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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-associative_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Non-associative learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-associative_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Habituation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habituation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Habituation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habituation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sensitization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sensitization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Sensitization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sensitization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Active_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Active_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Active learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Active_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Associative_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Associative_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Associative learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Associative_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Operant_conditioning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operant_conditioning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Operant conditioning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operant_conditioning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_conditioning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_conditioning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Classical conditioning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_conditioning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Observational_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Observational_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Observational learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Observational_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imprinting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imprinting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.4</span> <span>Imprinting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imprinting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Play" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Play"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Play</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Play-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enculturation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enculturation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Enculturation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enculturation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Episodic_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Episodic_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Episodic learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Episodic_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multimedia_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multimedia_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Multimedia learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multimedia_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-E-learning_and_augmented_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#E-learning_and_augmented_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>E-learning and augmented learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-E-learning_and_augmented_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rote_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rote_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Rote learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rote_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meaningful_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meaningful_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10</span> <span>Meaningful learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meaningful_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evidence-based_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidence-based_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11</span> <span>Evidence-based learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evidence-based_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formal_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formal_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.12</span> <span>Formal learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formal_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-formal_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-formal_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.13</span> <span>Non-formal learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-formal_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Informal_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Informal_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.14</span> <span>Informal learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Informal_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nonformal_learning_and_combined_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nonformal_learning_and_combined_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.15</span> <span>Nonformal learning and combined approaches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nonformal_learning_and_combined_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tangential_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tangential_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.16</span> <span>Tangential learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tangential_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialogic_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialogic_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.17</span> <span>Dialogic learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialogic_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Incidental_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Incidental_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.18</span> <span>Incidental learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Incidental_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Domains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Domains</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transfer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transfer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Transfer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transfer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Factors_affecting_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Factors_affecting_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Factors affecting learning</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Factors_affecting_learning-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Factors affecting learning subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Factors_affecting_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Genetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Socioeconomic_and_physical_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Socioeconomic_and_physical_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Socioeconomic and physical conditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Socioeconomic_and_physical_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychological_factors_and_teaching_style" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychological_factors_and_teaching_style"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Psychological factors and teaching style</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychological_factors_and_teaching_style-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epigenetic_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epigenetic_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Epigenetic factors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epigenetic_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_cognition-related_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_cognition-related_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>General cognition-related factors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_cognition-related_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adult_learning_vs_children's_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adult_learning_vs_children's_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Adult learning vs children's learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adult_learning_vs_children's_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_animal_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_animal_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>In animal evolution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_animal_evolution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In animal evolution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_animal_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Costs_and_benefits_of_learned_and_innate_knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Costs_and_benefits_of_learned_and_innate_knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Costs and benefits of learned and innate knowledge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Costs_and_benefits_of_learned_and_innate_knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>In plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Machine_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Machine_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Machine learning</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Machine_learning-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Machine learning subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Machine_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Types_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Phases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Information_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Information theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Types of education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Learning</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 87 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-87" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">87 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leerproses" title="Leerproses – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Leerproses" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leornung" title="Leornung – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Leornung" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="تعلم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تعلم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizaxe" title="Aprendizaxe – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Aprendizaxe" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yatiqa%C3%B1a" title="Yatiqaña – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Yatiqaña" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%99dris" title="Tədris – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Tədris" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%A3" title="শিক্ষা গ্রহণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="শিক্ষা গ্রহণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ha%CC%8Dk-si%CC%8Dp" title="Ha̍k-si̍p – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ha̍k-si̍p" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Навучанне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Навучанне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Изучаване – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Изучаване" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/U%C4%8Denje" title="Učenje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Učenje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprenentatge" title="Aprenentatge – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Aprenentatge" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/U%C4%8Den%C3%AD" title="Učení – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Učení" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kudzidza" title="Kudzidza – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Kudzidza" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A6ring" title="Læring – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Læring" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lernen" title="Lernen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Lernen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%95ppimine" title="Õppimine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Õppimine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%AC%CE%B8%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Μάθηση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μάθηση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizaje" title="Aprendizaje – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Aprendizaje" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lerno" title="Lerno – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Lerno" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikaskuntza" title="Ikaskuntza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ikaskuntza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="یادگیری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="یادگیری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apprentissage" title="Apprentissage – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Apprentissage" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizaxe" title="Aprendizaxe – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Aprendizaxe" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%99%EC%8A%B5" title="학습 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="학습" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AE" title="अधिगम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अधिगम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/U%C4%8Denje" title="Učenje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Učenje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprentiseso" title="Aprentiseso – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Aprentiseso" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belajar" title="Belajar – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Belajar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukufunda" title="Ukufunda – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ukufunda" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A1m" title="Nám – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Nám" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apprendimento" title="Apprendimento – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Apprendimento" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%93%D7%94" title="למידה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="למידה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinau" title="Sinau – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Sinau" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%86" title="ಕಲಿಕೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕಲಿಕೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%AC%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90" title="სწავლა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სწავლა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Үйрену – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Үйрену" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprantisaj" title="Aprantisaj – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Aprantisaj" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%81c%C4%AB%C5%A1an%C4%81s" title="Mācīšanās – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Mācīšanās" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Учење – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Учење" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembelajaran" title="Pembelajaran – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pembelajaran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%85" title="Сурах – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Сурах" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vuli" title="Vuli – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Vuli" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leren" title="Leren – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Leren" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81" title="सयेकेगु – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="सयेकेगु" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%A6%E7%BF%92" title="学習 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="学習" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A6ring" title="Læring – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Læring" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%CA%BBrganish" title="Oʻrganish – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Oʻrganish" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%A3%E0%A8%BE" title="ਸਿੱਖਣਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਿੱਖਣਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%AF%D9%87_%DA%A9%DA%93%D9%87_(%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%87)" title="زده کړه (پوهه) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="زده کړه (پوهه)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A" title="ការរៀនសូត្រ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ការរៀនសូត្រ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uczenie_si%C4%99" title="Uczenie się – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Uczenie się" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprendizagem" title="Aprendizagem – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Aprendizagem" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Env%C4%83%C8%9Bare" title="Învățare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Învățare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yachaqay" title="Yachaqay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Yachaqay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Научение – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Научение" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83" title="अधिगमः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="अधिगमः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learin" title="Learin – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Learin" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho_ithuta" title="Ho ithuta – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Ho ithuta" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="Southern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%AB_nx%C3%ABnit" title="Të nxënit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Të nxënit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B8" title="ඉගෙනීම – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඉගෙනීම" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning" title="Learning – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Learning" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/U%C4%8Denie_(pedagogika)" title="Učenie (pedagogika) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Učenie (pedagogika)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/U%C4%8Denje" title="Učenje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Učenje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8E%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86" title="فێربوون – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فێربوون" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Учење – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Учење" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/U%C4%8Denje" title="Učenje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Učenje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diajar" title="Diajar – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Diajar" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppiminen" title="Oppiminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Oppiminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4rande" title="Lärande – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Lärande" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagkatuto" title="Pagkatuto – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pagkatuto" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="கற்றல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கற்றல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83" title="Белем алу – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Белем алу" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9A%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%82" title="నేర్చుకోవడం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="నేర్చుకోవడం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99" title="การเรียน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การเรียน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%8A%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Таълим – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Таълим" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96%C4%9Frenme" title="Öğrenme – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Öğrenme" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Навчення – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Навчення" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="تعلم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تعلم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprindaedje" title="Aprindaedje – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Aprindaedje" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%AAerproces" title="Lêerproces – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Lêerproces" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagbaro" title="Pagbaro – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Pagbaro" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%A6%E4%B9%A0" title="学习 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="学习" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%A2%D7%9F" title="לערנען – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="לערנען" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%B8%E7%BF%92" title="學習 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="學習" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%A6%E4%B9%A0" title="学习 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="学习" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q133500#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Learn_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Learn (disambiguation)">Learn (disambiguation)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Learned_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Learned (disambiguation)">Learned (disambiguation)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Learners_(film)" title="Learners (film)">Learners (film)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cooking_contest_140418-N-OX321-101.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Cooking_contest_140418-N-OX321-101.jpg/330px-Cooking_contest_140418-N-OX321-101.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Cooking_contest_140418-N-OX321-101.jpg/495px-Cooking_contest_140418-N-OX321-101.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Cooking_contest_140418-N-OX321-101.jpg/660px-Cooking_contest_140418-N-OX321-101.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5225" data-file-height="3732" /></a><figcaption>American students learning how to make and roll <a href="/wiki/Sushi" title="Sushi">sushi</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Noun_Brain_Nithinan_2452319.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Noun_Brain_Nithinan_2452319.svg/75px-Noun_Brain_Nithinan_2452319.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Noun_Brain_Nithinan_2452319.svg/113px-Noun_Brain_Nithinan_2452319.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Noun_Brain_Nithinan_2452319.svg/150px-Noun_Brain_Nithinan_2452319.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_object_recognition" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual object recognition">Object recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Face_perception" title="Face perception">Face recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern_recognition" title="Pattern recognition">Pattern recognition</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_aging" title="Memory and aging">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_and_memory" title="Emotion and memory">Emotional</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">Long-term</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Metacognition" title="Metacognition">Metacognition</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thinking</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">Decision making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">Problem solving</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Numerical_cognition" title="Numerical cognition">Numerical cognition</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Numerosity_adaptation_effect" title="Numerosity adaptation effect">Numerosity adaptation effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Approximate_number_system" title="Approximate number system">Approximate number system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_individuation_system" title="Parallel individuation system">Parallel individuation system</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cognitive" title="Template:Cognitive"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cognitive" title="Template talk:Cognitive"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cognitive" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cognitive"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Learning</b> is the process of acquiring new <a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">understanding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">behaviors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Skill" title="Skill">skills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (personal and cultural)">values</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)" title="Attitude (psychology)">attitudes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Preference" title="Preference">preferences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ability to learn is possessed by <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a>, non-human <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>, and some <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machines</a>; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some learning is immediate, induced by a single event (e.g. being <a href="/wiki/Burn" title="Burn">burned</a> by a <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">hot</a> <a href="/wiki/Stove" title="Stove">stove</a>), but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The changes induced by learning often last a lifetime, and it is hard to distinguish learned material that seems to be "lost" from that which cannot be retrieved.<sup id="cite_ref-Schacter_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schacter-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Human learning starts at birth (it might even start before<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and continues until death as a consequence of ongoing interactions between people and their environment. The nature and processes involved in learning are studied in many established fields (including <a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">educational psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">neuropsychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">experimental psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive sciences</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">pedagogy</a>), as well as emerging fields of knowledge (e.g. with a shared interest in the topic of <a href="/wiki/Safety" title="Safety">learning from safety events such as incidents/accidents</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or in collaborative learning health systems<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). Research in such fields has led to the identification of various sorts of learning. For example, learning may occur as a result of <a href="/wiki/Habituation" title="Habituation">habituation</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Classical_conditioning" title="Classical conditioning">classical conditioning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">operant conditioning</a> or as a result of more complex activities such as <a href="/wiki/Play_(activity)" title="Play (activity)">play</a>, seen only in relatively intelligent animals.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Learning may occur <a href="/wiki/Conscious" class="mw-redirect" title="Conscious">consciously</a> or without conscious awareness. Learning that an aversive event cannot be avoided or escaped may result in a condition called <a href="/wiki/Learned_helplessness" title="Learned helplessness">learned helplessness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is evidence for human behavioral learning <a href="/wiki/Prenatal" class="mw-redirect" title="Prenatal">prenatally</a>, in which <a href="/wiki/Habituation" title="Habituation">habituation</a> has been observed as early as 32 weeks into <a href="/wiki/Gestation" title="Gestation">gestation</a>, indicating that the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a> to occur very early on in <a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">development</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Play has been approached by several theorists as a form of learning. Children experiment with the world, learn the rules, and learn to interact through play. <a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Lev Vygotsky</a> agrees that play is pivotal for children's development, since they make meaning of their environment through playing educational games. For Vygotsky, however, play is the first form of learning language and communication, and the stage where a child begins to understand rules and symbols.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has led to a view that learning in organisms is always related to <a href="/wiki/Semiosis" title="Semiosis">semiosis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is often associated with representational systems/activity.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Learning_styles" title="Learning styles">Learning styles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning#Types_of_problems_and_tasks" title="Machine learning">Machine learning § Types of problems and tasks</a></div><p>There are various functional categorizations of memory which have developed. Some memory researchers distinguish memory based on the relationship between the stimuli involved (associative vs non-associative) or based to whether the content can be communicated through language (declarative/explicit vs procedural/implicit). Some of these categories can, in turn, be parsed into sub-types. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Declarative_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Declarative memory">declarative memory</a> comprises both <a href="/wiki/Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">episodic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">semantic</a> memory. </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Children_competition_on_side_wheels_in_the_eighties_in_Czechoslovakia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Children_competition_on_side_wheels_in_the_eighties_in_Czechoslovakia.jpg/220px-Children_competition_on_side_wheels_in_the_eighties_in_Czechoslovakia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Children_competition_on_side_wheels_in_the_eighties_in_Czechoslovakia.jpg/330px-Children_competition_on_side_wheels_in_the_eighties_in_Czechoslovakia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Children_competition_on_side_wheels_in_the_eighties_in_Czechoslovakia.jpg/440px-Children_competition_on_side_wheels_in_the_eighties_in_Czechoslovakia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5393" data-file-height="3597" /></a><figcaption>Children learn to bike in the eighties in Czechoslovakia.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-associative_learning">Non-associative learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Non-associative learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Non-associative learning</i> refers to "a relatively permanent change in the strength of response to a single stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This definition exempts the changes caused by <a href="/wiki/Sensory_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory adaptation">sensory adaptation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatigue (medical)">fatigue</a>, or injury.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Non-associative learning can be divided into <a href="/wiki/Habituation" title="Habituation">habituation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sensitization" title="Sensitization">sensitization</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Habituation">Habituation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Habituation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Habituation" title="Habituation">Habituation</a></div> <p><i>Habituation</i> is an example of non-associative learning in which one or more components of an innate response (e.g., response probability, response duration) to a stimulus diminishes when the stimulus is repeated. Thus, habituation must be distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Extinction_(psychology)" title="Extinction (psychology)">extinction</a>, which is an associative process. In operant extinction, for example, a response declines because it is no longer followed by a reward. An example of habituation can be seen in small song birds—if a stuffed <a href="/wiki/Owl" title="Owl">owl</a> (or similar <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predator</a>) is put into the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were a real predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a very specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place). The habituation process is faster for stimuli that occur at a high rather than for stimuli that occur at a low rate as well as for the weak and strong stimuli, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, as well as the sensitive plant <i><a href="/wiki/Mimosa_pudica" title="Mimosa pudica">Mimosa pudica</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-gagliano2014_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gagliano2014-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the large protozoan <i><a href="/wiki/Stentor_coeruleus" title="Stentor coeruleus">Stentor coeruleus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-wood1988_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wood1988-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This concept acts in direct opposition to sensitization.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sensitization">Sensitization</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sensitization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sensitization" title="Sensitization">Sensitization</a></div> <p><i>Sensitization</i> is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a <a href="/wiki/Stimulation" title="Stimulation">stimulus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is based on the notion that a defensive reflex to a stimulus such as withdrawal or escape becomes stronger after the exposure to a different harmful or threatening stimulus.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that occurs if a person rubs their arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation creates a warm sensation that can eventually turn painful. This pain results from a progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves. This sends a warning that the stimulation is harmful.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (January 2011)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Active_learning">Active learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Active learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Active_learning" title="Active learning">Active learning</a></div> <p><i>Active learning</i> occurs when a person takes control of his/her learning experience. Since understanding information is the key aspect of learning, it is important for learners to recognize what they understand and what they do not. By doing so, they can monitor their own mastery of subjects. Active learning encourages learners to have an internal dialogue in which they verbalize understandings. This and other meta-cognitive strategies can be taught to a child over time. Studies within <a href="/wiki/Metacognition" title="Metacognition">metacognition</a> have proven the value in active learning, claiming that the learning is usually at a stronger level as a result.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, learners have more incentive to learn when they have control over not only how they learn but also what they learn.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Active learning is a key characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Student-centered_learning" title="Student-centered learning">student-centered learning</a>. Conversely, <a href="/wiki/Passive_learning" title="Passive learning">passive learning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Direct_instruction" title="Direct instruction">direct instruction</a> are characteristics of teacher-centered learning (or <a href="/wiki/Traditional_education" title="Traditional education">traditional education</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Associative_learning">Associative learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Associative learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Associative learning</i> is the process by which a person or animal learns an <a href="/wiki/Association_(psychology)" title="Association (psychology)">association</a> between two stimuli or events.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Classical_conditioning" title="Classical conditioning">classical conditioning</a>, a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a reflex-eliciting stimulus until eventually the neutral stimulus elicits a response on its own. In operant conditioning, a behavior that is reinforced or punished in the presence of a stimulus becomes more or less likely to occur in the presence of that stimulus. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Operant_conditioning">Operant conditioning</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Operant conditioning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">Operant conditioning</a></div> <p><i>Operant conditioning</i> is a way in which behavior can be shaped or modified according to the desires of the trainer or head individual. Operant conditioning uses the thought that living things seek pleasure and avoid pain, and that an animal or human can learn through receiving either reward or punishment at a specific time called trace conditioning. Trace conditioning is the small and ideal period of time between the subject performing the desired behavior, and receiving the positive reinforcement as a result of their performance. The reward needs to be given immediately after the completion of the wanted behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Operant conditioning is different from classical conditioning in that it shapes behavior not solely on bodily reflexes that occur naturally to a specific stimulus, but rather focuses on the shaping of wanted behavior that requires conscious thought, and ultimately requires learning.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Punishment and reinforcement are the two principal ways in which operant conditioning occurs. Punishment is used to reduce unwanted behavior, and ultimately (from the learner's perspective) leads to avoidance of the punishment, not necessarily avoidance of the unwanted behavior. Punishment is not an appropriate way to increase wanted behavior for animals or humans. Punishment can be divided into two subcategories, positive punishment and negative punishment. Positive punishment is when an aversive aspect of life or thing is added to the subject, for this reason it is called positive punishment. For example, the parent spanking their child would be considered a positive punishment, because a spanking was added to the child. Negative punishment is considered the removal of something loved or desirable from the subject. For example, when a parent puts his child in time out, in reality, the child is losing the opportunity to be with friends, or to enjoy the freedom to do as he pleases. In this example, negative punishment is the removal of the child's desired rights to play with his friends etc.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reinforcement on the other hand is used to increase a wanted behavior either through negative reinforcement or positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is defined by removing an undesirable aspect of life, or thing. For example, a dog might learn to sit as the trainer scratches his ears, which ultimately is removing his itches (undesirable aspect). Positive reinforcement is defined by adding a desirable aspect of life or thing. For example, a dog might learn to sit if he receives a treat. In this example the treat was added to the dog's life.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Classical_conditioning">Classical conditioning</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Classical conditioning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classical_conditioning" title="Classical conditioning">Classical conditioning</a></div> <p>The typical paradigm for <i>classical conditioning</i> involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evokes a reflexive response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does not normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the "conditioned stimulus"). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a <i>conditioned response</i>. The classic example is <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a> and his dogs.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pavlov fed his dogs meat powder, which naturally made the dogs salivate—salivating is a reflexive response to the meat powder. Meat powder is the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation is the unconditioned response (UR). Pavlov rang a bell before presenting the meat powder. The first time Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but once he put the meat powder in their mouths they began to salivate. After numerous pairings of bell and food, the dogs learned that the bell signaled that food was about to come, and began to salivate when they heard the bell. Once this occurred, the bell became the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation to the bell became the conditioned response (CR). Classical conditioning has been demonstrated in many species. For example, it is seen in honeybees, in the <a href="/wiki/Proboscis_extension_reflex" title="Proboscis extension reflex">proboscis extension reflex</a> paradigm.<sup id="cite_ref-bitterman_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bitterman-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was recently also demonstrated in garden pea plants.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another influential person in the world of classical conditioning is <a href="/wiki/John_B._Watson" title="John B. Watson">John B. Watson</a>. Watson's work was very influential and paved the way for <a href="/wiki/B.F._Skinner" class="mw-redirect" title="B.F. Skinner">B.F. Skinner</a>'s radical behaviorism. Watson's behaviorism (and philosophy of science) stood in direct contrast to Freud and other accounts based largely on introspection. Watson's view was that the introspective method was too subjective and that we should limit the study of human development to directly observable behaviors. In 1913, Watson published the article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views", in which he argued that laboratory studies should serve psychology best as a science. Watson's most famous, and controversial, experiment was "<a href="/wiki/Little_Albert" class="mw-redirect" title="Little Albert">Little Albert</a>", where he demonstrated how psychologists can account for the learning of emotion through classical conditioning principles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Observational_learning">Observational learning</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Observational learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Observational_learning" title="Observational learning">Observational learning</a></div> <p><i>Observational learning</i> is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. It is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes. In humans, this form of learning seems to not need reinforcement to occur, but instead, requires a social model such as a parent, sibling, friend, or teacher with surroundings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Imprinting">Imprinting</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Imprinting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Imprinting_(psychology)" title="Imprinting (psychology)">Imprinting (psychology)</a></div> <p><i>Imprinting</i> is a kind of learning occurring at a particular life stage that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. In filial imprinting, young animals, particularly birds, form an association with another individual or in some cases, an object, that they respond to as they would to a parent. In 1935, the Austrian Zoologist Konrad Lorenz discovered that certain birds follow and form a bond if the object makes sounds. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Play">Play</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Play"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Play_(activity)" title="Play (activity)">Play (activity)</a></div> <p><i>Play</i> generally describes behavior with no particular end in itself, but that improves performance in similar future situations. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly limited to <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a>. Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their own species or other animals, such as <a href="/wiki/Orca" title="Orca">orcas</a> playing with seals they have caught. Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predators</a> and the risk of <a href="/wiki/Injury" title="Injury">injury</a> and possibly <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infection</a>. It also consumes <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a>, so there must be significant benefits associated with play for it to have evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for example improving <a href="/wiki/Physical_fitness" title="Physical fitness">physical fitness</a>. </p><p>Play, as it pertains to humans as a form of learning is central to a child's learning and development. Through play, children learn social skills such as sharing and collaboration. Children develop emotional skills such as learning to deal with the emotion of anger, through play activities. As a form of learning, play also facilitates the development of thinking and language skills in children.<sup id="cite_ref-Lillemyr,_O.F._2009_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lillemyr,_O.F._2009-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are five types of play: </p> <ol><li>Sensorimotor play aka functional play, characterized by the repetition of an activity</li> <li>Roleplay occurs starting at the age of three</li> <li>Rule-based play where authoritative prescribed codes of conduct are primary</li> <li>Construction play involves experimentation and building</li> <li>Movement play aka physical play<sup id="cite_ref-Lillemyr,_O.F._2009_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lillemyr,_O.F._2009-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>These five types of play are often intersecting. All types of play generate thinking and <a href="/wiki/Problem-solving" class="mw-redirect" title="Problem-solving">problem-solving</a> skills in children. Children learn to think creatively when they learn through play.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specific activities involved in each type of play change over time as humans progress through the lifespan. Play as a form of learning, can occur solitarily, or involve interacting with others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enculturation">Enculturation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Enculturation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Enculturation" title="Enculturation">Enculturation</a></div> <p><i>Enculturation</i> is the process by which people learn values and behaviors that are appropriate or necessary in their surrounding <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GrusecHastings_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GrusecHastings-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parents, other adults, and peers shape the individual's understanding of these values.<sup id="cite_ref-GrusecHastings_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GrusecHastings-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values, and rituals of the culture.<sup id="cite_ref-GrusecHastings_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GrusecHastings-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is different from <a href="/wiki/Acculturation" title="Acculturation">acculturation</a>, where a person adopts the values and societal rules of a culture different from their native one. </p><p>Multiple examples of enculturation can be found cross-culturally. Collaborative practices in the Mazahua people have shown that participation in everyday interaction and later learning activities contributed to enculturation rooted in nonverbal social experience.<sup id="cite_ref-Paradise1994_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paradise1994-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the children participated in everyday activities, they learned the cultural significance of these interactions. The collaborative and helpful behaviors exhibited by Mexican and Mexican-heritage children is a cultural practice known as being "acomedido".<sup id="cite_ref-Lopez2012_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lopez2012-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chillihuani girls in Peru described themselves as weaving constantly, following behavior shown by the other adults.<sup id="cite_ref-Bolin_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bolin-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Episodic_learning">Episodic learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Episodic learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Episodic learning</i> is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of an event.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a fear of dogs that follows being bitten by a dog is episodic learning. Episodic learning is so named because events are recorded into <a href="/wiki/Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">episodic memory</a>, which is one of the three forms of explicit learning and retrieval, along with perceptual memory and <a href="/wiki/Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">semantic memory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Episodic memory remembers events and history that are embedded in experience and this is distinguished from semantic memory, which attempts to extract facts out of their experiential context<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or – as some describe – a timeless organization of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, if a person remembers the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canyon_National_Park" title="Grand Canyon National Park">Grand Canyon</a> from a recent visit, it is an episodic memory. He would use semantic memory to answer someone who would ask him information such as where the Grand Canyon is. A study revealed that humans are very accurate in the recognition of episodic memory even without deliberate intention to memorize it.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is said to indicate a very large storage capacity of the brain for things that people pay attention to.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multimedia_learning">Multimedia learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Multimedia learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Multimedia_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Multimedia learning">Multimedia learning</a></div> <p><i>Multimedia learning</i> is where a person uses both auditory and visual stimuli to learn information.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of learning relies on <a href="/wiki/Dual-coding_theory" title="Dual-coding theory">dual-coding theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="E-learning_and_augmented_learning">E-learning and augmented learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: E-learning and augmented learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electronic_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic learning">Electronic learning</a></div> <p><i>Electronic learning</i> or e-learning is computer-enhanced learning. A specific and always more diffused e-learning is <a href="/wiki/Mobile_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobile learning">mobile learning</a> (m-learning), which uses different mobile telecommunication equipment, such as <a href="/wiki/Cellular_phone" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular phone">cellular phones</a>. </p><p>When a learner interacts with the e-learning environment, it is called <a href="/wiki/Augmented_learning" title="Augmented learning">augmented learning</a>. By adapting to the needs of individuals, the context-driven instruction can be dynamically tailored to the learner's natural environment. Augmented digital content may include text, images, video, audio (music and voice). By personalizing instruction, augmented learning has been shown to improve learning performance for a lifetime.<sup id="cite_ref-Augmented_Learning_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Augmented_Learning-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See also <a href="/wiki/Minimally_invasive_education" title="Minimally invasive education">minimally invasive education</a>. </p><p>Moore (1989)<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> purported that three core types of interaction are necessary for quality, effective online learning: </p> <ul><li>Learner–learner (i.e. communication between and among peers with or without the teacher present),</li> <li>Learner–instructor (i.e. student-teacher communication), and</li> <li>Learner–content (i.e. intellectually interacting with content that results in changes in learners' understanding, perceptions, and cognitive structures).</li></ul> <p>In his theory of transactional distance, Moore (1993)<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> contented that structure and interaction or dialogue bridge the gap in understanding and communication that is created by geographical distances (known as transactional distance). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rote_learning">Rote learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Rote learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">Rote learning</a></div> <p><i>Rote learning</i> is <a href="/wiki/Memorizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Memorizing">memorizing</a> information so that it can be <a href="/wiki/Recollection" class="mw-redirect" title="Recollection">recalled</a> by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The major technique used for rote learning is <i>learning by repetition</i>, based on the idea that a learner can recall the material exactly (but not its meaning) if the information is repeatedly processed. Rote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meaningful_learning">Meaningful learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Meaningful learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Deeper_learning" title="Deeper learning">Deeper learning</a></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Meaningful_learning" title="Meaningful learning">Meaningful learning</a></i> is the concept that learned knowledge (e.g., a fact) is fully understood to the extent that it relates to other knowledge. To this end, meaningful learning contrasts with <a href="/wiki/Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">rote learning</a> in which information is acquired without regard to understanding. Meaningful learning, on the other hand, implies there is a comprehensive knowledge of the context of the facts learned.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evidence-based_learning">Evidence-based learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Evidence-based learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence-based learning">Evidence-based learning</a></div> <p>Evidence-based learning is the use of evidence from well designed scientific studies to accelerate learning. Evidence-based learning methods such as <a href="/wiki/Spaced_repetition" title="Spaced repetition">spaced repetition</a> can increase the rate at which a student learns.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formal_learning">Formal learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Formal learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laurentius_de_Voltolina_Vorlesung_vor_Studenten_-_Min_1233_-_Kupferstichkabinett_Berlin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Laurentius_de_Voltolina_Vorlesung_vor_Studenten_-_Min_1233_-_Kupferstichkabinett_Berlin.jpg/220px-Laurentius_de_Voltolina_Vorlesung_vor_Studenten_-_Min_1233_-_Kupferstichkabinett_Berlin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Laurentius_de_Voltolina_Vorlesung_vor_Studenten_-_Min_1233_-_Kupferstichkabinett_Berlin.jpg/330px-Laurentius_de_Voltolina_Vorlesung_vor_Studenten_-_Min_1233_-_Kupferstichkabinett_Berlin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Laurentius_de_Voltolina_Vorlesung_vor_Studenten_-_Min_1233_-_Kupferstichkabinett_Berlin.jpg/440px-Laurentius_de_Voltolina_Vorlesung_vor_Studenten_-_Min_1233_-_Kupferstichkabinett_Berlin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3278" /></a><figcaption>A depiction of the world's oldest continually operating university, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a>, Italy</figcaption></figure> <p><i>Formal learning</i> is a deliberate way attaining of knowledge, which takes place within a teacher-student environment, such as in a school system or work environment.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term formal learning has nothing to do with the formality of the learning, but rather the way it is directed and organized. In formal learning, the learning or training departments set out the goals and objectives of the learning and oftentimes learners will be awarded with a diploma, or a type of formal recognition.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-formal_learning">Non-formal learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Non-formal learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nonformal_learning" title="Nonformal learning">Nonformal learning</a></div> <p><i>Non-formal learning</i> is organized learning outside the formal learning system. For example, learning by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth organizations, and workshops. From the organizer's point of reference, non-formal learning does not always need a main objective or learning outcome. From the learner's point of view, non-formal learning, although not focused on outcomes, often results in an intentional learning opportunity.<sup id="cite_ref-competencecentre.eu_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-competencecentre.eu-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Informal_learning">Informal learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Informal learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Informal_learning" title="Informal learning">Informal learning</a></div> <p><i>Informal learning</i> is less structured than "non-formal learning". It may occur through the experience of day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking because of the possible dangers inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). It is learning from life, during a meal at the table with parents, during <a href="/wiki/Play_(activity)" title="Play (activity)">play</a>, and while exploring etc.. For the learner, informal learning is most often an experience of happenstance, and not a deliberately planned experience. Thus this does not require enrollment into any class. Unlike formal learning, informal learning typically does not lead to accreditation.<sup id="cite_ref-competencecentre.eu_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-competencecentre.eu-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Informal learning begins to unfold as the learner ponders his or her situation. This type of learning does not require a professor of any kind, and learning outcomes are unforeseen following the learning experience.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Informal learning is self-directed and because it focuses on day-to-day situations, the value of informal learning can be considered high. As a result, information retrieved from informal learning experiences will likely be applicable to daily life.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Children with informal learning can at times yield stronger support than subjects with formal learning in the topic of mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Daily life experiences take place in the workforce, family life, and any other situation that may arise during one's lifetime. Informal learning is voluntary from the learner's viewpoint, and may require making mistakes and learning from them. Informal learning allows the individual to discover coping strategies for difficult emotions that may arise while learning. From the learner's perspective, informal learning can become purposeful, because the learner chooses which rate is appropriate to learn and because this type of learning tends to take place within smaller groups or by oneself.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nonformal_learning_and_combined_approaches">Nonformal learning and combined approaches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Nonformal learning and combined approaches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and nonformal learning methods. The UN and EU recognize these different forms of learning (cf. links below). In some schools, students can get points that count in the formal-learning systems if they get work done in informal-learning circuits. They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and training courses, on the condition they prepare, contribute, share, and can prove this offered valuable new insight, helped to acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, <a href="/wiki/Teaching" title="Teaching">teaching</a>, etc. </p><p>To learn a skill, such as solving a <a href="/wiki/Rubik%27s_Cube" title="Rubik's Cube">Rubik's Cube</a> quickly, several factors come into play at once: </p> <ul><li>Reading directions helps a player learn the patterns that solve the Rubik's Cube.</li> <li>Practicing the moves repeatedly helps build "<a href="/wiki/Muscle_memory" title="Muscle memory">muscle memory</a>" and speed.</li> <li>Thinking critically about moves helps find shortcuts, which speeds future attempts.</li> <li>Observing the Rubik's Cube's six colors help anchor solutions in the mind.</li> <li>Revisiting the cube occasionally helps retain the skill.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tangential_learning">Tangential learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Tangential learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Tangential learning</i> is the process by which people <a href="/wiki/Self-education" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-education">self-educate</a> if a topic is exposed to them in a context that they already enjoy. For example, after playing a music-based video game, some people may be motivated to learn how to play a real instrument, or after watching a TV show that references Faust and Lovecraft, some people may be inspired to read the original work.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Self-education can be improved with systematization. According to experts in natural learning, self-oriented learning training has proven an effective tool for assisting independent learners with the natural phases of learning.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Extra_Credits" title="Extra Credits">Extra Credits</a></i> writer and game designer James Portnow was the first to suggest games as a potential venue for "tangential learning".<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mozelius <i>et al.</i><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> points out that intrinsic integration of learning content seems to be a crucial design factor, and that games that include modules for further self-studies tend to present good results. The built-in encyclopedias in the <i><a href="/wiki/Civilization_(series)" title="Civilization (series)">Civilization</a></i> games are presented as an example – by using these modules gamers can dig deeper for knowledge about historical events in the gameplay. The importance of rules that regulate learning modules and game experience is discussed by Moreno, C.,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in a case study about the mobile game <a href="/wiki/Kiwaka" title="Kiwaka">Kiwaka</a>. In this game, developed by <a href="/wiki/Landka" title="Landka">Landka</a> in collaboration with <a href="/wiki/ESA" class="mw-redirect" title="ESA">ESA</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_Southern_Observatory" title="European Southern Observatory">ESO</a>, progress is rewarded with educational content, as opposed to traditional <a href="/wiki/Educational_game" title="Educational game">education games</a> where learning activities are rewarded with gameplay.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dialogic_learning">Dialogic learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Dialogic learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dialogic_learning" title="Dialogic learning">Dialogic learning</a></div> <p><i>Dialogic learning</i> is a type of learning based on dialogue. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Incidental_learning">Incidental learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Incidental learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>incidental teaching</i> learning is not planned by the instructor or the student, it occurs as a byproduct of another activity — an experience, observation, self-reflection, interaction, unique event (e.g. in response to incidents/accidents), or common routine task. This learning happens in addition to or apart from the instructor's plans and the student's expectations. An example of incidental teaching is when the instructor places a train set on top of a cabinet. If the child points or walks towards the cabinet, the instructor prompts the student to say "train". Once the student says "train", he gets access to the train set. </p><p>Here are some steps most commonly used in incidental teaching:<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>An instructor will arrange the learning environment so that necessary materials are within the student's sight, but not within his reach, thus impacting his motivation to seek out those materials.</li> <li>An instructor waits for the student to initiate engagement.</li> <li>An instructor prompts the student to respond if needed.</li> <li>An instructor allows access to an item/activity contingent on a correct response from the student.</li> <li>The instructor fades out the prompting process over a period of time and subsequent trials.</li></ul> <p>Incidental learning is an occurrence that is not generally accounted for using the traditional methods of instructional objectives and outcomes assessment. This type of learning occurs in part as a product of social interaction and active involvement in both online and onsite courses. Research implies that some un-assessed aspects of onsite and online learning challenge the equivalency of education between the two modalities. Both onsite and online learning have distinct advantages with traditional on-campus students experiencing higher degrees of incidental learning in three times as many areas as online students. Additional research is called for to investigate the implications of these findings both conceptually and pedagogically.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Domains">Domains</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Domains"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:France_in_XXI_Century._School.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/France_in_XXI_Century._School.jpg/220px-France_in_XXI_Century._School.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/France_in_XXI_Century._School.jpg/330px-France_in_XXI_Century._School.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/France_in_XXI_Century._School.jpg/440px-France_in_XXI_Century._School.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="998" /></a><figcaption><i>Future school</i> (1901 or 1910)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Bloom" title="Benjamin Bloom">Benjamin Bloom</a> has suggested three domains of learning in <a href="/wiki/Bloom%27s_taxonomy" title="Bloom's taxonomy">his taxonomy</a> which are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive">Cognitive</a>: To recall, calculate, discuss, analyze, problem solve, etc.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychomotor_learning" title="Psychomotor learning">Psychomotor</a>: To dance, swim, ski, dive, drive a car, ride a bike, etc.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective" class="mw-redirect" title="Affective">Affective</a>: To like something or someone, love, appreciate, fear, hate, worship, etc.</li></ul> <p>These domains are not mutually exclusive. For example, in learning to play <a href="/wiki/Chess" title="Chess">chess</a>, the person must learn the rules (cognitive domain)—but must also learn how to set up the chess pieces and how to properly hold and move a chess piece (psychomotor). Furthermore, later in the game the person may even learn to love the game itself, value its applications in life, and appreciate its <a href="/wiki/History_of_chess" title="History of chess">history</a> (affective domain).<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transfer">Transfer</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Transfer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Transfer_of_learning" title="Transfer of learning">Transfer of learning</a> is the application of skill, knowledge or understanding to resolve a novel problem or situation that happens when certain conditions are fulfilled. Research indicates that learning transfer is infrequent; most common when "... cued, primed, and guided..."<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has sought to clarify what it is, and how it might be promoted through instruction. </p><p>Over the history of its discourse, various hypotheses and definitions have been advanced. First, it is speculated that different types of transfer exist, including: near transfer, the application of skill to solve a novel problem in a similar context; and far transfer, the application of skill to solve a novel problem presented in a different context.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, Perkins and Salomon (1992) suggest that positive transfer in cases when learning supports novel problem solving, and negative transfer occurs when prior learning inhibits performance on highly correlated tasks, such as second or third-language learning.<sup id="cite_ref-Perkins_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perkins-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Concepts of positive and negative transfer have a long history; researchers in the early 20th century described the possibility that "...habits or mental acts developed by a particular kind of training may inhibit rather than facilitate other mental activities".<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, Schwarz, Bransford and Sears (2005) have proposed that transferring knowledge into a situation may differ from transferring knowledge out to a situation as a means to reconcile findings that transfer may both be frequent and challenging to promote.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A significant and long research history has also attempted to explicate the conditions under which transfer of learning might occur. Early research by Ruger, for example, found that the "level of attention", "attitudes", "method of attack" (or method for tackling a problem), a "search for new points of view", a "careful testing of hypothesis" and "generalization" were all valuable approaches for promoting transfer.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To encourage transfer through teaching, Perkins and Salomon recommend aligning ("hugging") instruction with practice and assessment, and "bridging", or encouraging learners to reflect on past experiences or make connections between prior knowledge and current content.<sup id="cite_ref-Perkins_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perkins-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Factors_affecting_learning">Factors affecting learning</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Factors affecting learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence-based learning">Evidence-based learning</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics">Genetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Heritability_of_IQ" title="Heritability of IQ">Heritability of IQ</a></div> <p>Some aspects of intelligence are inherited genetically, so different learners to some degree have different abilities with regard to learning and speed of learning.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Socioeconomic_and_physical_conditions">Socioeconomic and physical conditions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Socioeconomic and physical conditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Problems like <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fatigue" title="Fatigue">fatigue</a>, and poor physical health can slow learning, as can bad ventilation or poor lighting at home, and unhygienic living conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_1_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_1-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ref_2_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_2-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The design, quality, and setting of a <a href="/wiki/Learning_space" title="Learning space">learning space</a>, such as a school or classroom, can each be critical to the success of a <a href="/wiki/Learning_environment" title="Learning environment">learning environment</a>. Size, configuration, comfort—fresh air, temperature, light, acoustics, furniture—can all affect a student's learning. The tools used by both instructors and students directly affect how information is conveyed, from the display and writing surfaces (blackboards, markerboards, tack surfaces) to digital technologies. For example, if a room is too crowded, stress levels rise, student attention is reduced, and furniture arrangement is restricted. If furniture is incorrectly arranged, sightlines to the instructor or instructional material are limited and the ability to suit the learning or lesson style is restricted. Aesthetics can also play a role, for if student morale suffers, so does motivation to attend school.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychological_factors_and_teaching_style">Psychological factors and teaching style</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Psychological factors and teaching style"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_motivation" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrinsic motivation">Intrinsic motivation</a>, such as a student's own intellectual curiosity or desire to experiment or explore, has been found to sustain learning more effectively than extrinsic motivations such as grades or parental requirements. <a href="/wiki/Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">Rote learning</a> involves repetition in order to reinforce facts in memory, but has been criticized as ineffective and "<a href="/wiki/Drill_and_kill" class="mw-redirect" title="Drill and kill">drill and kill</a>" since it kills intrinsic motivation. Alternatives to rote learning include <a href="/wiki/Active_learning" title="Active learning">active learning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meaningful_learning" title="Meaningful learning">meaningful learning</a>. </p><p>The speed, accuracy, and retention, depend upon <a href="/wiki/Aptitude" title="Aptitude">aptitude</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)" title="Attitude (psychology)">attitude</a>, interest, attention, energy level, and <a href="/wiki/Motivation#Applications_in_education" title="Motivation">motivation</a> of the students. Students who answer a question properly or give good results should be praised. This encouragement increases their ability and helps them produce better results. Certain attitudes, such as always finding fault in a student's answer or provoking or embarrassing the student in front of a class are counterproductive.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_3_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_3-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ref_4_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_4-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Quotation needed from source to verify. (March 2022)">need quotation to verify</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Certain techniques can increase long-term retention:<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Spacing_effect" title="Spacing effect">spacing effect</a> means that lessons or studying spaced out over time (<a href="/wiki/Spaced_repetition" title="Spaced repetition">spaced repetition</a>) are better than <a href="/wiki/Cramming_(education)" title="Cramming (education)">cramming</a></li> <li>Teaching material to other people</li> <li>"Self-explaining" (paraphrasing material to oneself) rather than passive reading</li> <li>Low-stakes <a href="/wiki/Quizzing" class="mw-redirect" title="Quizzing">quizzing</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epigenetic_factors">Epigenetic factors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Epigenetic factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics_in_learning_and_memory" title="Epigenetics in learning and memory">Epigenetics in learning and memory</a></div> <p>The underlying molecular basis of learning appears to be dynamic changes in <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a> occurring in <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> that are introduced by <a href="/wiki/Epigenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epigenetic">epigenetic</a> mechanisms. Epigenetic regulation of gene expression involves, most notably, chemical modification of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> or DNA-associated <a href="/wiki/Histone" title="Histone">histone</a> proteins. These chemical modifications can cause long-lasting changes in gene expression. Epigenetic mechanisms involved in learning include the <a href="/wiki/DNA_methylation" title="DNA methylation">methylation</a> and <a href="/wiki/DNA_demethylation" title="DNA demethylation">demethylation</a> of neuronal DNA as well as <a href="/wiki/Histone_methylation" title="Histone methylation">methylation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Histone_acetylation_and_deacetylation" title="Histone acetylation and deacetylation">acetylation and deacetylation of neuronal histone proteins</a>. </p><p>During learning, information processing in the brain involves induction of <a href="/wiki/DNA_oxidation" title="DNA oxidation">oxidative modification in neuronal DNA</a> followed by the employment of <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">DNA repair</a> processes that introduce epigenetic alterations. In particular, the DNA repair processes of <a href="/wiki/Non-homologous_end_joining" title="Non-homologous end joining">non-homologous end joining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Base_excision_repair" title="Base excision repair">base excision repair</a> are employed in learning and memory formation.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_cognition-related_factors">General cognition-related factors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: General cognition-related factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_nervous_system_in_humans#Adult_neural_development" title="Development of the nervous system in humans">Development of the nervous system in humans § Adult neural development</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Development_of_the_nervous_system_in_humans&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p>The nervous system continues to develop during adulthood until <a href="/wiki/Brain_death" title="Brain death">brain death</a>. For example: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise" title="Neurobiological effects of physical exercise">physical exercise has neurobiological effects</a></li> <li>the consumption of foods (or <a href="/wiki/Nutrition_and_cognition" title="Nutrition and cognition">nutrients</a>), obesity,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> alterations of the <a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">microbiome</a>, drinks, <a href="/wiki/Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">dietary supplements</a>, recreational drugs and medications<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> may possibly also have effects on the development of the nervous system</li> <li>various diseases, <a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_neurological,_psychological_and_other_mental_health_outcomes#Research_into_COVID-19_induced_brain_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes">such as COVID-19</a>, have effects on the development of the nervous system <ul><li>For example, several genes have been identified as being associated with changes in brain structure over lifetime and are potential <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a> therapy-targets.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>psychological events such as <a href="/wiki/Psychological_trauma" title="Psychological trauma">mental trauma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychological_resilience#Building_resilience" title="Psychological resilience">resilience-building</a></li> <li>exposure to environmental pollution and <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxicity" title="Neurotoxicity">toxins</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a> may have effects on the further development of the nervous system</li> <li>other activities may also have effects on the development of the nervous system, such as <a href="/wiki/Lifelong_learning" title="Lifelong learning">lifelong learning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Retraining" title="Retraining">retraining</a>, and types of media- and economic activities</li> <li>broadly, <a href="/wiki/Aging_brain" title="Aging brain">brain aging</a></li></ul></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adult_learning_vs_children's_learning"><span id="Adult_learning_vs_children.27s_learning"></span>Adult learning vs children's learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Adult learning vs children's learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Aging_brain" title="Aging brain">Aging brain</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Learning is often <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_nervous_system_in_humans" title="Development of the nervous system in humans">more efficient</a> in <a href="/wiki/Children" class="mw-redirect" title="Children">children</a> and takes longer or is more difficult with <a href="/wiki/Aging" class="mw-redirect" title="Aging">age</a>. A study using <a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">neuroimaging</a> identified rapid <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> <a href="/wiki/GABA" title="GABA">GABA</a> boosting as a major potential explanation-component for why that is.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Children's brains contain more "<a href="/wiki/Silent_synapse" title="Silent synapse">silent synapses</a>" that are inactive <a href="/wiki/Connectome" title="Connectome">until recruited</a> as part of <a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">neuroplasticity</a> and flexible learning or <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memories</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neuroplasticity is heightened during critical or sensitive periods of brain development, mainly referring to brain development during <a href="/wiki/Child_development" title="Child development">child development</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However researchers, after subjecting late middle aged participants to university courses, suggest perceived age differences in learning may be a result of differences in time, support, environment, and attitudes, rather than inherent ability.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>What humans learn at the early stages, and what they learn to apply, sets humans on course for life or has a disproportional impact.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adults usually have a higher capacity to select what they learn, to what extent and how. For example, children may learn <a href="/wiki/Education#Development" title="Education">the given subjects and topics of school curricula via classroom blackboard-transcription handwriting</a>, instead of being able to choose specific topics/skills or jobs to learn and the styles of learning. For instance, children may not have developed consolidated interests, ethics, interest in purpose and meaningful activities, knowledge about real-world requirements and demands, and priorities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_animal_evolution">In animal evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: In animal evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Animals gain knowledge in two ways. First is learning—in which an animal gathers information about its environment and uses this information. For example, if an animal eats something that hurts its stomach, it learns not to eat that again. The second is innate knowledge that is genetically inherited. An example of this is when a horse is born and can immediately walk. The horse has not learned this behavior; it simply knows how to do it.<sup id="cite_ref-Dunlap_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunlap-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some scenarios, <a href="/wiki/Instinct" title="Instinct">innate knowledge</a> is more beneficial than learned knowledge. However, in other scenarios the opposite is true—animals must learn certain behaviors when it is disadvantageous to have a specific innate behavior. In these situations, learning <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolves</a> in the species. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Costs_and_benefits_of_learned_and_innate_knowledge">Costs and benefits of learned and innate knowledge</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Costs and benefits of learned and innate knowledge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a changing environment, an animal must constantly gain new information to survive. However, in a stable environment, this same individual needs to gather the information it needs once, and then rely on it for the rest of its life. Therefore, different scenarios better suit either learning or innate knowledge. Essentially, the cost of obtaining certain knowledge versus the benefit of already having it determines whether an animal evolved to learn in a given situation, or whether it innately knew the information. If the cost of gaining the knowledge outweighs the benefit of having it, then the animal does not evolve to learn in this scenario—but instead, non-learning evolves. However, if the benefit of having certain information outweighs the cost of obtaining it, then the animal is far more likely to evolve to have to learn this information.<sup id="cite_ref-Dunlap_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunlap-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Non-learning is more likely to evolve in two scenarios. If an environment is static and change does not or rarely occurs, then learning is simply unnecessary. Because there is no need for learning in this scenario—and because learning could prove disadvantageous due to the time it took to learn the information—non-learning evolves. Similarly, if an environment is in a constant state of change, learning is also disadvantageous, as anything learned is immediately irrelevant because of the changing environment.<sup id="cite_ref-Dunlap_95-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunlap-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The learned information no longer applies. Essentially, the animal would be just as successful if it took a guess as if it learned. In this situation, non-learning evolves. In fact, a study of <i><a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a></i> showed that learning can actually lead to a decrease in productivity, possibly because egg-laying behaviors and decisions were impaired by interference from the memories gained from the newly learned materials or because of the cost of energy in learning.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, in environments where change occurs within an animal's lifetime but is not constant, learning is more likely to evolve. Learning is beneficial in these scenarios because an animal can <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adapt</a> to the new situation, but can still apply the knowledge that it learns for a somewhat extended period of time. Therefore, learning increases the chances of success as opposed to guessing.<sup id="cite_ref-Dunlap_95-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunlap-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of this is seen in aquatic environments with landscapes subject to change. In these environments, learning is favored because the fish are predisposed to learn the specific spatial cues where they live.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_plants">In plants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: In plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In recent years, plant physiologists have examined the physiology of plant behavior and cognition. The concepts of learning and memory are relevant in identifying how plants respond to external cues, a behavior necessary for survival. <a href="/wiki/Monica_Gagliano" title="Monica Gagliano">Monica Gagliano</a>, an Australian professor of evolutionary ecology, makes an argument for associative learning in the garden pea, <i>Pisum sativum</i>. The garden pea is not specific to a region, but rather grows in cooler, higher altitude climates. Gagliano and colleagues' 2016 paper aims to differentiate between innate phototropism behavior and learned behaviors.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants use light cues in various ways, such as to sustain their metabolic needs and to maintain their internal circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms in plants are modulated by endogenous bioactive substances that encourage leaf-opening and leaf-closing and are the basis of nyctinastic behaviors.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gagliano and colleagues constructed a classical conditioning test in which pea seedlings were divided into two experimental categories and placed in Y-shaped tubes.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a series of training sessions, the plants were exposed to light coming down different arms of the tube. In each case, there was a fan blowing lightly down the tube in either the same or opposite arm as the light. The unconditioned stimulus (US) was the predicted occurrence of light and the conditioned stimulus (CS) was the wind blowing by the fan. Previous experimentation shows that plants respond to light by bending and growing towards it through differential cell growth and division on one side of the plant stem mediated by auxin signaling pathways.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the testing phase of Gagliano's experiment, the pea seedlings were placed in different Y-pipes and exposed to the fan alone. Their direction of growth was subsequently recorded. The 'correct' response by the seedlings was deemed to be growing into the arm where the light was "predicted" from the previous day. The majority of plants in both experimental conditions grew in a direction consistent with the predicted location of light based on the position of the fan the previous day.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, if the seedling was trained with the fan and light coming down the same arm of the Y-pipe, the following day the seedling grew towards the fan in the absence of light cues despite the fan being placed in the opposite side of the Y-arm. Plants in the control group showed no preference to a particular arm of the Y-pipe. The percentage difference in population behavior observed between the control and experimental groups is meant to distinguish innate phototropism behavior from active associative learning.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_32-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the physiological mechanism of associative learning in plants is not known, Telewski et al. describes a hypothesis that describes photoreception as the basis of mechano-perception in plants.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One mechanism for mechano-perception in plants relies on MS ion channels and calcium channels. Mechanosensory proteins in cell lipid bilayers, known as MS ion channels, are activated once they are physically deformed in response to pressure or tension. Ca2+ permeable ion channels are "stretch-gated" and allow for the influx of osmolytes and calcium, a well-known second messenger, into the cell. This ion influx triggers a passive flow of water into the cell down its osmotic gradient, effectively increasing turgor pressure and causing the cell to depolarize.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gagliano hypothesizes that the basis of associative learning in <i>Pisum sativum</i> is the coupling of mechanosensory and photosensory pathways and is mediated by auxin signaling pathways. The result is directional growth to maximize a plant's capture of sunlight.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_32-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gagliano et al. published another paper on habituation behaviors in the <i>mimosa pudica</i> plant whereby the innate behavior of the plant was diminished by repeated exposure to a stimulus.<sup id="cite_ref-gagliano2014_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gagliano2014-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There has been controversy around this paper and more generally around the topic of plant cognition. Charles Abrahmson, a psychologist and behavioral biologist, says that part of the issue of why scientists disagree about whether plants have the ability to learn is that researchers do not use a consistent definition of "learning" and "cognition".<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, Michael Pollan, an author, and journalist, says in his piece <i>The Intelligent Plant</i> that researchers do not doubt Gagliano's data but rather her language, specifically her use of the term "learning" and "cognition" with respect to plants.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A direction for future research is testing whether circadian rhythms in plants modulate learning and behavior and surveying researchers' definitions of "cognition" and "learning". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Machine_learning">Machine learning</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Machine learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Evolution-of-Adaptive-Behaviour-in-Robots-by-Means-of-Darwinian-Selection-pbio.1000292.s007.ogv/220px-seek%3D46-Evolution-of-Adaptive-Behaviour-in-Robots-by-Means-of-Darwinian-Selection-pbio.1000292.s007.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="110" data-mwtitle="Evolution-of-Adaptive-Behaviour-in-Robots-by-Means-of-Darwinian-Selection-pbio.1000292.s007.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Evolution-of-Adaptive-Behaviour-in-Robots-by-Means-of-Darwinian-Selection-pbio.1000292.s007.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/ad/Evolution-of-Adaptive-Behaviour-in-Robots-by-Means-of-Darwinian-Selection-pbio.1000292.s007.ogv/Evolution-of-Adaptive-Behaviour-in-Robots-by-Means-of-Darwinian-Selection-pbio.1000292.s007.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Evolution-of-Adaptive-Behaviour-in-Robots-by-Means-of-Darwinian-Selection-pbio.1000292.s007.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/ad/Evolution-of-Adaptive-Behaviour-in-Robots-by-Means-of-Darwinian-Selection-pbio.1000292.s007.ogv/Evolution-of-Adaptive-Behaviour-in-Robots-by-Means-of-Darwinian-Selection-pbio.1000292.s007.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/ad/Evolution-of-Adaptive-Behaviour-in-Robots-by-Means-of-Darwinian-Selection-pbio.1000292.s007.ogv/Evolution-of-Adaptive-Behaviour-in-Robots-by-Means-of-Darwinian-Selection-pbio.1000292.s007.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /></video></span><figcaption>Robots can learn to cooperate.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a></div> <p>Machine learning, a branch of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>, concerns the construction and study of systems that can learn from data. For example, a machine learning system could be trained on email messages to learn to distinguish between spam and non-spam messages. Most of the Machine Learning models are based on probabilistic theories where each input (e.g. an image ) is associated with a probability to become the desired output. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_2">Types</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phases">Phases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Phases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st_century_skills" title="21st century skills">21st century skills</a> – Skills identified as being required for success in the 21st century</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticipatory_socialization" title="Anticipatory socialization">Anticipatory socialization</a> – Process in which people take on the values of groups that they aspire to join</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> – Philosophical study of knowledge</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_learning" title="Implicit learning">Implicit learning</a> – in learning psychology<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instructional_theory" title="Instructional theory">Instructional theory</a> – Theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_sciences" title="Learning sciences">Learning sciences</a> – Critical theory of learning</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifelong_learning" title="Lifelong learning">Lifelong learning</a> – Ongoing, voluntary, and self-motivated pursuit of knowledge</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Living_educational_theory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Living educational theory (page does not exist)">Living educational theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media psychology</a> – Area of psychology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subgoal_labeling" title="Subgoal labeling">Subgoal labeling</a> – Cognitive process</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_theory">Information theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Information theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_information_theory" title="Algorithmic information theory">Algorithmic information theory</a> – Subfield of information theory and computer science</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_probability" title="Algorithmic probability">Algorithmic probability</a> – mathematical method of assigning a prior probability to a given observation<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_inference" title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian inference</a> – Method of statistical inference</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_logic_programming" title="Inductive logic programming">Inductive logic programming</a> – learning logic programs from data<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_probability" title="Inductive probability">Inductive probability</a> – Determining the probability of future events based on past events</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a> – Scientific study of digital information</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_description_length" title="Minimum description length">Minimum description length</a> – Model selection principle</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_message_length" title="Minimum message length">Minimum message length</a> – Formal information theory restatement of Occam's Razor</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a> – Philosophical problem-solving principle</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomonoff%27s_theory_of_inductive_inference" title="Solomonoff's theory of inductive inference">Solomonoff's theory of inductive inference</a> – A mathematical theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/AIXI" title="AIXI">AIXI</a> – Mathematical formalism for artificial general intelligence</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_of_education">Types of education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Types of education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autodidacticism" title="Autodidacticism">Autodidacticism</a> – Independent education without the guidance of teachers</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andragogy" title="Andragogy">Andragogy</a> – Methods and principles in adult education</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">Pedagogy</a> – Theory and practice of education</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Gross, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Cle1Fcr_6_QC&pg=PT335">Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221231162243/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cle1Fcr_6_QC&pg=PT335">Archived</a> 2022-12-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 6E, Hachette UK, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4441-6436-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4441-6436-7">978-1-4441-6436-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karban, R. (2015). Plant Learning and Memory. In: <i>Plant Sensing and Communication</i>. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, pp. 31–44, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8HOeCQAAQBAJ">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221231162243/https://books.google.com/books?id=8HOeCQAAQBAJ">Archived</a> 2022-12-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (2008). <i>Metaphors we live by</i>. University of Chicago press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schacter-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schacter_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_L._SchacterDaniel_T._GilbertDaniel_M._Wegner2011" class="citation book cs1">Daniel L. Schacter; Daniel T. Gilbert; Daniel M. Wegner (2011) [2009]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/psychology0000scha/page/264"><i>Psychology, 2nd edition</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-12-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Change+and+Reliability+in+the+Evolution+of+Learning+and+Memory&rft.inst=University+of+Minnesota&rft.au=Aimee+Sue+Dunlap-Lehtil%C3%A4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconservancy.umn.edu%2Fbitstream%2F51978%2F1%2FDunlapLehtila_umn_0130E_10349.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALearning" class="Z3988"></span>></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeryKawecki2004" class="citation journal cs1">Mery, Frederic; Kawecki, Tadeusz J. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d623/5e4ebd0ff824a4a8599aab9ea55201cf250c.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2019-06-06 – via Semantic Scholar.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pure+Appl.+Chem.&rft.atitle=Endogenous+factors+involved+in+the+regulation+of+movement+and+%22memory%22+in+plants&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E519-%3C%2Fspan%3E527&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1351%2Fpac200779040519&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A35797968%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ueda&rft.aufirst=Minoru&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2Fd623%2F5e4ebd0ff824a4a8599aab9ea55201cf250c.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALearning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiscum2014" class="citation journal cs1">Liscum, Emmanuel (January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3963583">"Phototropism: Growing towards an Understanding of Plant Movement"</a>. <i>Plant Cell</i>. <b>1</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">38–</span>55. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PlanC..26...38L">2014PlanC..26...38L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1105%2Ftpc.113.119727">10.1105/tpc.113.119727</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3963583">3963583</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24481074">24481074</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plant+Cell&rft.atitle=Phototropism%3A+Growing+towards+an+Understanding+of+Plant+Movement&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E38-%3C%2Fspan%3E55&rft.date=2014-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3963583%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24481074&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1105%2Ftpc.113.119727&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PlanC..26...38L&rft.aulast=Liscum&rft.aufirst=Emmanuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3963583&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALearning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_100-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTelewski2006" class="citation journal cs1">Telewski, FW (October 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.93.10.1466">"A unified hypothesis of mechanoreception in plants"</a>. <i>American Journal of Botany</i>. <b>93</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">1466–</span>76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.93.10.1466">10.3732/ajb.93.10.1466</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21642094">21642094</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=A+unified+hypothesis+of+mechanoreception+in+plants.&rft.volume=93&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1466-%3C%2Fspan%3E76&rft.date=2006-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3732%2Fajb.93.10.1466&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21642094&rft.aulast=Telewski&rft.aufirst=FW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3732%252Fajb.93.10.1466&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALearning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbramsonChicas-Mosier2016" class="citation journal cs1">Abramson, Charles I.; Chicas-Mosier, Ana M. (2016-03-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4814444">"Learning in Plants: Lessons from Mimosa pudica"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Psychology</i>. <b>7</b>: 417. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2016.00417">10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00417</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1664-1078">1664-1078</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4814444">4814444</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27065905">27065905</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=Learning+in+Plants%3A+Lessons+from+Mimosa+pudica&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=417&rft.date=2016-03-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4814444%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1664-1078&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27065905&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2016.00417&rft.aulast=Abramson&rft.aufirst=Charles+I.&rft.au=Chicas-Mosier%2C+Ana+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4814444&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALearning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollan2013" class="citation magazine cs1">Pollan, Michael (2013-12-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/12/23/the-intelligent-plant">"The Intelligent Plant"</a>. <i>The New Yorker</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-792X">0028-792X</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-06-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=The+Intelligent+Plant&rft.date=2013-12-16&rft.issn=0028-792X&rft.aulast=Pollan&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fmagazine%2F2013%2F12%2F23%2Fthe-intelligent-plant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALearning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayer2001" class="citation book cs1">Mayer, R.E. (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/multimedialearni0000maye"><i>Multimedia learning</i></a></span>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78749-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78749-9"><bdi>978-0-521-78749-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Multimedia+learning&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-78749-9&rft.aulast=Mayer&rft.aufirst=R.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmultimedialearni0000maye&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALearning" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaivio1971" class="citation book cs1">Paivio, A. (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xmB9AAAAMAAJ"><i>Imagery and verbal processes</i></a>. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-085173-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-085173-5"><bdi>978-0-03-085173-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imagery+and+verbal+processes&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Holt%2C+Rinehart%2C+and+Winston&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-03-085173-5&rft.aulast=Paivio&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxmB9AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALearning" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Learning</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Learning">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUlrich_Boser2019" class="citation book cs1">Ulrich Boser (2019). <i>Learn Better: Mastering the Skills for Success in Life, Business, and School, or How to Become an Expert in Just About Anything</i>. Rodale Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0593135310" title="Special:BookSources/978-0593135310"><bdi>978-0593135310</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Learn+Better%3A+Mastering+the+Skills+for+Success+in+Life%2C+Business%2C+and+School%2C+or+How+to+Become+an+Expert+in+Just+About+Anything&rft.pub=Rodale+Books&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0593135310&rft.au=Ulrich+Boser&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALearning" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Learning&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Learning" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Learning">Learning</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Learning" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Learning">Learning</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/9853/chapter/1"><i>How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School</i> (expanded edition)</a> published by the <a href="/wiki/National_Academies_Press" title="National Academies Press">National Academies Press</a></li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://teachpsych.org/ebooks/asle2014/index.php/">Applying Science of Learning in Education: Infusing Psychological Science into the Curriculum</a></i> published by the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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title="Template:Ethology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethology" title="Template talk:Ethology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethology159" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">Animal cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">Animal consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_culture" title="Animal culture">Animal culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_sexual_behaviour" title="Animal sexual behaviour">Animal sexual behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare_science" title="Animal welfare science">Animal welfare science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bee_learning_and_communication" title="Bee learning and communication">Bee learning and communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behavioural ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_endocrinology" title="Behavioral endocrinology">Behavioral endocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioural genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breed" title="Breed">Breed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ethology" title="Cognitive ethology">Cognitive ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_behaviour_in_animals" title="Comfort behaviour in animals">Comfort behaviour</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personal_grooming" title="Personal grooming">Grooming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">Emotion in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethogram" title="Ethogram">Ethogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">Feeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hover_(behaviour)" title="Hover (behaviour)">Hover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ethology" title="Human ethology">Human ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instinct" title="Instinct">Instinct</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_animals" title="Pain in animals">Pain in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_ethology" title="Philosophical ethology">Philosophical ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypy_(non-human)" title="Stereotypy (non-human)">Stereotypy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structures_built_by_animals" title="Structures built by animals">Structures</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beehive" title="Beehive">Hive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honeycomb_structure" title="Honeycomb structure">Honeycomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nest" title="Nest">Nest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nesting_instinct" title="Nesting instinct">Instinct</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_use_by_non-humans" title="Tool use by non-humans">Tool use by non-humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoosemiotics" title="Zoosemiotics">Zoosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoomusicology" title="Zoomusicology">Zoomusicology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Bateson" title="Patrick Bateson">Patrick Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Bekoff" title="Marc Bekoff">Marc Bekoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Broom" title="Donald Broom">Donald Broom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_B._Calhoun" title="John B. Calhoun">John B. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_Dawkins" title="Marian Dawkins">Marian Dawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iren%C3%A4us_Eibl-Eibesfeldt" title="Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt">Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dian_Fossey" title="Dian Fossey">Dian Fossey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Goodall" title="Jane Goodall">Jane Goodall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heini_Hediger" title="Heini Hediger">Heini Hediger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley" title="Julian Huxley">Julian Huxley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmond_Morris" title="Desmond Morris">Desmond Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sebeok" title="Thomas Sebeok">Thomas Sebeok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Homan_Thorpe" title="William Homan Thorpe">William Homan Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_von_Uexk%C3%BCll" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakob von Uexküll">Jakob von Uexküll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Wickler" title="Wolfgang Wickler">Wolfgang Wickler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solly_Zuckerman" class="mw-redirect" title="Solly Zuckerman">Solly Zuckerman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Societies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_Animal_Behaviour" title="Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour">Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Applied_Ethology" title="International Society for Applied Ethology">International Society for Applied Ethology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Behaviour_(journal)" title="Animal Behaviour (journal)">Animal 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_giftedness" title="Intellectual giftedness">Intellectual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic intelligence">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences" title="Theory of multiple intelligences">Multiple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_intelligence" title="Social intelligence">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_intelligence_(psychology)" title="Spatial intelligence (psychology)">Spatial</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spatial_visualization_ability" title="Spatial visualization ability">visuospatial</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Abilities">Abilities</a>, traits,<br />and constructs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_liberty" title="Cognitive liberty">Cognitive liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">Fluid and crystallized intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G_factor_(psychometrics)" title="G factor (psychometrics)"><i>g</i> factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellect" title="Intellect">Intellect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">Intelligence quotient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">Problem solving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skill" title="Skill">Skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a> (<a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">Visual processing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Models and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cattell%E2%80%93Horn%E2%80%93Carroll_theory" title="Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory">Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">Fluid and crystallized intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences" title="Theory of multiple intelligences">Multiple-intelligences theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PASS_theory_of_intelligence" title="PASS theory of intelligence">PASS theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-stratum_theory" title="Three-stratum theory">Three-stratum theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triarchic_theory_of_intelligence" title="Triarchic theory of intelligence">Triarchic theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas of research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Evolution of human intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heritability_of_IQ" title="Heritability of IQ">Heritability of IQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_and_intelligence" title="Environment and intelligence">Intelligence and environment</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fertility_and_intelligence" title="Fertility and intelligence">fertility</a> / <a href="/wiki/Height_and_intelligence" title="Height and intelligence">height</a> / <a href="/wiki/Impact_of_health_on_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of health on intelligence">health</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_epidemiology" title="Cognitive epidemiology">longevity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_and_intelligence" title="Neuroscience and intelligence">neuroscience</a> / <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_and_personality" title="Intelligence and personality">personality</a> / <a href="/wiki/Race_and_intelligence" title="Race and intelligence">race</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">sex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow plainlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_human_intelligence" title="Outline of human intelligence">Outline of human intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_thought" title="Outline of thought">thought</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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href="/wiki/Imprinting_(psychology)" title="Imprinting (psychology)">Imprinting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_learning" title="Observational learning">Observational learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">Operant conditioning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Insight_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Insight learning">Insight learning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Deductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mental_processes58" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#efefef;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mental_processes" title="Template:Mental processes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mental_processes" title="Template talk:Mental processes"><abbr title="Discuss this 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title="Forecasting">Forecasting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affective_forecasting" title="Affective forecasting">affective</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foresight_(psychology)" title="Foresight (psychology)">Foresight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Comprehension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">Decision-making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagination" title="Imagination">Imagination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">Intuition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">Problem solving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Problem_solving#Problem-solving_methods" title="Problem solving">methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_solving#Problem-solving_strategies" title="Problem solving">strategies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prospection" title="Prospection">Prospection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#efefef;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amodal_perception" title="Amodal perception">Amodal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_vision" title="Color vision">Color</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RGB_color_model" title="RGB color model">RGB model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_perception" title="Depth perception">Depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Form_perception" title="Form perception">Form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptic_perception" title="Haptic perception">Haptic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Touch" class="mw-redirect" title="Touch">Touch</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_interpretation" 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