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href="#Projected_worldwide_increases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Projected worldwide increases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Projected_worldwide_increases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_impacts_of_heat_stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_impacts_of_heat_stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Health impacts of heat stress </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_impacts_of_heat_stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_impact_and_adaptation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_impact_and_adaptation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Economic impact and adaptation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_impact_and_adaptation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Difficulties_in_feeding_livestock" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Difficulties_in_feeding_livestock"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Difficulties in feeding livestock </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Difficulties_in_feeding_livestock-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Difficulties in feeding livestock subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Difficulties_in_feeding_livestock-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Climatic_impacts_on_feed_and_forage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climatic_impacts_on_feed_and_forage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Climatic impacts on feed and forage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climatic_impacts_on_feed_and_forage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atmospheric_CO2_and_livestock_forage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atmospheric_CO2_and_livestock_forage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Atmospheric CO2 and livestock forage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atmospheric_CO2_and_livestock_forage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_impacts_of_lowered_livestock_nutrition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_impacts_of_lowered_livestock_nutrition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Global impacts of lowered livestock nutrition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_impacts_of_lowered_livestock_nutrition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathogens_and_parasites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathogens_and_parasites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Pathogens and parasites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pathogens_and_parasites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_type_of_livestock" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_type_of_livestock"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 By type of livestock </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-By_type_of_livestock-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle By type of livestock subsection </button> <ul id="toc-By_type_of_livestock-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aquaculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aquaculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Aquaculture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aquaculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Camels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Camels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Camels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Camels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cattle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cattle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Cattle </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cattle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Equines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Goats_and_sheep" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Goats_and_sheep"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Goats and sheep </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Goats_and_sheep-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pigs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pigs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Pigs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pigs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poultry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poultry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Poultry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poultry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reindeer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reindeer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Reindeer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reindeer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_livestock_activities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_livestock_activities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Greenhouse gas emissions from livestock activities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_livestock_activities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Effects of climate change on livestock rearing</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For contributions of livestock activities to climate change, see <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Godber_2014_livestock_impacts_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Godber_2014_livestock_impacts_map.jpg/310px-Godber_2014_livestock_impacts_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Godber_2014_livestock_impacts_map.jpg/465px-Godber_2014_livestock_impacts_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Godber_2014_livestock_impacts_map.jpg/620px-Godber_2014_livestock_impacts_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="365" /></a><figcaption>Map of countries considered most and least vulnerable to adverse impacts of climate change on their grazing livestock.<a href="#cite_note-Godber2014-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lacetera_2018_climate_livestock_diagram.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Lacetera_2018_climate_livestock_diagram.jpeg/310px-Lacetera_2018_climate_livestock_diagram.jpeg" decoding="async" width="310" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Lacetera_2018_climate_livestock_diagram.jpeg/465px-Lacetera_2018_climate_livestock_diagram.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Lacetera_2018_climate_livestock_diagram.jpeg/620px-Lacetera_2018_climate_livestock_diagram.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1173" /></a><figcaption>Multi-faceted <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">impacts of climate change</a> on livestock.<a href="#cite_note-Lacetera2018-2">[2]</a></figcaption></figure> There are numerous interlinked effects of climate change on livestock rearing. This activity is both heavily affected by and a substantial driver of anthropogenic <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> due to its <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture#Livestock" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">greenhouse gas emissions</a>. As of 2011, some 400 million people relied on livestock in some way to secure their livelihood.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a>: 746  The commercial value of this sector is estimated as close to $1 <a href="/wiki/Trillion" title="Trillion">trillion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> As an outright end to human consumption of meat and/or animal products is not currently considered a realistic goal,<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> any comprehensive <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a> to <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects of climate change</a> must also consider livestock. The observed adverse impacts on <a href="/wiki/Livestock_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Livestock production">livestock production</a> include increased <a href="/wiki/Heat_stress" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat stress">heat stress</a> in all but the coldest nations.<a href="#cite_note-Zhang2023-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Liu2024-7">[7]</a> This causes both mass animal mortality during <a href="/wiki/Heatwave" class="mw-redirect" title="Heatwave">heatwaves</a>, and the sublethal impacts, such as lower quantity of quality of products like <a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">milk</a>, greater vulnerability to conditions like <a href="/wiki/Lameness" class="mw-redirect" title="Lameness">lameness</a> or even impaired <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">reproduction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a> Another impact concerns reduced quantity or quality of <a href="/wiki/Animal_feed" title="Animal feed">animal feed</a>, whether due to drought or as a secondary impact of <a href="/wiki/CO2_fertilization_effect" title="CO2 fertilization effect">CO2 fertilization effect</a>. Difficulties with growing feed could reduce worldwide livestock headcounts by 7–10% by midcentury.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a>: 748  Animal <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vector-borne_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector-borne disease">vector-borne diseases</a> are also spreading further than they had before, and the data indicating this is frequently of superior quality to one used to estimate impacts on the spread of human pathogens.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a> While some areas which currently support livestock animals are expected to avoid "extreme heat stress" even with high warming at the end of the century, others may stop being suitable as early as midcentury.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a>: 750  In general, <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a> is considered to be the most vulnerable region to <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a> shocks caused by the impacts of climate change on their livestock, as over 180 million people across those nations are expected to see significant declines in suitability of their <a href="/wiki/Rangelands" class="mw-redirect" title="Rangelands">rangelands</a> around midcentury.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a>: 748  On the other hand, Japan, the United States and nations in Europe are considered the least vulnerable. This is as much a product of pre-existing differences in <a href="/wiki/Human_development_index" class="mw-redirect" title="Human development index">human development index</a> and other measures of <a href="/wiki/Community_resilience" title="Community resilience">national resilience</a> and widely varying importance of <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoralism</a> to the national diet as it is an outcome of direct impacts of climate on each country.<a href="#cite_note-Godber2014-1">[1]</a> Proposed adaptations to climate change in livestock production include improved cooling at animal shelters and changes to animal feed, though they are often costly or have only limited effects.<a href="#cite_note-Schauberger2019-8">[8]</a> At the same time, livestock produces the majority of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture</a> and demands around 30% of agricultural <a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a> needs, while only supplying 18% of the global <a href="/wiki/Calorie" title="Calorie">calorie</a> intake. Animal-derived food plays a larger role in meeting human <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> needs, yet is still a minority of supply at 39%, with crops providing the rest.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a>: 746–747  Consequently, plans for limiting global warming to lower levels like 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) or 2 °C (3.6 °F) assume animal-derived food will play a lower role in the global diets relative to now.<a href="#cite_note-Roth2023-9">[9]</a> As such, <a href="/wiki/Net_zero" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero">net zero</a> transition plans now involve limits on total livestock headcounts (including reductions of already disproportionately large stocks in countries like Ireland),<a href="#cite_note-TG2021Ireland-10">[10]</a> and there have been calls for phasing out <a href="/wiki/Subsidies" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsidies">subsidies</a> currently offered to livestock farmers in many places worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-SEI_JT-11">[11]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Heat_stress_in_livestock">Heat stress in livestock</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Heat stress in livestock">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Projected_worldwide_increases">Projected worldwide increases</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Projected worldwide increases">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lallo_2018_Jamaica_livestock_THI.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Lallo_2018_Jamaica_livestock_THI.png/220px-Lallo_2018_Jamaica_livestock_THI.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Lallo_2018_Jamaica_livestock_THI.png/330px-Lallo_2018_Jamaica_livestock_THI.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Lallo_2018_Jamaica_livestock_THI.png/440px-Lallo_2018_Jamaica_livestock_THI.png 2x" data-file-width="986" data-file-height="731" /></a><figcaption>Increased intensity of global climate change causes even greater increases of thermal heat index in Jamaican farm animals. High thermal heat index is one of the more widely used indicators of heat stress.<a href="#cite_note-Lallo2018-12">[12]</a></figcaption></figure> In general, the preferred ambient temperature range for domestic animals is between 10 and 30 °C (50 and 86 °F).<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a>: 747  Much like how climate change is expected to increase overall thermal comfort for humans living in the colder regions of the world,<a href="#cite_note-Zhang2023-6">[6]</a> livestock in those places would also benefit from warmer winters.<a href="#cite_note-Lacetera2018-2">[2]</a> Across the entire world, however, increasing summertime temperatures as well as more frequent and intense heatwaves will have clearly negative effects, substantially elevating the risk of livestock suffering from <a href="/wiki/Heat_stress" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat stress">heat stress</a>. Under the <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">climate change scenario</a> of highest emissions and greatest warming, <a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">SSP5-8.5</a>, "cattle,sheep, goats, pigs and poultry in the low latitudes will face 72–136 additional days per year of extreme stress from high heat and humidity".<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a>: 717  In <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, considered representative of the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> region, all livestock animals besides layer hens are already exposed to "very severe" heat stress in the present climate, with pigs being exposed to it at least once per day during the 5 summer and early autumn months, while <a href="/wiki/Ruminant" title="Ruminant">ruminants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Broiler" title="Broiler">broilers</a> only avoid daily exposure to very severe heat stress during the winter. it has been projected that even at 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) of global warming, "very severe" heat stress would become a daily event for <a href="/wiki/Ruminant" title="Ruminant">ruminants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Broiler" title="Broiler">broilers</a>. By 2 °C (3.6 °F), it would be felt for a longer duration, and extensive cooling systems would likely become a necessity for livestock production in the Caribbean. At 2.5 °C (4.5 °F), only layer hens would avoid daily exposure to "very severe" heat stress during the winter months.<a href="#cite_note-Lallo2018-12">[12]</a> Studies of heat stress and livestock had historically focused on cattle, as they are often kept outdoors and so are immediately exposed to changes in climate. On the other hand, a little over 50% of all pork production and 70% of all poultry production worldwide originated from animals kept entirely in confined buildings even around 2006, and the raw numbers were expected to increase by 3–3.5 times for pigs, by 2–2.4 times for <a href="/wiki/Layer_hen" class="mw-redirect" title="Layer hen">layer hens</a> and 4.4–5 times for <a href="/wiki/Broiler" title="Broiler">broilers</a>. Historically, livestock in these conditions were considered less vulnerable to warming than the animals in outdoor areas due to inhabiting insulated buildings, where <a href="/wiki/Ventilation_(architecture)" title="Ventilation (architecture)">ventilation</a> systems are used to control the climate and relieve the excess heat. However, in the historically cooler <a href="/wiki/Midlatitude" class="mw-redirect" title="Midlatitude">midlatitude</a> regions, indoor temperatures were already higher than the outdoor temperatures even in summer, and as the increased heating exceeds these systems' specifications, confined animals are left more vulnerable to the heat than those kept outdoors.<a href="#cite_note-Mikovits2019-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_impacts_of_heat_stress">Health impacts of heat stress</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Health impacts of heat stress">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lacetera_2018_heat_livestock_diagram.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Lacetera_2018_heat_livestock_diagram.jpeg/260px-Lacetera_2018_heat_livestock_diagram.jpeg" decoding="async" width="260" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Lacetera_2018_heat_livestock_diagram.jpeg/390px-Lacetera_2018_heat_livestock_diagram.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Lacetera_2018_heat_livestock_diagram.jpeg/520px-Lacetera_2018_heat_livestock_diagram.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2501" data-file-height="797" /></a><figcaption>Impacts of heat stress on livestock animals.<a href="#cite_note-Lacetera2018-2">[2]</a></figcaption></figure> Once the body temperature of livestock animals is 3–4 °C (5.4–7.2 °F) above normal, this soon leads to "<a href="/wiki/Heat_stroke" title="Heat stroke">heat stroke</a>, heat exhaustion, heat <a href="/wiki/Syncope_(medicine)" title="Syncope (medicine)">syncope</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heat_cramps" title="Heat cramps">heat cramps</a>, and ultimately <a href="/wiki/Organ_dysfunction" title="Organ dysfunction">organ dysfunction</a>". Livestock mortality rates are already known to be higher during the hottest months of the year, as well as during <a href="/wiki/Heatwave" class="mw-redirect" title="Heatwave">heatwaves</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/2003_European_heat_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="2003 European heat wave">2003 European heat wave</a>, for instance, thousands of pigs, poultry, and rabbits died in the French regions of <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pays-de-la-Loire" class="mw-redirect" title="Pays-de-la-Loire">Pays-de-la-Loire</a> alone.<a href="#cite_note-Lacetera2018-2">[2]</a> Livestock can also suffer multiple sublethal impacts from heat stress, such as reduced milk production. Once the temperatures exceed 30 °C (86 °F), cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and chickens all begin to consume 3–5% less feed for each subsequent degree of temperature increase.<a href="#cite_note-Bett2017-14">[14]</a> At the same time, they increase <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_rate" title="Respiratory rate">respiratory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sweating" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweating">sweating</a> rates, and the combination of these responses can lead to <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_disorder" title="Metabolic disorder">metabolic disorders</a>. One examples is <a href="/wiki/Ketosis" title="Ketosis">ketosis</a>, or the rapid accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Ketone" title="Ketone">ketone</a> bodies, caused by the animal's body rapidly <a href="/wiki/Catabolism" title="Catabolism">catabolizing</a> its fat stores to sustain itself.<a href="#cite_note-Lacetera2018-2">[2]</a> Heat stress also causes an increase in <a href="/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidant</a> <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> activities, which can result in an imbalance of oxidant and antioxidant molecules, otherwise known as <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_stress" title="Oxidative stress">oxidative stress</a>. Feed supplementation with <a href="/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidants</a> like <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a> can help address oxidative stress and prevent it from leading to other pathological conditions, but only in a limited way.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> is also known to be impaired in heat-stressed animals, rendering them more susceptible to various infections.<a href="#cite_note-Lacetera2018-2">[2]</a> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccination</a> of livestock is less effective when they suffer from heat stress.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> So far, heat stress had been estimated by researchers using inconsistent definitions, and current livestock models have limited correlation with experimental data.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Notably, since livestock like cows spend much of their day laying down, comprehensive heat stress estimation needs to take account of ground temperature as well,<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> but the first model to do so was only published in 2021, and it still tends to systematically overestimate body temperature while underestimating breathing rate.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_impact_and_adaptation">Economic impact and adaptation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Economic impact and adaptation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schauberger_2019_heat_exchanger.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Schauberger_2019_heat_exchanger.png/220px-Schauberger_2019_heat_exchanger.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Schauberger_2019_heat_exchanger.png/330px-Schauberger_2019_heat_exchanger.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Schauberger_2019_heat_exchanger.png/440px-Schauberger_2019_heat_exchanger.png 2x" data-file-width="1441" data-file-height="721" /></a><figcaption>This diagram shows a proposed design of a heat exchanger for indoor rearing facilities, whose installation would help to protect livestock from heat stress.<a href="#cite_note-Schauberger2019-8">[8]</a></figcaption></figure> In the United States alone, economic losses caused by heat stress in livestock were already valued at between $1.69 and $2.36 billion in 2003, with the spread reflecting different assumptions about the effectiveness of contemporary adaptation measures.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Nevertheless, some reviews consider the United States to be the least vulnerable nation to food security shocks caused by the negative impacts of climate change on livestock, as while it rates in the middle of the pack in terms of exposure of its livestock and the societal sensitivity to that exposure, it has the highest adaptive capacity in the world due to its GDP and development status. Japan and the nations in Europe have low vulnerability for similar reasons. Meanwhile the exposure of Mongolian livestock to climate change is not very different from that of American livestock, but the enormous importance of <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoralism</a> in Mongolian society and its limited capacity to adapt still renders it one of the most vulnerable countries in the world. Nations in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a> generally suffer from high exposure, low adaptive capacity and high sensitivity due to the importance of livestock in their societies, with these factors particularly acute in Eastern African countries,<a href="#cite_note-Godber2014-1">[1]</a> where between 4 and 19% of livestock-producing areas are expected to suffer "significantly" more "dangerous" heat stress events after 2070, depending on the <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">climate change scenario</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> There is high confidence that under the most intense scenario, <a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">SSP5-8.5</a>, the net amount of land which can support livestock will decline by 2050 as heat stress would already become unbearable for them in some locations.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a>: 748  A range of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">climate change adaptation</a> measures can help to protect livestock, such as increasing access to drinking water, creating better shelters for animals kept outdoors and improving air circulation in the existing indoor facilities.<a href="#cite_note-Ways_to_help_animals_during_heat_stress-22">[22]</a> Installing specialized cooling systems is the most capital-intensive intervention, but it may be able to completely counteract the impact of future warming.<a href="#cite_note-Schauberger2019-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Difficulties_in_feeding_livestock">Difficulties in feeding livestock</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Difficulties in feeding livestock">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climatic_impacts_on_feed_and_forage">Climatic impacts on feed and forage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Climatic impacts on feed and forage">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grazing_pasture,_South_Dakota,_USA_(9199).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Grazing_pasture%2C_South_Dakota%2C_USA_%289199%29.jpg/220px-Grazing_pasture%2C_South_Dakota%2C_USA_%289199%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Grazing_pasture%2C_South_Dakota%2C_USA_%289199%29.jpg/330px-Grazing_pasture%2C_South_Dakota%2C_USA_%289199%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Grazing_pasture%2C_South_Dakota%2C_USA_%289199%29.jpg/440px-Grazing_pasture%2C_South_Dakota%2C_USA_%289199%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6720" data-file-height="4480" /></a><figcaption>Overgrazed vs. stable pasture in <a href="/wiki/Fall_River_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall River County">Fall River County</a>, South Dakota.</figcaption></figure> Livestock is fed either by letting them directly graze <a href="/wiki/Forage" title="Forage">forage</a> from pasture, or by growing crops like corn or <a href="/wiki/Soybean" title="Soybean">soybeans</a> for fodder. Both are highly important; the majority of soybeans are grown for fodder, while a third of croplands worldwide are devoted to forage, which feeds around 1.5 billion cattle, 0.21 billion buffalo, 1.2 billion sheep and 1.02 billion goats.<a href="#cite_note-Liu2022-23">[23]</a> Insufficient supply or quality of either leads to a decrease in growth and reproductive efficiency in domestic animals, especially in conjunction with the other stressors, and at worst, may increase mortality due to starvation.<a href="#cite_note-Lees2019-24">[24]</a> This is a particularly acute issue when livestock herds are already of an unsustainable size. For instance, two-thirds of animal feed requirements in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> come from its rangelands, which cover around 52% of its land area, yet only 10% have forage quality above "medium" or "poor". Consequently, Iranian <a href="/wiki/Rangelands" class="mw-redirect" title="Rangelands">rangelands</a> support over twice their sustainable capacity, and this leads to mass mortality in poor years, such as when around 800,000 goats and sheep in Iran perished due to the severe 1999 − 2001 drought. This was then exceeded by millions of animal deaths during the 2007–2008 drought.<a href="#cite_note-Karimi2018-25">[25]</a> Climate change can impact livestock animals' food supply in multiple ways. First, the direct effects of temperature increase affect both fodder cultivation and productivity of rangelands, albeit in variable ways. On a global scale, there is confidence that with all else equal, every single 1 °C (1.8 °F) of warming would decrease the yields of the four most important crops by between ~3% for rice and <a href="/wiki/Soybean" title="Soybean">soybean</a> (a crop grown primarily for animal feed) and up to 6% and 7.4% for wheat and corn respectively.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> This global decline is dominated by negative impacts in already warm countries, since agriculture in cooler countries is expected to benefit from warming.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> However, this does not include the impact of changes in water availability, which can be far more important than the warming, whether for pasture species like <a href="/wiki/Alfalfa" title="Alfalfa">alfalfa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tall_fescue" class="mw-redirect" title="Tall fescue">tall fescue</a>,<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> or for crops. Some studies suggest that high water availability through <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> "decouples" crops from climate as they become much less susceptible to <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">extreme weather</a> events,<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> but the feasibility of this approach is obviously limited by the region's overall <a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">water security</a>, especially once the warming reaches levels of 2 or 3 °C (3.6 or 5.4 °F).<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter4-30">[30]</a>: 664  <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alfalfaoutput.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Alfalfaoutput.png/220px-Alfalfaoutput.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Alfalfaoutput.png/330px-Alfalfaoutput.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Alfalfaoutput.png/440px-Alfalfaoutput.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Worldwide production of alfalfa, an important fodder plant.</figcaption></figure> While climate change increases <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> on average, regional changes are more variable, and variability alone adversely impacts "animal fertility, mortality, and herd recovery, reducing livestock keepers' resilience".<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a>: 717  In <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>, uncertainty about rainfall under different <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">climate change scenarios</a> could mean the difference between 20% and 100% of farmers negatively affected by 2070, while the average livestock revenue could potentially increase by 6%, yet may also plunge by as much as 43%.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Many places are likely to see increased drought, which would affect both the crops and the pastural land.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> For instance, in the Mediterranean region, forage yields have already declined by 52.8% during drought years.<a href="#cite_note-Liu2022-23">[23]</a> Drought can also affect <a href="/wiki/Freshwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater">freshwater</a> sources used by people and livestock alike: 2019 drought in Southwestern China caused around 824,000 people and 566,000 livestock to experience severe <a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">water scarcity</a>, as over 100 rivers and 180 reservoirs dried out. That event was considered between 1.4 and 6 times more likely to happen as the result of climate change. In the mountain regions, <a href="/wiki/Mountain_glacier" class="mw-redirect" title="Mountain glacier">glacier</a> melt can also affect pasture, as it first floods the land, and then retreats entirely.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a>: 724  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atmospheric_CO2_and_livestock_forage">Atmospheric CO2 and livestock forage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Atmospheric CO2 and livestock forage">edit</a>]</div> The abundance of fodder and forage strongly benefits from the <a href="/wiki/CO2_fertilization_effect" title="CO2 fertilization effect">CO2 fertilization effect</a>, which boosts growth and makes their water usage more efficient, potentially counteracting the effects of drought in certain places (i.e. many of the United States' rangelands).<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> At the same time, it also causes plants' nutritional value to decline,<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> with some forage grasses potentially becoming useless to livestock under certain conditions (i.e. during autumn, when their nutrition is already poor).<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> On mixed grass <a href="/wiki/Prairie" title="Prairie">prairies</a>, experimental local warming of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) during the day and of 3 °C (5.4 °F) at night has a relatively minor effect in comparison to increasing CO2 levels to 600 <a href="/wiki/Parts_per_million" class="mw-redirect" title="Parts per million">ppm</a> (nearly 50% larger than the ~420 ppm levels of 2023) during the same experiment. 96% of overall forage growth on such prairies stems from just six plant species, and they become 38% more productive largely in response to the increased CO2 levels, yet their nutritious value to livestock also declines by 13% due to the same, as they grow less edible tissue and become harder to digest.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Warming and water deficit also affect nutritional value, sometimes synergistically. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Guinea_grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Guinea grass">Guinea grass</a>, an important forage plant in the tropics, already gains more inedible <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a> in response to water deficit (+43%), as well as in response to warming (+25%). Its lignin content increases the least in response to both stressors (+17%),<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> yet elevated CO2 further reduces its nutritional value, even as it makes the plant less susceptible to water stress.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Similar response was observed in <a href="/wiki/Stylosanthes" title="Stylosanthes">Stylosanthes</a> capilata, another important forage species in the tropics, which is likely to become more prevalent with warming, yet which may require irrigation to avoid substantial losses in nutritional value.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_impacts_of_lowered_livestock_nutrition">Global impacts of lowered livestock nutrition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Global impacts of lowered livestock nutrition">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weindl_2015_livestock_by_2045.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Weindl_2015_livestock_by_2045.jpg/220px-Weindl_2015_livestock_by_2045.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Weindl_2015_livestock_by_2045.jpg/330px-Weindl_2015_livestock_by_2045.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Weindl_2015_livestock_by_2045.jpg/440px-Weindl_2015_livestock_by_2045.jpg 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption>Impacts of one possible scenario of climate change on agricultural costs between 2005 and 2045, under a range of assumptions about the role of CO2 fertilization effect and the effectiveness of adaptation strategies.<a href="#cite_note-Weindl2015-42">[42]</a></figcaption></figure> Altogether, around 10% of current global pasture is expected to be threatened by water scarcity caused by climate change, as early as 2050.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter4-30">[30]</a>: 614  By 2100, 30% of the current combined crop and livestock areas would become climatically unsuitable under the warmest scenario <a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">SSP5-8.5</a>, as opposed to 8% under the low-warming SSP1-2.6, although neither figure accounts for the potential shift of production to other areas.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a>: 717  If 2 °C (3.6 °F) of warming occurs by 2050, then 7–10% of the current livestock are predicted to be lost primarily due to insufficient feed supply, amounting to $10–13 billion in lost value.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a>: 748  Similarly, an older study found that if 1.1 °C (2.0 °F) of warming occurs between 2005 and 2045 (rate comparable to hitting 2 °C (3.6 °F) by 2050), then under the current livestock management paradigm, global agricultural costs would increase by 3% (an estimated $145 billion), with the impact concentrated in pure pasturalist systems. At the same time, mixed crop-livestock systems already produced over 90% of the global milk supply as of 2013, as well as 80% of ruminant meat,<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> yet they would bear the minority of the costs, and switching all pure livestock systems to mixed crop-livestock would decrease global agricultural costs from 3% to 0.3%, while switching half of those systems would reduce costs to 0.8%. The full shift would also reduce future projected <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> in the tropics by up to 76 million <a href="/wiki/Hectare" title="Hectare">ha</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Weindl2015-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathogens_and_parasites">Pathogens and parasites</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Pathogens and parasites">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Climate change and infectious diseases</a></div> While climate-induced heat stress can directly reduce domestic animals' immunity against all diseases,<a href="#cite_note-Lacetera2018-2">[2]</a> climatic factors also impact the distribution of many livestock pathogens themselves. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Rift_Valley_fever" title="Rift Valley fever">Rift Valley fever</a> outbreaks in East Africa are known to be more intense during the times of drought or when there is an <a href="/wiki/El_Nino" class="mw-redirect" title="El Nino">El Nino</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bett2017-14">[14]</a> Another example is that of <a href="/wiki/Helminth" class="mw-redirect" title="Helminth">helminths</a> in Europe which have now spread further towards the poles, with higher survival rate and higher reproductive capacity (<a href="/wiki/Fecundity" title="Fecundity">fecundity</a>).<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter2-44">[44]</a>: 231  Detailed long-term records of both livestock diseases and various agricultural interventions in Europe mean that demonstrating the role of climate change in the increased helminth burden in livestock is actually easier than attributing the impact of climate change on diseases which affect humans.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter2-44">[44]</a>: 231  <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FCO-brebis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/FCO-brebis.jpg/220px-FCO-brebis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/FCO-brebis.jpg/330px-FCO-brebis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/FCO-brebis.jpg/440px-FCO-brebis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1928" data-file-height="1588" /></a><figcaption>A sheep infected with bluetongue virus.</figcaption></figure> Temperature increases are also likely to benefit <a href="/wiki/Culicoides_imicola" title="Culicoides imicola">Culicoides imicola</a>, a species of <a href="/wiki/Midge" title="Midge">midge</a> which spreads <a href="/wiki/Bluetongue_virus" title="Bluetongue virus">bluetongue virus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bett2017-14">[14]</a> Without a significant improvement in epidemiological control measures, what is currently considered an once-in-20-years outbreak of bluetongue would occur as frequently as once in five or seven years by midcentury under all but the most optimistic warming scenario. <a href="/wiki/Rift_Valley_Fever" class="mw-redirect" title="Rift Valley Fever">Rift Valley Fever</a> outbreaks in East African livestock are also expected to increase.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a>: 747  <a href="/wiki/Ixodes_ricinus" title="Ixodes ricinus">Ixodes ricinus</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Tick" title="Tick">tick</a> which spreads pathogens like <a href="/wiki/Lyme_disease" title="Lyme disease">Lyme disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_encephalitis" title="Tick-borne encephalitis">tick-borne encephalitis</a>, is predicted to become 5–7% more prevalent on livestock farms in Great Britain, depending on the extent of future climate change.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> The impacts of climate change on <a href="/wiki/Leptospirosis" title="Leptospirosis">leptospirosis</a> are more complicated: its outbreaks are likely to worsen wherever flood risk increases,<a href="#cite_note-Bett2017-14">[14]</a> yet the increasing temperatures are projected to reduce its overall incidence in the Southeast Asia, particularly under the high-warming scenarios.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tsetse_flies" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsetse flies">Tsetse flies</a>, the hosts of <a href="/wiki/Trypanosoma" title="Trypanosoma">trypanosoma</a> parasites, already appear to be losing habitat and thus affect a smaller area than before.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a>: 747  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_type_of_livestock">By type of livestock</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: By type of livestock">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aquaculture">Aquaculture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Aquaculture">edit</a>]</div> Under high warming, there will be a global decline in area suitable for <a href="/wiki/Shellfish" title="Shellfish">shellfish</a> aquaculture after 2060. It will be preceded by regional declines in Asia.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a>: 725  <a href="/wiki/Farmed_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Farmed fish">Farmed fish</a> can be affected by heat stress as much as any other animal, and there has already been research on its effects and ways to mitigate it in species like <a href="/wiki/Tambaqui" title="Tambaqui">tambaqui</a> or blunt snout <a href="/wiki/Bream" title="Bream">bream</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Camels">Camels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Camels">edit</a>]</div> Along with camels, goats are more resilient to drought than cattle. In Southeastern <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, some of the cattle pastoralists are already switching to goats and camels.<a href="#cite_note-Habte2022-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cattle">Cattle</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Cattle">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lacetera_2018_cattle_stress_diagram.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Lacetera_2018_cattle_stress_diagram.jpeg/220px-Lacetera_2018_cattle_stress_diagram.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Lacetera_2018_cattle_stress_diagram.jpeg/330px-Lacetera_2018_cattle_stress_diagram.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Lacetera_2018_cattle_stress_diagram.jpeg/440px-Lacetera_2018_cattle_stress_diagram.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1950" data-file-height="1412" /></a><figcaption>Various pathologies which can be caused by heat stress, many specific to cattle.<a href="#cite_note-Lacetera2018-2">[2]</a></figcaption></figure> As of 2009, there were 1.2 billion cattle in the world, with around 82% in the <a href="/wiki/Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Gaughan2009-50">[50]</a> the totals only increased since then, with the 2021 figure at 1.53 billion.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> As of 2020, it was found that in the current Eastern <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> climate, cattle experience mild heat stress inside unadapted stalls for nearly half a year (159 days), while moderate heat stress is felt indoors and outdoors during May, June, July, August, September, and October. Additionally, June and August are the months where cattle are exposed to severe heat stress outside, which is mitigated to moderate heat stress indoors.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Even mild heat stress can reduce the yield of <a href="/wiki/Cow_milk" class="mw-redirect" title="Cow milk">cow milk</a>: research in Sweden found that average daily temperatures of 20–25 °C (68–77 °F) reduce daily milk yield per cow by 200 g (0.44 lb), with the loss reaching 540 g (1.19 lb) for 25–30 °C (77–86 °F).<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Research in a humid tropical climate describes a more linear relationship, with every unit of heat stress reducing yield by 2.13%.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Intensive_farming" title="Intensive farming">intensive farming</a> systems, daily milk yield per cow declines by 1.8 kg (4.0 lb) during severe heat stress. In <a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">organic farming</a> systems, the effect of heat stress on milk yields is limited, but milk quality suffers substantially, with lower fat and <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> content.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> In China, daily milk production per cow is already lower than the average by between 0.7 and 4 kg (1.5 and 8.8 lb) in July (the hottest month of the year), and by 2070, it may decline by up to 50% (or 7.2 kg (16 lb)) due to climate change.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Some researchers suggest that the already recorded stagnation of dairy production in both China and West Africa can attributed to persistent increases in heat stress.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a>: 747  Heatwaves can also reduce milk yield, with particularly acute impacts if the heatwave lasts for four or more days, as at that point the cow's thermoregulation capacity is usually exhausted, and its core body temperature starts to increase.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> At worst, heatwaves can lead to mass mortality: in July 1995, over 4,000 cattle in the mid-central <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> heatwave, and in 1999, over 5,000 cattle died during a heatwave in northeastern <a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lees2019-24">[24]</a> Studies suggest that <a href="/wiki/Brahman_cattle" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahman cattle">Brahman cattle</a> and its cross-breeds are more resistant to heat stress than the regular bos taurus breeds,<a href="#cite_note-Gaughan2009-50">[50]</a> but it is considered unlikely that even more heat-resistant cattle can be bred at a sufficient rate to keep up with the expected warming.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Further, both male and female cattle can have their reproduction impaired by heat stress. In males, severe heat can affect both <a href="/wiki/Spermatogenesis" title="Spermatogenesis">spermatogenesis</a> and the stored <a href="/wiki/Spermatozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatozoa">spermatozoa</a>. It may take up to eight weeks for sperm to become viable again. In females, heat stress negatively affects <a href="/wiki/Conception_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conception (biology)">conception</a> rates as it impairs <a href="/wiki/Corpus_luteum" title="Corpus luteum">corpus luteum</a> and thus <a href="/wiki/Ovarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovarian">ovarian</a> function and <a href="/wiki/Oocyte" title="Oocyte">oocyte</a> quality. Even after conception, a pregnancy is less likely to be carried to term due to reduced <a href="/wiki/Endometrial" class="mw-redirect" title="Endometrial">endometrial</a> function and <a href="/wiki/Uterine" class="mw-redirect" title="Uterine">uterine</a> blood flow, leading to increased embryonic mortality and early fetal loss.<a href="#cite_note-Lees2019-24">[24]</a> Calves born to heat-stressed cows typically have a below-average weight, and their weight and height remains below average even by the time they reach their first year, due to permanent changes in their <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Heat-stressed cattle have also displayed reduced <a href="/wiki/Albumin" title="Albumin">albumin</a> secretion and liver <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> activity. This is attributed to accelerated breakdown of <a href="/wiki/Adipose_tissue" title="Adipose tissue">adipose tissue</a> by the liver, causing <a href="/wiki/Lipidosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipidosis">lipidosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lacetera2018-2">[2]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mamite_%C3%A5_colibacile_laecea.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Mamite_%C3%A5_colibacile_laecea.jpg/150px-Mamite_%C3%A5_colibacile_laecea.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Mamite_%C3%A5_colibacile_laecea.jpg/225px-Mamite_%C3%A5_colibacile_laecea.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Mamite_%C3%A5_colibacile_laecea.jpg/300px-Mamite_%C3%A5_colibacile_laecea.jpg 2x" data-file-width="765" data-file-height="646" /></a><figcaption>Serous <a href="/wiki/Exudate" title="Exudate">exudate</a> from udder in <a href="/wiki/E._coli" class="mw-redirect" title="E. coli">E. coli</a> mastitis in cow (left), in comparison to normal milk (right).</figcaption></figure> Cattle are suspectible to some specific heat stress risks, such as <a href="/wiki/Rumen" title="Rumen">ruminal</a> <a href="/wiki/Acidosis" title="Acidosis">acidosis</a>. Cattle eat less when they experience acute heat stress during hottest parts of the day, only to compensate when it is cooler, and this disbalance soon causes acidosis, which can lead to <a href="/wiki/Laminitis" title="Laminitis">laminitis</a>. Additionally, one of the ways cattle can attempt to deal with higher temperatures is by <a href="/wiki/Thermoregulation#Endothermy" title="Thermoregulation">panting more often</a>, which rapidly decreases <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> concentrations and increases <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a>. To avoid respiratory <a href="/wiki/Alkalosis" title="Alkalosis">alkalosis</a>, cattle are forced to shed <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate" title="Bicarbonate">bicarbonate</a> through <a href="/wiki/Urination" title="Urination">urination</a>, and this comes at the expense of <a href="/wiki/Rumen" title="Rumen">rumen</a> buffering. These two pathologies can both develop into <a href="/wiki/Lameness" class="mw-redirect" title="Lameness">lameness</a>, defined as "any foot abnormality that causes an animal to change the way that it walks". This effect can occur "weeks to months" after severe heat stress exposure, alongside sore <a href="/wiki/Ulcer" title="Ulcer">ulcers</a> and <a href="/wiki/White_line_disease" title="White line disease">white line disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lacetera2018-2">[2]</a> Another specific risk is <a href="/wiki/Mastitis_in_dairy_cattle" title="Mastitis in dairy cattle">mastitis</a>, normally caused by either an injury to cow's <a href="/wiki/Udder" title="Udder">udder</a>, or "immune response to bacterial invasion of the teat canal."<a href="#cite_note-Lacetera2018-2">[2]</a> Bovine <a href="/wiki/Neutrophil" title="Neutrophil">neutrophil</a> function is impaired at higher temperatures, leaving <a href="/wiki/Mammary_gland" title="Mammary gland">mammary glands</a> more vulnerable to infection,<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> and mastitis is already known to be more prevalent during the summer months, so there is an expectation this would worsen with continued climate change.<a href="#cite_note-Lacetera2018-2">[2]</a> One of the vectors of bacteria which cause mastitis are <a href="/wiki/Calliphora" title="Calliphora">Calliphora</a> blowflies, whose numbers are predicted to increase with continued warming, especially in the temperate countries like the United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rhipicephalus_microplus" title="Rhipicephalus microplus">Rhipicephalus microplus</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Tick" title="Tick">tick</a> which primarily parasitises cattle, could become established in the currently <a href="/wiki/Temperate" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate">temperate</a> countries once their autumns and winters become warmer by about 2–2.75 °C (3.60–4.95 °F).<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> On the other hand, the brown stomach worm, <a href="/wiki/Ostertagia_ostertagi" title="Ostertagia ostertagi">Ostertagia ostertagi</a>, is predicted to become much less prevalent in cattle as the warming progresses.<a href="#cite_note-Rose2015-63">[63]</a> By 2017, it was already reported that farmers in Nepal kept fewer cattle due to the losses imposed by a longer hot season.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a>: 747  Cow-calf ranches in Southeast <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a> are expected to suffer greater losses in the future as the <a href="/wiki/Hydrological_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrological cycle">hydrological cycle</a> becomes more variable and affects forage growth. Even though the annual mean precipitation is not expected to change much, there will be more unusually dry years as well as unusually wet years, and the negatives will outweigh the positives. Keeping smaller herds to be more flexible when dry years hit was suggested as an adaptation strategy.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Since more variable and therefore less predictable precipitation is one of the well-established <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">effects of climate change on the water cycle</a>,<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a>: 85  similar patterns were later established across the rest of the United States,<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> and then globally.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liu_2024_climate_beef.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Liu_2024_climate_beef.png/220px-Liu_2024_climate_beef.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Liu_2024_climate_beef.png/330px-Liu_2024_climate_beef.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Liu_2024_climate_beef.png/440px-Liu_2024_climate_beef.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1217" /></a><figcaption>All but two or three of the top 10 beef-producing countries are likely to see lower production with greater warming.<a href="#cite_note-Liu2024-7">[7]</a></figcaption></figure> As of 2022, it has been suggested that every additional millimeter of annual precipitation increases beef production by 2.1% in the tropical countries and reduces it by 1.9% in temperate ones, yet the effects of warming are much larger. Under <a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">SSP3-7.0</a>, a scenario of significant warming and very low adaptation, every additional 1 °C (1.8 °F) would decrease global beef production by 9.7%, mainly because of its impact on tropical and poor countries. In the countries which can afford adaptation measures, production would fall by around 4%, but by 27% in those which cannot.<a href="#cite_note-Emediegwu2022-68">[68]</a> In 2024, another study suggested that the impacts would be milder - a 1% decrease per every additional 1 °C (1.8 °F) in low-income countries and 0.2% in high-income ones, and a 3.2% global decline in beef production by 2100 under SSP3-7.0.<a href="#cite_note-Liu2024-7">[7]</a> The same paper suggests that out of the top 10 beef-producing countries (Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, France, India, Mexico, Russia, Turkey and the U.S.), only China, Russia and the U.S. would see overall production gains with increased warming, with the rest experiencing declines.<a href="#cite_note-Liu2024-7">[7]</a> Other research suggests that east and south of Argentina may become more suitable to cattle ranching due to climate-driven shifts in rainfall, but a shift to <a href="/wiki/Zebu" title="Zebu">Zebu</a> breeds would likely be needed to minimize the impact of warming.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Equines">Equines</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Equines">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kang_2023_heat_transfer_horses.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Kang_2023_heat_transfer_horses.png/220px-Kang_2023_heat_transfer_horses.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Kang_2023_heat_transfer_horses.png/330px-Kang_2023_heat_transfer_horses.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Kang_2023_heat_transfer_horses.png/440px-Kang_2023_heat_transfer_horses.png 2x" data-file-width="1499" data-file-height="1004" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of heat regulation in horses.<a href="#cite_note-Kang2023-70">[70]</a></figcaption></figure> As of 2019, there are around 17 million horses in the world. Healthy body temperature for adult horses is in the range between 37.5 and 38.5 °C (99.5 and 101.3 °F), which they can maintain while ambient temperatures are between 5 and 25 °C (41 and 77 °F). However, strenuous exercise increases core body temperature by 1 °C (1.8 °F)/minute, as 80% of the energy used by equine muscles is released as heat. Along with <a href="/wiki/Bovine" class="mw-redirect" title="Bovine">bovines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a>, equines are the only animal group which use <a href="/wiki/Sweating" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweating">sweating</a> as their primary method of thermoregulation: in fact, it can account for up to 70% of their heat loss, and horses sweat three times more than humans while undergoing comparably strenuous physical activity. Unlike humans, this sweat is created not by <a href="/wiki/Eccrine_gland" class="mw-redirect" title="Eccrine gland">eccrine glands</a> but by <a href="/wiki/Apocrine" title="Apocrine">apocrine glands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-McCutcheon_Geor-71">[71]</a> In hot conditions, horses during three hours of moderate-intensity exercise can lose 30 to 35 L of water and 100g of sodium, 198 g of choloride and 45 g of potassium.<a href="#cite_note-McCutcheon_Geor-71">[71]</a> In another difference from humans, their sweat is <a href="/wiki/Hypertonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypertonic">hypertonic</a>, and contains a protein called <a href="/wiki/BPIFA4P" title="BPIFA4P">latherin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-McDonald_Fleming_Beeley_Bovell-72">[72]</a> which enables it to spread across their body easier, and to <a href="/wiki/Foam" title="Foam">foam</a>, rather than to drip off. These adaptations are partly to compensate for their lower body surface-to-mass ratio, which makes it more difficult for horses to passively radiate heat. Yet, prolonged exposure to very hot and/or humid conditions will lead to consequences such as <a href="/wiki/Anhidrosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Anhidrosis">anhidrosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heat_stroke" title="Heat stroke">heat stroke</a>, or brain damage, potentially culminating in death if not addressed with measures like cold water applications. Additionally, around 10% of incidents associated with horse transport have been attributed to heat stress. These issues are expected to worsen in the future.<a href="#cite_note-Kang2023-70">[70]</a> <a href="/wiki/African_horse_sickness" title="African horse sickness">African horse sickness</a> (AHS) is a viral illness with a mortality close to 90% in horses, and 50% in <a href="/wiki/Mule" title="Mule">mules</a>. A midge, <a href="/wiki/Culicoides_imicola" title="Culicoides imicola">Culicoides imicola</a>, is the primary vector of AHS, and its spread is expected to benefit from climate change.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The spillover of <a href="/wiki/Hendra_virus" title="Hendra virus">Hendra virus</a> from its <a href="/wiki/Flying_fox" class="mw-redirect" title="Flying fox">flying fox</a> hosts to horses is also likely to increase, as future warming would expand the hosts' geographic range. It has been estimated that under the "moderate" and high <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">climate change scenarios</a>, <a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">RCP4.5</a> and RCP8.5, the number of threatened horses would increase by 110,000 and 165,000, respectively, or by 175 and 260%.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Goats_and_sheep">Goats and sheep</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Goats and sheep">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sheep_and_cattle_at_a_feedlot_in_Colorado_(9381).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Sheep_and_cattle_at_a_feedlot_in_Colorado_%289381%29.jpg/220px-Sheep_and_cattle_at_a_feedlot_in_Colorado_%289381%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Sheep_and_cattle_at_a_feedlot_in_Colorado_%289381%29.jpg/330px-Sheep_and_cattle_at_a_feedlot_in_Colorado_%289381%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Sheep_and_cattle_at_a_feedlot_in_Colorado_%289381%29.jpg/440px-Sheep_and_cattle_at_a_feedlot_in_Colorado_%289381%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6048" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption>Sheep are known for tolerating heat better than cattle.</figcaption></figure> Goats and sheep are often collectively described as small ruminants, and tend to be studied together rather than separately.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Both of them are known to be less affected by climate change than cattle,<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter5-3">[3]</a>: 747  with goats in particular considered one the most climate-resilient domestic animals, being second only to camels.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> In Southeastern <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, some of the cattle pastoralists are already switching to goats and camels.<a href="#cite_note-Habte2022-49">[49]</a> Even so, the 2007–2008 drought in Iran had already resulted in the country's sheep population declining by nearly 4 million – from 53.8 million in 2007 to 50 million in 2008, while the goat population declined from 25.5 million in 2007 to 22.3 million in 2008.<a href="#cite_note-Karimi2018-25">[25]</a> Some researchers expect climate change to drive genetic selection towards more heat- and drought-adapted breeds of sheep.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Notably, heat-adapted sheep can be of both <a href="/wiki/Wool" title="Wool">wool</a> and hair breeds, in spite of the popular perception that hair breeds are always more resistant to heat stress.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Parasitic worms <a href="/wiki/Haemonchus_contortus" title="Haemonchus contortus">Haemonchus contortus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teladorsagia_circumcincta" title="Teladorsagia circumcincta">Teladorsagia circumcincta</a> are predicted to spread more easily amongst small ruminants as the winters become milder due to future warming, although in some places this is counteracted by summers getting hotter than their preferred temperature.<a href="#cite_note-Rose2015-63">[63]</a> Earlier, similar effects have been observed with two other parasitic worms, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Parelaphostrongylus_odocoilei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Parelaphostrongylus odocoilei (page does not exist)">Parelaphostrongylus odocoilei</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Protostrongylus_stilesi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Protostrongylus stilesi (page does not exist)">Protostrongylus stilesi</a>, which have already been able to reproduce for a longer period inside sheep due to milder temperatures in the <a href="/wiki/Sub-Arctic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sub-Arctic">sub-Arctic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pigs">Pigs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Pigs">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:07.14_%E8%A6%96%E5%AF%9F%E5%8F%B0%E7%B3%96%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8%E9%A4%8A%E6%AE%96%E4%BA%8B%E6%A5%AD%E9%83%A8%E6%9D%B1%E6%B5%B7%E8%B1%90%E8%93%84%E6%AE%96%E5%A0%B4_(50111310197).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/07.14_%E8%A6%96%E5%AF%9F%E5%8F%B0%E7%B3%96%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8%E9%A4%8A%E6%AE%96%E4%BA%8B%E6%A5%AD%E9%83%A8%E6%9D%B1%E6%B5%B7%E8%B1%90%E8%93%84%E6%AE%96%E5%A0%B4_%2850111310197%29.jpg/220px-07.14_%E8%A6%96%E5%AF%9F%E5%8F%B0%E7%B3%96%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8%E9%A4%8A%E6%AE%96%E4%BA%8B%E6%A5%AD%E9%83%A8%E6%9D%B1%E6%B5%B7%E8%B1%90%E8%93%84%E6%AE%96%E5%A0%B4_%2850111310197%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/07.14_%E8%A6%96%E5%AF%9F%E5%8F%B0%E7%B3%96%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8%E9%A4%8A%E6%AE%96%E4%BA%8B%E6%A5%AD%E9%83%A8%E6%9D%B1%E6%B5%B7%E8%B1%90%E8%93%84%E6%AE%96%E5%A0%B4_%2850111310197%29.jpg/330px-07.14_%E8%A6%96%E5%AF%9F%E5%8F%B0%E7%B3%96%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8%E9%A4%8A%E6%AE%96%E4%BA%8B%E6%A5%AD%E9%83%A8%E6%9D%B1%E6%B5%B7%E8%B1%90%E8%93%84%E6%AE%96%E5%A0%B4_%2850111310197%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/07.14_%E8%A6%96%E5%AF%9F%E5%8F%B0%E7%B3%96%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8%E9%A4%8A%E6%AE%96%E4%BA%8B%E6%A5%AD%E9%83%A8%E6%9D%B1%E6%B5%B7%E8%B1%90%E8%93%84%E6%AE%96%E5%A0%B4_%2850111310197%29.jpg/440px-07.14_%E8%A6%96%E5%AF%9F%E5%8F%B0%E7%B3%96%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8%E9%A4%8A%E6%AE%96%E4%BA%8B%E6%A5%AD%E9%83%A8%E6%9D%B1%E6%B5%B7%E8%B1%90%E8%93%84%E6%AE%96%E5%A0%B4_%2850111310197%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1365" /></a><figcaption>Pig farm in <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, in 2020.</figcaption></figure> For pigs, heat stress varies depending on their age and size. Young and growing pigs with the average body mass of 30 kg (66 lb) can tolerate temperatures up to 24 °C (75 °F) before starting to experience any heat stress, but after they have grown and are fattened to about 120 kg (260 lb), at which point they are considered ready for slaughter, their tolerance drops to just 20 °C (68 °F).<a href="#cite_note-Schauberger2019-8">[8]</a> One paper estimated that in Austria, at an intensive farming facility used to fatten up about 1800 growing pigs at a time, the already observed warming between 1981 and 2017 would have increased relative annual heat stress by between 0.9 and 6.4% per year. It is considered representative of other such facilities in Central Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Mikovits2019-13">[13]</a> A follow-up paper considered the impact of several adaptation measures. Installing a <a href="/wiki/Ground-coupled_heat_exchanger" title="Ground-coupled heat exchanger">ground-coupled heat exchanger</a> was the most effective intervention at addressing heat stress, reducing it by 90 to 100%. Two other cooling systems also showed substantial effectiveness: <a href="/wiki/Evaporative_cooler" title="Evaporative cooler">evaporative cooler</a> pads made of wet <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> reduced heat stress by 74 to 92%, although they also risked increasing <a href="/wiki/Wet_bulb_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Wet bulb temperature">wet bulb temperature</a> stress as they necessarily moistened the air. Combining such pads with <a href="/wiki/Regenerative_heat_exchanger" title="Regenerative heat exchanger">regenerative heat exchangers</a> eliminated this issue, but also increased costs and reduced the effectiveness of the system to between 61% and 86%. All three interventions were considered capable of completely buffering the future impact of climate change on heat stress over at least the next three decades, but installing them requires substantial start-up investments, and their impact on commercial viability of the facilities is unclear. Other interventions were considered unable to fully buffer the impact of warming, but they were also cheaper and simpler by comparison. They include doubling the ventilation capacity, and having the pigs rest during the day while feeding them at night when it is cooler: such a 10-hour shift would require that the facility only uses <a href="/wiki/Artificial_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial light">artificial light</a> and switch to predominantly <a href="/wiki/Night_working" class="mw-redirect" title="Night working">night shift</a> work. Similarly, stocking fewer pigs per facility is the absolute simplest intervention, yet it has the lowest effectiveness, and necessarily reduces profitability.<a href="#cite_note-Schauberger2019-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poultry">Poultry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Poultry">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DSC00187_(4018480068).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/DSC00187_%284018480068%29.jpg/220px-DSC00187_%284018480068%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/DSC00187_%284018480068%29.jpg/330px-DSC00187_%284018480068%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/DSC00187_%284018480068%29.jpg/440px-DSC00187_%284018480068%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2176" /></a><figcaption>Photo of an egg farm in <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a>, taken around 2009.</figcaption></figure> It is believed that the thermal comfort zone for poultry is in the 18–25 °C (64–77 °F) range. Some papers describe 26–35 °C (79–95 °F) as the "critical zone" for <a href="/wiki/Heat_stress" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat stress">heat stress</a>, but others report that due to <a href="/wiki/Acclimatization" title="Acclimatization">acclimatization</a>, birds in the tropical countries do not begin to experience heat stress until 32 °C (90 °F). There is wider agreement that temperatures greater than 35 °C (95 °F) and 47 °C (117 °F) form "upper critical" and lethal zones, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Oladokun2022-80">[80]</a> Average daily temperatures of around 33 °C (91 °F) are known to interfere with feeding in both <a href="/wiki/Broiler" title="Broiler">broilers</a> and egg hens, as well as lower their <a href="/wiki/Immune_response" title="Immune response">immune response</a>, with outcomes such as reduced weight gain/egg production or greater incidence of <a href="/wiki/Salmonella" title="Salmonella">salmonella</a> infections, <a href="/wiki/Footpad" title="Footpad">footpad</a> <a href="/wiki/Dermatitis" title="Dermatitis">dermatitis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a>. Persistent heat stress leads to <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_stress" title="Oxidative stress">oxidative stress</a> in tissues, and harvested <a href="/wiki/White_meat" title="White meat">white meat</a> ends up with a lower proportion of essential compounds like <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_E" title="Vitamin E">vitamin E</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lutein" title="Lutein">lutein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zeaxanthin" title="Zeaxanthin">zeaxanthin</a>, yet an increase in <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a>. Multiple studies show that dietary supplementation with <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a> can help to relieve these issues due to its <a href="/wiki/Antioxidative" class="mw-redirect" title="Antioxidative">antioxidative</a> properties, particularly in combination with <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> or herbs like <a href="/wiki/Wood_sorrel" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood sorrel">wood sorrel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <a href="/wiki/Resveratrol" title="Resveratrol">Resveratrol</a> is another popular antioxidant administered to poultry for these reasons.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Though the effect of supplementation is limited, it is much cheaper than interventions to improve cooling or simply stock fewer birds, and so remains popular.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> While the majority of literature on poultry heat stress and dietary supplementation focuses on chickens, similar findings were seen in <a href="/wiki/Japanese_quail" title="Japanese quail">Japanese quails</a>, which eat less and gain less weight, suffer reduced <a href="/wiki/Fertility" title="Fertility">fertility</a> and hatch <a href="/wiki/Egg" title="Egg">eggs</a> of worse quality under heat stress, and also seem to benefit from mineral supplementation.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Around 2003, it was estimated that the poultry industry in the United States already lost up to $165 million annually due to heat stress at the time.<a href="#cite_note-Oladokun2022-80">[80]</a> One paper estimated that if global warming reaches 2.5 °C (4.5 °F), then the cost of rearing broilers in Brazil increases by 35.8% at the least modernized farms and by 42.3% at farms with the medium level of technology used in livestock housing, while they increase the least at farms with the most advanced cooling technologies. On the contrary, if the warming is kept to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), costs at moderately modernized farms increase the least, by 12.5%, followed by the most modernized farms with a 19.9% increase, and the least technological farms seeing the greatest increase.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reindeer">Reindeer</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Reindeer">edit</a>]</div> By mid-2010s, indigenous people of the Arctic have already observed <a href="/wiki/Reindeer" title="Reindeer">reindeer</a> breeding less and surviving winters less often, as warmer temperatures benefit biting insects and result in more intense and persistent swarm attacks. They also become more susceptible to parasites spread by such insects, and as the Arctic becomes warmer and more accessible to <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>, it is anticipated that they will come in contact with pests and pathogens they have not encountered historically.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGII_Chapter2-44">[44]</a>: 233  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_livestock_activities">Greenhouse gas emissions from livestock activities</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Greenhouse gas emissions from livestock activities">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture#Livestock" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture § Livestock</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture&action=edit#Livestock">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> Livestock produces the majority of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture and demands around 30% of agricultural <a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">freshwater</a> needs, while only supplying 18% of the global <a href="/wiki/Calorie" title="Calorie">calorie</a> intake. Animal-derived food plays a larger role in meeting human <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> needs, yet is still a minority of supply at 39%, with crops providing the rest.<a href="#cite_note-Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture_AR6_WGII_Chapter5-93">[93]</a>: 746–747  Out of the <a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a> used by the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a>, only SSP1 offers any realistic possibility of meeting the 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Together with measures like a massive deployment of <a href="/wiki/Green_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Green technology">green technology</a>, this pathway assumes animal-derived food will play a lower role in global diets relative to now.<a href="#cite_note-Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture_Roth2023-95">[95]</a> As a result, there have been calls for phasing out <a href="/wiki/Subsidies" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsidies">subsidies</a> currently offered to livestock farmers in many places worldwide,<a href="#cite_note-Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture_SEI_JT-96">[96]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Net_zero" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero">net zero</a> transition plans now involve limits on total livestock headcounts, including substantial reductions of existing stocks in some countries with extensive animal agriculture sectors like Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture_TG2021Ireland-97">[97]</a> Yet, an outright end to human consumption of meat and/or animal products is not currently considered a realistic goal.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Therefore, any comprehensive plan of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects of climate change</a>, particularly the present and future <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">effects of climate change on agriculture</a>, must also consider livestock.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Livestock activities also contribute disproportionately to land-use effects, since crops such as <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">corn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfalfa" title="Alfalfa">alfalfa</a> are cultivated to feed the animals.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> In 2010, <a href="/wiki/Enteric_fermentation" title="Enteric fermentation">enteric fermentation</a> accounted for 43% of the total greenhouse gas emissions from all agricultural activity in the world.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> The meat from ruminants has a higher carbon equivalent footprint than other meats or vegetarian sources of protein based on a global meta-analysis of lifecycle assessment studies.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Small ruminants such as sheep and goats contribute approximately 475 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent to GHG emissions, which constitutes around 6.5% of world agriculture sector emissions.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Methane production by animals, principally ruminants, makes up an estimated 15-20% of global production of methane.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impacts_of_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic impacts of climate change">Economic impacts of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Effects of climate change on agriculture</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output 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London, England: Academic Press: 197–207.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+of+Earth+System+Science&rft.atitle=Methane%2C+biogeochemical+cycle.&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E197-%3C%2Fspan%3E207&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Yavitt&rft.aufirst=JB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+climate+change+on+livestock" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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title="Template talk:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_impact_on_the_environment505" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_issues" title="List of environmental issues">list of issues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (ethics)">Social ecology (ethics)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Causes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Environmental impact of agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impacts_of_animal_agriculture" title="Environmental impacts of animal agriculture">animal agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cannabis_cultivation" title="Environmental impact of cannabis cultivation">cannabis cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_irrigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of irrigation">irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">meat production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cocoa_production" title="Environmental impact of cocoa production">cocoa production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_and_environmental_impact_of_palm_oil" title="Social and environmental impact of palm oil">palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">(US)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_bitcoin" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of bitcoin">Bitcoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate behavior">Corporate behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">Energy industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">biofuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_biodiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of biodiesel">biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the coal industry">coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_electricity_generation" title="Environmental impact of electricity generation">electricity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fracking_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental impact of fracking in the United States">fracking (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_nuclear_power" title="Environmental impact of nuclear power">nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="Environmental impact of the oil shale industry">oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of the petroleum industry">petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of transport">transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">Environmental crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_impact_of_explosives" title="Ecological impact of explosives">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use#Environment" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cleaning_products" title="Environmental impact of cleaning products">cleaning agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete" title="Environmental impact of concrete">concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic#Environmental_effects" title="Plastic">plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Impact of nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paint" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paint">paint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paper">paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pesticides" title="Environmental impact of pesticides">pesticides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">pharmaceuticals and personal care</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fishing" title="Environmental impact of fishing">fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_down_the_food_web" title="Fishing down the food web">fishing down the food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Overconsumption">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">Overdrafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">Overgrazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">Reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impacts_of_tourism" title="Impacts of tourism">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_rail" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of rail">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_ecology" title="Road ecology">roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_threats" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiversity threats">Biodiversity threats</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">runaway climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_crisis" title="Ecological crisis">Ecological crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Effects of climate change on agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_breadbasket_failure" title="Multiple breadbasket failure">Multiple breadbasket failure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Effects of climate change on livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_security" title="Environmental security">Environmental insecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater cycle">Freshwater cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle" title="Human impact on the nitrogen cycle">Nitrogen cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss and damage">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_belt" title="Green belt">Loss of green belts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_cycle#Human_influences" title="Phosphorus cycle">Phosphorus cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification#Possible_impacts" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Water degradation">Water degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mitigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle" title="Alternative fuel vehicle">Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_resilience" title="Community resilience">Community resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-economic_decoupling" title="Eco-economic decoupling">Decoupling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_mitigation" title="Environmental mitigation">Environmental mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitigation_banking" title="Mitigation banking">Mitigation banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">Organic farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_consumption" title="Sustainable consumption">Sustainable consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Environmental impact">Commons</a></li> <li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_source" title="Category:Environmental impact by source">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_country" title="Category:Environmental impact by country">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Category:Environmental impact assessment">assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_mitigation" title="Category:Environmental mitigation">mitigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Climate_change567" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change" title="Template:Climate change"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Climate_change" title="Template talk:Climate change"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Climate_change" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Climate change"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Climate_change567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Overview567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Causes567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">Greenhouse effect</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">Scientific consensus on climate change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li> <li>Years in climate change <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_climate_change" title="2024 in climate change">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_breadbasket_failure" title="Multiple breadbasket failure">Multi-breadbasket failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li>Forest management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_art" title="Climate change art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite temperature measurement">Satellite temperature measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">atmospheric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biologic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">permafrost</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">Cloud feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_forcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud forcing">Cloud forcing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis" title="Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_event_attribution" title="Extreme event attribution">Extreme event attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedbacks" title="Climate change feedbacks">Feedbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change" title="Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change">Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" 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