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class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vacuum_ultraviolet_light" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vacuum_ultraviolet_light"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Vacuum ultraviolet light</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vacuum_ultraviolet_light-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_history_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_history_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>In history and culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_history_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_observations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_observations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notable observations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notable_observations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notable observations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notable_observations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classical_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Classical texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zheng_He" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zheng_He"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Zheng He</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zheng_He-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accounts_associated_with_Magellan_and_da_Gama" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accounts_associated_with_Magellan_and_da_Gama"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Accounts associated with Magellan and da Gama</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accounts_associated_with_Magellan_and_da_Gama-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Robert_Burton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Robert_Burton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Robert Burton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Robert_Burton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_Davis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Davis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>John Davis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Davis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pierre_Testu-Brissy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pierre_Testu-Brissy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Pierre Testu-Brissy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pierre_Testu-Brissy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-William_Bligh" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#William_Bligh"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>William Bligh</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-William_Bligh-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-William_Noah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#William_Noah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>William Noah</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-William_Noah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-James_Braid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#James_Braid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>James Braid</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-James_Braid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charles_Darwin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charles_Darwin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.10</span> <span>Charles Darwin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charles_Darwin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Richard_Henry_Dana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Richard_Henry_Dana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.11</span> <span>Richard Henry Dana</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Richard_Henry_Dana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nikola_Tesla" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nikola_Tesla"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.12</span> <span>Nikola Tesla</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nikola_Tesla-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mark_Heald" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mark_Heald"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.13</span> <span>Mark Heald</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mark_Heald-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-William_L._Laurence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#William_L._Laurence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.14</span> <span>William L. Laurence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-William_L._Laurence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In popular culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>In literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_television" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_television"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>In television</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_television-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_film" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_film"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>In film</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_film-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>In music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">St. Elmo's fire</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 58 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-58" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">58 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sint-Elmusvuur" title="Sint-Elmusvuur – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sint-Elmusvuur" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%B3_%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88" title="شرر القديس إلمو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شرر القديس إلمو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fueu_de_San_Telmo" title="Fueu de San Telmo – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Fueu de San Telmo" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B3%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%AD%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Агні Святога Эльма – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Агні Святога Эльма" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalayo_ni_San_Elmo" title="Kalayo ni San Elmo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Kalayo ni San Elmo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B3%D1%8A%D0%BD_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%BC" title="Огън на свети Елм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Огън на свети Елм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foc_de_Sant_Elm" title="Foc de Sant Elm – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Foc de Sant Elm" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eli%C3%A1%C5%A1%C5%AFv_ohe%C5%88" title="Eliášův oheň – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Eliášův oheň" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanktelmsild" title="Sanktelmsild – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sanktelmsild" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmsfeuer" title="Elmsfeuer – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Elmsfeuer" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%BCha_Elmo_tuli" title="Püha Elmo tuli – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Püha Elmo tuli" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%86%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%B9_%CE%9D%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%B4%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Άγιοι Νικόληδες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Άγιοι Νικόληδες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuego_de_San_Telmo" title="Fuego de San Telmo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fuego de San Telmo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fajro_de_Sankta_Elmo" title="Fajro de Sankta Elmo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fajro de Sankta Elmo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Telmo_su" title="San Telmo su – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="San Telmo su" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AA%D8%B4_%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88" title="آتش سنت المو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آتش سنت المو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feu_de_Saint-Elme" title="Feu de Saint-Elme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Feu de Saint-Elme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diggelfjoer_(natoerferskynsel)" title="Diggelfjoer (natoerferskynsel) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Diggelfjoer (natoerferskynsel)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geal%C3%A1n_San_Elmo" title="Gealán San Elmo – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Gealán San Elmo" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fogo_de_santelmo" title="Fogo de santelmo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fogo de santelmo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B8%EC%9D%B8%ED%8A%B8_%EC%97%98%EB%AA%A8%EC%9D%98_%EB%B6%88" title="세인트 엘모의 불 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="세인트 엘모의 불" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%A2_%D4%B7%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%AB_%D5%AF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Սուրբ Էրազմուսի կրակներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սուրբ Էրազմուսի կրակներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatra_svetog_Ilije" title="Vatra svetog Ilije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Vatra svetog Ilije" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairo_di_Santa_Elmo" title="Fairo di Santa Elmo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Fairo di Santa Elmo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Api_Santa_Elmo" title="Api Santa Elmo – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Api Santa Elmo" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuoco_di_sant%27Elmo" title="Fuoco di sant'Elmo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fuoco di sant'Elmo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A9_%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%95_%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A9" title="אש אלמו הקדוש – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אש אלמו הקדוש" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_sanctum" title="Corpus sanctum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Corpus sanctum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0vento_Elmo_ugnis" title="Švento Elmo ugnis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Švento Elmo ugnis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C5%93ugo_de_Sant%27Emo" title="Fœugo de Sant'Emo – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Fœugo de Sant'Emo" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foeugh_del_sant_Elmo" title="Foeugh del sant Elmo – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Foeugh del sant Elmo" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szent_Elmo_t%C3%BCze" title="Szent Elmo tüze – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szent Elmo tüze" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%85%E1%80%AF%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="ပင်လယ်မီးစုန်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပင်လယ်မီးစုန်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sint-Elmsvuur" title="Sint-Elmsvuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sint-Elmsvuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%BB%E3%83%B3%E3%83%88%E3%82%A8%E3%83%AB%E3%83%A2%E3%81%AE%E7%81%AB" title="セントエルモの火 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="セントエルモの火" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sankt_Elms_ild" title="Sankt Elms ild – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sankt Elms ild" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Elms_eld" title="St. Elms eld – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="St. Elms eld" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fu%C3%B2c_de_Sant_Elm" title="Fuòc de Sant Elm – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Fuòc de Sant Elm" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ognie_%C5%9Bwi%C4%99tego_Elma" title="Ognie świętego Elma – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ognie świętego Elma" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fogo_de_santelmo" title="Fogo de santelmo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fogo de santelmo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focul_Sf%C3%A2ntului_Elmo" title="Focul Sfântului Elmo – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Focul Sfântului Elmo" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%AD%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Огни святого Эльма – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Огни святого Эльма" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Elmo%27s_fire" title="St. Elmo's fire – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="St. Elmo's fire" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Elmo%27s_fire" title="St. Elmo's fire – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="St. Elmo's fire" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eli%C3%A1%C5%A1ov_ohe%C5%88" title="Eliášov oheň – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Eliášov oheň" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elijev_ogenj" title="Elijev ogenj – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Elijev ogenj" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3_%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Ватра светог Елма – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ватра светог Елма" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatra_svetog_Elma" title="Vatra svetog Elma – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Vatra svetog Elma" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmon_tuli" title="Elmon tuli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Elmon tuli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sankt_Elmseld" title="Sankt Elmseld – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sankt Elmseld" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="தூய எல்மோவின் சுடர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தூய எல்மோவின் சுடர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%8D%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A1" title="ไฟของนักบุญเอลโม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ไฟของนักบุญเอลโม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aziz_Elmo%27nun_ate%C5%9Fi" title="Aziz Elmo'nun ateşi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Aziz Elmo'nun ateşi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BD%D1%96_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%95%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Вогні святого Ельма – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вогні святого Ельма" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%B9%D9%84%DB%82_%D9%BE%D8%A7%DA%A9" title="شعلۂ پاک – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="شعلۂ پاک" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%ADa_th%C3%A1nh_Elmo" title="Lửa thánh Elmo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lửa thánh Elmo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%A3%E8%89%BE%E5%B0%94%E6%91%A9%E4%B8%AA%E7%81%AB" title="圣艾尔摩个火 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="圣艾尔摩个火" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%81%96%E8%89%BE%E7%88%BE%E6%91%A9%E4%B9%8B%E7%81%AB" title="聖艾爾摩之火 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="聖艾爾摩之火" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Luminous plasma created in an electric field</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/St._Elmo%27s_Fire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="St. Elmo's Fire (disambiguation)">St. Elmo's Fire (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Ball_lightning" title="Ball lightning">ball lightning</a> or <a href="/wiki/St._Anthony%27s_fire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="St. Anthony's fire (disambiguation)">St. Anthony's fire</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elmo%27s_fire-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Elmo%27s_fire-2.jpg/220px-Elmo%27s_fire-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Elmo%27s_fire-2.jpg/330px-Elmo%27s_fire-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Elmo%27s_fire-2.jpg/440px-Elmo%27s_fire-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1323" data-file-height="1713" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of St. Elmo's fire on a ship at sea</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:St._Elmo%27s_fire_in_KC-10_aircraft,_March_2017.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/St._Elmo%27s_fire_in_KC-10_aircraft%2C_March_2017.jpg/220px-St._Elmo%27s_fire_in_KC-10_aircraft%2C_March_2017.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/St._Elmo%27s_fire_in_KC-10_aircraft%2C_March_2017.jpg/330px-St._Elmo%27s_fire_in_KC-10_aircraft%2C_March_2017.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/St._Elmo%27s_fire_in_KC-10_aircraft%2C_March_2017.jpg/440px-St._Elmo%27s_fire_in_KC-10_aircraft%2C_March_2017.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_discharge" title="Electrostatic discharge">Electrostatic discharge</a> flashes across the windscreen of a <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_KC-10_Extender" title="McDonnell Douglas KC-10 Extender">KC-10</a> cockpit.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>St. Elmo's fire</b> (also called <b>witchfire</b> or <b>witch's fire</b>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" title="Glossary of meteorology">weather phenomenon</a> in which luminous <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> is created by a <a href="/wiki/Corona_discharge" title="Corona discharge">corona discharge</a> from a rod-like object such as a <a href="/wiki/Mast_(sailing)" title="Mast (sailing)">mast</a>, spire, chimney, or animal horn<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in an atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a>. It has also been observed on the leading edges of aircraft, as in the case of <a href="/wiki/British_Airways_Flight_009" title="British Airways Flight 009">British Airways Flight 009</a>, and by US Air Force pilots.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The intensity of the effect, a blue or violet glow around the object, often accompanied by a hissing or buzzing sound, is proportional to the strength of the electric field and therefore noticeable primarily during <a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">thunderstorms</a> or <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_eruption" title="Volcanic eruption">volcanic eruptions</a>. </p><p>St. Elmo's fire is named after St. <a href="/wiki/Erasmus_of_Formia" title="Erasmus of Formia">Erasmus of Formia</a> (also known as St. Elmo), the <a href="/wiki/Patron_saint" title="Patron saint">patron saint</a> of sailors. The phenomenon, which can warn of an imminent <a href="/wiki/Lightning_strike" title="Lightning strike">lightning strike</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Davis2014_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davis2014-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was regarded by sailors with awe and sometimes considered to be a good omen.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Over_the_Edge_of_the_World_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Over_the_Edge_of_the_World-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cause">Cause</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Cause"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>St. Elmo's fire is a reproducible and demonstrable form of <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a> around the affected object causes <a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">ionization</a> of the air molecules, producing a faint glow easily visible in low-light conditions. Conditions that can generate St. Elmo's fire are present during thunderstorms, when high-voltage differentials are present between clouds and the ground underneath. A local electric field of about <span class="nowrap">100 kV/m</span> is required to begin a discharge in moist air. The magnitude of the electric field depends greatly on the geometry (shape and size) of the object. Sharp points lower the necessary voltage because electric fields are more concentrated in areas of high <a href="/wiki/Curvature" title="Curvature">curvature</a>, so discharges preferentially occur and are more intense at the ends of pointed objects. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> in the Earth's atmosphere cause St. Elmo's fire to <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">fluoresce</a> with blue or violet light; this is similar to the mechanism that causes <a href="/wiki/Neon_lighting" title="Neon lighting">neon lights</a> to glow, albeit at a different colour due to the different gas involved.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1751, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> hypothesized that a <a href="/wiki/Lightning_rod" title="Lightning rod">pointed iron rod</a> would light up at the tip during a lightning storm, similar in appearance to St. Elmo's fire.<sup id="cite_ref-GentMag_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GentMag-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BFPapers_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BFPapers-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In an August 2020 paper, researchers in <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT's</a> Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics demonstrated that St. Elmo's fire behaves differently in airborne objects versus grounded structures. They show that electrically isolated structures accumulate charge more effectively in high wind, in contrast to the corona discharge observed in grounded structures.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vacuum_ultraviolet_light">Vacuum ultraviolet light</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Vacuum ultraviolet light"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Researchers at Rutgers University have devised a method to generate <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_ultraviolet" class="mw-redirect" title="Vacuum ultraviolet">vacuum ultraviolet</a> light using different forms of lighting, by employing sharp conductive needles placed within a dense gas, such as xenon, contained in a cell. They achieve this by applying a high negative voltage to the needles in the xenon-filled cell, resulting in the efficient production of vacuum ultraviolet light. St. Elmo's Fire being similar, they believe it could be used as lighting but with a higher power source, thus increasing efficiency by over 50%.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_history_and_culture">In history and culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: In history and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, the appearance of a single instance of St. Elmo's fire was called <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Helene</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Ἑλένη</span>), literally meaning "<a href="/wiki/Torch" title="Torch">torch</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with two instances referred to as <a href="/wiki/Castor_and_Pollux" title="Castor and Pollux">Castor and Pollux</a>, names of the mythological twin brothers of <a href="/wiki/Helen_of_Troy" title="Helen of Troy">Helen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>After the medieval period, St. Elmo's fire was sometimes associated with the <a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">Greek element</a> of <a href="/wiki/Fire_(classical_element)" title="Fire (classical element)">fire</a>, such as with one of <a href="/wiki/Paracelsus" title="Paracelsus">Paracelsus</a>'s elementals, specifically the <a href="/wiki/Salamander_(legendary_creature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Salamander (legendary creature)">salamander</a>, or, alternatively, with a similar creature referred to as an acthnici.<sup id="cite_ref-About.com_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-About.com-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Welsh mariners referred to St. Elmo's fire as <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">canwyll yr ysbryd</i></span> or <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">canwyll yr ysbryd glân</i></span> ("candles of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Ghost" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Ghost">Holy Ghost</a>" or the "candles of <a href="/wiki/St._David" class="mw-redirect" title="St. David">St. David</a>").<sup id="cite_ref-Welsh_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsh-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Russian sailors also historically documented instances of St. Elmo's fire, known as "Saint Nicholas" or "Saint Peter's lights",<sup id="cite_ref-Welsh_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsh-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Helen_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Helen of Constantinople">St. Helen</a>'s or <a href="/wiki/St._Hermes" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Hermes">St. Hermes</a>' fire, perhaps through linguistic confusion.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>St. Elmo's fire is reported to have been seen<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (November 2023)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> during the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Siege of Constantinople</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in 1453. It was reportedly<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_(geographic_names)" title="Wikipedia:Naming conventions (geographic names)"><span title="The geographic scope near this tag is ambiguous. (November 2023)">where?</span></a></i>]</sup> seen<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (November 2023)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> emitting from the top of the <a href="/wiki/Hippodrome_of_Constantinople" title="Hippodrome of Constantinople">Hippodrome</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a> attributed it to a sign that the Christian God would soon come and destroy the conquering Muslim army. According to <a href="/wiki/George_Sphrantzes" title="George Sphrantzes">George Sphrantzes</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> it disappeared just days before Constantinople fell, ending the Byzantine Empire.</li> <li>Accounts of Magellan's first circumnavigation of the globe refer to St. Elmo's fire (calling it the body of St. Anselm) being seen around the fleet's ships multiple times off the coast of South America. The sailors saw these as favourable omens.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>En route to <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a> atom bomb on 9 August 1945, the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_B-29_Superfortress" title="Boeing B-29 Superfortress">B-29</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a></i> experienced an uncanny luminous blue plasma forming around the spinning propellers, "as though we were riding the whirlwind through space on a chariot of blue fire."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>St Elmo's fire was seen during the <a href="/wiki/1955_Great_Plains_tornado_outbreak" title="1955 Great Plains tornado outbreak">1955 Great Plains tornado outbreak</a> in Kansas and Oklahoma.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Among the phenomena experienced on <a href="/wiki/British_Airways_Flight_9" class="mw-redirect" title="British Airways Flight 9">British Airways Flight 9</a> on 24 June 1982, were glowing light flashes along the leading edges of the aircraft, including the wings and cockpit windscreen, which were seen by both passengers and crew. While the bright flashes of light shared similarities with St Elmo's fire, the glow experienced was from the impact of ash particles on the leading edges of the aircraft, similar to that seen by operators of <a href="/wiki/Sandblasting" title="Sandblasting">sandblasting</a> equipment.</li> <li>St. Elmo's fire was observed and its optical spectrum recorded during a University of Alaska research flight over the Amazon in 1995 to study <a href="/wiki/Sprite_(lightning)" title="Sprite (lightning)">sprites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Ill-fated <a href="/wiki/Air_France_Flight_447" title="Air France Flight 447">Air France Flight 447</a> from <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro%E2%80%93Gale%C3%A3o_International_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Rio de Janeiro–Galeão International Airport">Rio de Janeiro–Galeão International Airport</a> to Paris <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle_Airport" title="Charles de Gaulle Airport">Charles de Gaulle Airport</a> in 2009 is understood to have experienced St. Elmo's fire 23 minutes prior to crashing into the Atlantic Ocean; however, the phenomenon was not a factor in the disaster.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Apoy ni San Elmo – commonly shortened to santelmo – is a bad omen or a flying spirit in Filipino <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a>, although the description for santelmo is more similar to <a href="/wiki/Ball_lightning" title="Ball lightning">ball lightning</a> than St. Elmo's fire. There are various indigenous names for santelmo which has existed before the term santelmo was coined. The term santelmo originated from Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_observations">Notable observations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Notable observations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_texts">Classical texts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Classical texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>St. Elmo's fire is referenced in the works of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/De_Bello_Africo" title="De Bello Africo">De Bello Africo</a></i>, 47) and <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalis Historia">Naturalis Historia</a></i>, book 2, par. 101), <a href="/wiki/Alcaeus_of_Mytilene" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcaeus of Mytilene">Alcaeus</a> frag. 34. Earlier, <a href="/wiki/Xenophanes" title="Xenophanes">Xenophanes of Colophon</a> had alluded to the phenomenon.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zheng_He">Zheng He</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Zheng He"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 15th-century <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming China</a>, Admiral <a href="/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a> and his associates composed the Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions, the two epitaphs of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_treasure_voyages" title="Ming treasure voyages">Ming treasure voyages</a>, where they made a reference to St. Elmo's fire as a divine omen of <a href="/wiki/Tianfei" class="mw-redirect" title="Tianfei">Tianfei</a>, the goddess of sailors and seafarers.<sup id="cite_ref-dr07_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dr07-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The power of the goddess, having indeed been manifested in previous times, has been abundantly revealed in the present generation. In the midst of the rushing waters it happened that, when there was a hurricane, suddenly a divine lantern was seen shining at the masthead, and as soon as that miraculous light appeared the danger was appeased, so that even in the peril of capsizing one felt reassured and that there was no cause for fear.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Admiral Zheng He and his associates (Changle inscription)<sup id="cite_ref-need59_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-need59-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accounts_associated_with_Magellan_and_da_Gama">Accounts associated with Magellan and da Gama</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Accounts associated with Magellan and da Gama"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mention of St. Elmo's fire can be found in <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Pigafetta" title="Antonio Pigafetta">Antonio Pigafetta</a>'s journal of his voyage with <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a>. St. Elmo's fire, also known as "corposants" or "corpusants" from the Portuguese <i>corpo santo</i><sup id="cite_ref-AHD_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AHD-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ("holy body"), is also described in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Lusiads" class="mw-redirect" title="The Lusiads">The Lusiads</a></i>, the epic account of <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>'s voyages of discovery. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Robert_Burton">Robert Burton</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Robert Burton"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burton_(scholar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Burton (scholar)">Robert Burton</a> wrote of St. Elmo's fire in his <i><a href="/wiki/Anatomy_of_Melancholy" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomy of Melancholy">Anatomy of Melancholy</a></i> (1621): "Radzivilius, the Lithuanian duke, calls this apparition <i>Sancti Germani sidus</i>; and saith moreover that he saw the same after in a storm, as he was sailing, 1582, from Alexandria to Rhodes". This refers to the voyage made by <a href="/wiki/Miko%C5%82aj_Krzysztof_%22the_Orphan%22_Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikołaj Krzysztof "the Orphan" Radziwiłł">Mikołaj Krzysztof "the Orphan" Radziwiłł</a> in 1582–1584. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="John_Davis">John Davis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: John Davis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 9 May 1605, while on the second voyage of <a href="/wiki/John_Davis_(English_explorer)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Davis (English explorer)">John Davis</a> commanded by Sir <a href="/wiki/Edward_Michelborne" title="Edward Michelborne">Edward Michelborne</a> to the East Indies, an unknown writer aboard the <i>Tiger</i> describes the phenomenon: "In the extremity of our storm appeared to us in the night, upon our maine Top-mast head, a flame about the bigness of a great Candle, which the Portugals call <i>Corpo Sancto</i>, holding it a most divine token that when it appeareth the worst is past. As, thanked be God, we had better weather after it".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pierre_Testu-Brissy">Pierre Testu-Brissy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Pierre Testu-Brissy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/St._Elmo%27s_fire" title="Special:EditPage/St. Elmo's fire">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22St.+Elmo%27s+fire%22">"St. Elmo's fire"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22St.+Elmo%27s+fire%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22St.+Elmo%27s+fire%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22St.+Elmo%27s+fire%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22St.+Elmo%27s+fire%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22St.+Elmo%27s+fire%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Testu-Brissy" title="Pierre Testu-Brissy">Pierre Testu-Brissy</a> was a pioneering <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> <a href="/wiki/Balloonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Balloonist">balloonist</a>. On 18 June 1786, he flew for 11 hours and made the first electrical observations as he ascended into thunderclouds. He stated that he drew remarkable discharges from the clouds by means of an iron rod carried in the basket. He also experienced Saint Elmo's fire.<sup id="cite_ref-Ballooning_Who's_Who_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ballooning_Who's_Who-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:UGC" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:UGC"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on a user-generated source. (September 2021)">user-generated source</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="William_Bligh">William Bligh</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: William Bligh"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/William_Bligh" title="William Bligh">William Bligh</a> recorded in his log on Sunday 4 May 1788, on board <a href="/wiki/HMS_Bounty" title="HMS Bounty">HMS Bounty</a> of 'Mutiny On The Bounty' fame: 'Corpo-Sant. Some electrical Vapour seen about the Iron at the Yard Arms about the Size of the blaze of a Candle.' The location of this event was in the South Atlantic sailing from Cape Horn, (having failed to round the cape in the winter months), en route to Cape of Good Hope and west of Tristan da Cunha. The log records the ship's location as: Latd. 42°:34'S, Longd (by the time keeper K2) as 34°:38'W. Reference: Log of the Proceedings of His Majestys Ship Bounty in a Voyage to the South Seas, (to take the Breadfruit plant from the Society Islands to the West Indies,) under the Command of Lieutenant William Bligh, 1 December 1787 – 22 October 1788 Safe 1/46, Mitchell Library, State Library of NSW </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="William_Noah">William Noah</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: William Noah"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>William Noah, a <a href="/wiki/Silversmith" title="Silversmith">silversmith</a> convicted in <a href="/wiki/City_of_London" title="City of London">London</a> of stealing 2,000 pounds of <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>, while en route to <a href="/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Convict_ship" title="Convict ship">convict transport ship</a> <a href="/wiki/Hillsborough_(1783_EIC_ship)" title="Hillsborough (1783 EIC ship)"><i>Hillsborough</i></a>, recorded two such observations in his detailed daily journal. The first was in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a> midway between <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a> and the second was in the <a href="/wiki/Tasman_Sea" title="Tasman Sea">Tasman Sea</a>, a day out of <a href="/wiki/Port_Jackson" title="Port Jackson">Port Jackson</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <p><b>26 June 1799</b>: At 4 Began to Blow very Hard with Heavy Shower of Rain & Hail and Extraordinary Heavy Clap of Thunder & Lightning when fell a Cormesant [corposant] a Body of Fire which collect from the Lightning & Lodge itself in the Foretopmast Head where it was first seen by our Captain when followed a Heavy Clap of Thunder & Lightning which occasioned it to fall & Burst on the Main Deck the Electrific of the Bursting of this Ball of Fire had such power as to shake several of their Leg not only On the Main Deck as the fire Hung much round the smith Forge being Iron but had the same Effect on the Gun Deck & Orlop [deck] on several of the Convicts.<br /><b>25 July 1799</b>: We were now sourounded with Heavy Thunder & Lightning and the Dismal Element foaming all round us Shocking to see with a Cormesant Hanging at the Maintop mast Head the Seamen was here Shock'd when a flash of Lightning came Burst the Cormesant & Struck two of the Seamen for several Hours Stone Blind & several much hurt in their Eyes.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>While the exact nature of these <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" title="Glossary of meteorology">weather phenomena</a> cannot be certain, they appear to be mostly about two observations of St. Elmo's fire with perhaps some ball lightning and even a direct <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a> strike to the ship thrown into the mix. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="James_Braid">James Braid</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: James Braid"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 20 February 1817,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> during a severe electrical storm, <a href="/wiki/James_Braid_(surgeon)" title="James Braid (surgeon)">James Braid</a>, surgeon at <a href="/wiki/John_Hope,_2nd_Earl_of_Hopetoun#Children_by_first_marriage" title="John Hope, 2nd Earl of Hopetoun">Lord Hopetoun</a>'s mines at <a href="/wiki/Leadhills" title="Leadhills">Leadhills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lanarkshire" title="Lanarkshire">Lanarkshire</a>, had an extraordinary experience whilst on horseback: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>On Thursday 20th, I was gratified for a few minutes with the luminous appearance described above [viz., "such flashes of lightning from the west, repeated every two or three minutes, sometimes at shorter intervals, as appeared to illumine the whole heavens"]. It was about nine o'clock, P.M. I had no sooner got on horseback than I observed the tips of both the horse's ears to be quite luminous: the edges of my hat had the same appearance. I was soon deprived of these luminaries by a shower of moist snow which immediately began to fall. The horse's ears soon became wet and lost their luminous appearance; but the edges of my hat, being longer of getting wet, continued to give the luminous appearance somewhat longer. </p><p>I could observe an immense number of minute sparks darting towards the horse's ears and the margin of my hat, which produced a very beautiful appearance, and I was sorry to be so soon deprived of it. </p><p>The atmosphere in this neighbourhood appeared to be very highly electrified for eight or ten days about this time. Thunder was heard occasionally from 15th to 23rd, during which time the weather was very unsteady: frequent showers of hail, snow, rain, &c. </p><p>I can find no person in this quarter who remembers to have ever seen the luminous appearance mentioned above, before this season, – or such a quantity of lightning darting across the heavens, – nor who have heard so much thunder at that season of the year. </p><p> This country being all stocked with sheep, and the herds having frequent occasion to pay attention to the state of the weather, it is not to be thought that such an appearance can have been at all frequent, and none of them to have observed it.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>James Braid, 1817<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Weeks earlier, reportedly on 17 January 1817, a luminous snowstorm occurred in Vermont and New Hampshire. Saint Elmo's fire appeared as static discharges on roof peaks, fence posts, and the hats and fingers of people. Thunderstorms prevailed over central New England.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Charles_Darwin">Charles Darwin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Charles Darwin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> noted the effect while aboard the <i><a href="/wiki/HMS_Beagle" title="HMS Beagle">Beagle</a></i>. He wrote of the episode in a letter to <a href="/wiki/John_Stevens_Henslow" title="John Stevens Henslow">J. S. Henslow</a> that one night when the <i>Beagle</i> was anchored in the estuary of the <a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>Everything is in flames – the sky with lightning, the <a href="/wiki/Milky_seas_effect" title="Milky seas effect">water with luminous particles</a>, and even the very masts are pointed with a blue flame. </p> <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Charles Darwin, 1832<sup id="cite_ref-DCP_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DCP-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote><p>He also describes the above night in his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Voyage_of_the_Beagle" title="The Voyage of the Beagle">The Voyage of the Beagle</a></i>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>On a second night we witnessed a splendid scene of natural fireworks; the mast-head and yard-arm-ends shone with St.Elmo's light; and the form of the vane could almost be traced, as if it had been rubbed with phosphorous. The sea was so highly luminous, that the tracks of the penguins were marked by a fiery wake, and the darkness of the sky was momentarily illuminated by the most vivid lightning.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Charles Darwin, 1832</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Richard_Henry_Dana">Richard Henry Dana</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Richard Henry Dana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Two_Years_Before_the_Mast" title="Two Years Before the Mast">Two Years Before the Mast</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Henry_Dana_Jr." title="Richard Henry Dana Jr.">Richard Henry Dana Jr.</a>, (1815–1882) describes seeing a corposant in the <a href="/wiki/Horse_latitudes" title="Horse latitudes">horse latitudes</a> of the northern Atlantic Ocean. However, he may have been talking about ball lightning; as mentioned earlier, it is often erroneously identified as St. Elmo's fire: </p><p>The observation by R. H. Dana of this phenomenon in <i><a href="/wiki/Two_Years_Before_the_Mast" title="Two Years Before the Mast">Two Years Before the Mast</a></i> is a straightforward description of an extraordinary experience apparently only known to mariners and airline pilots. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There, directly over where we had been standing, upon the main top-gallant mast-head, was a ball of light, which the sailors name a corposant (<i>corpus sancti</i>), and which the mate had called out to us to look at. They were all watching it carefully, for sailors have a notion that if the corposant rises in the rigging it is a sign of <a href="/wiki/Fair_weather" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair weather">fair weather</a>, but if it comes lower down, there will be a storm. Unfortunately, as an omen, it came down, and showed itself on the topgallant yardarm. We were off the yard in good season, for it is held as a fatal sign to have the pale light of the corposant thrown upon one's face.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Richard Henry Dana, 1840<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nikola_Tesla">Nikola Tesla</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Nikola Tesla"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a> created St. Elmo's fire in 1899 while testing a <a href="/wiki/Tesla_coil" title="Tesla coil">Tesla coil</a> at his laboratory in <a href="/wiki/Colorado_Springs,_Colorado" title="Colorado Springs, Colorado">Colorado Springs, Colorado</a>, United States. St. Elmo's fire was seen around the coil and was said to have lit up the wings of butterflies with blue halos as they flew around.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mark_Heald">Mark Heald</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Mark Heald"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A minute before the <a href="/wiki/Hindenburg_disaster" title="Hindenburg disaster">crash of the Luftschiffbau Zeppelin's LZ 129 <i>Hindenburg</i></a> on 6 May 1937, Professor Mark Heald (1892–1971) of Princeton saw St. Elmo's Fire flickering along the airship's back. Standing outside the main gate to the Naval Air Station, he watched, together with his wife and son, as the airship approached the mast and dropped her bow lines. A minute thereafter, by Heald's estimation, he first noticed a dim "blue flame" flickering along the backbone girder about one-quarter the length abaft the bow to the tail. There was time for him to remark to his wife, "Oh, heavens, the thing is afire," for her to reply, "Where?" and for him to answer, "Up along the top ridge" – before there was a big burst of flaming hydrogen from a point he estimated to be about one-third the ship's length from the stern.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="William_L._Laurence">William L. Laurence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: William L. Laurence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>St. Elmo's fire was reported by <i>The New York Times</i> reporter <a href="/wiki/William_L._Laurence" title="William L. Laurence">William L. Laurence</a> on 9 August 1945, as he was aboard a plane following <i><a href="/wiki/Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a></i> on the way to <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki" title="Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I noticed a strange, eerie light coming through the window high above in the Navigator's cabin and as I peered through the dark all around us I saw a startling phenomenon. The whirling giant propellers had somehow become great luminous discs of blue flame. The same luminous blue flame appeared on the plexiglass windows in the nose of the ship, and on the tips of the giant wings it looked as though we were riding the whirlwind through space on a chariot of blue fire. It was, I surmised, a surcharge of static electricity that had accumulated on the tips of the propellers and on the dielectric material in the plastic windows. One's thoughts dwelt anxiously on the precious cargo in the invisible ship ahead of us. Was there any likelihood of danger that this heavy electric tension in the atmosphere all about us may set it off? I express my fears to Captain Bock, who seems nonchalant and imperturbed at the controls. He quickly reassures me: "It is a familiar phenomenon seen often on ships. I have seen it many times on bombing missions. It is known as St. Elmo's Fire."<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-In_popular_culture plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may contain <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_an_indiscriminate_collection_of_information" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">irrelevant</a> references to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Trivia_sections#"In_popular_culture"_and_"Cultural_references"_material" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Trivia sections">popular culture</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help Wikipedia to <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit">improve this article</a> by removing the content or adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">citations</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">reliable</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Independent_sources" title="Wikipedia:Independent sources">independent sources</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_literature">In literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: In literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>One of the earliest references to the phenomenon appears in <a href="/wiki/Alcaeus_of_Mytilene" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcaeus of Mytilene">Alcaeus</a>'s Fragment 34a about the Dioscuri, or <a href="/wiki/Castor_and_Pollux" title="Castor and Pollux">Castor and Pollux</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also referenced in <a href="/wiki/Homeric_Hymn" class="mw-redirect" title="Homeric Hymn">Homeric Hymn</a> 33 to the Dioscuri who were from Homeric times associated with it.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whether the Homeric Hymn antedates the Alcaeus fragment is unknown. </p><p>The phenomenon appears to be described first in the <i><a href="/wiki/Gesta_Herwardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gesta Herwardi">Gesta Herwardi</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> written around 1100 and concerning an event of the 1070s. However, one of the earliest direct references to St. Elmo's fire made in fiction can be found in <a href="/wiki/Ludovico_Ariosto" title="Ludovico Ariosto">Ludovico Ariosto</a>'s epic poem <i><a href="/wiki/Orlando_Furioso" title="Orlando Furioso">Orlando Furioso</a></i> (1516). It is located in the 17th canto (19th in the revised edition of 1532) after a storm has punished the ship of <a href="/wiki/Marfisa" title="Marfisa">Marfisa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astolfo" title="Astolfo">Astolfo</a>, Aquilant, Grifon, and others, for three straight days, and is positively associated with hope: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> But now St. Elmo's fire appeared, which they had so longed for, it settled at the bows of a fore stay, the masts and yards all being gone, and gave them hope of calmer airs.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Ludovico Ariosto, 1516</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tempest" title="The Tempest">The Tempest</a></i> (c. 1623), Act I, Scene II, St. Elmo's fire acquires a more negative association, appearing as evidence of the tempest inflicted by <a href="/wiki/Ariel_(The_Tempest)" title="Ariel (The Tempest)">Ariel</a> according to the command of <a href="/wiki/Prospero" title="Prospero">Prospero</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <p> PROSPERO </p> <dl><dd>Hast thou, spirit,</dd> <dd>Perform'd to point the tempest that I bade thee?</dd></dl> <p> ARIEL </p> <dl><dd>To every article.</dd> <dd>I boarded the king's ship; now on the beak,</dd> <dd>Now in the waist, the deck, in every cabin,</dd> <dd>I flamed amazement: sometime I'd divide,</dd> <dd>And burn in many places; on the topmast,</dd> <dd>The yards and bowsprit, would I flame distinctly,</dd> <dd>Then meet and join.</dd></dl> <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Act I, Scene II, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tempest" title="The Tempest">The Tempest</a></i></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The fires are also mentioned as "death fires" in <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rime_of_the_Ancient_Mariner" title="The Rime of the Ancient Mariner">The Rime of the Ancient Mariner</a></i>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <dl><dd>About, about, in reel and rout,</dd> <dd>The death fires danced at night;</dd> <dd>The water, like a witch's oils,</dd> <dd>Burnt green and blue and white.</dd></dl> <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>l. 127–130</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Later in the 18th and 19th centuries, literature associated St. Elmo's fire with a bad omen or <a href="/wiki/Divine_judgment" title="Divine judgment">divine judgment</a>, coinciding with the growing conventions of <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic novel">Gothic novel</a>. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Ann_Radcliffe" title="Ann Radcliffe">Ann Radcliffe</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Mysteries_of_Udolpho" title="The Mysteries of Udolpho">The Mysteries of Udolpho</a></i> (1794), during a thunderstorm above the ramparts of the castle: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>"And what is that tapering of light you bear?" said Emily, "see how it darts upwards,—and now it vanishes!" </p><p>"This light, lady," said the soldier, "has appeared to-night as you see it, on the point of my lance, ever since I have been on watch; but what it means I cannot tell." </p><p>"This is very strange!" said Emily. </p><p>"My fellow-guard," continued the man, "has the same flame on his arms; he says he has sometimes seen it before...he says it is an omen, lady, and bodes no good." </p><p>"And what harm can it bode?" rejoined Emily. </p><p>"He knows not so much as that, lady." </p> <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Vol. III, Ch. IV, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Mysteries_of_Udolpho" title="The Mysteries of Udolpho">The Mysteries of Udolpho</a></i></cite></div></blockquote> <p>In the 1864 novel <i><a href="/wiki/Journey_to_the_Centre_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Journey to the Centre of the Earth">Journey to the Centre of the Earth</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Jules_Verne" title="Jules Verne">Jules Verne</a>, the author describes the fire occurring while sailing during a subterranean electrical storm (chapter 35, page 191): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>On the mast already I see the light play of a lambent St. Elmo's fire; the outstretched sail catches not a breath of wind, and hangs like a sheet of lead. </p></blockquote> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Herman_Melville" title="Herman Melville">Herman Melville</a>'s novel <i><a href="/wiki/Moby-Dick" title="Moby-Dick">Moby-Dick</a></i>, Starbuck points out "corpusants" during a thunder storm in the Japanese sea in chapter 119, "The Candles". </p><p>St. Elmo's fire makes an appearance in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Tintin" title="The Adventures of Tintin">The Adventures of Tintin</a></i> comic, <i><a href="/wiki/Tintin_in_Tibet" title="Tintin in Tibet">Tintin in Tibet</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Herg%C3%A9" title="Hergé">Hergé</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tintin_(character)" title="Tintin (character)">Tintin</a> recognizes the phenomenon on <a href="/wiki/Captain_Haddock" title="Captain Haddock">Captain Haddock</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ice-axe" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice-axe">ice-axe</a>. </p><p>The phenomenon appears in the first stanza of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hayden" title="Robert Hayden">Robert Hayden</a>'s poem "The Ballad of Nat Turner";<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is also referred to with the term "corposant" in the first section of his long poem "<a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage_(poem)" title="Middle Passage (poem)">Middle Passage</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Vonnegut" title="Kurt Vonnegut">Kurt Vonnegut</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Slaughterhouse-Five" title="Slaughterhouse-Five">Slaughterhouse-Five</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Billy_Pilgrim" class="mw-redirect" title="Billy Pilgrim">Billy Pilgrim</a> sees the phenomenon on soldiers' helmets and on rooftops. Vonnegut's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sirens_of_Titan" title="The Sirens of Titan">The Sirens of Titan</a></i> also notes the phenomenon affecting Winston Niles Rumfoord's dog, Kazak, the Hound of Space, in conjunction with solar disturbances of the chrono-synclastic infundibulum. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Robert_Aickman" title="Robert Aickman">Robert Aickman</a>'s story "Niemandswasser" (1975), the protagonist, Prince Albrecht von Allendorf, is "known as Elmo to his associates, because of the fire which to them emanated from him". "There was an inspirational force in Elmo of which the sensitive soon became aware, and which had led to his <i>Spottname</i> or nickname." </p><p>In <i>On the Banks of Plum Creek</i> by <a href="/wiki/Laura_Ingalls_Wilder" title="Laura Ingalls Wilder">Laura Ingalls Wilder</a>, St. Elmo's fire is seen by the girls and Ma during one of the blizzards. It was described as coming down the stove pipe and rolling across the floor following Ma's knitting needles; it did not burn the floor (pages 309–310). The phenomenon as described, however, is more similar to <a href="/wiki/Ball_lightning" title="Ball lightning">ball lightning</a>. </p><p>In <i>Voyager</i>, the third major novel in <a href="/wiki/Diana_Gabaldon" title="Diana Gabaldon">Diana Gabaldon</a>'s popular <a href="/wiki/Outlander_(book_series)" title="Outlander (book series)"><i>Outlander</i> series</a>, the primary characters experience St. Elmo's fire while lost at sea in a thunderstorm between <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a> and coastal <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>. </p><p>St. Elmo's fire is also mentioned in the novel, <i><a href="/wiki/Castaways_of_the_Flying_Dutchman" title="Castaways of the Flying Dutchman">Castaways of the Flying Dutchman</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Brian_Jacques" title="Brian Jacques">Brian Jacques</a>. </p><p>It is referenced multiple times in the novel <i><a href="/wiki/Pet_Sematary" title="Pet Sematary">Pet Sematary</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Stephen_King" title="Stephen King">Stephen King</a>. </p><p>It is referenced multiple times in the Urban-Fantasy series <i><a href="/wiki/The_Dresden_Files" title="The Dresden Files">The Dresden Files</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Jim_Butcher" title="Jim Butcher">Jim Butcher</a>, particularly when magical beings such as the protagonist's dog are exerting power, especially during conflict, or to describe the visual effects of magic being used. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_television">In television</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: In television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On the children's television series <i><a href="/wiki/The_Mysterious_Cities_of_Gold" title="The Mysterious Cities of Gold">The Mysterious Cities of Gold</a></i> (1982), episode four shows St. Elmo's fire affecting the ship as it sailed past the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Magellan" title="Strait of Magellan">Strait of Magellan</a>. The real-life footage at the end of the episode has snippets of an interview with Japanese sailor Fukunari Imada, whose comments were translated to: "Although I've never seen St. Elmo's fire, I'd certainly like to. It was often considered a bad omen, as it played havoc with compasses and equipment". The TV series also referred to St. Elmo's fire as being a bad omen during the cartoon. The footage was captured as part of his winning solo yacht race in 1981.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the American television series <i><a href="/wiki/Rawhide_(TV_series)" title="Rawhide (TV series)">Rawhide</a></i>, in a 1959 episode titled "Incident of the Blue Fire", <a href="/wiki/Droving" title="Droving">cattle drovers</a> on a stormy night see St. Elmo's fire glowing on the horns of their steers, which the men regard as a deadly omen.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> St. Elmo's fire is also referenced in a 1965 episode of <i><a href="/wiki/Bonanza" title="Bonanza">Bonanza</a></i> in which religious pilgrims staying on the Cartwright property believe an experience with St. Elmo's fire is the work of <a href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On <i><a href="/wiki/The_Waltons" title="The Waltons">The Waltons</a></i> episode "The Grandchild" (1977), Mary Ellen witnesses St. Elmo's Fire while running through the woods. </p><p>On the American animated television series <i><a href="/wiki/Futurama_(TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Futurama (TV series)">Futurama</a></i> episode titled "<a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6bius_Dick_(Futurama)" title="Möbius Dick (Futurama)">Möbius Dick</a>", <a href="/wiki/Leela_(Futurama)" title="Leela (Futurama)">Turanga Leela</a> refers to the phenomenon as "Tickle me Elmo's Fire." </p><p>On the <a href="/wiki/Netflix" title="Netflix">Netflix</a> original Singaporean animated series <a href="/wiki/Trese_(TV_series)" title="Trese (TV series)"><i>Trese</i></a> (2021), the Santelmo (St. Elmo's Fire) is one of the protagonist's, Alexandra Trese's, allies whom she contacts using her old <a href="/wiki/Nokia_3310" title="Nokia 3310">Nokia</a> phone, dialing the date of <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Manila" title="Timeline of Manila">the Great Binondo fire</a>, 0003231870. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_film">In film</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: In film"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Stay_on_topic" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles"><span title="The material near this tag may contain information that is not relevant to the article's main topic. (May 2020)">relevant?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><ul><li>In <i><a href="/wiki/Moby_Dick_(1956_film)" title="Moby Dick (1956 film)">Moby Dick</a></i> (1956), St. Elmo's fire stops <a href="/wiki/Captain_Ahab" title="Captain Ahab">Captain Ahab</a> from killing Starbuck.</li> <li>In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Sunset_(film)" title="The Last Sunset (film)">The Last Sunset</a></i> (1961), outlaw/cowhand Brendan "Bren" O'Malley (<a href="/wiki/Kirk_Douglas" title="Kirk Douglas">Kirk Douglas</a>) rides in from the herd and leads the recently widowed Belle Breckenridge (<a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Malone" title="Dorothy Malone">Dorothy Malone</a>) to an overview of the cattle. As he takes the rifle from her, he proclaims, "Something out there, you could live five lifetimes, and never see again," the audience is then shown a shot of the cattle with a blue or violet glow coming from their horns. "Look. St. Elmo's fire. Never seen it except on ships," O'Malley says as Belle says, "I've never seen it anywhere. What is it?" Trying to win her back, he says, "Well, a star fell and smashed and scattered its glow all over the place."</li> <li>In <i><a href="/wiki/St._Elmo%27s_Fire_(film)" title="St. Elmo's Fire (film)">St. Elmo's Fire</a></i> (1985), <a href="/wiki/Rob_Lowe" title="Rob Lowe">Rob Lowe</a>'s character Billy Hicks erroneously claims that the phenomenon is "not even a real thing."</li> <li>In the Western miniseries <a href="/wiki/Lonesome_Dove_(miniseries)" title="Lonesome Dove (miniseries)"><i>Lonesome Dove</i></a> (1989–1990), lightning strikes a herd of cattle during a storm, causing their horns to glow blue.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/The_Hunt_for_Red_October_(film)" title="The Hunt for Red October (film)">The Hunt for Red October (film)</a> (1990) during a scene where the USS Dallas, a Los-Angeles-class submarine, is attempting to evade a torpedo, the crew discusses the presence of St. Elmo's fire on the sub's periscope.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/The_Perfect_Storm_(film)" title="The Perfect Storm (film)">The Perfect Storm (film)</a>; based on the true story of the Andrea Gail fishing vessel, there is a scene where the crew encounters St. Elmo's fire during the height of a storm.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Lars_von_Trier" title="Lars von Trier">Lars von Trier</a>'s 2011 film <i><a href="/wiki/Melancholia_(2011_film)" title="Melancholia (2011 film)">Melancholia</a></i>, the phenomenon features in the opening sequence and later in the film as the <a href="/wiki/Rogue_planet" title="Rogue planet">rogue planet</a> Melancholia approaches the Earth for an <a href="/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">impact event</a>.</li> <li>In Robert Eggers's 2019 horror film <i><a href="/wiki/The_Lighthouse_(2019_film)" title="The Lighthouse (2019 film)">The Lighthouse</a></i>, it appears in reference to the mysterious salvation that lighthouse keeper Thomas Wake (<a href="/wiki/Willem_Dafoe" title="Willem Dafoe">Willem Dafoe</a>) is hiding from Ephraim Winslow (<a href="/wiki/Robert_Pattinson" title="Robert Pattinson">Robert Pattinson</a>) inside the <a href="/wiki/Fresnel_lens" title="Fresnel lens">Fresnel lens</a> of the lantern.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_music">In music</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: In music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Eno" title="Brian Eno">Brian Eno</a>'s third studio album <i><a href="/wiki/Another_Green_World" title="Another Green World">Another Green World</a></i> (1975) contains a song titled "St. Elmo's Fire" in which guesting <a href="/wiki/King_Crimson" title="King Crimson">King Crimson</a> guitarist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Fripp" title="Robert Fripp">Robert Fripp</a> (credited with playing "Wimshurst guitar" in the liner notes) improvises a lightning-fast solo that would imitate an electrical charge between two poles on a <a href="/wiki/Wimshurst_machine" title="Wimshurst machine">Wimshurst high-voltage generator</a>.</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/St._Elmo%27s_Fire_(Man_in_Motion)" title="St. Elmo's Fire (Man in Motion)">St. Elmo's Fire (Man in Motion)</a>" is a song recorded by <a href="/wiki/John_Parr" title="John Parr">John Parr</a>. It hit number one on the <a href="/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100" title="Billboard Hot 100"><i>Billboard</i> Hot 100</a> on 7 September 1985, remaining there for two weeks. It was the main theme for <a href="/wiki/Joel_Schumacher" title="Joel Schumacher">Joel Schumacher</a>'s 1985 film <i>St. Elmo's Fire</i>.</li> <li>"St. Elmo's Fire" by Michael Franks.</li> <li>The Sammarinese entry for the 2017 Eurovision Song Contest in Kyiv "<a href="/wiki/San_Marino_in_the_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2017" title="San Marino in the Eurovision Song Contest 2017">Spirit of the Night</a>" contains references to St. Elmo's Fire.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_light" title="Earthquake light">Earthquake light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foo_fighter" title="Foo fighter">Foo fighter</a>, WWII UFO observations</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hessdalen_lights" title="Hessdalen lights">Hessdalen lights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naga_fireball" title="Naga fireball">Naga fireball</a>, rising from Mekong River</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_globe" title="Plasma globe">Plasma globe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_corona" title="Stellar corona">Stellar Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triboelectric_effect" title="Triboelectric effect">Triboelectric effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will-o%27-the-wisp" title="Will-o'-the-wisp">Will-o'-the-wisp</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The term was also used for a special wicker basket used at the cult of Artemis at Brauron in Attica.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Known as 'Castor and Pollux' in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>; <i>Homeric Hymn 33</i> describes a generic epiphany of these fraternal heroes, collectively called the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Dioskouroi</i></span>, in the midst of a storm at sea. Here they are said to rush through the air "with tawny wings" and to bring relief to terrified mariners.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It was of high significance that this was during the period of extraordinary atmospheric effects and dramatic reduction in temperatures following an earlier series of massive volcano eruptions that were ultimately responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Year_Without_a_Summer" title="Year Without a Summer">Year Without a Summer</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Braid also writes that one of his friends had a similar experience on the evening of the preceding Saturday: in which, his friend reported, he had seen "his horse's ears being the same as two burning candles, and the edges of his hat being all in a flame" (p. 471).</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St._Elmo%27s_fire&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeffreys, M.D.W. (Jun., 1949), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1256716">"Witch's Fire"</a>, in <i><a href="/wiki/Folklore_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Folklore (journal)">Folklore</a></i>; Vol. 60, No. 2, pp. 286–290 (5 pages); Pub: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHeidorn1998" class="citation web cs1">Heidorn, Keith C. (30 May 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.heidorn.info/keith/weather/elements/stelmo.htm">"Weather Phenomenon and Elements: The Fire Of St. Elmo"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Weather+Phenomenon+and+Elements%3A+The+Fire+Of+St.+Elmo&rft.date=1998-05-30&rft.aulast=Heidorn&rft.aufirst=Keith+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.heidorn.info%2Fkeith%2Fweather%2Felements%2Fstelmo.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-us-canada-66653889">"Pilots capture rare weather phenomenon from cockpit (video: 00:25)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. 29 August 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pilots+capture+rare+weather+phenomenon+from+cockpit+%28video%3A+00%3A25%29&rft.pub=BBC+News&rft.date=2023-08-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fav%2Fworld-us-canada-66653889&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davis2014-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davis2014_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavisEngelnJohnson2014" class="citation journal cs1">Davis C, Engeln A, Johnson EL, et al. (December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.wem.2014.08.011">"Wilderness Medical Society practice guidelines for the prevention and treatment of lightning injuries: 2014 update"</a>. <i>Wilderness & Environmental Medicine</i>. <b>25</b> (4 Suppl): S86–95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.wem.2014.08.011">10.1016/j.wem.2014.08.011</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25498265">25498265</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wilderness+%26+Environmental+Medicine&rft.atitle=Wilderness+Medical+Society+practice+guidelines+for+the+prevention+and+treatment+of+lightning+injuries%3A+2014+update&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=4+Suppl&rft.pages=S86-95&rft.date=2014-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.wem.2014.08.011&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25498265&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Engeln%2C+A&rft.au=Johnson%2C+EL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.wem.2014.08.011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEyers2011" class="citation book cs1">Eyers, Jonathan (2011). <i>Don't Shoot the Albatross!: Nautical Myths and Superstitions</i>. London: A&C Black. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4081-3131-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4081-3131-2"><bdi>978-1-4081-3131-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Don%27t+Shoot+the+Albatross%21%3A+Nautical+Myths+and+Superstitions&rft.place=London&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4081-3131-2&rft.aulast=Eyers&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Over_the_Edge_of_the_World-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Over_the_Edge_of_the_World_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergreen2003" class="citation book cs1">Bergreen, Laurence (2003). <i>Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe</i>. New York: Morrow. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-621173-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-621173-2"><bdi>978-0-06-621173-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Over+the+Edge+of+the+World%3A+Magellan%27s+Terrifying+Circumnavigation+of+the+Globe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Morrow&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-06-621173-2&rft.aulast=Bergreen&rft.aufirst=Laurence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/quotwhat-causes-the-stran/">"What causes the strange glow known as St. Elmo's Fire? Is this phenomenon related to ball lightning?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>. 22 September 1997. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140320234102/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/quotwhat-causes-the-stran/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=What+causes+the+strange+glow+known+as+St.+Elmo%27s+Fire%3F+Is+this+phenomenon+related+to+ball+lightning%3F&rft.date=1997-09-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fquotwhat-causes-the-stran%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GentMag-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GentMag_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Doren1938" class="citation book cs1">Van Doren, Carl (1938). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.182793"><i>Benjamin Franklin</i></a>. New York: The Viking Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.182793/page/n177">159</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Franklin&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=159&rft.pub=The+Viking+Press&rft.date=1938&rft.aulast=Van+Doren&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.182793&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span> Quoted text from May 1751 letter published in <i>Gentleman's Magazine</i>. Excerpt at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.math.tamu.edu/~stecher/489/Ben/science.shtml">"Franklin – The Scientist"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010430083411/https://www.math.tamu.edu/~stecher/489/Ben/science.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 30 April 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Franklin+%E2%80%93+The+Scientist&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.math.tamu.edu%2F~stecher%2F489%2FBen%2Fscience.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BFPapers-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BFPapers_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Additional reference may be made from Yale University's collection, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060214030435/http://www.yale.edu/franklinpapers/index.html">"The Papers of Benjamin Franklin"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yale.edu/franklinpapers/index.html">the original</a> on 14 February 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Papers+of+Benjamin+Franklin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yale.edu%2Ffranklinpapers%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/08/200811120225.htm">"How airplanes counteract St. Elmo's Fire during thunderstorms"</a>. <i>ScienceDaily</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230830144824/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/08/200811120225.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 30 August 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ScienceDaily&rft.atitle=How+airplanes+counteract+St.+Elmo%27s+Fire+during+thunderstorms&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2020%2F08%2F200811120225.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuerra-GarciaNguyenMouratidisMartinez-Sanchez2020" class="citation journal cs1">Guerra-Garcia, C.; Nguyen, N. C.; Mouratidis, T.; Martinez-Sanchez, M. (27 August 2020). "Corona Discharge in Wind for Electrically Isolated Electrodes". <i>Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres</i>. <b>125</b> (16). <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020JGRD..12532908G">2020JGRD..12532908G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2020JD032908">10.1029/2020JD032908</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F134168">1721.1/134168</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225244964">225244964</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research%3A+Atmospheres&rft.atitle=Corona+Discharge+in+Wind+for+Electrically+Isolated+Electrodes&rft.volume=125&rft.issue=16&rft.date=2020-08-27&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1721.1%2F134168&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225244964%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2020JD032908&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020JGRD..12532908G&rft.aulast=Guerra-Garcia&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Nguyen%2C+N.+C.&rft.au=Mouratidis%2C+T.&rft.au=Martinez-Sanchez%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace2003" class="citation journal cs1">Wallace, John (November 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.laserfocusworld.com/test-measurement/research/article/16554344/laboratory-st-elmos-fire-produces-vuv-light">"Laboratory St. Elmo's fire produces VUV light"</a>. <i>Laser Focus World</i>. <b>39</b> (11): <span class="nowrap">40–</span>41.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Laser+Focus+World&rft.atitle=Laboratory+St.+Elmo%27s+fire+produces+VUV+light&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E40-%3C%2Fspan%3E41&rft.date=2003-11&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.laserfocusworld.com%2Ftest-measurement%2Fresearch%2Farticle%2F16554344%2Flaboratory-st-elmos-fire-produces-vuv-light&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lyd. Ost. 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Poll. 10.191)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-About.com-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-About.com_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080516011605/http://altreligion.about.com/library/texts/bl_mphelementals5.htm">"The Elements and Their Inhabitants"</a>. 16 May 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://altreligion.about.com/library/texts/bl_mphelementals5.htm">the original</a> on 16 May 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Elements+and+Their+Inhabitants&rft.date=2008-05-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faltreligion.about.com%2Flibrary%2Ftexts%2Fbl_mphelementals5.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Welsh-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Welsh_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsh_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrevelyan1909" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marie_Trevelyan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marie Trevelyan (page does not exist)">Trevelyan, Marie</a> (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929002856/http://vwales.co.uk/Folklore/trevelyan/welshfolklore/chapt1.htm">"The Sea, Lakes, Rivers and Wells"</a>. <i>Folk-lore and folk-stories of Wales</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vwales.co.uk/Folklore/trevelyan/welshfolklore/chapt1.htm">the original</a> on 29 September 2007 – via V Wales.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Sea%2C+Lakes%2C+Rivers+and+Wells&rft.btitle=Folk-lore+and+folk-stories+of+Wales&rft.date=1909&rft.aulast=Trevelyan&rft.aufirst=Marie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvwales.co.uk%2FFolklore%2Ftrevelyan%2Fwelshfolklore%2Fchapt1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://inamidst.com/lights/wisp/brand1777.html">"Will With A Wisp: John Brand (1777)"</a>. <i>inamidst.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120716025554/http://inamidst.com/lights/wisp/brand1777.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 July 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=inamidst.com&rft.atitle=Will+With+A+Wisp%3A+John+Brand+%281777%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finamidst.com%2Flights%2Fwisp%2Fbrand1777.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPigafetta2012" class="citation book cs1">Pigafetta, Antonio (25 October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sclFZPrPVhsC&pg=PA41"><i>Magellan's Voyage: A Narrative Account of the First Circumnavigation</i></a>. Courier Corporation. pp. <span class="nowrap">41–</span>42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486120553" title="Special:BookSources/9780486120553"><bdi>9780486120553</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210626140448/https://books.google.com/books?id=sclFZPrPVhsC&pg=PA41">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Magellan%27s+Voyage%3A+A+Narrative+Account+of+the+First+Circumnavigation&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E41-%3C%2Fspan%3E42&rft.pub=Courier+Corporation&rft.date=2012-10-25&rft.isbn=9780486120553&rft.aulast=Pigafetta&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsclFZPrPVhsC%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Toll, I.W. (2020). Twilight of the Gods. War in the Western Pacific, 1944-1945. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srh.noaa.gov/oun/?n=events-19550525-stormelectricity">"Storm Electricity Aspects of the Blackwell/Udall Storm of May 25, 1955 – Don Burgess, University of Oklahoma (CIMMS)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181004063523/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/oun/?n=events-19550525-stormelectricity">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Storm+Electricity+Aspects+of+the+Blackwell%2FUdall+Storm+of+May+25%2C+1955+%E2%80%93+Don+Burgess%2C+University+of+Oklahoma+%28CIMMS%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srh.noaa.gov%2Foun%2F%3Fn%3Devents-19550525-stormelectricity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wescott et al. (1996) "The optical spectrum of aircraft St. Elmo's fire", Geophys. Res. Lett., 23(25), pp. 3687–90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6xExHkd2PdI">"Peru95 - sprite observations over the upper Amazon"</a>. 20 August 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200317013518/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6xExHkd2PdI&gl=US&hl=en">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 November</span> 2016</span> – via www.youtube.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Peru95+-+sprite+observations+over+the+upper+Amazon&rft.date=2008-08-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D6xExHkd2PdI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWise2020" class="citation web cs1">Wise, Jeff (1 June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.popularmechanics.com/flight/a3115/what-really-happened-aboard-air-france-447-6611877/">"What Really Happened Aboard Air France 447"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Popular_Mechanics" title="Popular Mechanics">Popular Mechanics</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201208075516/https://www.popularmechanics.com/flight/a3115/what-really-happened-aboard-air-france-447-6611877/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 December 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Popular+Mechanics&rft.atitle=What+Really+Happened+Aboard+Air+France+447&rft.date=2020-06-01&rft.aulast=Wise&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.popularmechanics.com%2Fflight%2Fa3115%2Fwhat-really-happened-aboard-air-france-447-6611877%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bea.aero/docspa/2009/f-cp090601.en/pdf/f-cp090601.en.pdf">"Final Report On the accident on 1st June 2009 to the Airbus A330-203 registered F-GZCP operated by Air France flight AF 447 Rio de Janeiro – Paris."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201112015601/https://www.bea.aero/docspa/2009/f-cp090601.en/pdf/f-cp090601.en.pdf">Archived</a> 12 November 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses. N.p., July 2012. 12 March 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.summitmedia.com.ph?d=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.esquiremag.ph%2Flong-reads%2Ffeatures%2Fsantelmo-origin-trese-a00293-20210614-lfrm">"The Enigmatic Philippine Origins of Trese's Santelmo"</a>. <i>Esquiremag.ph <a href="/wiki/Esquire_(magazine)#International_editions" title="Esquire (magazine)">Esquire Magazine Philippines</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 December</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Esquiremag.ph+Esquire+Magazine+Philippines&rft.atitle=The+Enigmatic+Philippine+Origins+of+Trese%27s+Santelmo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fid.summitmedia.com.ph%3Fd%3Dhttps%253A%252F%252Fwww.esquiremag.ph%252Flong-reads%252Ffeatures%252Fsantelmo-origin-trese-a00293-20210614-lfrm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurd2011" class="citation book cs1">Curd, Patricia, ed. (2011). <i>A Presocratics Reader: Selected Fragments and Testimonia</i>. Translations by <a href="/wiki/Richard_McKirahan" title="Richard McKirahan">Richard D. McKirahan</a> and Patricia Curd (Second ed.). Hackett. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60384306-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60384306-5"><bdi>978-1-60384306-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Presocratics+Reader%3A+Selected+Fragments+and+Testimonia&rft.pages=38&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Hackett&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-60384306-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dr07-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dr07_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDreyer2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_L._Dreyer" title="Edward L. Dreyer">Dreyer, Edward L.</a> (2007). <i>Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405–1433</i>. New York: Pearson Longman. pp. 148, <span class="nowrap">191–</span>199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-08443-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-08443-9"><bdi>978-0-321-08443-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zheng+He%3A+China+and+the+Oceans+in+the+Early+Ming+Dynasty%2C+1405%E2%80%931433&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=148%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E191-%3C%2Fspan%3E199&rft.pub=Pearson+Longman&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-321-08443-9&rft.aulast=Dreyer&rft.aufirst=Edward+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-need59-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-need59_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Translation by <a href="/wiki/J._J._L._Duyvendak" title="J. J. L. Duyvendak">Duyvendak, J. J. L.</a> (1939; 1949) in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1959" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Needham, Joseph</a> (1959). <i>Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 3</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 558. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-05801-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-05801-5"><bdi>0-521-05801-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%2C+Volume+3&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=558&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=0-521-05801-5&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AHD-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AHD_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/p/corposants">"Corposants"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210626140448/https://www.thefreedictionary.com/p%2fcorposants">Archived</a> 26 June 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>The American Heritage Dictionary</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkham1880" class="citation book cs1">Markham, Albert (1880). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.181682"><i>Voyages and Works of John Davis</i></a>. The Hakluyt Society. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.181682/page/n278">164</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Voyages+and+Works+of+John+Davis&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=The+Hakluyt+Society&rft.date=1880&rft.aulast=Markham&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.181682&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ballooning_Who's_Who-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ballooning_Who's_Who_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ballooninghistory.com/whoswho/who%27swho-t.html">"Ballooning History, Who's Who"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230830144825/http://www.ballooninghistory.com/whoswho/who%27swho-t.html">Archived</a> from the original on 30 August 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ballooning+History%2C+Who%27s+Who.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ballooninghistory.com%2Fwhoswho%2Fwho%2527swho-t.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archival.sl.nsw.gov.au/Details/archive/110315391">"William Noah 'A Voyage to Sydney in New South Wales in 1798 & 1799' and 'A Few Remarks of the County of Cumberland in New South Wales, 1798-1799"</a>. <i>State Library of New South Wales</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624200139/https://archival.sl.nsw.gov.au/Details/archive/110315391">Archived</a> from the original on 24 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=State+Library+of+New+South+Wales&rft.atitle=William+Noah+%27A+Voyage+to+Sydney+in+New+South+Wales+in+1798+%26+1799%27+and+%27A+Few+Remarks+of+the+County+of+Cumberland+in+New+South+Wales%2C+1798-1799&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchival.sl.nsw.gov.au%2FDetails%2Farchive%2F110315391&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraid,_J.1817" class="citation magazine cs1">Braid, J. (1817). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MsQCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA471">"Account of a Thunder Storm in the Neighbourhood of Leadhills, Lanarkshire"</a>. <i>Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine</i>. Vol. 1, no. 5. pp. <span class="nowrap">471–</span>72.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Blackwood%27s+Edinburgh+Magazine&rft.atitle=Account+of+a+Thunder+Storm+in+the+Neighbourhood+of+Leadhills%2C+Lanarkshire&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E471-%3C%2Fspan%3E72&rft.date=1817&rft.au=Braid%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMsQCAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA471&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://myforecast.com/bin/weatherfacts.m">"San Francisco, CA Weather Facts"</a>. Myforecast.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140201195550/http://myforecast.com/bin/weatherfacts.m">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=San+Francisco%2C+CA+Weather+Facts&rft.pub=Myforecast.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmyforecast.com%2Fbin%2Fweatherfacts.m&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DCP-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DCP_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-178.html">Darwin Correspondence Project, <i>Letter 178 – Darwin, C. R. to Henslow, J. S., July 23 – August 15 1832</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070903091809/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-178.html">Archived</a> 3 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dana, Richard Henry Jr., (1840) <i><a href="/wiki/Two_Years_Before_the_Mast" title="Two Years Before the Mast">Two Years Before the Mast</a></i>. Chapter 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeslaChildress1993" class="citation book cs1">Tesla, Nikola & Childress, David H. (1993). <i>The Fantastic Inventions of Nikola Tesla</i>. Stelle, Illinois: Adventures Unlimited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-932-81319-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-932-81319-4"><bdi>0-932-81319-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fantastic+Inventions+of+Nikola+Tesla&rft.place=Stelle%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=Adventures+Unlimited&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-932-81319-4&rft.aulast=Tesla&rft.aufirst=Nikola&rft.au=Childress%2C+David+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robinson, Douglas. <i>LZ-129 Hindenburg</i>. New York: Arco, 1964.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurence1945" class="citation web cs1">Laurence, William L. (9 September 1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/Hiroshima/Nagasaki.shtml">"Eyewitness Account of Atomic Bomb Over Nagasaki"</a>. <i>atomicarchive.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110203233201/http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/Hiroshima/Nagasaki.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 3 February 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=atomicarchive.com&rft.atitle=Eyewitness+Account+of+Atomic+Bomb+Over+Nagasaki&rft.date=1945-09-09&rft.aulast=Laurence&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atomicarchive.com%2FDocs%2FHiroshima%2FNagasaki.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110514091618/http://mkatz.web.wesleyan.edu/Images2/cciv243.Alcaeus.html">"Alcaeus"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Wesleyan_University" title="Wesleyan University">Wesleyan University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mkatz.web.wesleyan.edu/Images2/cciv243.Alcaeus.html">the original</a> on 14 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alcaeus&rft.pub=Wesleyan+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmkatz.web.wesleyan.edu%2FImages2%2Fcciv243.Alcaeus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theoi.com/Text/HomericHymns3.html#33">"Homeric Hymns 5–33"</a>. Theoi Greek Mythology. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061120144705/http://www.theoi.com/Text/HomericHymns3.html#33">Archived</a> from the original on 20 November 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Homeric+Hymns+5%26ndash%3B33&rft.pub=Theoi+Greek+Mythology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theoi.com%2FText%2FHomericHymns3.html%2333&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090108134524/http://boar.org.uk/ariwxo3FNQsupXXIX.htm">"Gesta Herwardi, Chapter XXIX"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://boar.org.uk/ariwxo3FNQsupXXIX.htm">the original</a> on 8 January 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gesta+Herwardi%2C+Chapter+XXIX&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fboar.org.uk%2Fariwxo3FNQsupXXIX.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayden" class="citation web cs1">Hayden, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/43075/the-ballad-of-nat-turner">"The Ballad of Nat Turner"</a>. <i>Poetry Foundation</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210202124857/https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/43075/the-ballad-of-nat-turner">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Poetry+Foundation&rft.atitle=The+Ballad+of+Nat+Turner&rft.aulast=Hayden&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.poetryfoundation.org%2Fpoems%2F43075%2Fthe-ballad-of-nat-turner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayden2017" class="citation web cs1">Hayden, Robert (25 April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/43076/middle-passage">"Middle Passage"</a>. <i>Poetry Foundation</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210130164412/https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/43076/middle-passage">Archived</a> from the original on 30 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Poetry+Foundation&rft.atitle=Middle+Passage&rft.date=2017-04-25&rft.aulast=Hayden&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.poetryfoundation.org%2Fpoems%2F43076%2Fmiddle-passage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/html/cd/1981/198107/19810723/19810723006_6.html">"Japanese wins solo yacht race across Pacific"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170707181920/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/html/cd/1981/198107/19810723/19810723006_6.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 July 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Japanese+wins+solo+yacht+race+across+Pacific.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chinadaily.com.cn%2Fepaper%2Fhtml%2Fcd%2F1981%2F198107%2F19810723%2F19810723006_6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt.+Elmo%27s+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tv.com/shows/rawhide/incident-of-the-blue-fire-135393/">"Incident of the Blue Fire"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200113162135/http://www.tv.com/shows/rawhide/incident-of-the-blue-fire-135393/">Archived</a> 13 January 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Rawhide</i> (S02E11), originally aired 11 December 1959. TV.com. Retrieved 23 April 2017.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=JDTLFGWiBaw">"Devil on Her Shoulder"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210626140503/https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=JDTLFGWiBaw">Archived</a> 26 June 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Bonanza</i> (S07E06), originally aired 17 October 1965. Entire episode is available for viewing on YouTube. Retrieved 23 April 2017.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0529544/">"Devil on Her Shoulder"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170424175137/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0529544/">Archived</a> 24 April 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Internet Movie Database (<a href="/wiki/IMDb" title="IMDb">IMDb</a>). 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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radio_atmospheric" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio atmospheric">Radio atmospherics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistler_(radio)" title="Whistler (radio)">Whistlers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawn_chorus_(electromagnetic)" title="Dawn chorus (electromagnetic)">Chorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiss_(electromagnetic)" title="Hiss (electromagnetic)">Hiss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Optical emissions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper-atmospheric_lightning" title="Upper-atmospheric lightning">Upper-atmospheric lightning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sprite_(lightning)" title="Sprite (lightning)">Sprites</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">St. Elmo's fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ball_lightning" title="Ball lightning">Ball lightning</a></li></ul> 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