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id="toc-Alternative_practice_in_the_pre-Columbian_Amazon_basin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input 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Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">24 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9" title="زراعة متحركة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="زراعة متحركة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7" title="জুম চাষ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জুম চাষ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultura_itinerant" title="Agricultura itinerant – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Agricultura itinerant" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wanderfeldbau" title="Wanderfeldbau – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wanderfeldbau" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultura_itinerante" title="Agricultura itinerante – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Agricultura itinerante" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migra_kampokultivado" title="Migra kampokultivado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Migra kampokultivado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="کشاورزی نوبتی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کشاورزی نوبتی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_itin%C3%A9rante" title="Agriculture itinérante – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Agriculture itinérante" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF" title="स्थानान्तरी कृषि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="स्थानान्तरी कृषि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coltivazione_itinerante" title="Coltivazione itinerante – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Coltivazione itinerante" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guhinga" title="Guhinga – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Guhinga" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ikinyarwanda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirvonin%C4%97_%C5%BEemdirbyst%C4%97" title="Dirvoninė žemdirbystė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Dirvoninė žemdirbystė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%83%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%BF" title="മാറ്റക്കൃഷി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മാറ്റക്കൃഷി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pertanian_pindah" title="Pertanian pindah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pertanian pindah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwerflandbouw" title="Zwerflandbouw – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zwerflandbouw" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Od%C5%82%C3%B3g" title="Odłóg – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Odłóg" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultura_itinerante" title="Agricultura itinerante – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Agricultura itinerante" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piyata" title="Piyata – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Piyata" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Переложное земледелие – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Переложное земледелие" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shifting_cultivation" title="Shifting cultivation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Shifting cultivation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%81_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%82" title="పోడు వ్యవసాయం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పోడు వ్యవసాయం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Перелогова система землеробства – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Перелогова система землеробства" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du_canh_du_c%C6%B0" title="Du canh du cư – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Du canh du cư" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BC%AA%E8%80%95" title="輪耕 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="輪耕" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q287854#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about Shifting cultivation. For a focus on slash and burn farming methods, see <a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">Slash-and-burn</a>.</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-No_footnotes plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-No_footnotes" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">list of references</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Further_reading" title="Wikipedia:Further reading">related reading</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links" title="Wikipedia:External links">external links</a>, <b>but its sources remain unclear because it lacks <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Fact_and_Reference_Check" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Fact and Reference Check">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SouthEast_Asia_fires_Oct_2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/SouthEast_Asia_fires_Oct_2006.jpg/300px-SouthEast_Asia_fires_Oct_2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/SouthEast_Asia_fires_Oct_2006.jpg/450px-SouthEast_Asia_fires_Oct_2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/SouthEast_Asia_fires_Oct_2006.jpg/600px-SouthEast_Asia_fires_Oct_2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7200" data-file-height="4800" /></a><figcaption>Slash-and-burn based shifting cultivation is a widespread historical practice in southeast Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Above is a satellite image of Sumatra and Borneo showing shift cultivation fires from <a href="/wiki/2006_Southeast_Asian_haze" title="2006 Southeast Asian haze">October 2006</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Shifting cultivation</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Agricultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural">agricultural</a> system in which plots of land are cultivated temporarily, then abandoned while post-disturbance <a href="/wiki/Fallow" title="Fallow">fallow</a> vegetation is allowed to freely grow while the cultivator moves on to another plot. The period of cultivation is usually terminated when the soil shows signs of exhaustion or, more commonly, when the field is overrun by weeds. The period of time during which the field is cultivated is usually shorter than the period over which the land is allowed to regenerate by lying fallow. </p><p>This technique is often used in <a href="/wiki/LEDCs" class="mw-redirect" title="LEDCs">LEDCs</a> (Less Economically Developed Countries) or LICs (Low Income Countries). In some areas, cultivators use a practice of <a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a> as one element of their <a href="/wiki/Farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Farming">farming</a> cycle. Others employ land clearing without any burning, and some cultivators are purely <a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">migratory</a> and do not use any cyclical method on a given plot. Sometimes no slashing at all is needed where regrowth is purely of <a href="/wiki/Grasses" class="mw-redirect" title="Grasses">grasses</a>, an outcome not uncommon when soils are near exhaustion and need to lie fallow. </p><p>In shifting agriculture, after two or three years of producing vegetable and grain crops on cleared land, the migrants abandon it for another plot. Land is often cleared by slash-and-burn methods—trees, bushes and forests are cleared by slashing, and the remaining vegetation is burnt. The ashes add potash to the soil. Then the seeds are sown after the rains. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_ecology">Political ecology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifting_cultivation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Political ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Shifting cultivation is a form of <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> or a cultivation system in which, at any particular point in time, a minority of 'fields' are in cultivation and a majority are in various stages of natural re-growth. Over time, fields are cultivated for a relatively short time, and allowed to recover, or are fallowed, for a relatively long time. Eventually a previously cultivated field will be cleared of the natural vegetation and planted in crops again. Fields in established and stable shifting cultivation systems are cultivated and fallowed cyclically. This type of farming is called jhumming in India.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fallow fields are not unproductive. During the fallow period, shifting cultivators use the <a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">successive vegetation</a> species widely for <a href="/wiki/Timber" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber">timber</a> for fencing and construction, <a href="/wiki/Firewood" title="Firewood">firewood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thatch" class="mw-redirect" title="Thatch">thatching</a>, ropes, <a href="/wiki/Clothing" title="Clothing">clothing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">tools</a>, carrying devices and <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicines</a>. It is common for fruit and <a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">nut</a> trees to be planted in fallow fields to the extent that parts of some fallows are in fact <a href="/wiki/Orchard" title="Orchard">orchards</a>. Soil-enhancing <a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">shrub</a> or tree species may be planted or protected from slashing or burning in fallows. Many of these species have been shown to <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">fix nitrogen</a>. Fallows commonly contain plants that attract <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> and animals and are important for <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</a>. But perhaps most importantly, tree fallows protect soil against physical <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> and draw <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a> to the surface from deep in the soil profile. </p><p>The relationship between the time the land is cultivated and the time it is fallowed are critical to the stability of shifting cultivation systems. These parameters determine whether or not the shifting cultivation system as a whole suffers a net loss of nutrients over time. A system in which there is a net loss of nutrients with each cycle will eventually lead to a degradation of resources unless actions are taken to arrest the losses. In some cases <a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">soil</a> can be irreversibly exhausted (including erosion as well as nutrient loss) in less than a decade. </p><p>The longer a field is cropped, the greater the loss of <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">soil organic matter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cation-exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation-exchange">cation-exchange</a>-capacity and in <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, the greater the increase in <a href="/wiki/Acidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Acidity">acidity</a>, the more likely soil porosity and <a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">infiltration</a> capacity is reduced and the greater the loss of seeds of naturally occurring plant species from <a href="/wiki/Soil_seed_bank" title="Soil seed bank">soil seed banks</a>. In a stable shifting cultivation system, the fallow is long enough for the natural vegetation to recover to the state that it was in before it was cleared, and for the soil to recover to the condition it was in before cropping began. During fallow periods soil temperatures are lower, wind and water erosion is much reduced, <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrient cycling">nutrient cycling</a> becomes closed again, nutrients are extracted from the subsoil, soil <a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> decreases, acidity is reduced, soil structure, texture and moisture characteristics improve and seed banks are replenished. </p><p>The secondary forests created by shifting cultivation are commonly richer in plant and animal resources useful to humans than primary forests, even though they are much less bio-diverse. Shifting cultivators view the forest as an agricultural landscape of fields at various stages in a regular cycle. People unused to living in forests cannot see the fields for the trees. Rather they perceive an apparently chaotic landscape in which trees are cut and burned randomly and so they characterise shifting cultivation as ephemeral or 'pre-agricultural', as 'primitive' and as a stage to be progressed beyond. </p><p>Shifting agriculture is none of these things. Stable shifting cultivation systems are highly variable, closely adapted to <a href="/wiki/Microclimate" title="Microclimate">micro-environments</a> and are carefully managed by <a href="/wiki/Farmer" title="Farmer">farmers</a> during both the cropping and fallow stages. Shifting cultivators may possess a highly developed knowledge and understanding of their local environments and of the crops and native plant species they exploit. Complex and highly adaptive land tenure systems sometimes exist under shifting cultivation. Introduced crops for food and as cash have been skillfully integrated into some shifting cultivation systems. Its disadvantages include the high initial cost, as manual labour is required. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_Europe">In Europe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifting_cultivation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: In Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Shifting cultivation was still being practised as a viable and stable form of agriculture in many parts of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and east into <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> at the end of the 19th century and in some places well into the 20th century. In the <a href="/wiki/Ruhr" title="Ruhr">Ruhr</a> in the late 1860s a forest-field rotation system known as <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reutbergwirtschaft" class="extiw" title="de:Reutbergwirtschaft">Reutbergwirtschaft</a> was using a 16-year cycle of clearing, cropping and fallowing with trees to produce bark for <a href="/wiki/Tanneries" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanneries">tanneries</a>, wood for <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rye" title="Rye">rye</a> for <a href="/wiki/Flour" title="Flour">flour</a> (Darby 1956, 200). Swidden farming was practised in <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> at least until the 1930s, using specially selected varieties of "swidden-rye" (Steensberg 1993, 98). </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> and Northern Russia the main swidden crops were turnips, barley, flax, rye, wheat, oats, radishes and <a href="/wiki/Millet" title="Millet">millet</a>. Cropping periods were usually one year, but were extended to two or three years on very favourable soils. Fallow periods were between 20 and 40 years (Linnard 1970, 195). In <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> in 1949, Steensberg (1993, 111) observed the clearing and burning of a 60,000 square metres (15 acres) <a href="/wiki/Swidden" class="mw-redirect" title="Swidden">swidden</a> 440 km north of <a href="/wiki/Helsinki" title="Helsinki">Helsinki</a>. </p><p>Birch and pine trees had been cleared over a period of a year and the logs sold for cash. A fallow of <a href="/wiki/Alder" title="Alder">alder</a> (Alnus) was encouraged to improve soil conditions. After the burn, turnip was sown for sale and for cattle feed. Shifting cultivation was disappearing in this part of Finland because of a loss of agricultural labour to the industries of the towns. Steensberg (1993, 110-152) provides eye-witness descriptions of shifting cultivation being practised in <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> in the 20th century, and in <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosnia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosnia">Bosnia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> in the 1930s to the 1950s. </p><p>That these agricultural practices survived from the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic</a> into the middle of the 20th century amidst the sweeping changes that occurred in Europe over that period, suggests they were adaptive and in themselves, were not massively destructive of the environments in which they were practiced. </p><p>The earliest written accounts of deforestation in Southern Europe begin around 1000 BC in the histories of <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Geographica" title="Geographica"><i>Geography</i></a>. Forests were exploited for ship building, and urban development, the manufacture of casks, pitch and charcoal, as well as being cleared for agriculture. The intensification of trade and as a result of warfare, increased the demand for ships which were manufactured completely from forest products. Although goat herding is singled out as an important cause of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a>, a more important cause of forest destruction was the practice in some places of granting ownership rights to those who clear felled forests and brought the land into permanent cultivation. </p><p>Evidence that circumstances other than agriculture were the major causes for forest destruction was the recovery of tree cover in many parts of the Roman empire from 400 BC to around 500 AD following the collapse of Roman economy and industry. Darby observes that by 400 AD "land that had once been tilled became derelict and overgrown" and quotes <a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a> who wrote that in many places "cultivated land became forest" (Darby 1956, 186). The other major cause of forest destruction in the Mediterranean environment with its hot dry summers were wild fires that became more common following human interference in the forests. </p><p>In Central and Northern Europe the use of stone tools and fire in agriculture is well established in the <a href="/wiki/Palynological" class="mw-redirect" title="Palynological">palynological</a> and archaeological record from the Neolithic. Here, just as in Southern Europe, the demands of more intensive agriculture and the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">plough</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trading" class="mw-redirect" title="Trading">trading</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tanning_(leather)" title="Tanning (leather)">tanning</a>, building and construction in the growing towns and constant warfare, including the demands of naval shipbuilding, were more important forces behind the destruction of the forests than was shifting cultivation. </p><p>By the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> in Europe, large areas of forest were being cleared and converted into arable land in association with the development of <a href="/wiki/Feudal" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal">feudal</a> tenurial practices. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, the demands of iron smelters for charcoal, increasing industrial developments and the discovery and expansion of colonial empires as well as incessant warfare that increased the demand for shipping to levels never previously reached, all combined to deforest Europe. </p><p>With the loss of the forest, so shifting cultivation became restricted to the peripheral places of Europe, where permanent agriculture was uneconomic, transport costs constrained logging or terrain prevented the use of draught animals or tractors. It has disappeared from even these areas since 1945, as agriculture has become increasingly capital intensive, rural areas have become depopulated and the remnant European forests themselves have been revalued economically and socially. </p><p>Classical authors mentioned large forests,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> writing about "wooded <a href="/wiki/Samothrace" title="Samothrace">Samothrace</a>", <a href="/wiki/Zakynthos" title="Zakynthos">Zakynthos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, and other woodlands.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These authors indicated that the Mediterranean area once had more forest; much had already been lost, and the remainder was primarily in the mountains.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although parts of Europe remained wooded, by the late <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Ages</a>, forests were drastically reduced and settlements regularly moved. The reasons for this pattern of mobility, the transition to stable settlements from the late Viking period on, or the transition from shifting cultivation to stationary <a href="/wiki/Farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Farming">farming</a> are unknown. From this period, plows are found in graves. Early agricultural peoples preferred good forests on hillsides with good drainage, and traces of cattle enclosures are evident there. </p><p>In Italy, shifting cultivation was no longer used by the common era. <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> describes it as a strange cultivation method, practiced by the Germans. In 98 CE, he wrote about the Germans that their fields were proportional to the participating cultivators but their crops were shared according to status. Distribution was simple, because of wide availability; they changed fields annually, with much to spare because they were producing grain rather than other crops. A W Liljenstrand wrote in his 1857 doctoral dissertation, "About Changing of Soil" (pp. 5 ff.), that Tacitus discusses shifting cultivation: "arva per annos mutant".<sup id="cite_ref-Harvard_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvard-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the practice of shifting cultivation.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a> in Europe, after the Roman Empire and before the Viking Age, the peoples of Central Europe moved to new forests after exhausting old parcels. Forests were quickly exhausted; the practice had ended in the Mediterranean, where forests were less resilient than the sturdier coniferous forests of Central Europe. <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a> had been partially caused by burning to create pasture. Reduced timber delivery led to higher prices and more stone construction in the Roman Empire (Stewart 1956, p. 123).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although forests gradually decreased in northern Europe, they have survived in the Nordic countries. </p><p>Many <a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a> saw benefits in allying with Rome. When the Romans built the <i><a href="/wiki/Via_Cassia#Via_Amerina" title="Via Cassia">Via Amerina</a></i> in 241 BCE, the <a href="/wiki/Falisci" title="Falisci">Falisci</a> settled in cities on the plains and aided the Romans in road construction; the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a> gradually acquired representatives from Faliscan and <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan</a> families, and the Italic tribes became settled farmers.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Classical writers described peoples who practiced shifting cultivation, which characterized the Migration Period in Europe. The exploitation of forests demanded displacement as areas were deforested. <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> wrote about the <a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebi</a> in <i>Commentarii de Bello Gallico</i> 4.1, "They have no private and secluded fields ("<i>privati ac separati agri apud eos nihil est</i>") ... They cannot stay more than one year in a place for cultivation’s sake" ("<i>neque longius anno remanere uno in loco colendi causa licet</i>"). </p><p>The Suebi lived between the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Elbe" title="Elbe">Elbe</a>. About the Germani, Caesar wrote: "No one has a particular field or area for himself, for the magistrates and chiefs give year by year to the people and the clans, who have gathered together, as much land and in such places as seem good to them and then make them move on after a year" ("<i>Neque quisquam agri modum certum aut fines habet proprios, sed magistratus ac principes in annos singulos gentibus cognationibusque hominum, qui tum una coierunt, a quantum et quo loco visum est agri attribuunt atque anno post alio transire cogunt</i>" [Book 6.22]). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> (63 BCE—c. 20 CE) also writes about the Suebi in his <i>Geography</i> (VII, 1, 3): "Common to all the people in this area is that they can easily change residence because of their sordid way of life; they do not cultivate fields or collect property, but live in temporary huts. They get their nourishment from their livestock for the most part, and like <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomads</a>, pack all their goods in wagons and go on to wherever they want". Horace writes in 17 BCE (<i>Carmen Saeculare</i>, 3, 24, 9ff.) about the people of <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Greece)" title="Macedonia (Greece)">Macedonia</a>: "The proud <a href="/wiki/Getae" title="Getae">Getae</a> also live happily, growing free food and cereal for themselves on land they do not want to cultivate for more than a year" ("<i>Vivunt et rigidi Getae, / immetata quibus iugera liberas / fruges et Cererem ferunt, / nec cultura placet longior annua</i>"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Simple_societies_and_environmental_change">Simple societies and environmental change</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifting_cultivation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Simple societies and environmental change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bekas_areal_terbakar_(15).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Bekas_areal_terbakar_%2815%29.JPG/220px-Bekas_areal_terbakar_%2815%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Bekas_areal_terbakar_%2815%29.JPG/330px-Bekas_areal_terbakar_%2815%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Bekas_areal_terbakar_%2815%29.JPG/440px-Bekas_areal_terbakar_%2815%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="521" /></a><figcaption>Shifting cultivation in Indonesia. A new crop is sprouting through the burnt soil.</figcaption></figure> <p>A growing body of palynological evidence finds that simple human societies brought about extensive changes to their environments before the establishment of any sort of state, feudal or capitalist, and before the development of large scale mining, smelting or shipbuilding industries. In these societies agriculture was the driving force in the economy and shifting cultivation was the most common type of agriculture practiced. By examining the relationships between social and economic change and agricultural change in these societies, insights can be gained on contemporary social and economic change and global environment change, and the place of shifting cultivation in those relationships. </p><p>As early as 1930 questions about relationships between the rise and fall of the <a href="/wiki/Mayan_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayan civilization">Mayan civilization</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a> and shifting cultivation were raised and continue to be debated today. Archaeological evidence suggests the development of Mayan society and economy began around 250 AD. A mere 700 years later it reached its apogee, by which time the population may have reached 2,000,000 people. There followed a precipitous decline that left the great cities and ceremonial centres vacant and overgrown with jungle vegetation. The causes of this decline are uncertain; but warfare and the exhaustion of agricultural land are commonly cited (Meggers 1954; Dumond 1961; Turner 1974). More recent work suggests the Maya may have, in suitable places, developed irrigation systems and more intensive agricultural practices (Humphries 1993). </p><p>Similar paths appear to have been followed by Polynesian settlers in New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, who within 500 years of their arrival around 1100 AD turned substantial areas from forest into scrub and fern and in the process caused the elimination of numerous species of birds and animals (Kirch and Hunt 1997). In the restricted environments of the Pacific islands, including Fiji and Hawaii, early extensive erosion and change of vegetation is presumed to have been caused by shifting cultivation on slopes. Soils washed from slopes were deposited in valley bottoms as a rich, swampy alluvium. </p><p>These new environments were then exploited to develop intensive, irrigated fields. The change from shifting cultivation to intensive irrigated fields occurred in association with a rapid growth in population and the development of elaborate and highly stratified chiefdoms (Kirch 1984). In the larger, temperate latitude, islands of New Zealand the presumed course of events took a different path. There the stimulus for population growth was the hunting of large birds to extinction, during which time forests in drier areas were destroyed by burning, followed the development of intensive agriculture in favorable environments, based mainly on <a href="/wiki/Sweet_potato" title="Sweet potato">sweet potato</a> (Ipomoea batatas) and a reliance on the gathering of two main wild plant species in less favorable environments. These changes, as in the smaller islands, were accompanied by population growth, the competition for the occupation of the best environments, complexity in social organization, and <a href="/wiki/Endemic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic warfare">endemic warfare</a> (Anderson 1997). </p><p>The record of humanly induced changes in environments is longer in New Guinea than in most places. Agricultural activities probably began 5,000 to 9,000 years ago. However, the most spectacular changes, in both societies and environments, are believed to have occurred in the central highlands of the island within the last 1,000 years, in association with the introduction of a crop new to New Guinea, the sweet potato (Golson 1982a; 1982b). One of the most striking signals of the relatively recent intensification of agriculture is the sudden increase in sedimentation rates in small lakes. </p><p>The root question posed by these and the numerous other examples that could be cited of simple societies that have intensified their agricultural systems in association with increases in population and social complexity is not whether or how shifting cultivation was responsible for the extensive changes to landscapes and environments. Rather it is why simple societies of shifting cultivators in the tropical forest of Yucatán, or the highlands of New Guinea, began to grow in numbers and to develop stratified and sometimes complex social hierarchies? </p><p>At first sight, the greatest stimulus to the intensification of a shifting cultivation system is a growth in population. If no other changes occur within the system, for each extra person to be fed from the system, a small extra amount of land must be cultivated. The total amount of land available is the land being presently cropped and all of the land in fallow. If the area occupied by the system is not expanded into previously unused land, then either the cropping period must be extended or the fallow period shortened. </p><p>At least two problems exist with the population growth hypothesis. First, population growth in most pre-industrial shifting cultivator societies has been shown to be very low over the long term. Second, no human societies are known where people work only to eat. People engage in social relations with each other and agricultural produce is used in the conduct of these relationships. </p><p>These relationships are the focus of two attempts to understand the nexus between human societies and their environments, one an explanation of a particular situation and the other a general exploration of the problem. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feedback_loops">Feedback loops</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifting_cultivation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Feedback loops"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a study of the Duna in the Southern Highlands of New Guinea, a group in the process of moving from shifting cultivation into permanent field agriculture post sweet potato, Modjeska (1982) argued for the development of two "self amplifying feed back loops" of ecological and social causation. The trigger to the changes were very slow population growth and the slow expansion of agriculture to meet the demands of this growth. This set in motion the first feedback loop, the "use-value" loop. </p><p>As more forest was cleared there was a decline in wild food resources and protein produced from hunting, which was substituted for by an increase in domestic pig raising. An increase in domestic pigs required a further expansion in agriculture. The greater protein available from the larger number of pigs increased human fertility and survival rates and resulted in faster population growth. </p><p>The outcome of the operation of the two loops, one bringing about ecological change and the other social and economic change, is an expanding and intensifying agricultural system, the conversion of forest to grassland, a population growing at an increasing rate and expanding geographically and a society that is increasing in complexity and stratification. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resources_are_cultural_appraisals">Resources are cultural appraisals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifting_cultivation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Resources are cultural appraisals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The second attempt to explain the relationships between simple agricultural societies and their environments is that of Ellen (1982, 252–270). Ellen does not attempt to separate use-values from social production. He argues that almost all of the materials required by humans to live (with perhaps the exception of air) are obtained through social relations of production and that these relations proliferate and are modified in numerous ways. The values that humans attribute to items produced from the environment arise out of cultural arrangements and not from the objects themselves, a restatement of <a href="/wiki/Carl_O._Sauer" title="Carl O. Sauer">Carl Sauer</a>'s dictum that "resources are cultural appraisals". </p><p>Humans frequently translate actual objects into culturally conceived forms, an example being the translation by the Duna of the pig into an item of compensation and redemption. As a result, two fundamental processes underlie the ecology of human social systems: First, the obtaining of materials from the environment and their alteration and circulation through social relations, and second, giving the material a value which will affect how important it is to obtain it, circulate it or alter it. Environmental pressures are thus mediated through social relations. </p><p>Transitions in ecological systems and in social systems do not proceed at the same rate. The rate of phylogenetic change is determined mainly by natural selection and partly by human interference and adaptation, such as for example, the domestication of a wild species. Humans however have the ability to learn and to communicate their knowledge to each other and across generations. If most social systems have the tendency to increase in complexity they will, sooner or later, come into conflict with, or into "contradiction" (Friedman 1979, 1982) with their environments. What happens around the point of "contradiction" will determine the extent of the environmental degradation that will occur. Of particular importance is the ability of the society to change, to invent or to innovate technologically and sociologically, in order to overcome the "contradiction" without incurring continuing environmental degradation, or social disintegration. </p><p>An economic study of what occurs at the points of conflict with specific reference to shifting cultivation is that of <a href="/wiki/Esther_Boserup" class="mw-redirect" title="Esther Boserup">Esther Boserup</a> (1965). Boserup argues that low intensity farming, extensive shifting cultivation for example, has lower labor costs than more <a href="/wiki/Intensive_farming" title="Intensive farming">intensive farming</a> systems. This assertion remains controversial. She also argues that given a choice, a human group will always choose the technique which has the lowest absolute labor cost rather than the highest yield. But at the point of conflict, yields will have become unsatisfactory. </p><p>Boserup argues, contra <a href="/wiki/Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Malthus">Malthus</a>, that rather than population always overwhelming resources, that humans will invent a new agricultural technique or adopt an existing innovation that will boost yields and that is adapted to the new environmental conditions created by the degradation which has occurred already, even though they will pay for the increases in higher labor costs. Examples of such changes are the adoption of new higher yielding crops, the exchanging of a digging stick for a hoe, or a hoe for a plough, or the development of irrigation systems. The controversy over Boserup's proposal is in part over whether intensive systems are more costly in labor terms, and whether humans will bring about change in their agricultural systems before environmental degradation forces them to. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_the_contemporary_world_and_global_environmental_change">In the contemporary world and global environmental change</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifting_cultivation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: In the contemporary world and global environmental change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:408px;max-width:408px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Contemporary shifting cultivation practice</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fires_aqua_sumatra_14oct04.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Fires_aqua_sumatra_14oct04.jpg/200px-Fires_aqua_sumatra_14oct04.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Fires_aqua_sumatra_14oct04.jpg/300px-Fires_aqua_sumatra_14oct04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Fires_aqua_sumatra_14oct04.jpg/400px-Fires_aqua_sumatra_14oct04.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="540" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Sumatra, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ISS029-E-008032_Fires_along_the_Rio_Xingu_-_Brazil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ISS029-E-008032_Fires_along_the_Rio_Xingu_-_Brazil.jpg/200px-ISS029-E-008032_Fires_along_the_Rio_Xingu_-_Brazil.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ISS029-E-008032_Fires_along_the_Rio_Xingu_-_Brazil.jpg/300px-ISS029-E-008032_Fires_along_the_Rio_Xingu_-_Brazil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ISS029-E-008032_Fires_along_the_Rio_Xingu_-_Brazil.jpg/400px-ISS029-E-008032_Fires_along_the_Rio_Xingu_-_Brazil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Rio Xingu, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bolivia_slash_%26_burn_lo_(4386225275).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Bolivia_slash_%26_burn_lo_%284386225275%29.jpg/200px-Bolivia_slash_%26_burn_lo_%284386225275%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Bolivia_slash_%26_burn_lo_%284386225275%29.jpg/300px-Bolivia_slash_%26_burn_lo_%284386225275%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Bolivia_slash_%26_burn_lo_%284386225275%29.jpg/400px-Bolivia_slash_%26_burn_lo_%284386225275%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Santa Cruz, <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Citemene.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Citemene.JPG/200px-Citemene.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Citemene.JPG/300px-Citemene.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Citemene.JPG/400px-Citemene.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1746" data-file-height="1176" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Kasempa, <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p>The estimated rate of <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Southeast_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Southeast Asia">deforestation in Southeast Asia</a> in 1990 was 34,000 km² per year (FAO 1990, quoted in Potter 1993). In <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> alone it was estimated 13,100 km² per year were being lost, 3,680 km² per year from <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> and 3,770 km² from <a href="/wiki/Kalimantan" title="Kalimantan">Kalimantan</a>, of which 1,440 km² were due to the fires of 1982 to 1983. Since those estimates were made huge fires have ravaged Indonesian forests during the 1997 to 1998 <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a> associated drought. </p><p>Shifting cultivation was assessed by the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> (FAO) to be one of the causes of <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> while <a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">logging</a> was not. The apparent discrimination against shifting cultivators caused a confrontation between FAO and environmental groups, who saw the FAO supporting commercial logging interests against the rights of indigenous people (Potter 1993, 108). Other independent studies of the problem note that despite lack of government control over forests and the dominance of a political elite in the logging industry, the causes of deforestation are more complex. </p><p>The loggers have provided paid employment to former subsistence farmers. One of the outcomes of cash incomes has been rapid population growth among <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous</a> groups of former shifting cultivators that has placed pressure on their traditional long fallow farming systems. Many farmers have taken advantage of the improved road access to urban areas by planting cash crops, such as rubber or pepper as noted above. Increased cash incomes often are spent on chain saws, which have enabled larger areas to be cleared for cultivation. </p><p>Fallow periods have been reduced and cropping periods extended. Serious poverty elsewhere in the country has brought thousands of land-hungry settlers into the cut-over forests along the logging roads. The <a href="/wiki/Settler" title="Settler">settlers</a> practice what appears to be shifting cultivation but which is in fact a one-cycle <a href="/wiki/Slash_and_burn" class="mw-redirect" title="Slash and burn">slash and burn</a> followed by continuous cropping, with no intention to long fallow. Clearing of trees and the permanent cultivation of fragile <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soils</a> in a tropical environment with little attempt to replace lost nutrients may cause rapid degradation of the fragile soils. </p><p>The loss of forest in Indonesia, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> during the 1990s was preceded by major ecosystem disruptions in <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> in the 1970s and 1980s caused by warfare. Forests were sprayed with <a href="/wiki/Defoliant" title="Defoliant">defoliants</a>, thousands of rural forest dwelling people were uprooted from their homes and driven into previously isolated areas. The loss of the <a href="/wiki/Tropical_forest" title="Tropical forest">tropical forests</a> of <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> is the particular outcome of the general possible outcomes described by Ellen (see above) when small local ecological and social systems become part of a larger system. </p><p>When the previous relatively stable ecological relationships are destabilized, degradation can occur rapidly. Similar descriptions of the loss of forest and destruction of fragile ecosystems could be provided from the Amazon Basin, by large scale state sponsored colonization forest land (Becker 1995, 61) or from the Central <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> where what endemic armed conflict is destabilizing rural settlement and farming communities on a massive scale. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison_with_other_ecological_phenomena">Comparison with other ecological phenomena</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifting_cultivation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Comparison with other ecological phenomena"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the tropical developing world, shifting cultivation in its many diverse forms, remains a pervasive practice. Shifting cultivation was one of the first forms of agriculture practiced by humans and its survival into the modern world suggests that it is a flexible and highly adaptive means of production. However, it is also a grossly misunderstood practice. Many casual observers cannot see past the clearing and burning of standing forest and do not perceive often ecologically stable cycles of cropping and fallowing. Nevertheless, shifting cultivation systems are particularly susceptible to rapid increases in population and to economic and social change in the larger world around them. </p><p>The blame for the destruction of forest resources is often laid on shifting cultivators. But the forces bringing about the rapid loss of tropical forests at the end of the 20th century are the same forces that led to the destruction of the forests of Europe, urbanization, industrialization, increased affluence, populational growth and geographical expansion and the application the latest technology to extract ever more resources from the environment in pursuit of wealth and political power by competing groups. However we must know that those who practice Agriculture are at the receiving end of the social stratum.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternative_practice_in_the_pre-Columbian_Amazon_basin">Alternative practice in the pre-Columbian Amazon basin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifting_cultivation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Alternative practice in the pre-Columbian Amazon basin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Slash-and-char" title="Slash-and-char">Slash-and-char</a>, as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a>, may create self-perpetuating soil fertility that supports sedentary agriculture, but the society so sustained may still be overturned, as above (<i>see</i> article at <a href="/wiki/Terra_preta" title="Terra preta">Terra preta</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifting_cultivation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agroecology" title="Agroecology">Agroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inga_alley_cropping" class="mw-redirect" title="Inga alley cropping">Inga alley cropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jhum" title="Jhum">Jhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milpa" title="Milpa">Milpa</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifting_cultivation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spencer, J. E. (1966), Shifting cultivation in southeastern Asia (Vol. 19), University of California Press, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520035171" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520035171">978-0520035171</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sa.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/Jhumming.pdf">"Jhumming, a traditional lifestyle than merely a cultivation method"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/</i>. India Environment Portal. 2010-04-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-05-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in%2F&rft.atitle=Jhumming%2C+a+traditional+lifestyle+than+merely+a+cultivation+method&rft.date=2010-04-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsa.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in%2Ffiles%2FJhumming.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifting+cultivation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Semple E.C.1931, Ancient Mediterranean Forests and the Lumber Trade, vol. II., p. 261-296. Henry Holt et al., The Geography of the Mediterranean Region, New York.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Homer, e.g., Iliad XIII.11–13, Odyssey IX.22–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darby, H.C., 1950, Domesday Woodland II Economic History Review, 2d ser.,III, London; Darby, H.C., 1956, The clearing of the Woodland in Europe II, p 186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvard-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Harvard_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perkins and Marvin, Ex Editione Oberliniana, Harvard College Library, 1840 (Xxvi, 15–23).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arenander E.O. 1923, Germanemas jordbrukskultur ornkring KristifØdelse // Berattelse over Det Nordiska Arkeologmotet i Stockholm 1922, Stockholm.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-auto_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/lacey_act">"U.S. Department of Agriculture Lacey Act Guidance"</a>. USDA APHIS. October 26, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.S.+Department+of+Agriculture+Lacey+Act+Guidance&rft.pub=USDA+APHIS&rft.date=2011-10-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aphis.usda.gov%2Fplant_health%2Flacey_act&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifting+cultivation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stewart O.C. 1956, Fire as the First Great Force Employed by Man, II. Thomas W.L. Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Earth, Chicago.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZwingle2005" class="citation cs2">Zwingle, E. (January 2005), "Italy before the Romans", <i>National Geographic</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=Italy+before+the+Romans&rft.date=2005-01&rft.aulast=Zwingle&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShifting+cultivation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifting_cultivation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Anderson, A. (1997) Prehistoric Polynesian impact on the New Zealand environment: Te Whenua srf. Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands: Prehistoric Environmental and Landscape Change (eds. Kirch, P. V. and Hunt, T. L.) Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 271–283.</li> <li>Bartlett, H. H. (1956) Fire, primitive agriculture, and grazing in the tropics. Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Earth (ed. Thomas, W. L.) The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 692–720.</li> <li>Becker, B. K. (1995) Undoing myth: the Amazon, an urbanized forest. Brazilian Perspectives on Sustainable Development of the Amazon Region, Vol. 15 (eds. Clüsener-Godt, M. and Sachs, I.) UNESCO, Paris 53–89.</li> <li>Boserup, Ester (original 1965: last printing 2005) The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure by Ester Boserup, Virginia Deane Abernethy and Nicholas Kaldor (Aug 29, 2005)</li> <li>Darby, H. C. (1956) The clearing of the woodland of Europe. Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Earth (ed. Thomas, W. L.) The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 183–216.</li> <li>Dumond, D. E. (1961) Swidden agriculture and the rise of Maya civilization. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 17301–316.</li> <li>Ellen, R. (1982) Environment, Subsistence, and Systems: The Ecology of Small-scale Social Formations. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Golson, J. (1982a) The Ipomoean revolution revisited: society and the sweet potato in the upper Wahgi Valley. Inequality in New Guinea Highlands Societies. (ed. Strathern, A.) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 109–136.</li> <li>Golson, J. (1982b) Kuk and the history of agriculture in the New Guinea highlands. Melanesia: Beyond Diversity. (eds. May, R. J. and Nelson, H.) Australian National University, Canberra, 297–307.</li> <li>Humphries, S. (1993) The intensification of traditional agriculture among Yucatec Maya farmers: facing up to the dilemma of livelihood sustainability. Human Ecology, 21, 1, 82-102.</li> <li>Kirch, P. V. (1984) The Evolution of the Polynesian Chiefdoms, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.</li> <li>Kirch, P. V. and Hunt, T. L. (eds.) (1997) Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands: Prehistoric Environmental Change and Landscape Change, Yale University Press, New Haven and London.</li> <li>Meggers, B. J. (1954) Environmental limitations on the development of culture. American Anthropologist, 56, 5, 801–824.</li> <li>Modjeska, N. (1982) Production and inequality: perspectives from central New Guinea, A.Strathern (ed.) Inequality in New Guinea Highlands Societies, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 50–108.</li> <li>Scott, James C. (2009) The Art of Not Being Governed. Yale University Press, New Haven</li> <li>Steensberg, A. (1993) Fire-clearance Husbandry: Traditional Techniques Throughout the World. Herning: Poul Kristensen.</li> <li>Thomas, W. L. (ed.) (1956) Man's Role in Changing the Face of the earth. Man's Role in Changing the Face of the earth, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London.</li> <li>Turner, B. L. (1974) Prehistoric intensive agriculture in the Mayan lowlands. Science, 185, 4146, 118–124.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shifting_cultivation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.patternliteracy.com/beyondwilderness.html">Seeing the Garden in the Jungle</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160527053917/http://www.ethnography.com/2010/12/farmer-power-the-continuing-confrontation-between-subsistence-farmers-and-development-bureaucrats/">Farmer Power, the Continuing Confrontation between Subsistence Farmers and Development Bureaucrats</a> by Tony Waters at Ethnography.com</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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title="Agroforestry">Agroforestry</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dehesa" title="Dehesa">dehesa</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analog_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Analog forestry">Analog forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_cultivation" title="Bamboo cultivation">Bamboo forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_to_nature_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Close to nature forestry">Close to nature forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_forestry" title="Community forestry">Community forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoforestry" title="Ecoforestry">Ecoforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_forestry" title="Energy forestry">Energy forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoforestry" title="Mycoforestry">Mycoforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permaforestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Permaforestry">Permaforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_plantation" title="Tree plantation">Plantation forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_forestry_in_India" title="Social forestry in India">Social forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forestry">Sustainable forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forest" title="Urban forest">Urban forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forestry" title="Urban forestry">Urban forestry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Forest_ecology" title="Forest ecology">Ecology</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arboriculture" title="Arboriculture">Arboriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controlled_burn" title="Controlled burn">Controlled burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coarse_woody_debris" title="Coarse woody debris">coarse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driftwood" title="Driftwood">driftwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_woody_debris" title="Large woody debris">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_jam" title="Log jam">log jam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash_(logging)" title="Slash (logging)">slash</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_thinning" title="Ecological thinning">Ecological thinning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Even_aged_timber_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Even aged timber management">Even-aged management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ecology" title="Fire ecology">Fire ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">Forest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dynamics" title="Forest dynamics">dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_informatics" title="Forest informatics">informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_integrated_pest_management" title="Forest integrated pest management">IPM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_inventory" title="Forest inventory">inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_governance" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest governance">governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_law" title="Forestry law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Forest_Information_Service" title="Global Forest Information Service">Global Forest Information Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old-growth_forest" title="Old-growth forest">old-growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_pathology" title="Forest pathology">pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_protection" title="Forest protection">protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_restoration" title="Forest restoration">restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_forest" title="Secondary forest">secondary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_stand" title="Forest stand">stand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_transition" title="Forest transition">transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trillion_Tree_Campaign" title="Trillion Tree Campaign">Trillion Tree Campaign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certified_wood" title="Certified wood">Forest certification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tree_farm#American_Tree_Farm_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree farm">ATFS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CarbonFix_Standard" title="CarbonFix Standard">CFS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_Stewardship_Council#Standards,_certification_and_accreditation" title="Forest Stewardship Council">FSC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programme_for_the_Endorsement_of_Forest_Certification" title="Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification">PEFC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Forestry_Initiative" title="Sustainable Forestry Initiative">SFI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainforest_Alliance#Sustainable_forestry_certification" title="Rainforest Alliance">SmartWood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_Carbon_Code" title="Woodland Carbon Code">Woodland Carbon Code</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestation" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestation">Forestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_formally_designated_forests" title="List of types of formally designated forests">Formally designated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_and_yield_modelling" title="Growth and yield modelling">Growth and yield modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_tree" title="Genetically modified tree">GM trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I-Tree" title="I-Tree">i-Tree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silviculture" title="Silviculture">Silviculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">Sustainable management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Tree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tree_allometry" title="Tree allometry">allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_breeding" title="Tree breeding">breeding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_measurement" title="Tree measurement">Tree measurement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tree_crown_measurement" title="Tree crown measurement">crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_girth_measurement" title="Tree girth measurement">girth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_height_measurement" title="Tree height measurement">height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_volume_measurement" title="Tree volume measurement">volume</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Environmental<br />topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain#Forests_and_other_vegetation" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearcutting" title="Clearcutting">Clearcutting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_degradation" title="Forest degradation">Forest degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_fragmentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest fragmentation">Forest fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_forest" title="Ghost forest">Ghost forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(Africa)" title="Great Green Wall (Africa)">Great Green Wall (Africa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(China)" title="Great Green Wall (China)">Great Green Wall (China)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_grading" title="High grading">High grading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timber_mafia" title="Timber mafia">timber mafia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species#Forestry" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilding_conifer" title="Wilding conifer">wilding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Tree_Initiative" title="Million Tree Initiative">Million Tree Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">REDD</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Shifting cultivation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chitemene" title="Chitemene">chitemene</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash-and-char" title="Slash-and-char">slash-and-char</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Svedjebruk" class="mw-redirect" title="Svedjebruk">svedjebruk</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_recycling" title="Timber recycling">Timber recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chipko_movement" title="Chipko movement">Tree hugging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forest_inequity" title="Urban forest inequity">Urban forest inequity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wood_industry" title="Wood industry">Industries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coppicing" title="Coppicing">Coppicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest farming">Forest farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">Forest gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">Logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plywood" title="Plywood">plywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry" title="Pulp and paper industry">pulp and paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">sawmilling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_product" title="Forest product">Products</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">biochar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">non-timber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rayon" title="Rayon">rayon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">rubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanbark" title="Tanbark">tanbark</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_railway" title="Forest railway">Rail transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree farm">Tree farm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_tree_cultivation" title="Christmas tree cultivation">Christmas trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineered_wood" title="Engineered wood">engineered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_fuel" title="Wood fuel">fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahogany" title="Mahogany">mahogany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spruce-pine-fir" title="Spruce-pine-fir">spruce-pine-fir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teak" title="Teak">teak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodworking" title="Woodworking">Woodworking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_woodworking" title="Green woodworking">green woodworking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forester" title="Forester">Forester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arborist" title="Arborist">Arborist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_bucking" title="Log bucking">Bucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choker_setter" title="Choker setter">Choker setter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_ecology" title="Forest ecology">Ecologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felling" title="Felling">Feller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildland_firefighter" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildland firefighter">Firefighter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handcrew" title="Handcrew">handcrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interagency_hotshot_crew" class="mw-redirect" title="Interagency hotshot crew">hotshot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_lookout" title="Fire lookout">lookout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smokejumper" title="Smokejumper">smokejumper</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_driving" title="Log driving">River driver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logging_truck" title="Logging truck">Truck driver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_scaler" title="Log scaler">Log scaler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumberjack" title="Lumberjack">Lumberjack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Park_ranger" title="Park ranger">Ranger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resin_extraction" title="Resin extraction">Resin tapper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_tapping" title="Rubber tapping">Rubber tapper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingle_weaver" title="Shingle weaver">Shingle weaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_inventory" title="Forest inventory">Timber cruiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_planting" title="Tree planting">Tree planter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_processing" title="Wood processing">Wood process engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Forestry" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Forestry">WikiProject</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" 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