography of Belarusian history">Bibliography</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Belarus" title="Category:Belarus">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Belarus" title="Portal:Belarus">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lithuania_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lithuania_topics" title="Template:Lithuania topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lithuania_topics" title="Template talk:Lithuania topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lithuania_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lithuania topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lithuania_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Lithuania-related_articles" title="Index of Lithuania-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balts" title="Balts">Balts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuania_proper" title="Lithuania proper">Lithuania proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuania_Minor" title="Lithuania Minor">Lithuania Minor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania_(1219%E2%80%931295)" title="History of Lithuania (1219–1295)">1219–1295</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Duchy of Lithuania">Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lithuania" title="Kingdom of Lithuania">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Lithuania" title="Christianization of Lithuania">Christianization</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Crusade" title="Lithuanian Crusade">Lithuanian Crusade</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Revival and independence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_press_ban" title="Lithuanian press ban">Press ban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_National_Revival" title="Lithuanian National Revival">National Revival</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Seimas_of_Vilnius" title="Great Seimas of Vilnius">Great Seimas of Vilnius</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amber_Declaration" title="Amber Declaration">Amber Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Independence_of_Lithuania" title="Act of Independence of Lithuania">Act of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Wars_of_Independence" title="Lithuanian Wars of Independence">Wars of Independence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Lithuanian–Soviet War">Lithuanian–Soviet War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_War" title="Polish–Lithuanian War">Polish–Lithuanian War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1919_Polish_coup_attempt_in_Lithuania" title="1919 Polish coup attempt in Lithuania">1919 Polish coup d'état attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_Lithuanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1926 Lithuanian coup d'état">1926 coup d'état</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">WWII and occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1940)" title="Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)">by the Soviet Union (1940)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="German occupation of Lithuania during World War II">by Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1944)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1944)">by the Soviet Union (1944)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Lithuania" title="The Holocaust in Lithuania">Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance in Lithuania during World War II">Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic">Second Soviet republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_partisans" title="Lithuanian partisans">Lithuanian partisans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_states_under_Soviet_rule_(1944%E2%80%931991)" title="Baltic states under Soviet rule (1944–1991)">Baltic states under Soviet rule (1944–1991)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Diplomatic_Service" title="Lithuanian Diplomatic Service">Government-in-exile</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Restoration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%85j%C5%ABdis" title="Sąjūdis">Reform Movement (Sąjūdis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution#Lithuania" title="Singing Revolution">Singing Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Way" title="Baltic Way">Baltic Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_the_Re-Establishment_of_the_State_of_Lithuania" title="Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania">Act of Re-Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_economic_blockade_of_Lithuania" title="Soviet economic blockade of Lithuania">Soviet economic blockade of Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="January Events (Lithuania)">January Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_Lithuanian_European_Union_membership_referendum" title="2003 Lithuanian European Union membership referendum">2003 Lithuanian European Union membership referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_enlargement_of_the_European_Union" title="2004 enlargement of the European Union">EU accession</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania"><img alt="Lithuania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Coat_of_arms_of_Lithuania.svg/80px-Coat_of_arms_of_Lithuania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Coat_of_arms_of_Lithuania.svg/120px-Coat_of_arms_of_Lithuania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Coat_of_arms_of_Lithuania.svg/160px-Coat_of_arms_of_Lithuania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Lithuania" title="Geography of Lithuania">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Lithuania" title="List of cities in Lithuania">Cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">capital</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Lithuania#Climate" title="Geography of Lithuania">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_Lithuania" title="List of extreme points of Lithuania">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Lithuania" title="Flora of Lithuania">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forests_in_Lithuania" title="Forests in Lithuania">Forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Lithuania" title="List of lakes of Lithuania">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regional_parks_of_Lithuania" title="List of regional parks of Lithuania">Regional parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Lithuania" title="List of rivers of Lithuania">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suwa%C5%82ki_Gap" title="Suwałki Gap">Suwałki Gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_Lithuania" title="List of towns in Lithuania">Towns</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Lithuania" title="Politics of Lithuania">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Lithuania" title="Administrative divisions of Lithuania">Administrative divisions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counties_of_Lithuania" title="Counties of Lithuania">counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipalities_of_Lithuania" title="Municipalities of Lithuania">municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elderships_of_Lithuania" title="Elderships of Lithuania">elderships</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Lithuania" title="Constitution of Lithuania">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_Lithuania" title="Constitutional Court of Lithuania">Constitutional Court</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Lithuania" title="Elections in Lithuania">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Lithuania" title="Foreign relations of Lithuania">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Lithuania" title="Government of Lithuania">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Lithuania" title="Prime Minister of Lithuania">Prime Minister</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Lithuania" title="Law of Lithuania">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Law enforcement in Lithuania">Law enforcement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Lithuania" title="Human rights in Lithuania">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Lithuania">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Lithuania" title="List of political parties in Lithuania">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Lithuania#Republic_of_Lithuania_(1918–1940)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Lithuania">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seimas" title="Seimas">Seimas parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_speakers_of_the_Seimas" title="List of speakers of the Seimas">Speaker</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Lithuania">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Land_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Land Force">Land Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Naval_Force" title="Lithuanian Naval Force">Naval Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Air_Force" title="Lithuanian Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Special_Operations_Force" title="Lithuanian Special Operations Force">Special Operations Force</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Lithuania" title="Economy of Lithuania">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Lithuania" title="Agriculture in Lithuania">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Lithuania" title="List of banks in Lithuania">Banks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Lithuania" title="Bank of Lithuania">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-Residency_of_Lithuania" title="E-Residency of Lithuania">e-Residency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Lithuania" title="Energy in Lithuania">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_euro_coins" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian euro coins">Euro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lithuania" title="Telecommunications in Lithuania">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Lithuania" title="Transport in Lithuania">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Lithuania" title="List of airports in Lithuania">airports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Railways" title="Lithuanian Railways">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Lithuania#Lithuanian_road_system" title="Transport in Lithuania">roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Klaip%C4%97da" title="Port of Klaipėda">seaport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Lithuania" title="Tourism in Lithuania">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Lithuania" title="Category:Society of Lithuania">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Lithuania" title="Demographics of Lithuania">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Lithuania" title="Education in Lithuania">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_and_colleges_in_Lithuania" title="List of universities and colleges in Lithuania">universities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_Lithuania" title="Ethnic minorities in Lithuania">Ethnic minorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Regions of Lithuania">Ethnographic regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Lithuania" title="Health in Lithuania">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanians" title="Lithuanians">Lithuanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lithuania" title="Religion in Lithuania">Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Lithuania" title="Culture of Lithuania">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_calendar" title="Lithuanian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Lithuania" title="Cinema of Lithuania">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_cuisine" title="Lithuanian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_culture" title="History of Lithuanian culture">Cultural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_regions_of_Lithuania" title="Cultural regions of Lithuania">Cultural regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_design" title="Lithuanian design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnographic_Lithuania" title="Ethnographic Lithuania">Ethnographic Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_literature" title="Lithuanian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Lithuania" title="Music of Lithuania">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Registry_of_Cultural_Property_(Lithuania)" title="Registry of Cultural Property (Lithuania)">Monuments of Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Lithuania" title="Name of Lithuania">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Lithuania" title="Public holidays in Lithuania">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Lithuania" title="Sport in Lithuania">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Lithuania" title="National symbols of Lithuania">Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tauti%C5%A1ka_giesm%C4%97" title="Tautiška giesmė">anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Lithuania" title="Coat of arms of Lithuania">coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Lithuania" title="Flag of Lithuania">flag</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Lithuania" title="Outline of Lithuania">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Lithuania-related_articles" title="Index of Lithuania-related articles">Index</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lithuania" title="Category:Lithuania">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Lithuania" title="Portal:Lithuania">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Poland_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Poland_topics" title="Template:Poland topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Poland_topics" title="Template talk:Poland topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Poland_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Poland topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Poland_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_history" title="Timeline of Polish history">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_and_protohistory_of_Poland" title="Prehistory and protohistory of Poland">Prehistory and protohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of Poland in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_monarchs" title="List of Polish monarchs">Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_in_the_early_modern_period_(1569%E2%80%931795)" title="History of Poland in the early modern period (1569–1795)">Early Modern (1569–1795)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1795%E2%80%931918)" title="History of Poland (1795–1918)">Partitions, duchies and kingdoms (1795–1918)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_World_War_I" title="History of Poland during World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1918%E2%80%931939)" title="History of Poland (1918–1939)">Interwar years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Poland (1939–1945)">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1945%E2%80%931989)" title="History of Poland (1945–1989)">Communist Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1989%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Poland (1989–present)">Poland since 1989</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_Poland" title="Cultural history of Poland">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Poland" title="Demographic history of Poland">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economic_history_of_Poland" title="Category:Economic history of Poland">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish_Army" title="History of the Polish Army">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Poland" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Poland">Postal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Poland" title="Geography of Poland">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Poland" title="List of cities and towns in Poland">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forests_of_Poland" title="Forests of Poland">Forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Poland" title="List of islands of Poland">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Poland" title="List of lakes of Poland">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Poland" title="List of mountains in Poland">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Parks_of_Poland" title="National Parks of Poland">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poland_A_and_B" title="Poland A and B">Poland A and B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Poland" title="Protected areas of Poland">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Poland" title="Regions of Poland">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Poland" title="List of rivers of Poland">Rivers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Poland" title="Politics of Poland">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Poland" title="Administrative divisions of Poland">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Initiative" title="Central European Initiative">Central European Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Poland" title="Climate change in Poland">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Poland" title="Constitution of Poland">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Poland" title="Corruption in Poland">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Poland" title="Elections in Poland">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Poland" title="Foreign relations of Poland">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Poland" title="Human rights in Poland">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Poland">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Poland" title="Judiciary of Poland">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Poland" title="Law of Poland">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Poland" title="Law enforcement in Poland">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Police_of_Poland" title="Police of Poland">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_Service_(Poland)" title="Prison Service (Poland)">Prison Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces" title="Polish Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Poland" title="Parliament of Poland">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Poland" title="List of political parties in Poland">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Polish_politicians" title="Lists of Polish politicians">Politicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Poland" title="President of Poland">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Poland" title="List of heads of state of Poland">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Poland" title="President of Poland">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Poland" title="List of prime ministers of Poland">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_prisoners_in_Poland" title="Political prisoners in Poland">Political prisoners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Poland" title="Economy of Poland">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Poland" title="Agriculture in Poland">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balcerowicz_Plan" title="Balcerowicz Plan">Balcerowicz Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bank_of_Poland" title="National Bank of Poland">Central bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economic_history_of_Poland" title="Category:Economic history of Poland">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone_of_Poland" title="Exclusive economic zone of Poland">EEZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Poland" title="Energy in Poland">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_Poland" title="List of exports of Poland">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Merchant_Navy" title="Polish Merchant Navy">Merchant Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mines_in_Poland" title="List of mines in Poland">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Poland" title="Poverty in Poland">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_Poland_by_GDP" title="List of regions of Poland by GDP">Regional GDP per capita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Stock_Exchange" title="Warsaw Stock Exchange">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Poland" title="Tourism in Poland">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Poland" title="Transport in Poland">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_Poland" title="Unemployment in Poland">Unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesian_Industrial_Region" title="Upper Silesian Industrial Region">Upper Silesian Industrial Region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_capital_in_Poland" title="Venture capital in Poland">Venture capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_z%C5%82oty" title="Polish złoty">Złoty (currency)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Poland" title="Category:Society of Poland">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lawyers_in_Poland" title="Lawyers in Poland">Lawyers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Poland" title="Culture of Poland">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Poland" title="Architecture of Poland">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_art" title="Polish art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Poland" title="Cinema of Poland">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_cuisine" title="Polish cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_wine" title="Polish wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_folk_beliefs" title="Polish folk beliefs">Folk beliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_folk_dances" title="Polish folk dances">Folk dances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_literature" title="Polish literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Poland" title="Mass media in Poland">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Poland" title="Music of Poland">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_Poland" title="Names of Poland">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_names" title="Polish names">Polish names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_days_in_Poland" title="Name days in Poland">Name days</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Poland" title="Public holidays in Poland">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Poland" title="Religion in Poland">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Poland" title="Sport in Poland">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Poland" title="Theatre of Poland">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Polish_traditions" title="Category:Polish traditions">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Poland" title="Video games in Poland">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Poland" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Poland">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Poland" title="Demographics of Poland">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Poles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_Poland" title="Ethnic minorities in Poland">Ethnic minorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugees_in_Poland" title="Refugees in Poland">Refugees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Poland" title="Crime in Poland">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Poland" title="Education in Poland">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_in_Poland" title="Health care in Poland">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Poland" title="Languages of Poland">Languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Poland" title="National symbols of Poland">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poland_Is_Not_Yet_Lost" title="Poland Is Not Yet Lost">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Poland" title="Coat of arms of Poland">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Poland" title="Flag of Poland">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_flags" title="List of Polish flags">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_Poland" title="Orders, decorations, and medals of Poland">Orders and decorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polonia_(personification)" title="Polonia (personification)">Polonia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Poland" title="Outline of Poland">Outline</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Poland" title="Category:Poland">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Poland" title="Portal:Poland">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ukraine_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ukraine_topics" title="Template:Ukraine topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ukraine_topics" title="Template talk:Ukraine topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ukraine_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ukraine topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ukraine_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Chronology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Early Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Slavs" title="East Slavs">East Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuyaba" title="Kuyaba">Kuyaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Kiev" title="Principality of Kiev">Principality of Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia%E2%80%93Volhynia" title="Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia">Galicia–Volhynia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kiev_Voivodeship" title="Kiev Voivodeship">Kiev Voivodeship</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaporozhian_Cossacks" title="Zaporozhian Cossacks">Zaporozhian Cossacks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zaporozhian_Sich" title="Zaporozhian Sich">Sich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Hetmanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pereiaslav_Agreement" title="Pereiaslav Agreement">Pereiaslav Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)">Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_War_of_Independence" title="Ukrainian War of Independence">Revolution and War of Independence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="Ukrainian People's Republic">Ukrainian People's Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_State" title="Ukrainian State">Ukrainian State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="West Ukrainian People's Republic">West Ukrainian People's Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makhnovshchina" title="Makhnovshchina">Makhnovshchina</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ukraine" title="Reichskommissariat Ukraine">Reichskommissariat Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_National_Committee" title="Ukrainian National Committee">Ukrainian National Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian SSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front (World War II)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">Volhynia massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_of_Ukraine" title="Declaration of Independence of Ukraine">Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Revolution" title="Orange Revolution">Orange Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euromaidan" title="Euromaidan">Euromaidan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolution_of_Dignity" title="Revolution of Dignity">Revolution of Dignity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Outline of the Russo-Ukrainian War">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_pro-Russian_unrest_in_Ukraine" title="2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine">2014 pro-Russian unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">Annexation of Crimea by Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Donbas" title="War in Donbas">War in Donbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian invasion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Ukraine" title="History of Christianity in Ukraine">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Ukraine" title="Economy of Ukraine">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Ukraine" title="Armed Forces of Ukraine">Military</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Ukraine" title="Geography of Ukraine">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_parks_of_Ukraine" title="National parks of Ukraine">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Network_of_Biosphere_Reserves_in_Europe_and_North_America#Ukraine" title="World Network of Biosphere Reserves in Europe and North America">Biosphere reserves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Natural Wonders of Ukraine">Seven Natural Wonders of Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nature_reserves_of_Ukraine" title="List of nature reserves of Ukraine">Nature reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populated_places_in_Ukraine" title="Populated places in Ukraine">Populated places</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Ukraine" title="List of cities in Ukraine">Cities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_longest_rivers_of_Ukraine" title="List of longest rivers of Ukraine">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Ukraine" title="List of mountains in Ukraine">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_in_Ukraine" title="List of waterfalls in Ukraine">Waterfalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Ukraine" title="List of islands of Ukraine">Islands and sandbars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Ukraine" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Ukraine">World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Ukraine" title="Wildlife of Ukraine">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Ukraine" title="Politics of Ukraine">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Ukraine" title="Administrative divisions of Ukraine">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Ukraine" title="Constitution of Ukraine">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Ukraine" title="Flag of Ukraine">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Ukraine" title="President of Ukraine">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verkhovna_Rada" title="Verkhovna Rada">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Ukraine" title="Government of Ukraine">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Ukraine" title="Foreign relations of Ukraine">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Ukraine" title="Armed Forces of Ukraine">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_Ukraine" title="Political parties in Ukraine">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Ukraine" title="Elections in Ukraine">Elections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Ukraine" title="Judiciary of Ukraine">Judiciary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Ukraine" title="Law of Ukraine">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Ukraine)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Ukraine)">Law enforcement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine%E2%80%93European_Union_relations" title="Ukraine–European Union relations">Ukraine–European Union relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine%E2%80%93NATO_relations" title="Ukraine–NATO relations">Ukraine–NATO relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Ukraine" title="Economy of Ukraine">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_hryvnia" title="Ukrainian hryvnia">Hryvnia (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Ukraine" title="Banking in Ukraine">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_exchanges_in_Ukraine" title="Stock exchanges in Ukraine">Stock exchanges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Ukraine" title="Energy in Ukraine">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_in_Ukraine" title="Electricity in Ukraine">Electricity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Ukraine" title="Science and technology in Ukraine">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ukraine" title="Telecommunications in Ukraine">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Ukraine" title="Tourism in Ukraine">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Ukraine" title="Transport in Ukraine">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Ukraine" title="Category:Society of Ukraine">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ukraine" title="Education in Ukraine">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Ukraine" title="Corruption in Ukraine">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality_in_Ukraine" title="Gender inequality in Ukraine">Gender inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Ukraine" title="Health in Ukraine">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Ukraine" title="Abortion in Ukraine">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Ukraine" title="HIV/AIDS in Ukraine">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic" title="2009 swine flu pandemic">Swine flu pandemic</a> (2009-10)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ukraine" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Ukraine">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Ukraine" title="Crime in Ukraine">Crime</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suicide_in_Ukraine" title="Suicide in Ukraine">suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Ukraine" title="Human rights in Ukraine">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_Ukraine" title="Freedom of the press in Ukraine">Freedom of the press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Ukraine">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Ukraine" title="Human trafficking in Ukraine">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Ukraine" title="Languages of Ukraine">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minorities_in_Ukraine" title="Minorities in Ukraine">Minorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Ukraine" title="Prostitution in Ukraine">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ukraine" title="Religion in Ukraine">Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Ukraine" title="Culture of Ukraine">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukrainian_animation" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ukrainian animation">Animation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_architecture" title="Ukrainian architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Architecture of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_baroque" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian baroque">Baroque</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_of_Ukraine" title="Arts of Ukraine">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Ukraine" title="Cinema of Ukraine">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_cuisine" title="Ukrainian cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_wine" title="Ukrainian wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cultural icons <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandura" title="Bandura">Bandura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borscht" title="Borscht">Borscht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_fairy_tale" title="Ukrainian fairy tale">Kazka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kobzar" title="Kobzar">Kobzar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pysanka" class="mw-redirect" title="Pysanka">Pysanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rushnyk" title="Rushnyk">Rushnyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyshyvanka" title="Vyshyvanka">Vyshyvanka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_dance" title="Ukrainian dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_folklore" title="Ukrainian folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Ukraine" title="Public holidays in Ukraine">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intangible_Cultural_Heritage_of_Ukraine" title="Intangible Cultural Heritage of Ukraine">Intangible Cultural Heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_literature" title="Ukrainian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Ukraine" title="Mass media in Ukraine">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Ukraine" title="Music of Ukraine">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opera_in_Ukraine" title="Opera in Ukraine">Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Ukraine" title="Sport in Ukraine">Sport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Ukraine" title="Demographics of Ukraine">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainian people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rus%27_people" title="Rus' people">Rus' people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruthenians" title="Ruthenians">Ruthenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_diaspora" title="Ukrainian diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_refugee_crisis_(2022%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian refugee crisis (2022–present)">Refugees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigration to Ukraine">Immigration to Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censuses_in_Ukraine" title="Censuses in Ukraine">Censuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ukraine" title="Women in Ukraine">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Ukraine" title="Outline of Ukraine">Outline</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ukraine" title="Category:Ukraine">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ukraine" title="Portal:Ukraine">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172107#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172107#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172107#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/280847926">VIAF</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/1060577984">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=xx0271930&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth&oldid=1258303312">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth&oldid=1258303312</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Category:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Early_modern_history_of_Belarus" title="Category:Early modern history of Belarus">Early modern history of Belarus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Early_modern_history_of_Lithuania" title="Category:Early modern history of Lithuania">Early modern history of Lithuania</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Early_modern_history_of_Poland" title="Category:Early modern history of Poland">Early modern history of Poland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Early_modern_history_of_Ukraine" title="Category:Early modern history of Ukraine">Early modern history of Ukraine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_countries_in_Europe" title="Category:Former countries in Europe">Former countries in Europe</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_monarchies_of_Europe" title="Category:Former monarchies of Europe">Former monarchies of Europe</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_history_of_Lithuania" title="Category:Political history of Lithuania">Political history of Lithuania</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_history_of_Poland" title="Category:Political history of Poland">Political 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disestablishments in Poland">1795 disestablishments in Poland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1795_disestablishments_in_Lithuania" title="Category:1795 disestablishments in Lithuania">1795 disestablishments in Lithuania</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1795_disestablishments_in_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Category:1795 disestablishments in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">1795 disestablishments in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:17th_century_in_Belarus" title="Category:17th century in Belarus">17th century in Belarus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:18th_century_in_Belarus" title="Category:18th century in Belarus">18th century in Belarus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:16th_century_in_Belarus" title="Category:16th century in Belarus">16th century in Belarus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:16th_century_in_Lithuania" title="Category:16th century in Lithuania">16th century in Lithuania</a></li><li><a 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340.760 4 Template:Country_topics"," 7.77% 287.091 37 Template:Cite_web"," 5.49% 202.813 19 Template:Fix"," 4.80% 177.537 7 Template:Ubl"," 3.95% 146.163 30 Template:ISBN"," 3.55% 131.286 2 Template:Native_name"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.142","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21807912,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAleksander_Gieysztor1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlišauskasL._JovaišaM._PaknysR._Petrauskas2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllen\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndrej_Kotljarchuk2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndriulis\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAntoine-François-Claude_Ferrand1820\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArtūras_Tereškinas2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBardach1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBardach2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBardachLesnodorskiPietrzak1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarile2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBartłomiej_Kaczorowski2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBartłomiej_Szyndler2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBertram_Benedict1919\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBesalaBiedrzycka2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBillock2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlaustein1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBojtár1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorucki1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorucki2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrzezinski1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrzezinski1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrückner1931\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFButterwick2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisholm1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooper1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCzapliński1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDabrowski2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaniel_H._Cole2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_Sneath2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDobrowolski1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDyer1861\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEngel2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeliks_GryglewiczRomuald_ŁukaszykWincenty_GranatZygmunt_Sułowski1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFiszman1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlisowski1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrancis_Dvornik1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrost\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrost2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrost2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrost2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGdańskie_Towarzystwo_Naukowe1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGierowski1986a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGillespie2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGintel1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGirolamo_ImbrugliaRolando_MinutiLuisa_Simonutti2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon_Campbell2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGross1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrzegorz_Górny2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGudavičius\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGwei-Djen_LuJoseph_NeedhamVivienne_Lo2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalecki1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarbottle_Thomas_Benfield2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoward2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIan_Ridpath\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInstitute_of_History_(Polish_Academy_of_Sciences)1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInstytut_Badań_Literackich1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJ._K._FedorowiczMaria_BoguckaHenryk_Samsonowicz1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJ._SmithPabriksPursLane2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacek_F._Gieras1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacek_Jędruch1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJan_K._Ostrowski1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJarmo_Kotilaine2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJasas\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJasienica1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeannie_Labno2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoanna_B._Michlic2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJosef_Macha1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJuliusz_BardachZdzisław_KaczmarczykBogusław_Leśnodorski1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJędruch1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarol_Zierhoffer,_Zofia_Zierhoffer2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarpowicz1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKazimierz_Maliszewski1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitowicz2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKizwalter1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKopczyńskiTygielski2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKowalczyk1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrzysztof_Olszewski2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKucharczuk2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLitwin2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLola_Romanucci-RossGeorge_A._De_VosTakeyuki_Tsuda2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLubliner1858\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM._L._Bush1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaciej_Kobyliński\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadison1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagocsi2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManieckySzajnocha1869\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManikowska2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMariusz_Karpowicz1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_J._Mikoś\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiłobędzki1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiłobędzki1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuthesius1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholas_L._Chirovsky1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorkus2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman_Davies2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFOrlińska-Mianowska2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPPerry_Anderson1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPacyJames_T._McHugh2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParadowski2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_Peucker\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_R._Magocsi2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_Robert_Magocsi1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaństwowy_Instytut_Badania_Sztuki_Ludowej1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPernal2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_Kardash,_Brett_Lockwood1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeterson2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetrauskas\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiekarski1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiotr_Wandycz2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPodhorodecki1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolin_Travel\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolish_Academy_of_Sciences_Institute_of_History1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolskie_Towarzystwo_Historyczne1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRey_Koslowski2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichard_Brzezinski1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichard_Butterwick1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichard_M._Golden2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichters2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRieber2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Bideleux,_Ian_Jeffries2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRolska-Boruch2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosemary_A._Chorzempa1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRowell2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRowellBaronas2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoşu2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalo_Wittmayer_Baron1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSarah_Johnstone2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSerhii_Plokhy2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShubin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingleton2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnopek1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSobiech2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSowa2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpečiūnas\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpórna2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStachowicz1894\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephen_K._Batalden,_Sandra_L._Batalden1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStone,_Daniel2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStone2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSužiedėlis2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSven-Olof_Lindquist,_Birgitta_Radhe1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzablowski1975\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSzujski1894\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTed_TapperDavid_Palfreyman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTomasz_Kamusella2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTomaszewska\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTucker2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTumelis\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaugh1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWillfried_Spohn,_Anna_Triandafyllidou2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_J._Duiker,_Jackson_J._Spielvogel2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYves-Marie_Bercé1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZdzisław_KlimczukJózef_Garliński1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZinkevičius1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZsigmond_Pál_Pach,_Zs._P._Pach1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZwoliński1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFkurkowski2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFpisze2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFŁyczak2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFУкраїни\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Belarus topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Britannica\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 8,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 146,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 37,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Coord\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 7,\n [\"Efn\"] = 5,\n [\"Empires\"] = 1,\n [\"Former Monarchies\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 37,\n [\"History of Europe\"] = 1,\n [\"History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth\"] = 1,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 30,\n [\"In lang\"] = 3,\n [\"Infobox country\"] = 1,\n [\"Interlanguage link\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 4,\n [\"Langx\"] = 29,\n [\"Lithuania topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 14,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 7,\n [\"Native name\"] = 2,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nwr\"] = 6,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 4,\n [\"Pb\"] = 2,\n [\"Poland topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rzeczpospolita 1618\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Slink\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 7,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 7,\n [\"Ubli\"] = 1,\n [\"Ukraine topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 9,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","460","19.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","380","15.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","180","7.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","180","7.4"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","100","4.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::redirectTarget","80","3.3"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","80","3.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","60","2.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::preprocess","60","2.5"],["(for generator)","60","2.5"],["[others]","780","32.2"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-7zkrf","timestamp":"20241124195828","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q172107","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q172107","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-10-17T20:23:04Z","dateModified":"2024-11-19T00:51:55Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/0c\/Chor%C4%85giew_kr%C3%B3lewska_kr%C3%B3la_Zygmunta_III_Wazy.svg","headline":"historical multinational monarchist state in Central Europe (Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania)"}</script> </body> </html>