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Sociobiology - Wikipedia
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Available in 50 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-50" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">50 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="علم الأحياء الاجتماعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الأحياء الاجتماعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiolog%C3%ADa" title="Sociobiología – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Sociobiología" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Сацыябіялогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сацыябіялогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiologia" title="Sociobiologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sociobiologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiologie" title="Sociobiologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sociobiologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiologi" title="Sociobiologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sociobiologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziobiologie" title="Soziobiologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Soziobiologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotsiobioloogia" title="Sotsiobioloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sotsiobioloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiolog%C3%ADa" title="Sociobiología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sociobiología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socibiologio" title="Socibiologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Socibiologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziobiologia" title="Soziobiologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Soziobiologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="زیستجامعهشناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زیستجامعهشناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiologie" title="Sociobiologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sociobiologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiolox%C3%ADa" title="Sociobioloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Sociobioloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%ED%9A%8C%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC%ED%95%99" title="사회생물학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사회생물학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiologio" title="Sociobiologio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Sociobiologio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiobiologi" title="Sosiobiologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sosiobiologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiologia" title="Sociobiologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sociobiologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="סוציוביולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סוציוביולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Социобиология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Социобиология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiologia" title="Sociobiologia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Sociobiologia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiologija" title="Sociobiologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sociobiologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiobiolojia" title="Sosiobiolojia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Sosiobiolojia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szociobiol%C3%B3gia" title="Szociobiológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szociobiológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiobiologi" title="Sosiobiologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sosiobiologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiologie" title="Sociobiologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sociobiologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="社会生物学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="社会生物学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiobiologi" title="Sosiobiologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sosiobiologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotsiobiologiya" title="Sotsiobiologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Sotsiobiologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BC%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%87_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%D9%8A" title="ټولنيزه بيالوژي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ټولنيزه بيالوژي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiolog%C3%ACa" title="Sociobiologìa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Sociobiologìa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socjobiologia" title="Socjobiologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Socjobiologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiologia" title="Sociobiologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sociobiologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiologie" title="Sociobiologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sociobiologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Социобиология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Социобиология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Sociobiology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiol%C3%B3gia" title="Sociobiológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sociobiológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiologija" title="Sociobiologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Sociobiologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiologija" title="Sociobiologija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Sociobiologija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiologija" title="Sociobiologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Sociobiologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiobiologia" title="Sosiobiologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sosiobiologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiologi" title="Sociobiologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sociobiologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosyobiyoloji" title="Sosyobiyoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sosyobiyoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Біосоціологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Біосоціологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="معاشری حیاتیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="معاشری حیاتیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc_x%C3%A3_h%E1%BB%99i" title="Sinh học xã hội – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sinh học xã hội" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosyobiyolohiya" title="Sosyobiyolohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Sosyobiyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="社会生物学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="社会生物学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="社會生物學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="社會生物學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="社會生物學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="社會生物學" data-language-autonym="中文" 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Subdiscipline of biology regarding social behavior</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the book by E. O. 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class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#90ee90;padding:0.2em;font-size:175%;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg/180px-Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg/270px-Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg/360px-Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1748" data-file-height="1319" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Darwin%27s_finches" title="Darwin's finches">Darwin's finches</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Gould" title="John Gould">John Gould</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.55em; background-color: transparent;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Main</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_evolutionary_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of evolutionary biology">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Processes and outcomes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">Diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Co-operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coextinction" title="Coextinction">Coextinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Contingency (evolutionary biology)">Contingency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Evolutionary taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">History of evolutionary theory</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Overview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Before Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">Origin of Species</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">Before synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evo-devo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_research_in_evolutionary_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Current research in evolutionary biology">Current research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_speciation" title="History of speciation">History of speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_paleontology" title="Timeline of paleontology">timeline</a>)</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Fields and applications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applications_of_evolution" title="Applications of evolution">Applications of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Evolutionary aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_computation" title="Evolutionary computation">Evolutionary computation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_game_theory" title="Evolutionary game theory">Evolutionary game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Evolutionary linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_physiology" title="Evolutionary physiology">Evolutionary physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_evolution" title="Experimental evolution">Experimental evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_genetics" title="Invasion genetics">Invasion genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_biogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Island biogeography">Island biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Selective breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_experiments_of_speciation" title="Laboratory experiments of speciation">Speciation experiments</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Darwinism" title="Universal Darwinism">Universal Darwinism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Social implications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_as_fact_and_theory" title="Evolution as fact and theory">Evolution as fact and theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory" title="Social effects of evolutionary theory">Social effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Creation–evolution controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" title="Objections to evolution">Objections to evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Level_of_support_for_evolution" title="Level of support for evolution">Level of support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature-nurture controversy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/16px-Tree_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/24px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/32px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="915" data-file-height="760" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_biology" title="Category:Evolutionary biology">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_biology" title="Template:Evolutionary biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolutionary_biology" title="Template talk:Evolutionary biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Sociobiology</b> is a field of <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> that aims to explain <a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">social behavior</a> in terms of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>. It draws from disciplines including <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a>. Within the study of human <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">societies</a>, sociobiology is closely allied to <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">evolutionary anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_behavioral_ecology" title="Human behavioral ecology">human behavioral ecology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sociobiology investigates social behaviors such as <a href="/wiki/Mating_system" title="Mating system">mating patterns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Territoriality" class="mw-redirect" title="Territoriality">territorial fights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pack_hunter" title="Pack hunter">pack hunting</a>, and the hive society of <a href="/wiki/Social_insect" class="mw-redirect" title="Social insect">social insects</a>. It argues that just as selection pressure led to animals evolving useful ways of interacting with the <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">natural environment</a>, so also it led to the genetic evolution of advantageous social behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the term "sociobiology" originated at least as early as the 1940s; the concept did not gain major recognition until the publication of <a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a>'s book <i><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology:_The_New_Synthesis" title="Sociobiology: The New Synthesis">Sociobiology: The New Synthesis</a></i> in 1975. The new field quickly became the subject of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_controversy" title="Scientific controversy">controversy</a>. Critics, led by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lewontin" title="Richard Lewontin">Richard Lewontin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a>, argued that genes played a role in human behavior, but that traits such as <a href="/wiki/Aggressiveness" class="mw-redirect" title="Aggressiveness">aggressiveness</a> could be explained by social environment rather than by biology. Sociobiologists responded by pointing to the complex relationship between <a href="/wiki/Nature_and_nurture" class="mw-redirect" title="Nature and nurture">nature and nurture</a>. Among sociobiologists, the controversy between laying weight to different levels of selection was settled between D.S. Wilson and E.O. Wilson in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociobiology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>E. O. Wilson defined sociobiology as "the extension of population biology and evolutionary theory to social organization".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sociobiology is based on the premise that some behaviors (social and individual) are at least partly inherited and can be affected by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It begins with the idea that behaviors have evolved over time, similar to the way that physical traits are thought to have evolved. It predicts that animals will act in ways that have proven to be evolutionarily successful over time. This can, among other things, result in the formation of complex social processes conducive to evolutionary fitness. </p><p>The discipline seeks to explain behavior as a product of natural selection. Behavior is therefore seen as an effort to preserve one's genes in the population. Inherent in sociobiological reasoning is the idea that certain genes or gene combinations that influence particular behavioral traits can be <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">inherited</a> from generation to generation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, newly dominant male lions often kill cubs in the pride that they did not sire. This <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_behavior" title="Adaptive behavior">behavior is adaptive</a> because killing the cubs eliminates <a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">competition</a> for their own offspring and causes the nursing females to come into heat faster, thus allowing more of his genes to enter into the population. Sociobiologists would view this instinctual cub-killing behavior as being inherited through the genes of successfully reproducing male lions, whereas non-killing behavior may have died out as those lions were less successful in reproducing.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociobiology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plos_wilson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Plos_wilson.jpg/170px-Plos_wilson.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Plos_wilson.jpg/255px-Plos_wilson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Plos_wilson.jpg/340px-Plos_wilson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1240" data-file-height="1054" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a>, a central figure in the history of sociobiology, from the publication in 1975 of his book <i><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology:_The_New_Synthesis" title="Sociobiology: The New Synthesis">Sociobiology: The New Synthesis</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>The philosopher of biology <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a> suggested that the political philosopher <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> was the first proto-sociobiologist, arguing that in his 1651 book <i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> Hobbes had explained the origins of morals in human society from an amoral sociobiological perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The geneticist of animal behavior <a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Scott_(geneticist)" title="John Paul Scott (geneticist)">John Paul Scott</a> coined the word <i>sociobiology</i> at a 1948 conference on genetics and social behavior, which called for a conjoint development of field and laboratory studies in animal behavior research.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With John Paul Scott's organizational efforts, a "Section of Animal Behavior and Sociobiology" of the Ecological Society of America was created in 1956, which became a Division of Animal Behavior of the American Society of Zoology in 1958. In 1956, <a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a> came in contact with this emerging sociobiology through his PhD student Stuart A. Altmann, who had been in close relation with the participants to the 1948 conference. Altmann developed his own brand of sociobiology to study the social behavior of rhesus macaques, using statistics, and was hired as a "sociobiologist" at the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center in 1965. Wilson's sociobiology is different from <a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Scott_(geneticist)" title="John Paul Scott (geneticist)">John Paul Scott</a>'s or Altmann's, insofar as he drew on mathematical models of social behavior centered on the maximization of the genetic fitness by <a href="/wiki/W._D._Hamilton" title="W. D. Hamilton">W. D. Hamilton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Trivers" title="Robert Trivers">Robert Trivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith" title="John Maynard Smith">John Maynard Smith</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_R._Price" title="George R. Price">George R. Price</a>. The three sociobiologies by Scott, Altmann and Wilson have in common to place naturalist studies at the core of the research on animal social behavior and by drawing alliances with emerging research methodologies, at a time when "biology in the field" was threatened to be made old-fashioned by "modern" practices of science (laboratory studies, mathematical biology, molecular biology).<sup id="cite_ref-Dobzhansky1966_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dobzhansky1966-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once a specialist term, "sociobiology" became widely known in 1975 when Wilson published his book <i>Sociobiology: The New Synthesis</i>, which sparked an intense controversy. Since then "sociobiology" has largely been equated with Wilson's vision. The book pioneered and popularized the attempt to explain the evolutionary mechanics behind social behaviors such as <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">aggression</a>, and nurturance, primarily in ants (Wilson's own research specialty) and other <a href="/wiki/Hymenoptera" title="Hymenoptera">Hymenoptera</a>, but also in other animals. However, the influence of evolution on behavior has been of interest to biologists and philosophers since soon after the discovery of evolution itself. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Peter Kropotkin</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Mutual_Aid:_A_Factor_of_Evolution" title="Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution">Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution</a></i>, written in the early 1890s, is a popular example. The final chapter of the book is devoted to sociobiological explanations of human behavior, and Wilson later wrote a <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize" title="Pulitzer Prize">Pulitzer Prize</a> winning book, <i><a href="/wiki/On_Human_Nature" title="On Human Nature">On Human Nature</a></i>, that addressed human behavior specifically.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Edward H. Hagen writes in <i>The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology</i> that sociobiology is, despite the public controversy regarding the applications to humans, "one of the scientific triumphs of the twentieth century." "Sociobiology is now part of the core research and curriculum of virtually all biology departments, and it is a foundation of the work of almost all field biologists. " Sociobiological research on nonhuman organisms has increased dramatically and continuously in the world's top scientific journals such as <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. The more general term <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">behavioral ecology</a> is commonly substituted for the term sociobiology in order to avoid the public controversy.<sup id="cite_ref-Evolutionary_Psychology_2005_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evolutionary_Psychology_2005-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory">Theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociobiology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Sociobiology" title="Special:EditPage/Sociobiology">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2025</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Sociobiologists maintain that <a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">human behavior</a>, as well as nonhuman animal behavior, can be partly explained as the outcome of natural selection. They contend that in order to fully understand behavior, it must be analyzed in terms of evolutionary considerations. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a> is fundamental to evolutionary theory. Variants of hereditary traits which increase an organism's ability to survive and reproduce will be more greatly represented in subsequent generations, i.e., they will be "selected for". Thus, inherited behavioral mechanisms that allowed an <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organism</a> a greater chance of surviving and/or reproducing in the past are more likely to survive in present organisms. That inherited adaptive behaviors are present in nonhuman <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">animal species</a> has been multiply demonstrated by biologists, and it has become a foundation of <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</a>. However, there is continued resistance by some researchers over the application of evolutionary models to humans, particularly from within the social sciences, where culture has long been assumed to be the predominant driver of behavior. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nikolaas_Tinbergen_1978.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Nikolaas_Tinbergen_1978.jpg/170px-Nikolaas_Tinbergen_1978.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Nikolaas_Tinbergen_1978.jpg/255px-Nikolaas_Tinbergen_1978.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Nikolaas_Tinbergen_1978.jpg/340px-Nikolaas_Tinbergen_1978.jpg 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="559" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a>, whose work influenced sociobiology</figcaption></figure> <p>Sociobiology is based upon two fundamental premises: </p> <ul><li>Certain behavioral traits are inherited,</li> <li>Inherited behavioral traits have been honed by natural selection. Therefore, these traits were probably "adaptive" in the environment in which the species evolved.</li></ul> <p>Sociobiology uses <a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Tinbergen%27s_four_questions" title="Tinbergen's four questions">four categories of questions</a> and explanations of animal behavior. Two categories are at the species level; two, at the individual level. The species-level categories (often called "ultimate explanations") are </p> <ul><li>the function (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a>) that a behavior serves and</li> <li>the evolutionary process (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">phylogeny</a>) that resulted in this functionality.</li></ul> <p>The individual-level categories (often called "proximate explanations") are </p> <ul><li>the development of the individual (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Ontogeny" title="Ontogeny">ontogeny</a>) and</li> <li>the proximate mechanism (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Brain_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain anatomy">brain anatomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormones</a>).</li></ul> <p>Sociobiologists are interested in how behavior can be explained logically as a result of selective pressures in the history of a species. Thus, they are often interested in <a href="/wiki/Instinct" title="Instinct">instinctive</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Intuition_(knowledge)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intuition (knowledge)">intuitive</a> behavior, and in explaining the similarities, rather than the differences, between cultures. For example, mothers within many species of <a href="/wiki/Mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammals">mammals</a> – including humans – are very protective of their <a href="/wiki/Offspring" title="Offspring">offspring</a>. Sociobiologists reason that this protective behavior likely evolved over time because it helped the offspring of the individuals which had the characteristic to survive. This parental protection would increase in frequency in the population. The social behavior is believed to have evolved in a fashion similar to other types of nonbehavioral <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptations</a>, such as a coat of fur, or the sense of smell. </p><p>Individual genetic advantage fails to explain certain social behaviors as a result of gene-centred selection. E.O. Wilson argued that evolution may also act upon <a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">groups</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mechanisms responsible for <a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">group selection</a> employ <a href="/wiki/Paradigms" class="mw-redirect" title="Paradigms">paradigms</a> and population statistics borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_game_theory" title="Evolutionary game theory">evolutionary game theory</a>. Altruism is defined as "a concern for the welfare of others". If altruism is genetically determined, then altruistic individuals must reproduce their own altruistic genetic traits for altruism to survive, but when altruists lavish their resources on non-altruists at the expense of their own kind, the altruists tend to die out and the others tend to increase. An extreme example is a soldier losing his life trying to help a fellow soldier. This example raises the question of how altruistic genes can be passed on if this soldier dies without having any children.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within sociobiology, a social behavior is first explained as a sociobiological <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> by finding an <a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">evolutionarily stable strategy</a> that matches the observed behavior. Stability of a strategy can be difficult to prove, but usually, it will predict gene frequencies. The hypothesis can be supported by establishing a correlation between the gene frequencies predicted by the strategy, and those expressed in a population. </p><p>Altruism between <a href="/wiki/Social_insect" class="mw-redirect" title="Social insect">social insects</a> and littermates has been explained in such a way. Altruistic behavior, behavior that increases the reproductive fitness of others at the apparent expense of the altruist, in some animals has been correlated to the degree of <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> shared between altruistic individuals. A quantitative description of <a href="/wiki/Infanticide" title="Infanticide">infanticide</a> by male harem-mating animals when the <a href="/wiki/Alpha_male" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha male">alpha male</a> is displaced as well as <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">rodent</a> female infanticide and <a href="/wiki/Fetal_resorption" title="Fetal resorption">fetal resorption</a> are active areas of study. In general, females with more bearing opportunities may value offspring less, and may also arrange bearing opportunities to maximize the <a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a> and protection from mates. </p><p>An important concept in sociobiology is that temperament traits exist in an <a href="/wiki/Ecological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological">ecological</a> balance. Just as an expansion of a <a href="/wiki/Sheep" title="Sheep">sheep</a> population might encourage the expansion of a <a href="/wiki/Wolf" title="Wolf">wolf</a> population, an expansion of altruistic traits within a gene pool may also encourage increasing numbers of individuals with dependent traits. </p><p>Studies of human behavior genetics have generally found behavioral traits such as creativity, extroversion, aggressiveness, and <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">IQ</a> have high <a href="/wiki/Heritability" title="Heritability">heritability</a>. The researchers who carry out those studies are careful to point out that heritability does not constrain the influence that environmental or cultural factors may have on those traits.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various theorists have argued that in some environments <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">criminal behavior</a> might be adaptive.<sup id="cite_ref-mealy1995_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mealy1995-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroandrogenic_theory" title="Evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory">evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory</a>, by sociologist/criminologist <a href="/wiki/Lee_Ellis" title="Lee Ellis">Lee Ellis</a>, posits that female sexual selection has led to increased competitive behavior among men, sometimes resulting in criminality. In another theory, <a href="/wiki/Mark_van_Vugt" title="Mark van Vugt">Mark van Vugt</a> argues that a history of intergroup conflict for resources between men have led to differences in violence and aggression between men and women.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The novelist <a href="/wiki/Elias_Canetti" title="Elias Canetti">Elias Canetti</a> also has noted applications of sociobiological theory to cultural practices such as slavery and autocracy.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Support_for_premise">Support for premise</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociobiology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Support for premise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Genetic mouse mutants illustrate the power that genes exert on behavior. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">transcription factor</a> FEV (aka Pet1), through its role in maintaining the <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonergic system</a> in the brain, is required for normal <a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">aggressive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>-like behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, when FEV is genetically deleted from the mouse genome, male mice will instantly attack other males, whereas their wild-type counterparts take significantly longer to initiate violent behavior. In addition, FEV has been shown to be required for correct maternal behavior in mice, such that offspring of mothers without the FEV factor do not survive unless cross-fostered to other wild-type female mice.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A genetic basis for instinctive behavioral traits among non-human species, such as in the above example, is commonly accepted among many biologists; however, attempting to use a genetic basis to explain complex behaviors in human societies has remained extremely controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception">Reception</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociobiology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Steven Pinker</a> argues that critics have been overly swayed by politics and a fear of <a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">biological determinism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> accusing among others <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lewontin" title="Richard Lewontin">Richard Lewontin</a> of being "radical scientists", whose stance on human nature is influenced by politics rather than science,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Lewontin, <a href="/wiki/Steven_Rose" title="Steven Rose">Steven Rose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leon_Kamin" title="Leon Kamin">Leon Kamin</a>, who drew a distinction between the politics and history of an idea and its scientific validity,<sup id="cite_ref-lrk84_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lrk84-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argue that sociobiology fails on scientific grounds. Gould grouped sociobiology with <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a>, criticizing both in his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Mismeasure_of_Man" title="The Mismeasure of Man">The Mismeasure of Man</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Chagnon" title="Napoleon Chagnon">Napoleon Chagnon</a> scheduled sessions on sociobiology at the 1976 <a href="/wiki/American_Anthropological_Association" title="American Anthropological Association">American Anthropological Association</a> convention, other scholars attempted to cancel them with what Chagnon later described as "Impassioned accusations of racism, fascism and Nazism"; <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a>'s support caused the sessions to occur as scheduled.<sup id="cite_ref-eakin20130213_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eakin20130213-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a> has expressed views on sociobiology on several occasions. During a 1976 meeting of the <a href="/wiki/Sociobiology_Study_Group" title="Sociobiology Study Group">Sociobiology Study Group</a>, as reported by <a href="/wiki/Ullica_Segerstr%C3%A5le" title="Ullica Segerstråle">Ullica Segerstråle</a>, Chomsky argued for the importance of a sociobiologically informed notion of human nature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESegerstråle2000205_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESegerstråle2000205-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chomsky argued that human beings are biological organisms and ought to be studied as such, with his criticism of the "<a href="/wiki/Blank_slate" class="mw-redirect" title="Blank slate">blank slate</a>" doctrine in the social sciences (which would inspire a great deal of Steven Pinker's and others' work in evolutionary psychology), in his 1975 <i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_Language" title="Reflections on Language">Reflections on Language</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chomsky further hinted at the possible reconciliation of his anarchist political views and sociobiology in a discussion of <a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Peter Kropotkin</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Mutual_Aid:_A_Factor_of_Evolution" title="Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution">Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution</a></i>, which focused more on altruism than aggression, suggesting that anarchist societies were feasible because of an innate human tendency to cooperate.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wilson has claimed that he had never meant to imply what <i>ought</i> to be, only what <i>is</i> the case. However, some critics have argued that the language of sociobiology readily slips from "is" to "ought",<sup id="cite_ref-lrk84_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lrk84-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an instance of the <a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_fallacy" title="Naturalistic fallacy">naturalistic fallacy</a>. Pinker has argued that opposition to stances considered anti-social, such as ethnic nepotism, is based on <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a> assumptions, meaning that such opposition is not <a href="/wiki/Falsifiable" class="mw-redirect" title="Falsifiable">falsifiable</a> by scientific advances.<sup id="cite_ref-Pinker2002_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pinker2002-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The history of this debate, and others related to it, are covered in detail by <a href="#CITEREFCronin1993">Cronin (1993)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFSegerstråle2000">Segerstråle (2000)</a>, and <a href="#CITEREFAlcock2001">Alcock (2001)</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociobiology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_anthropology" title="Darwinian anthropology">Darwinian anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Evolutionary developmental psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genopolitics" title="Genopolitics">Genopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavioral_ecology" title="Human behavioral ecology">Human behavioral ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytosemiotics" title="Phytosemiotics">Phytosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">Social evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_neuroscience" title="Social neuroscience">Social neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociophysiology" title="Sociophysiology">Sociophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoosemiotics" title="Zoosemiotics">Zoosemiotics</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociobiology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Informational notes</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Biological determinism was a philosophy underlying the <a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">social Darwinian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eugenics#History" title="Eugenics">eugenics movements</a> of the early 20th century, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_race_and_intelligence_controversy" title="History of the race and intelligence controversy">controversies in the history of intelligence testing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p><b>Citations</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWilson,_Edward_O.2000" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Edward_O._Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward O. Wilson">Wilson, Edward O.</a> (2000-03-24), "The Social Insects", <i>Sociobiology</i>, Harvard University Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">397–</span>437, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctvjnrttd.22">10.2307/j.ctvjnrttd.22</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-74416-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-74416-5"><bdi>978-0-674-74416-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociobiology&rft.atitle=The+Social+Insects&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E397-%3C%2Fspan%3E437&rft.date=2000-03-24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctvjnrttd.22&rft.isbn=978-0-674-74416-5&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Edward+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNielsen1994" class="citation journal cs1">Nielsen, François (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.so.20.080194.001411">"Sociobiology and Sociology"</a>. <i>Annual Review of Sociology</i>. <b>20</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">267–</span>303. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.so.20.080194.001411">10.1146/annurev.so.20.080194.001411</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0360-0572">0360-0572</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Sociology&rft.atitle=Sociobiology+and+Sociology&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E267-%3C%2Fspan%3E303&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.so.20.080194.001411&rft.issn=0360-0572&rft.aulast=Nielsen&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.annualreviews.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.so.20.080194.001411&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Sousa1990" class="citation journal cs1">de Sousa, Ronald (1990-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02698599008573367">"The sociology of sociobiology"</a>. <i>International Studies in the Philosophy of Science</i>. <b>4</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">271–</span>283. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02698599008573367">10.1080/02698599008573367</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0269-8595">0269-8595</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Studies+in+the+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=The+sociology+of+sociobiology&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E271-%3C%2Fspan%3E283&rft.date=1990-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02698599008573367&rft.issn=0269-8595&rft.aulast=de+Sousa&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F02698599008573367&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreedman1985" class="citation journal cs1">Freedman, Daniel G. (January 1985). "Sociobiology and the human dimension". <i>Ethology and Sociobiology</i>. <b>6</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">121–</span>122. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0162-3095%2885%2990006-8">10.1016/0162-3095(85)90006-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0162-3095">0162-3095</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethology+and+Sociobiology&rft.atitle=Sociobiology+and+the+human+dimension&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E121-%3C%2Fspan%3E122&rft.date=1985-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0162-3095%2885%2990006-8&rft.issn=0162-3095&rft.aulast=Freedman&rft.aufirst=Daniel+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson,_David_SloanWilson,_Edward_O.2007" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Sloan_Wilson" title="David Sloan Wilson">Wilson, David Sloan</a>; <a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">Wilson, Edward O.</a> (2007). "Rethinking The Theoretical Foundation of Sociobiology". <i>The Quarterly Review of Biology</i>. <b>82</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">327–</span>348. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F522809">10.1086/522809</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18217526">18217526</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37774648">37774648</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Quarterly+Review+of+Biology&rft.atitle=Rethinking+The+Theoretical+Foundation+of+Sociobiology&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E327-%3C%2Fspan%3E348&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A37774648%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18217526&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F522809&rft.au=Wilson%2C+David+Sloan&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Edward+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson,_E._O.1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">Wilson, E. O.</a> (1978). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onhumannature00wils"><i>On Human Nature</i></a></span>. Harvard. p. x. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674016385" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674016385"><bdi>978-0674016385</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Human+Nature&rft.pages=x&rft.pub=Harvard&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0674016385&rft.au=Wilson%2C+E.+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fonhumannature00wils&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohammedAlfaroukElhassanHamad2019" class="citation book cs1">Mohammed, Sulma I.; Alfarouk, Khalid O.; Elhassan, Ahmed M.; Hamad, Kamal; Ibrahim, Muntaser E. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/genetics-of-african-populations-in-health-and-disease/sociobiological-transition-and-cancer/E4FE8995823F33510961E6FDF1293F38">"Sociobiological Transition and Cancer"</a>. <i>The Genetics of African Populations in Health and Disease</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">217–</span>232. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781139680295.010">10.1017/9781139680295.010</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139680295" title="Special:BookSources/9781139680295"><bdi>9781139680295</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:214321882">214321882</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sociobiological+Transition+and+Cancer&rft.btitle=The+Genetics+of+African+Populations+in+Health+and+Disease&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E217-%3C%2Fspan%3E232&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A214321882%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781139680295.010&rft.isbn=9781139680295&rft.aulast=Mohammed&rft.aufirst=Sulma+I.&rft.au=Alfarouk%2C+Khalid+O.&rft.au=Elhassan%2C+Ahmed+M.&rft.au=Hamad%2C+Kamal&rft.au=Ibrahim%2C+Muntaser+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fgenetics-of-african-populations-in-health-and-disease%2Fsociobiological-transition-and-cancer%2FE4FE8995823F33510961E6FDF1293F38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPackerPusey1983" class="citation journal cs1">Packer, Craig; Pusey, Anne E. (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151229213243/http://cbs.umn.edu/sites/cbs.umn.edu/files/public/downloads/Adaptations_of_female_lions_to_infanticide.pdf">"Adaptations of Female Lions to Infanticide by Incoming Males"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Am. Nat</i>. <b>121</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">716–</span>728. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983ANat..121..716P">1983ANat..121..716P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F284097">10.1086/284097</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84927815">84927815</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbs.umn.edu/sites/cbs.umn.edu/files/public/downloads/Adaptations_of_female_lions_to_infanticide.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2015-12-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-04-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Am.+Nat.&rft.atitle=Adaptations+of+Female+Lions+to+Infanticide+by+Incoming+Males&rft.volume=121&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E716-%3C%2Fspan%3E728&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A84927815%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F284097&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983ANat..121..716P&rft.aulast=Packer&rft.aufirst=Craig&rft.au=Pusey%2C+Anne+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbs.umn.edu%2Fsites%2Fcbs.umn.edu%2Ffiles%2Fpublic%2Fdownloads%2FAdaptations_of_female_lions_to_infanticide.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDennett,_Daniel1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Dennett, Daniel</a> (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/darwinsdangerous0000denn"><i>Darwin's Dangerous Idea</i></a></span>. Simon and Schuster. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/darwinsdangerous0000denn/page/453">453–454</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140167344" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140167344"><bdi>978-0140167344</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Darwin%27s+Dangerous+Idea&rft.pages=453-454&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0140167344&rft.au=Dennett%2C+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdarwinsdangerous0000denn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bgsu.edu/arts-and-sciences/neuroscience/john-paul-scott/the-life-of-jp-scott.html">"The Life of J.P. Scott"</a>. Bowling Green State University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+J.P.+Scott&rft.pub=Bowling+Green+State+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bgsu.edu%2Farts-and-sciences%2Fneuroscience%2Fjohn-paul-scott%2Fthe-life-of-jp-scott.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dobzhansky1966-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dobzhansky1966_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobzhansky1966" class="citation journal cs1">Dobzhansky, Theodosius (September 1966). "Are Naturalists Old-Fashioned?". <i>The American Naturalist</i>. <b>100</b> (915): <span class="nowrap">541–</span>550. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1966ANat..100..541D">1966ANat..100..541D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F282448">10.1086/282448</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129104506">129104506</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Naturalist&rft.atitle=Are+Naturalists+Old-Fashioned%3F&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=915&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E541-%3C%2Fspan%3E550&rft.date=1966-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129104506%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F282448&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1966ANat..100..541D&rft.aulast=Dobzhansky&rft.aufirst=Theodosius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalsh,_Bryan2011" class="citation magazine cs1">Walsh, Bryan (17 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://entertainment.time.com/2011/08/30/all-time-100-best-nonfiction-books/slide/on-human-nature-by-edward-o-wilson/">"All-Time 100 Nonfiction Books"</a>. <i>Time</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=All-Time+100+Nonfiction+Books&rft.date=2011-08-17&rft.au=Walsh%2C+Bryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fentertainment.time.com%2F2011%2F08%2F30%2Fall-time-100-best-nonfiction-books%2Fslide%2Fon-human-nature-by-edward-o-wilson%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Evolutionary_Psychology_2005-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Evolutionary_Psychology_2005_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology, edited by David M. Buss, John Wiley & Sons, 2005. Chapter 5 by Edward H. Hagen</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson, 1975. Chapter 5. "Group Selection and Altruism"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTessman1995" class="citation journal cs1">Tessman, Irwin (1995). "Human altruism as a courtship display". <i>Forum</i>. <b>74</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">157–</span>158. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995Oikos..74..157T">1995Oikos..74..157T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3545685">10.2307/3545685</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3545685">3545685</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forum&rft.atitle=Human+altruism+as+a+courtship+display&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E157-%3C%2Fspan%3E158&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3545685%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3545685&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995Oikos..74..157T&rft.aulast=Tessman&rft.aufirst=Irwin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnsonTurkheimerGottesmanBouchard2009" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson, Wendy; Turkheimer, E.; Gottesman, Irving; Bouchard, Thomas (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100911043817/http://people.virginia.edu/~ent3c/papers2/Articles%20for%20Online%20CV/Johnson%20(2009).pdf">"Beyond Heritability: Twin Studies in Behavioral Research"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Current Directions in Psychological Science</i>. <b>18</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">217–</span>220. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8721.2009.01639.x">10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01639.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2899491">2899491</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20625474">20625474</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.virginia.edu/~ent3c/papers2/Articles%20for%20Online%20CV/Johnson%20%282009%29.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on Sep 11, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 June</span> 2010</span>. <q>Moreover, even highly heritable traits can be strongly manipulated by the environment, so heritability has little if anything to do with controllability. For example, height is on the order of 90% heritable, yet North and South Koreans, who come from the same genetic background, presently differ in average height by a full 6 inches (Pak, 2004; Schwekendiek, 2008).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Directions+in+Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=Beyond+Heritability%3A+Twin+Studies+in+Behavioral+Research&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E217-%3C%2Fspan%3E220&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2899491%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20625474&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-8721.2009.01639.x&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rft.au=Turkheimer%2C+E.&rft.au=Gottesman%2C+Irving&rft.au=Bouchard%2C+Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.virginia.edu%2F~ent3c%2Fpapers2%2FArticles%2520for%2520Online%2520CV%2FJohnson%2520%25282009%2529.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurkheimer2008" class="citation journal cs1">Turkheimer, Eric (April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111125033850/http://people.virginia.edu/~ent3c/papers2/Articles%20for%20Online%20CV/Turkheimer%20(2008).pdf">"A Better Way to Use Twins for Developmental Research"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>LIFE Newsletter</i>. <b>2</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">2–</span>5. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.virginia.edu/~ent3c/papers2/Articles%20for%20Online%20CV/Turkheimer%20%282008%29.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on Nov 25, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2010</span>. <q>But back to the question: What does heritability mean? Almost everyone who has ever thought about heritability has reached a commonsense intuition about it: One way or another, heritability has to be some kind of index of how genetic a trait is. That intuition explains why so many thousands of heritability coefficients have been calculated over the years. . . . Unfortunately, that fundamental intuition is wrong. Heritability isn't an index of how genetic a trait is. A great deal of time has been wasted in the effort of measuring the heritability of traits in the false expectation that somehow the genetic nature of psychological phenomena would be revealed.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=LIFE+Newsletter&rft.atitle=A+Better+Way+to+Use+Twins+for+Developmental+Research&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.date=2008-04&rft.aulast=Turkheimer&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.virginia.edu%2F~ent3c%2Fpapers2%2FArticles%2520for%2520Online%2520CV%2FTurkheimer%2520%25282008%2529.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mealy1995-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mealy1995_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMealey1995" class="citation journal cs1">Mealey, Linda (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20021026131543/http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/OldArchive/bbs.mealey.html">"The Sociobiology of Sociopathy: An Integrated Evolutionary Model"</a>. <i>Behavioral and Brain Sciences</i>. <b>18</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">523–</span>541. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X00039595">10.1017/S0140525X00039595</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53956461">53956461</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/OldArchive/bbs.mealey.html">the original</a> on 2002-10-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Sociobiology+of+Sociopathy%3A+An+Integrated+Evolutionary+Model&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E523-%3C%2Fspan%3E541&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X00039595&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53956461%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mealey&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbsonline.org%2FPreprints%2FOldArchive%2Fbbs.mealey.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHernánKujal2015" class="citation cs2">Hernán, Roberto; Kujal, Praveen (2015), Branas-Garza, Pablo; Cabrales, Antonio (eds.), "Gender Differences in Cooperation and Competition", <i>Experimental Economics: Volume 1: Economic Decisions</i>, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. <span class="nowrap">154–</span>168, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9781137538192_10">10.1057/9781137538192_10</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-53819-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-53819-2"><bdi>978-1-137-53819-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Experimental+Economics%3A+Volume+1%3A+Economic+Decisions&rft.atitle=Gender+Differences+in+Cooperation+and+Competition&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E154-%3C%2Fspan%3E168&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9781137538192_10&rft.isbn=978-1-137-53819-2&rft.aulast=Hern%C3%A1n&rft.aufirst=Roberto&rft.au=Kujal%2C+Praveen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Elias_Canetti" title="Elias Canetti">Elias Canetti</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Crowds_and_Power" title="Crowds and Power">Crowds and Power</a></i>. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981, pp. 444–445.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hendricks TJ, Fyodorov DV, Wegman LJ, Lelutiu NB, Pehek EA, Yamamoto B, Silver J, Weeber EJ, Sweatt JD, Deneris ES. Pet-1 ETS gene plays a critical role in 5-HT neuron development and is required for normal anxiety-like and aggressive behaviour]. Neuron. 2003 Jan 23;37(2):233–47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLerch-HanerFriersonCrawfordBeck2008" class="citation journal cs1">Lerch-Haner, JK; Frierson, D; Crawford, LK; Beck, SG; Deneris, ES (Sep 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2679641">"Serotonergic transcriptional programming determines maternal behavior and offspring survival"</a>. <i>Nat Neurosci</i>. <b>11</b> (9): <span class="nowrap">1001–</span>1003. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnn.2176">10.1038/nn.2176</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2679641">2679641</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19160496">19160496</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nat+Neurosci&rft.atitle=Serotonergic+transcriptional+programming+determines+maternal+behavior+and+offspring+survival&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1001-%3C%2Fspan%3E1003&rft.date=2008-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2679641%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19160496&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnn.2176&rft.aulast=Lerch-Haner&rft.aufirst=JK&rft.au=Frierson%2C+D&rft.au=Crawford%2C+LK&rft.au=Beck%2C+SG&rft.au=Deneris%2C+ES&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2679641&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher1994" class="citation news cs1">Fisher, Helen (16 October 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/12/06/specials/wilson-naturalist.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Wilson,' They Said, 'Your All Wet!'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=%27Wilson%2C%27+They+Said%2C+%27Your+All+Wet%21%27&rft.date=1994-10-16&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Helen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fbooks%2F98%2F12%2F06%2Fspecials%2Fwilson-naturalist.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould1978" class="citation journal cs1">Gould, Stephen Jay (16 November 1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tRj7EyRFVqYC&pg=PA530">"Sociobiology: the art of storytelling"</a>. <i>New Scientist</i>. <b>80</b> (1129): <span class="nowrap">530–</span>533.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Sociobiology%3A+the+art+of+storytelling&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=1129&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E530-%3C%2Fspan%3E533&rft.date=1978-11-16&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=Stephen+Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtRj7EyRFVqYC%26pg%3DPA530&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen1984" class="citation journal cs1">Allen, Garland E. (1984). "The Roots of Biological Determinism: review of The Mismeasure of Man by Stephen Jay Gould". <i>Journal of the History of Biology</i>. <b>17</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">141–</span>145. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00397505">10.1007/bf00397505</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4330882">4330882</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11611452">11611452</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29672121">29672121</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Biology&rft.atitle=The+Roots+of+Biological+Determinism%3A+review+of+The+Mismeasure+of+Man+by+Stephen+Jay+Gould&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E141-%3C%2Fspan%3E145&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11611452&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29672121%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4330882%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf00397505&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Garland+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinker,_Steven2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Pinker, Steven</a> (2002). <a href="/wiki/The_Blank_Slate" title="The Blank Slate"><i>The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature</i></a>. New York: Penguin Books. p. 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-200334-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-200334-3"><bdi>978-0-14-200334-3</bdi></a>. <q>A surprising number of intellectuals, particularly on the left, do deny that there is such a thing as inborn talent, especially intelligence. Stephen Jay Gould's 191 bestseller <i>The Mismeasure of Man</i> was written to debunk 'the abstraction of intelligence as a single entity ... and the use of these numbers to rank people in a single series of worthiness'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blank+Slate%3A+The+Modern+Denial+of+Human+Nature&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=149&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-14-200334-3&rft.au=Pinker%2C+Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lrk84-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lrk84_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lrk84_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_LewontinLeon_KaminSteven_Rose1984" class="citation book cs1">Richard Lewontin; Leon Kamin; Steven Rose (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/notinourgenes00rich"><i>Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology, and Human Nature</i></a></span>. Pantheon Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-50817-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-50817-7"><bdi>978-0-394-50817-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Not+in+Our+Genes%3A+Biology%2C+Ideology%2C+and+Human+Nature&rft.pub=Pantheon+Books&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-394-50817-7&rft.au=Richard+Lewontin&rft.au=Leon+Kamin&rft.au=Steven+Rose&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnotinourgenes00rich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould,_Stephen_Jay1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Gould, Stephen Jay</a> (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mismeasureofman00goul_1"><i>The Mismeasure of Man</i></a></span>. p. Introduction to the Revised Edition.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mismeasure+of+Man&rft.pages=Introduction+to+the+Revised+Edition&rft.date=1996&rft.au=Gould%2C+Stephen+Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmismeasureofman00goul_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-eakin20130213-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-eakin20130213_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEakin2013" class="citation news cs1">Eakin, Emily (2013-02-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/17/magazine/napoleon-chagnon-americas-most-controversial-anthropologist.html">"Who Are the Real Savages?"</a>. <i>The New York Times Magazine</i>. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-07-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times+Magazine&rft.atitle=Who+Are+the+Real+Savages%3F&rft.pages=32&rft.date=2013-02-17&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Eakin&rft.aufirst=Emily&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2013%2F02%2F17%2Fmagazine%2Fnapoleon-chagnon-americas-most-controversial-anthropologist.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESegerstråle2000205-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESegerstråle2000205_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSegerstråle2000">Segerstråle 2000</a>, p. 205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chomsky, Noam (1975), <i>Reflections on Language</i>:10. New York: Pantheon Books.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky, Noam</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chomsky.info/articles/199505--.htm#TXT2.23">"Rollback, Part II."</a> <i>Z Magazine</i> 8 (Feb.): 20–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pinker2002-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pinker2002_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Pinker, Steven</a> (2002). <i>The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature</i>. New York: Viking. p. 145</span> </li> </ol></div> <p><b>Bibliography</b> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlcock2001" class="citation book cs1">Alcock, John (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/triumphofsociobi00alco"><i>The triumph of sociobiology</i></a></span>. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514383-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514383-6"><bdi>978-0-19-514383-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+triumph+of+sociobiology&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514383-6&rft.aulast=Alcock&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftriumphofsociobi00alco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarkow,_Jerome2006" class="citation book cs1">Barkow, Jerome, ed. (2006). <i>Missing the Revolution: Darwinism for Social Scientists</i>. 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Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45765-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45765-1"><bdi>978-0-521-45765-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+ant+and+the+peacock%3A+Altruism+and+sexual+selection+from+Darwin+to+today&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-45765-1&rft.aulast=Cronin&rft.aufirst=Helena&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEtcoff1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Etcoff" title="Nancy Etcoff">Etcoff, Nancy</a> (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/survivalofpretti00nanc"><i>Survival of the Prettiest: The Science of Beauty</i></a></span>. Anchor Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-47942-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-47942-4"><bdi>978-0-385-47942-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Survival+of+the+Prettiest%3A+The+Science+of+Beauty&rft.pub=Anchor+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-385-47942-4&rft.aulast=Etcoff&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsurvivalofpretti00nanc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaplanRogers2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gisela_Kaplan" title="Gisela Kaplan">Kaplan, Gisela</a>; Rogers, Lesley J. (2003). <i>Gene Worship: Moving Beyond the Nature/Nurture Debate over Genes, Brain, and Gender</i>. Other Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59051-034-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59051-034-6"><bdi>978-1-59051-034-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gene+Worship%3A+Moving+Beyond+the+Nature%2FNurture+Debate+over+Genes%2C+Brain%2C+and+Gender&rft.pub=Other+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-59051-034-6&rft.aulast=Kaplan&rft.aufirst=Gisela&rft.au=Rogers%2C+Lesley+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_M._Lerner1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Lerner" title="Richard M. Lerner">Richard M. Lerner</a> (1992). <i>Final Solutions: Biology, Prejudice, and Genocide</i>. Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-00793-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-271-00793-9"><bdi>978-0-271-00793-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Final+Solutions%3A+Biology%2C+Prejudice%2C+and+Genocide&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-271-00793-9&rft.au=Richard+M.+Lerner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Richards, Janet Radcliffe (2000). <i>Human Nature After Darwin: A Philosophical Introduction</i>. London: Routledge.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSegerstråle2000" class="citation book cs1">Segerstråle, Ullica (2000). <i>Defenders of the truth: The sociobiology debate</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-286215-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-286215-0"><bdi>978-0-19-286215-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Defenders+of+the+truth%3A+The+sociobiology+debate&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-286215-0&rft.aulast=Segerstr%C3%A5le&rft.aufirst=Ullica&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p><b>Scientific articles</b> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOvcharov2023" class="citation journal cs1">Ovcharov, Dmitry (2023). "The problem of biological and social in Russian philosophy of the second half of the XX — beginning of the XXI century: historical and philosophical analytical review". <i>Bulletin of the Chelyabinsk State University</i>. <b>477</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">61–</span>67. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.47475%2F1994-2796-2023-477-7-61-67">10.47475/1994-2796-2023-477-7-61-67</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Chelyabinsk+State+University&rft.atitle=The+problem+of+biological+and+social+in+Russian+philosophy+of+the+second+half+of+the+XX+%E2%80%94+beginning+of+the+XXI+century%3A+historical+and+philosophical+analytical+review&rft.volume=477&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E61-%3C%2Fspan%3E67&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.47475%2F1994-2796-2023-477-7-61-67&rft.aulast=Ovcharov&rft.aufirst=Dmitry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociobiology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociobiology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; 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title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Evolution of morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_models_of_food_sharing" title="Evolutionary models of food sharing">Evolutionary models of food sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_recognition" title="Kin recognition">Kin recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_warrior_hypothesis" title="Male warrior hypothesis">Male warrior hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">in humans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex and psychology">Sex and psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociality" title="Sociality">Sociality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eusociality" title="Eusociality">eusociality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_eusociality" title="Evolution of eusociality">evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presociality" class="mw-redirect" title="Presociality">presociality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunbar%27s_number" title="Dunbar's number">Dunbar's number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyethism" title="Polyethism">Polyethism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Supporters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Campbell_(academic)" title="Anne Campbell (academic)">Anne Campbell</a></li> <li><a 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O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology:_The_New_Synthesis" title="Sociobiology: The New Synthesis">Sociobiology: The New Synthesis</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Wright_(journalist)" title="Robert Wright (journalist)">Robert Wright</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Opponents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Kamin" title="Leon Kamin">Leon Kamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lewontin" title="Richard Lewontin">Richard Lewontin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Rose" title="Steven Rose">Steven Rose</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Not_in_Our_Genes" title="Not in Our Genes">Not in Our Genes</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span 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title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline of biology and organic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biology858" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biology_nav" title="Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biology_nav" title="Template talk:Biology nav"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biology_nav" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biology858" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>Introduction (<a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Evolution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></li> <li>Properties (<a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a> (<a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">Self-replication</a>), <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a> (<a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a> > <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">Organelle</a> > <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a> > <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissue</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">Organ</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">Organ system</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a> > <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biocoenosis" title="Biocoenosis">Community</a> > <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism#In_science" title="Reductionism">Reductionistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence"> Emergent property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">Mechanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory"> Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law"> Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">Peer review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_journals" title="List of biology journals">Biology journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_name" title="Common name">Common name</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical basis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">Carbohydrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">Lipids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">Monomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">Nucleic acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">Cell cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">Cell signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">Gene expression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Gene regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_modification" title="Post-transcriptional modification">Post-transcriptional modification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">Function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Diversity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Alga">Alga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plant form <br /> and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis (botany)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">Phloem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Plant stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">Xylem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animal form <br />and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">Breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_environment" title="Internal environment">Internal environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/140px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/210px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/280px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="2856" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_methods_in_biology" title="List of research methods in biology">Research <br /> methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laboratory <br /> techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">Transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">Gel electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">Green fluorescent protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_(molecular_biology)" title="Vector (molecular biology)">vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_assay" title="Enzyme assay">Enzyme assay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_purification" title="Protein purification">Protein purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_blot" title="Western blot">Western blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_blot" title="Northern blot">Northern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_blot" title="Southern blot">Southern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restriction_enzyme" title="Restriction enzyme">Restriction enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-hybrid_screening" title="Two-hybrid screening">Two-hybrid screening</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Field techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belt_transect" title="Belt transect">Belt transect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_and_recapture" title="Mark and recapture">mark and recapture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_discovery_curve" title="Species discovery curve">species discovery curve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li>Sociobiology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Glossaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Ecological terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">Plant morphology terms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/16px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/24px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Biology" title="Category:Biology">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Biology">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Biology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Biology">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template talk:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="History of evolutionary psychology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_foundations_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology">Theoretical foundations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Criticism of evolutionary psychology">Criticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Evolutionary<br />processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">Adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_spite" title="Hamiltonian spite">Hamiltonian spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="/wiki/Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_children" title="Attachment in children">Childhood attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rank_theory_of_depression" title="Rank theory of depression">Rank theory of depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_effects_of_cars" title="Societal effects of cars">Societal effects of cars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pair_bond" title="Pair bond">Pair bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">Functional psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sociobiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">indeterminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_social_science_model" title="Standard social science model">Standard social science model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">Multilineal evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">Sociocultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">Unilineal evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_evolutionary_psychologists" title="List of evolutionary psychologists">Evolutionary psychologists</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Category:Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" 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consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_culture" title="Animal culture">Animal culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_sexual_behaviour" title="Animal sexual behaviour">Animal sexual behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare_science" title="Animal welfare science">Animal welfare science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bee_learning_and_communication" title="Bee learning and communication">Bee learning and communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behavioural ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_endocrinology" title="Behavioral endocrinology">Behavioral endocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioural genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breed" title="Breed">Breed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ethology" title="Cognitive ethology">Cognitive ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_behaviour_in_animals" title="Comfort behaviour in animals">Comfort behaviour</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personal_grooming" title="Personal grooming">Grooming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">Emotion in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethogram" title="Ethogram">Ethogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">Feeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hover_(behaviour)" title="Hover (behaviour)">Hover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ethology" title="Human ethology">Human ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instinct" title="Instinct">Instinct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_animals" title="Pain in animals">Pain in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_ethology" title="Philosophical ethology">Philosophical ethology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypy_(non-human)" title="Stereotypy (non-human)">Stereotypy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structures_built_by_animals" title="Structures built by animals">Structures</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beehive" title="Beehive">Hive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honeycomb_structure" title="Honeycomb structure">Honeycomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nest" title="Nest">Nest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nesting_instinct" title="Nesting instinct">Instinct</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_use_by_non-humans" title="Tool use by non-humans">Tool use by non-humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoosemiotics" title="Zoosemiotics">Zoosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoomusicology" title="Zoomusicology">Zoomusicology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Bateson" title="Patrick Bateson">Patrick Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Bekoff" title="Marc Bekoff">Marc Bekoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Broom" title="Donald Broom">Donald Broom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_B._Calhoun" title="John B. Calhoun">John B. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_Dawkins" title="Marian Dawkins">Marian Dawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iren%C3%A4us_Eibl-Eibesfeldt" title="Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt">Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dian_Fossey" title="Dian Fossey">Dian Fossey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Goodall" title="Jane Goodall">Jane Goodall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heini_Hediger" title="Heini Hediger">Heini Hediger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley" title="Julian Huxley">Julian Huxley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmond_Morris" title="Desmond Morris">Desmond Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sebeok" title="Thomas Sebeok">Thomas Sebeok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Homan_Thorpe" title="William Homan Thorpe">William Homan Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_von_Uexk%C3%BCll" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakob von Uexküll">Jakob von Uexküll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Wickler" title="Wolfgang Wickler">Wolfgang Wickler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solly_Zuckerman" class="mw-redirect" title="Solly Zuckerman">Solly Zuckerman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Societies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_Animal_Behaviour" title="Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour">Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Applied_Ethology" title="International Society for Applied Ethology">International Society for Applied Ethology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Behaviour_(journal)" title="Animal Behaviour (journal)">Animal Behaviour</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Cognition" title="Animal Cognition">Animal Cognition</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Welfare_(journal)" title="Animal Welfare (journal)">Animal Welfare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_Ecology_(journal)" title="Behavioral Ecology (journal)">Behavioral Ecology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Behaviour_(journal)" title="Behaviour (journal)">Behaviour</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ethology" title="Category:Ethology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nikolaas_Tinbergen50" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Template:Nikolaas Tinbergen"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Template talk:Nikolaas Tinbergen"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nikolaas Tinbergen"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nikolaas_Tinbergen50" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Selected works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Study_of_Instinct" class="mw-redirect" title="The Study of Instinct">The Study of Instinct</a></i> (book)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Herring_Gull%27s_World&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Herring Gull's World (page does not exist)">The Herring Gull's World</a></i> (book)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_Behaviour_in_Animals:_With_Special_Reference_to_Vertebrates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Social Behaviour in Animals: With Special Reference to Vertebrates (page does not exist)">Social Behaviour in Animals: With Special Reference to Vertebrates</a></i> (book)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Signals_for_Survival&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Signals for Survival (page does not exist)">Signals for Survival</a></i> (film)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Riddle_of_the_Rook&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Riddle of the Rook (page does not exist)">The Riddle of the Rook</a></i> (film)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal behaviour">Animal behaviour science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioural biology">Behavioural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behavioral ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethology" class="mw-redirect" title="History of ethology">History of ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawk/goose_effect" title="Hawk/goose effect">Hawk/goose effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernormal_stimulus" title="Supernormal stimulus">Supernormal stimulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinbergen%27s_four_questions" title="Tinbergen's four questions">Tinbergen's four questions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Tinbergen" title="Jan Tinbergen">Jan Tinbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luuk_Tinbergen" title="Luuk Tinbergen">Luuk Tinbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmond_Morris" title="Desmond Morris">Desmond Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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<span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>50 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon 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