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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleo-Indian_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Paleo-Indian period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleo-Indian_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaic_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaic_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Archaic period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaic_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Archaic_periods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Archaic_periods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Post-Archaic periods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Archaic_periods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_Nations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Nations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 First Nations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Nations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inuit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inuit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Inuit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inuit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Métis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Métis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.3 Métis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Métis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forced_assimilation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forced_assimilation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Forced assimilation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forced_assimilation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Christianization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.1 Christianization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sedentary_living,_reserves,_and_"gradual_civilization"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sedentary_living,_reserves,_and_"gradual_civilization""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.2 Sedentary living, reserves, and "gradual civilization" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sedentary_living,_reserves,_and_"gradual_civilization"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Residential_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Residential_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.3 Residential system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Residential_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics,_law,_and_legislation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics,_law,_and_legislation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Politics, law, and legislation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Politics,_law,_and_legislation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Politics, law, and legislation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Politics,_law,_and_legislation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indigenous_law_vs._Aboriginal_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indigenous_law_vs._Aboriginal_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Indigenous law vs. Aboriginal law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indigenous_law_vs._Aboriginal_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treaties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treaties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Treaties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treaties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_Act" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Indian Act </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Royal_Commission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royal_Commission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Royal Commission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Royal_Commission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Health policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Political organization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visual_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visual_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Visual art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visual_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Demography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Demography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Demography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Geographical_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographical_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Geographical distribution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geographical_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Provinces_&_territories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Provinces_&_territories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Provinces & territories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Provinces_&_territories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urban_population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Urban population </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peoples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peoples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Peoples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peoples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Indigenous peoples in Canada</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" > 31 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%83%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B5%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86" title="سكان كندا الأصليون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سكان كندا الأصليون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%86%D1%8B_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Індзейцы Канады – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Індзейцы Канады" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Коренно население на Канада – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Коренно население на Канада" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%AFvodn%C3%AD_obyvatel%C3%A9_Kanady" title="Původní obyvatelé Kanady – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Původní obyvatelé Kanady" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liste_der_in_Kanada_anerkannten_Indianerst%C3%A4mme" title="Liste der in Kanada anerkannten Indianerstämme – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Liste der in Kanada anerkannten Indianerstämme" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerindios_de_Canad%C3%A1" title="Amerindios de Canadá – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Amerindios de Canadá" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indi%C4%9Denaj_popoloj_en_Kanado" title="Indiĝenaj popoloj en Kanado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Indiĝenaj popoloj en Kanado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="بومی‌های کانادا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بومی‌های کانادا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autochtones_du_Canada" title="Autochtones du Canada – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Autochtones du Canada" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerindios_do_Canad%C3%A1" title="Amerindios do Canadá – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Amerindios do Canadá" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BA%90%EB%82%98%EB%8B%A4_%EC%9B%90%EC%A3%BC%EB%AF%BC" title="캐나다 원주민 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="캐나다 원주민" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80" title="कनाडा के आदिवासी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कनाडा के आदिवासी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penduduk_asli_Kanada" title="Penduduk asli Kanada – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penduduk asli Kanada" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frumbyggjar_Kanada" title="Frumbyggjar Kanada – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Frumbyggjar Kanada" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popoli_indigeni_del_Canada" title="Popoli indigeni del Canada – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Popoli indigeni del Canada" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%93%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%91%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%94" title="עמים ילידים בקנדה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עמים ילידים בקנדה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8:%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%83%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86" title="قالب:سكان كندا الاصليين – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="قالب:سكان كندا الاصليين" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urfolk_i_Canada" title="Urfolk i Canada – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Urfolk i Canada" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urfolk_i_Canada" title="Urfolk i Canada – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Urfolk i Canada" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubylcze_ludy_Kanady" title="Tubylcze ludy Kanady – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Tubylcze ludy Kanady" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povos_amer%C3%ADndios_do_Canad%C3%A1" title="Povos ameríndios do Canadá – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Povos ameríndios do Canadá" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Коренные народы Канады – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Коренные народы Канады" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B4vodn%C3%AD_obyvatelia_Kanady" title="Pôvodní obyvatelia Kanady – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Pôvodní obyvatelia Kanady" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B4%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%88%DB%95_%DA%95%DB%95%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%86%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%95%D9%86%DB%95%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="دانیشتووە ڕەسەنەکانی کەنەدا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="دانیشتووە ڕەسەنەکانی کەنەدا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanadan_alkuper%C3%A4iskansat" title="Kanadan alkuperäiskansat – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kanadan alkuperäiskansat" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanadas_ursprungsbefolkning" title="Kanadas ursprungsbefolkning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kanadas ursprungsbefolkning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="கனடியப் பழங்குடி மக்கள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கனடியப் பழங்குடி மக்கள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous Peoples in Canada">Indigenous Peoples in Canada</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">North American Indigenous peoples within the boundaries of present-day Canada</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Native Canadian" redirects here. For Canadian people in general, see <a href="/wiki/Canadians" title="Canadians">Canadians</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Indigenous peoples in Canada</li><li>Peuples autochtones au Canada</li></ul></div></caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Native_Americans_Race.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Native_Americans_Race.svg/220px-Native_Americans_Race.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Native_Americans_Race.svg/330px-Native_Americans_Race.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Native_Americans_Race.svg/440px-Native_Americans_Race.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1643" data-file-height="1478" /></a><div class="infobox-caption"><div style="text-align: center">Indigenous peoples in Canada and the U.S., % of population by area</div></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Total population</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">1,807,250 5.0% of the Canadian population (2021)<a href="#cite_note-population2021-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Canada#Indigenous_languages" title="Languages of Canada">Indigenous languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_English_in_Canada" title="Indigenous English in Canada">Indigenous English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canadian_English" title="Canadian English">Canadian English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canadian_French" title="Canadian French">Canadian French</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Canada" title="Christianity in Canada">Christianity</a> (mainly <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Canada" title="Catholic Church in Canada">Roman Catholicism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anglican_Church_of_Canada" title="Anglican Church of Canada">Anglican</a>), <a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Traditional Indigenous beliefs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inuit_religion" title="Inuit religion">Inuit religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mythologies_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Mythologies of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Mythologies of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Inuit" title="Greenlandic Inuit">Greenlandic Inuit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indigenous peoples in Canada</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument_(close).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A life-sized bronze statue of an Aboriginal and eagle above him; there is a bear to his right and a wolf to his left, they are all looking upwards towards a blue and white sky" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument_%28close%29.JPG/80px-Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument_%28close%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="80" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument_%28close%29.JPG/120px-Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument_%28close%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument_%28close%29.JPG/160px-Aboriginal_War_Veterans_monument_%28close%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Métis in Canada">Métis</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_First_Nations_history" title="Timeline of First Nations history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_indigenous_peoples_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the indigenous peoples of Canada">Pre-colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">Genetics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism_in_Canada" title="Settler colonialism in Canada">Settler colonialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Canadian Indian residential school system">Residential schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_hospital" title="Indian hospital">Indian hospitals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Reconciliation_Commission_of_Canada" title="Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada">Reconciliation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Politics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indigenous_law" title="Canadian Indigenous law">Indigenous law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Treaty_Process" title="British Columbia Treaty Process">British Columbia Treaty Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Canadian_Crown_and_Indigenous_peoples_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="The Canadian Crown and Indigenous peoples of Canada">Crown and Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Health_Transfer_Policy" title="Indian Health Transfer Policy">Health Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idle_No_More" title="Idle No More">Idle No More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Act" title="Indian Act">Indian Act</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_and_Northern_Affairs_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada">Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_claims_in_Canada" title="Indigenous land claims in Canada">Land claims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_defender" title="Land defender">Land defender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_land_title_in_Canada" title="Aboriginal land title in Canada">Land title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numbered_Treaties" title="Numbered Treaties">Numbered Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Aboriginal_Peoples" title="Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples">Royal Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_self-government_in_Canada" title="Indigenous self-government in Canada">Self-government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_specific_land_claims_in_Canada" title="Indigenous specific land claims in Canada">Specific claims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">Treaty rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canadian_Aboriginal_case_law" title="Category:Canadian Aboriginal case law">Case law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_organizations_in_Canada" title="Category:Indigenous organizations in Canada">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_politics_in_Canada" title="Category:Indigenous politics in Canada">Politics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Culture</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_art" title="Inuit art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_culture_in_Canada" title="Category:Indigenous culture in Canada">Indigenous cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Canadian_personalities" title="Indigenous Canadian personalities">Indigenous personalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Country_food" class="mw-redirect" title="Country food">Country food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_music_of_Canada" title="Indigenous music of Canada">Music</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Demographics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">Indian reserves</a></li> <li>AB <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Alberta" title="First Nations in Alberta">FN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_in_Alberta" title="Métis in Alberta">Métis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_peoples_in_Atlantic_Canada" title="Category:Indigenous peoples in Atlantic Canada">Atlantic CA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_peoples_in_British_Columbia" title="Category:Indigenous peoples in British Columbia">BC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Manitoba" title="First Nations in Manitoba">MB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_peoples_in_Ontario" title="Category:Indigenous peoples in Ontario">ON</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Quebec" title="Indigenous peoples in Quebec">QC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Saskatchewan" title="First Nations in Saskatchewan">SK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Northern_Canada" title="Indigenous peoples in Northern Canada">Territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest_Coast" title="Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast">Pacific Coast</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Canada#Aboriginal_languages" title="Languages of Canada">Indigenous languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_languages" title="Inuit languages">Inuit languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinuk_Wawa" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinuk Wawa">Chinuk Wawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_English_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal English in Canada">Indigenous English Dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americanist_phonetic_notation" title="Americanist phonetic notation">NAPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Aboriginal syllabics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinook_Writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinook Writing">Chinuk pipa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_grammar" title="Inuit grammar">Inuit grammar</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Religions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mythologies_of_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Traditional beliefs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_religion" title="Inuit religion">Inuit religion</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Index</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_Indigenous_Canadians" title="Index of articles related to Indigenous Canadians">Index of articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Category:Indigenous peoples in Canada">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:First_Nations_in_Canada" title="Category:First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Inuit" title="Category:Inuit">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canadian_M%C3%A9tis_people" title="Category:Canadian Métis people">Métis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_peoples_of_North_America_stubs" title="Category:Indigenous peoples of North America stubs">Stubs</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg/16px-MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg/24px-MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg/32px-MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="319" data-file-height="299" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous North Americas</a> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg/14px-Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg/21px-Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg/28px-Maple_Leaf_%28from_roundel%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="343" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Canada" title="Portal:Canada">Canada portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_Peoples_of_Canada" title="Template:Indigenous Peoples of Canada"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indigenous_Peoples_of_Canada" title="Template talk:Indigenous Peoples of Canada"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous_Peoples_of_Canada" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous Peoples of Canada"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Indigenous peoples in Canada (also known as Aboriginals)<a href="#cite_note-indian-2">[2]</a> are the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples</a> within the boundaries of Canada. They comprise the <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a>,<a href="#cite_note-First_Nations_Culture_Areas_Index-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ICCcharter-4">[4]</a> and <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis#Métis_people_in_Canada" title="Métis">Métis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToddThorntonCollins200110-5">[5]</a> representing roughly 5.0% of the total <a href="/wiki/Population_of_Canada" title="Population of Canada">Canadian population</a>. There are over 600 recognized <a href="/wiki/List_of_First_Nations_peoples_in_Canada" title="List of First Nations peoples in Canada">First Nations governments</a> or <a href="/wiki/Band_government" title="Band government">bands</a> with distinctive cultures, languages, art, and music.<a href="#cite_note-Aboriginal_Identity_2011-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-three2-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Old_Crow_Flats" title="Old Crow Flats">Old Crow Flats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bluefish_Caves" title="Bluefish Caves">Bluefish Caves</a> are some of the earliest known sites of human habitation in Canada. The characteristics of Indigenous cultures in Canada prior to European colonization included permanent settlements,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> agriculture,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> civic and ceremonial architecture,<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> complex <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">societal hierarchies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trading networks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Métis nations of mixed ancestry originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations and Inuit people married Europeans, primarily the <a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">French colonizers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-testt-12">[12]</a> First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting Europeans during the <a href="/wiki/North_American_fur_trade" title="North American fur trade">North American fur trade</a>. Various <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_law" title="Canadian Aboriginal law">Aboriginal laws</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treaty#Canada" title="Treaty">treaties</a>, and legislation have been enacted between European immigrants and Indigenous groups across Canada. The impact of <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism_in_Canada" title="Settler colonialism in Canada">settler colonialism in Canada</a> can be seen in its culture, history, politics, laws, and legislatures.<a href="#cite_note-y517-13">[13]</a> This led to the systematic abolishment of Indigenous languages, traditions, religion and the degradation of Indigenous communities that has been described as a <a href="/wiki/Canadian_genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples">genocide of Indigenous peoples</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> The modern Indigenous right to <a href="/wiki/Self-governance" title="Self-governance">self government</a> provides for <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_self-government_in_Canada" title="Indigenous self-government in Canada">Indigenous self-government in Canada</a> and the management of their historical, cultural, political, health care and economic control aspects within Indigenous communities. <a href="/wiki/National_Indigenous_Peoples_Day" title="National Indigenous Peoples Day">National Indigenous Peoples Day</a> recognizes the vast cultures and contributions of Indigenous peoples to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Canada" title="History of Canada">history of Canada</a>.<a href="#cite_note-history-15">[15]</a> First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples of all backgrounds have become <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Canadian_personalities" title="Indigenous Canadian personalities">prominent figures and have served as role models in the Indigenous community</a> and help to shape the <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Canada" title="Culture of Canada">Canadian cultural identity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Section_35_of_the_Constitution_Act,_1982" title="Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982">Section 35</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_Act,_1982" title="Constitution Act, 1982">Constitution Act, 1982</a>, "Aboriginal peoples of Canada" includes <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">Indian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a>, and <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis" title="Métis">Métis</a> peoples.<a href="#cite_note-defe-17">[17]</a> "Aboriginal" as a <a href="/wiki/Collective_noun" title="Collective noun">collective noun</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> is a specific <a href="/wiki/Jargon" title="Jargon">term of art</a> used as a legal term encompassing all Indigenous peoples living in Canada.<a href="#cite_note-term-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Terminology-20">[20]</a> Although "Indian" is a term still commonly used in legal documents for First Nations, the descriptors "Indian" and "<a href="/wiki/Eskimo" title="Eskimo">Eskimo</a>" have fallen into disuse in Canada, and most consider them to be <a href="/wiki/Pejorative" title="Pejorative">pejorative</a>.<a href="#cite_note-indian-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsonPappas1994213-22">[22]</a> Aboriginal peoples has begun to be considered outdated and is slowly being replaced by the term Indigenous peoples.<a href="#cite_note-29">[nb 1]</a> There is also an effort to recognize each Indigenous group as a distinct nation, much as there are distinct European, African, and Asian cultures in their respective places.<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a> First Nations (most often used in the plural) has come into general use since the 1970s replacing Indians and Indian bands in everyday vocabulary.<a href="#cite_note-term-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Terminology-20">[20]</a> However, on <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">Indian reserves</a>, First Nations is being supplanted by members of various nations referring to themselves by their group or ethnic identity. In conversation, this would be "I am <a href="/wiki/Haida_people" title="Haida people">Haida</a>", or "we are <a href="/wiki/Kwantlen_First_Nation" title="Kwantlen First Nation">Kwantlens</a>", in recognition of their First Nations ethnicities.<a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a> Also coming into general use since the 1970s, First Peoples refers to all Indigenous groups, i.e. First Nations, Inuit, and Métis.<a href="#cite_note-FN-32">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-indian-2">[2]</a> Notwithstanding Canada's location within the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>, the term Native American is hardly ever used in Canada, in order to avoid any confusion due to the ambiguous meaning of the word "American". Therefore, the term is typically used only in reference to the <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Indigenous peoples within the boundaries of the present-day United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> Native Canadians was often used in Canada to differentiate this American term until the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> In contrast to the more-specific Aboriginal, one of the issues with the term <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/native#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:native">native</a> is its general applicability: in certain contexts, it could be used in reference to non-Indigenous peoples in regards to an individual place of origin / birth.<a href="#cite_note-:1-36">[35]</a> For instance, people who were born or grew up in <a href="/wiki/Calgary" title="Calgary">Calgary</a> may call themselves "Calgary natives", as in they are native to that city. With this in mind, even the term native American, as another example, may very well indicate someone who is native to America rather than a person who is ethnically Indigenous to the boundaries of the present-day United States. In this sense, native may encompass a broad range of populations and is therefore not recommended,<a href="#cite_note-:1-36">[35]</a> although it is not generally considered offensive. The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Act" title="Indian Act">Indian Act</a> (<abbr><a href="/wiki/Revised_Statutes_of_Canada" title="Revised Statutes of Canada">Revised Statutes of Canada</a> (R.S.C.)</abbr>, 1985, c. I-5) sets the legal term Indian, designating that "a person who pursuant to this Act is registered as an Indian or is entitled to be registered as an Indian."<a href="#cite_note-Branch-37">[36]</a> Section 5 of the act states that a registry shall be maintained "in which shall be recorded the name of every person who is entitled to be registered as an Indian under this Act."<a href="#cite_note-Branch-37">[36]</a> No other term is legally recognized for the purpose of registration and the term Indian specifically excludes reference to Inuit as per section 4 of the act.<a href="#cite_note-u408-38">[37]</a> Indian remains in place as the legal term used in the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Canada" title="Constitution of Canada">Canadian Constitution</a>; however, its usage outside such situations can be considered offensive.<a href="#cite_note-indian-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[nb 2]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aboriginal_Community_in_Northern_Ontario.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Aboriginal_Community_in_Northern_Ontario.JPG/220px-Aboriginal_Community_in_Northern_Ontario.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Aboriginal_Community_in_Northern_Ontario.JPG/330px-Aboriginal_Community_in_Northern_Ontario.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Aboriginal_Community_in_Northern_Ontario.JPG/440px-Aboriginal_Community_in_Northern_Ontario.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>An Aboriginal community in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ontario" title="Northern Ontario">Northern Ontario</a></figcaption></figure> The term <a href="/wiki/Eskimo" title="Eskimo">Eskimo</a> has <a href="/wiki/Pejorative" title="Pejorative">pejorative</a> connotations in Canada and <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>. Indigenous peoples in those areas have replaced the term Eskimo with Inuit,<a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-eski-42">[40]</a> though the <a href="/wiki/Yupik_peoples" title="Yupik peoples">Yupik</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> do not consider themselves Inuit, and <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnographers</a> agree they are a distinct people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsonPappas1994213-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-eski-42">[40]</a> They prefer the terminology Yupik, Yupiit, or Eskimo. The <a href="/wiki/Yupik_languages" title="Yupik languages">Yupik languages</a> are linguistically distinct from the <a href="/wiki/Inuit_languages" title="Inuit languages">Inuit languages</a>, but are related to each other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsonPappas1994213-22">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Linguistic groups</a> of <a href="/wiki/Circumpolar_peoples" title="Circumpolar peoples">Arctic people</a> have no universal replacement term for Eskimo, inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik across the geographical area inhabited by them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsonPappas1994213-22">[22]</a> Besides these ethnic descriptors, Aboriginal peoples are often divided into legal categories based on their relationship with <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">the Crown</a> (i.e. the state). <a href="/wiki/Constitution_Act,_1867#First_Nations,_Inuit_and_Métis" title="Constitution Act, 1867">Section 91(24)</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_Act,_1867" title="Constitution Act, 1867">Constitution Act, 1867</a> gives the federal government (as opposed to the provinces) the sole responsibility for "Indians, and Lands reserved for the Indians." The government inherited treaty obligations from the British colonial authorities in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Canada" title="Eastern Canada">Eastern Canada</a> and signed treaties itself with First Nations in <a href="/wiki/Western_Canada" title="Western Canada">Western Canada</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Numbered_Treaties" title="Numbered Treaties">Numbered Treaties</a>). The Indian Act, passed by the federal Parliament in 1876, has long governed its interactions with all treaty and non-treaty peoples.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Members of First Nations bands who are subject to the Indian Act are compiled on a list called the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Register" title="Indian Register">Indian Register</a>, and such people are designated as status Indians. Many non-treaty First Nations and all Inuit and Métis peoples are not subject to the Indian Act. However, two court cases have clarified that Inuit, Métis, and <a href="/wiki/Non-status_Indian" title="Non-status Indian">non-status First Nations</a> people are all covered by the term Indians in the Constitution Act, 1867. The first was <a href="/wiki/Reference_Re_Eskimos" title="Reference Re Eskimos">Reference Re Eskimos</a> (1939), covering the Inuit; the second was <a href="/wiki/Daniels_v_Canada_(Indian_Affairs_and_Northern_Development)" title="Daniels v Canada (Indian Affairs and Northern Development)">Daniels v. Canada</a> (2013), which concerns Métis and non-status First Nations.<a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Canada" title="History of Canada">History of Canada</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paleo-Indian_period">Paleo-Indian period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Paleo-Indian period">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_the_Americas" title="Peopling of the Americas">Peopling of the Americas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Canada#The_Stone_Age:_Fire_(14,000_BC_–_AD_1600)" title="Technological and industrial history of Canada">Technological and industrial history of Canada § The Stone Age: Fire (14,000 BC – AD 1600)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_migrations_mercator.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Early_migrations_mercator.svg/350px-Early_migrations_mercator.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Early_migrations_mercator.svg/525px-Early_migrations_mercator.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Early_migrations_mercator.svg/700px-Early_migrations_mercator.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1173" data-file-height="569" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/Early_human_migrations" title="Early human migrations">early human migrations</a> based on the <a href="/wiki/Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Recent African origin of modern humans">Out of Africa theory</a>; figures are in thousands of years ago (kya)<a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a></figcaption></figure> According to <a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(North_America)" title="List of archaeological periods (North America)">North American archaeological</a> and genetic evidence, <a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_the_Americas" title="Peopling of the Americas">migration to North and South America</a> made them the last continents in the world with <a href="/wiki/Early_human_migrations" title="Early human migrations">human habitation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-national-45">[43]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_glaciation" title="Wisconsin glaciation">Wisconsin glaciation</a>, 50,000–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the <a href="/wiki/Beringia" title="Beringia">Bering land bridge</a> that joined Siberia to northwest North America (Alaska).<a href="#cite_note-Goebel-46">[44]</a> Alaska was <a href="/wiki/Glacial_refugium" title="Glacial refugium">ice-free</a> because of <a href="/wiki/Rain_shadow" title="Rain shadow">low snowfall</a>, allowing a <a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">small population</a> to exist. The <a href="/wiki/Laurentide_ice_sheet" title="Laurentide ice sheet">Laurentide ice sheet</a> covered most of Canada, blocking <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic</a> inhabitants and confining them to Alaska (East Beringia) for thousands of years.<a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a> <a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Aboriginal genetic studies</a> suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single ancestral population, one that developed in isolation, conjectured to be Beringia.<a href="#cite_note-SpencerWells2-49">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a> The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10,000–20,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-nda-52">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-discov-53">[51]</a> Around 16,500 years ago, the <a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Maximum" title="Last Glacial Maximum">glaciers began melting</a>, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond.<a href="#cite_note-aaa-54">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> The first inhabitants of North America arrived in Canada at least 14,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-FaganDurrani2016-57">[55]</a> It is believed the inhabitants entered the Americas pursuing <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> mammals such as the <a href="/wiki/Castoroides" title="Castoroides">giant beaver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steppe_bison" title="Steppe bison">steppe wisent</a> (bison), <a href="/wiki/Muskox" title="Muskox">muskox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mastodon" title="Mastodon">mastodons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Woolly_mammoth" title="Woolly mammoth">woolly mammoths</a> and ancient reindeer (early caribou).<a href="#cite_note-Meltzer-58">[56]</a> One route hypothesized is that people walked south by way of an ice-free corridor on the east side of the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a>, and then fanned out across North America before continuing on to South America.<a href="#cite_note-albert-59">[57]</a> The other conjectured route is that they migrated, either on foot or using <a href="/wiki/Boat#History" title="Boat">primitive boats</a>, down the Pacific coast to the tip of South America, and then crossed the Rockies and <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a> Evidence of the latter has been covered by a <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> of hundreds of metres following the last ice age.<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Old_Crow_Flats" title="Old Crow Flats">Old Crow Flats</a> and basin was one of the areas in Canada untouched by glaciations during the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation" title="Quaternary glaciation">Pleistocene Ice ages</a>, thus it served as a pathway and refuge for ice age plants and animals.<a href="#cite_note-mountain-63">[61]</a> The area holds evidence of early human habitation in Canada dating from about 12,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-CordellLightfoot2008-64">[62]</a> Fossils from the area include some never accounted for in North America, such as <a href="/wiki/Hyena" title="Hyena">hyenas</a> and large <a href="/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">camels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-taiga.net-65">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bluefish_Caves" title="Bluefish Caves">Bluefish Caves</a> is an archaeological site in <a href="/wiki/Yukon" title="Yukon">Yukon</a> from which a specimen of apparently human-worked mammoth bone was radiocarbon dated to 12,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-CordellLightfoot2008-64">[62]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clovis_Point.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A Clovis blade with medium to large lanceolate spear-knifepoints. Side is parallel to convex and exhibit careful pressure flaking along the blade edge. The broadest area is near the midsection or toward the base. The Base is distinctly concave with a characteristic flute or channel flake removed from one or, more commonly, both surfaces of the blade. The lower edges of the blade and base is ground to dull edges for hafting. Clovis points also tend to be thicker than the typically thin latter stage Folsom points. Length: 4–20 cm/1.5–8 in. Width: 2.5–5 cm/1–2" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Clovis_Point.jpg/170px-Clovis_Point.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Clovis_Point.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="178" data-file-height="261" /></a><figcaption> A <a href="/wiki/Clovis_point" title="Clovis point">Clovis point</a> created using <a href="/wiki/Lithic_reduction" title="Lithic reduction">bi-facial percussion flaking</a> (that is, each face is flaked on both edges alternatively with a percussor)</figcaption></figure> Clovis sites dated at 13,500 years ago were discovered in western North America during the 1930s. <a href="/wiki/Clovis_culture" title="Clovis culture">Clovis peoples</a> were regarded as the first widespread <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indian</a> inhabitants of the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> and ancestors to all <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples in the Americas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cloves-66">[64]</a> Archaeological discoveries in the years 1979–2009 brought forward other distinctive <a href="/wiki/Knapping" title="Knapping">knapping</a> cultures who occupied the Americas from the lower <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> to the shores of Chile.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Localized regional cultures developed from the time of the <a href="/wiki/Younger_Dryas" title="Younger Dryas">Younger Dryas</a> cold climate period from 12,900 to 11,500 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Folsom_tradition" title="Folsom tradition">Folsom tradition</a> is characterized by the use of <a href="/wiki/Folsom_point" title="Folsom point">Folsom points</a> as projectile tips at archaeological sites. These tools assisted activities at kill sites that marked the slaughter and butchering of bison.<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> The land bridge existed until 13,000–11,000 years ago, long after the oldest proven human settlements in the New World began.<a href="#cite_note-mapSurvey-69">[67]</a> Lower sea levels in the <a href="/wiki/Queen_Charlotte_Sound_(Canada)" title="Queen Charlotte Sound (Canada)">Queen Charlotte sound</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hecate_Strait" title="Hecate Strait">Hecate Strait</a> produced great grass lands called archipelago of <a href="/wiki/Haida_Gwaii" title="Haida Gwaii">Haida Gwaii</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hadi-70">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">Hunter-gatherers</a> of the area left distinctive <a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">lithic technology</a> tools and the remains of large butchered mammals, occupying the area from 13,000–<a href="/wiki/7th_millennium_BC" title="7th millennium BC">9,000 years ago</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hadi-70">[68]</a> In July 1992, the Government of Canada officially designated <a href="/wiki/X%CC%B1%C3%A1:ytem" title="X̱á:ytem">X̱á:ytem</a> (near <a href="/wiki/Mission,_British_Columbia" title="Mission, British Columbia">Mission, British Columbia</a>) as a <a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Sites_of_Canada" title="National Historic Sites of Canada">national historic site</a>, one of the first Indigenous spiritual sites in Canada to be formally recognized in this manner.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJameson1997159-71">[69]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Plano_cultures" title="Plano cultures">Plano cultures</a> was a group of hunter-gatherer communities that occupied the Great Plains area of North America between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-palo-72">[70]</a> The Paleo-Indians moved into new territory as it emerged from under the glaciers. Big game flourished in this new environment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor200210-73">[71]</a> The Plano culture is characterized by a range of projectile point tools collectively called <a href="/wiki/Plano_point" title="Plano point">Plano points</a>, which were used to hunt <a href="/wiki/Bison" title="Bison">bison</a>. Their diets also included <a href="/wiki/Pronghorn" title="Pronghorn">pronghorn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elk" title="Elk">elk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deer" title="Deer">deer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raccoon" title="Raccoon">raccoon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coyote" title="Coyote">coyote</a>.<a href="#cite_note-palo-72">[70]</a> At the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_(North_America)" title="Archaic period (North America)">Archaic period</a>, they began to adopt a <a href="/wiki/Sedentary_lifestyle" title="Sedentary lifestyle">sedentary</a> approach to subsistence.<a href="#cite_note-palo-72">[70]</a> Sites in and around <a href="/wiki/Belmont,_Nova_Scotia" title="Belmont, Nova Scotia">Belmont, Nova Scotia</a>, have evidence of Plano-Indians, indicating small seasonal hunting camps, perhaps re-visited over generations from around 11,000–10,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-palo-72">[70]</a> Seasonal large and smaller game fish and fowl were food and raw material sources. Adaptation to the harsh environment included tailored clothing and skin-covered tents on wooden frames.<a href="#cite_note-palo-72">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaic_period">Archaic period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Archaic period">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian era</a></div> The North American climate stabilized by 8000 <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">BCE</a> (10,000 years ago); climatic conditions were very similar to today's.<a href="#cite_note-icaage-74">[72]</a> This led to widespread migration, <a href="/wiki/Plant_cultivation" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant cultivation">cultivation</a> and later a dramatic rise in population all over the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-icaage-74">[72]</a> Over the course of thousands of years, Indigenous peoples of the Americas domesticated, bred and cultivated a large array of plant species. These species now constitute 50–60% of all crops in cultivation worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Na-Dene_langs.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt=""Map of North America showing in red the pre-contact distribution of Na-Dene languages"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Na-Dene_langs.png/220px-Na-Dene_langs.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Na-Dene_langs.png/330px-Na-Dene_langs.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Na-Dene_langs.png/440px-Na-Dene_langs.png 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="657" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of <a href="/wiki/Na-Dene_languages" title="Na-Dene languages">Na-Dene languages</a> shown in red</figcaption></figure> The vastness and variety of Canada's climates, ecology, vegetation, <a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a>, and landform separations have defined ancient peoples implicitly into cultural or <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistic</a> divisions. Canada is surrounded north, east, and west with coastline and since the last ice age, Canada has consisted of distinct forest regions. Language contributes to the identity of a people by influencing social life ways and spiritual practices.<a href="#cite_note-prepre-76">[74]</a> Aboriginal religions developed from <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">anthropomorphism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animism</a> philosophies.<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> The placement of artifacts and materials within an Archaic burial site indicated social differentiation based upon status.<a href="#cite_note-icaage-74">[72]</a> There is a continuous record of occupation of <a href="/wiki/St%C3%B3%EA%9E%89l%C5%8D" title="Stó꞉lō">S'ólh Téméxw</a> by Aboriginal people dating from the early <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> period, 10,000–9,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-thor-78">[76]</a> Archaeological sites at <a href="/wiki/Stave_Lake" title="Stave Lake">Stave Lake</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coquitlam_Lake" title="Coquitlam Lake">Coquitlam Lake</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Langley" title="Fort Langley">Fort Langley</a> and region uncovered early period artifacts. These early inhabitants were highly mobile hunter-gatherers, consisting of about 20 to 50 members of an extended family.<a href="#cite_note-thor-78">[76]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification needed</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Na-Dene_languages" title="Na-Dene languages">Na-Dene</a> people occupied much of the land area of northwest and central North America starting around 8,000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> They were the earliest ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan</a>-speaking peoples, including the <a href="/wiki/Navajo" title="Navajo">Navajo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apache" title="Apache">Apache</a>. They had villages with large multi-family dwellings, used seasonally during the summer, from which they hunted, fished and gathered food supplies for the winter.<a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Wyandot_people" title="Wyandot people">Wendat</a> peoples settled into <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ontario" title="Southern Ontario">Southern Ontario</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Eramosa_River" title="Eramosa River">Eramosa River</a> around 8,000–7,000 BCE (10,000–9,000 years ago).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERay1996-81">[79]</a> They were concentrated between <a href="/wiki/Lake_Simcoe" title="Lake Simcoe">Lake Simcoe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georgian_Bay" title="Georgian Bay">Georgian Bay</a>. Wendat hunted caribou to survive on the glacier-covered land.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERay1996-81">[79]</a> Many different First Nations cultures relied upon the buffalo starting by 6,000–5,000 BCE (8,000–7,000 years ago).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERay1996-81">[79]</a> They hunted buffalo by herding migrating buffalo off cliffs. <a href="/wiki/Head-Smashed-In_Buffalo_Jump" title="Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump">Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Lethbridge,_Alberta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lethbridge, Alberta">Lethbridge, Alberta</a>, is a hunting grounds that was in use for about 5,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERay1996-81">[79]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cambridge_Bay_Thule_Site_1998-06-28.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of a circular arrangement of rocks on open ground with a body of water in the background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Cambridge_Bay_Thule_Site_1998-06-28.jpg/220px-Cambridge_Bay_Thule_Site_1998-06-28.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Cambridge_Bay_Thule_Site_1998-06-28.jpg/330px-Cambridge_Bay_Thule_Site_1998-06-28.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Cambridge_Bay_Thule_Site_1998-06-28.jpg/440px-Cambridge_Bay_Thule_Site_1998-06-28.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5304" data-file-height="3468" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thule_people" title="Thule people">Thule</a> site (<a href="/wiki/Copper_Inuit" title="Copper Inuit">Copper Inuit</a>) near the waters of <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Bay" title="Cambridge Bay">Cambridge Bay</a> (<a href="/wiki/Victoria_Island" title="Victoria Island">Victoria Island</a>)</figcaption></figure> By 7,000–5000 BCE (9,000–7,000 years ago) the <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Coast" title="British Columbia Coast">west coast of Canada</a> saw various cultures who organized themselves around salmon fishing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERay1996-81">[79]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth" title="Nuu-chah-nulth">Nuu-chah-nulth</a> of <a href="/wiki/Vancouver_Island" title="Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a> began <a href="/wiki/Whaling" title="Whaling">whaling</a> with advanced long spears at about this time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERay1996-81">[79]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Archaic" title="Maritime Archaic">Maritime Archaic</a> is one group of North America's <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Period_(Americas)" title="Archaic Period (Americas)">Archaic</a> culture of <a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">sea-mammal</a> hunters in the <a href="/wiki/Subarctic" title="Subarctic">subarctic</a>. They prospered from approximately 7,000 BCE–1,500 BCE (9,000–3,500 years ago) along the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Atlantic Coast</a> of North America.<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> Their settlements included <a href="/wiki/Longhouse" title="Longhouse">longhouses</a> and boat-topped temporary or seasonal houses. They engaged in long-distance trade, using as currency white <a href="/wiki/Chert" title="Chert">chert</a>, a rock quarried from northern <a href="/wiki/Labrador" title="Labrador">Labrador</a> to <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian</a> culture, whose members were called <a href="/wiki/Red_Paint_People" title="Red Paint People">Red Paint People</a>, is indigenous to the <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Canada" title="Atlantic Canada">Atlantic Canada</a> regions of North America. The culture flourished between 3,000 BCE – 1,000 BCE (5,000–3,000 years ago) and was named after their burial ceremonies, which used large quantities of red <a href="/wiki/Ochre" title="Ochre">ochre</a> to cover bodies and grave goods.<a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Arctic_small_tool_tradition" title="Arctic small tool tradition">Arctic small tool tradition</a> is a broad cultural entity that developed along the <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Peninsula" title="Alaska Peninsula">Alaska Peninsula</a>, around <a href="/wiki/Bristol_Bay" title="Bristol Bay">Bristol Bay</a>, and on the eastern shores of the Bering Strait around 2,500 BCE (4,500 years ago).<a href="#cite_note-Fagan-85">[83]</a> These <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Arctic_tradition" title="Paleo-Arctic tradition">Paleo-Arctic</a> peoples had a highly distinctive toolkit of small blades (<a href="/wiki/Microblade_technology" title="Microblade technology">microblades</a>) that were pointed at both ends and used as side- or end-barbs on <a href="/wiki/Arrow" title="Arrow">arrows</a> or spears made of other materials, such as bone or <a href="/wiki/Antler" title="Antler">antler</a>. <a href="/wiki/Scraper_(archaeology)" title="Scraper (archaeology)">Scrapers</a>, engraving tools and <a href="/wiki/Adze" title="Adze">adze</a> blades were also included in their toolkits.<a href="#cite_note-Fagan-85">[83]</a> The Arctic small tool tradition branches off into two cultural variants, including the Pre-Dorset, and the <a href="/wiki/Independence_II_culture" title="Independence II culture">Independence traditions</a>. These two groups, ancestors of <a href="/wiki/Thule_people" title="Thule people">Thule people</a>, were displaced by the Inuit by 1000 CE.<a href="#cite_note-Fagan-85">[83]</a>: 179–81  <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Archaic_periods">Post-Archaic periods</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Post-Archaic periods">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(North_America)" title="List of archaeological periods (North America)">List of archaeological periods (North America)</a></div> <div class="noresize thumb tright" style=";"> <div class="thumbinner" style="overflow:hidden;width:202px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="height:102px; overflow:hidden; position:relative; background-color:white;"> <div style=";left:0px; top:0px; width:200px; position:absolute;"> <a href="/wiki/File:Hopewellsphere2_map_HRoe_2008.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Great Lakes area of the Hopewell Interaction Area: PP=Point Peninsula complex S=Saugeen complex L=Laurel complex"><img alt="A northerly section focusing on the Saugeen, Laurel and Point Peninsula complexes of the map showing south eastern United States and the Great Lakes area of Canada showing the Hopewell Interaction Sphere and in different colours the various local expressions of the Hopewell cultures, including the Laurel complex, Saugeen complex, Point Peninsula complex, Marksville culture, Copena culture, Kansas City Hopewell, Swift Creek culture, Goodall focus, Crab Orchard culture and Havana Hopewell culture." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Hopewellsphere2_map_HRoe_2008.jpg/200px-Hopewellsphere2_map_HRoe_2008.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Hopewellsphere2_map_HRoe_2008.jpg/300px-Hopewellsphere2_map_HRoe_2008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Hopewellsphere2_map_HRoe_2008.jpg/400px-Hopewellsphere2_map_HRoe_2008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="664" data-file-height="624" /></a></div> <div style="text-align:left; background-color:transparent; line-height:110%;"> <div id="annotation_148x28" style="position:absolute; left:148px; top:28px; line-height:110%;">PP</div> <div id="annotation_130x45" style="position:absolute; left:130px; top:45px; line-height:110%;">S</div> <div id="annotation_115x10" style="position:absolute; left:115px; top:10px; line-height:110%;">L</div> </div> <div style="visibility:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Hopewellsphere2_map_HRoe_2008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A northerly section focusing on the Saugeen, Laurel and Point Peninsula complexes of the map showing south eastern United States and the Great Lakes area of Canada showing the Hopewell Interaction Sphere and in different colours the various local expressions of the Hopewell cultures, including the Laurel complex, Saugeen complex, Point Peninsula complex, Marksville culture, Copena culture, Kansas City Hopewell, Swift Creek culture, Goodall focus, Crab Orchard culture and Havana Hopewell culture." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Hopewellsphere2_map_HRoe_2008.jpg/200px-Hopewellsphere2_map_HRoe_2008.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Hopewellsphere2_map_HRoe_2008.jpg/300px-Hopewellsphere2_map_HRoe_2008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Hopewellsphere2_map_HRoe_2008.jpg/400px-Hopewellsphere2_map_HRoe_2008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="664" data-file-height="624" /></a></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Hopewellsphere2_map_HRoe_2008.jpg" title="File:Hopewellsphere2 map HRoe 2008.jpg"> </a></div>Great Lakes area of the <a href="/wiki/Hopewell_tradition" title="Hopewell tradition">Hopewell Interaction Area</a>: PP=<a href="/wiki/Point_Peninsula_complex" title="Point Peninsula complex">Point Peninsula complex</a> S=<a href="/wiki/Saugeen_complex" title="Saugeen complex">Saugeen complex</a> L=<a href="/wiki/Laurel_complex" title="Laurel complex">Laurel complex</a></div> </div></div> The <a href="/wiki/Old_Copper_complex" title="Old Copper complex">Old Copper complex</a> societies dating from 3,000 BCE – 500 BCE (5,000–2,500 years ago) are a manifestation of the <a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland culture</a>, and are pre-pottery in nature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinchell1881601–602-86">[84]</a> Evidence found in the northern <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> regions indicates that they extracted copper from local glacial deposits and used it in its <a href="/wiki/Native_copper" title="Native copper">natural form</a> to manufacture tools and implements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinchell1881601–602-86">[84]</a> The Woodland cultural period dates from about 1,000 BCE – 1,000 CE, and has locales in <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_Maritimes" title="The Maritimes">Maritime</a> regions.<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a> The introduction of pottery distinguishes the Woodland culture from the earlier Archaic stage inhabitants. <a href="/wiki/Laurentides" title="Laurentides">Laurentian</a> people of southern Ontario manufactured the oldest pottery excavated to date in Canada.<a href="#cite_note-prepre-76">[74]</a> They created pointed-bottom beakers decorated by a cord marking technique that involved impressing tooth implements into wet clay. Woodland technology included items such as beaver incisor knives, bangles, and chisels. The population practising sedentary agricultural life ways continued to increase on a diet of squash, corn, and bean crops.<a href="#cite_note-prepre-76">[74]</a> The Hopewell tradition is an Aboriginal culture that flourished along American rivers from 300 BCE – 500 CE. At its greatest extent, the <a href="/wiki/Hopewell_tradition" title="Hopewell tradition">Hopewell Exchange System</a> networked cultures and societies with the peoples on the Canadian shores of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Ontario" title="Lake Ontario">Lake Ontario</a>. Canadian expression of the Hopewellian peoples encompasses the <a href="/wiki/Point_Peninsula_complex" title="Point Peninsula complex">Point Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saugeen_complex" title="Saugeen complex">Saugeen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Laurel_complex" title="Laurel complex">Laurel complexes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-Price-90">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_Nations">First Nations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: First Nations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations in Canada</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chief_George_and_daughter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Black and white photograph of Skwxwu7mesh Chief George from the village of Senakw with his daughter in traditional regalia." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Chief_George_and_daughter.jpg/170px-Chief_George_and_daughter.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Chief_George_and_daughter.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="253" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>Chief George from the village of <a href="/wiki/Senakw" title="Senakw">Senakw</a> with his daughter in traditional <a href="/wiki/Regalia" title="Regalia">regalia</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1906</figcaption></figure> First Nations peoples had settled and established trade routes across what is now Canada by 500 BCE – 1,000 CE. Communities developed each with its own culture, customs, and character.<a href="#cite_note-Joe-91">[89]</a> In the northwest were the <a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athapaskan speaking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavey" title="Slavey">Slavey</a>, <a href="/wiki/T%C5%82%C4%B1%CC%A8ch%C7%AB" title="Tłı̨chǫ">Tłı̨chǫ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Tutchone" title="Northern Tutchone">Tutchone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tlingit" title="Tlingit">Tlingit</a>. Along the Pacific coast were the <a href="/wiki/Tsimshian" title="Tsimshian">Tsimshian</a>; Haida; <a href="/wiki/Coast_Salish" title="Coast Salish">Salish</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw" title="Kwakwakaʼwakw">Kwakwakaʼwakw</a>; <a href="/wiki/Heiltsuk" title="Heiltsuk">Heiltsuk</a>; <a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth" title="Nuu-chah-nulth">Nootka</a>; <a href="/wiki/Nisga%27a" title="Nisga'a">Nisga'a</a>; <a href="/wiki/Senakw" title="Senakw">Senakw</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gitxsan" title="Gitxsan">Gitxsan</a>. In the plains were the <a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_Confederacy" title="Blackfoot Confederacy">Niisitapi</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kainai_Nation" title="Kainai Nation">Káínawa</a>; <a href="/wiki/Tsuut%CA%BCina_Nation" title="Tsuutʼina Nation">Tsuutʼina</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Piikani_Nation" title="Piikani Nation">Piikáni</a>. In the northern woodlands were the <a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Cree</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chipewyan" title="Chipewyan">Chipewyan</a>. Around the Great Lakes were the <a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a>; <a href="/wiki/Algonquin_people" title="Algonquin people">Algonquin</a>; <a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Haudenosaunee</a> and Wendat. Along the Atlantic coast were the <a href="/wiki/Beothuk" title="Beothuk">Beothuk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolastoqiyik" title="Wolastoqiyik">Wolastoqiyik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Innu" title="Innu">Innu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki">Abenaki</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq" title="Mi'kmaq">Mi'kmaq</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Many First Nations civilizations<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> established characteristics and hallmarks that included permanent urban settlements or cities,<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> agriculture, civic and <a href="/wiki/Mound_Builders" title="Mound Builders">monumental architecture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Complex_society" title="Complex society">complex societal hierarchies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-complex-94">[92]</a> These cultures had evolved and changed by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> late 15th–early 16th centuries), and have been brought forward through archaeological investigations.<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a> There are indications of contact made before <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> between the first peoples and those from other continents. Aboriginal people in Canada first interacted with Europeans around 1000 CE, but prolonged contact came after Europeans established permanent settlements in the 17th and 18th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Woodcock,_part_I-96">[94]</a> European written accounts generally recorded friendliness of the First Nations, who profited in trade with Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-Woodcock,_part_I-96">[94]</a> Such trade generally strengthened the more organized political entities such as the <a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois Confederation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a> Throughout the 16th century, European fleets made almost annual visits to the eastern shores of Canada to cultivate the fishing opportunities. A sideline industry emerged in the un-organized <a href="/wiki/Fur_trade" title="Fur trade">traffic of furs</a> overseen by the <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Department" title="British Indian Department">British Indian Department</a>.<a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a> Prominent First Nations people include Joe Capilano, who met with King of the United Kingdom, <a href="/wiki/Edward_VII" title="Edward VII">Edward VII</a>, to speak of the need to settle <a href="/wiki/Land_claim" title="Land claim">land claims</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ovide_Mercredi" title="Ovide Mercredi">Ovide Mercredi</a>, a leader at both the <a href="/wiki/Meech_Lake_Accord" title="Meech Lake Accord">Meech Lake Accord</a> constitutional reform discussions and <a href="/wiki/Oka_Crisis" title="Oka Crisis">Oka Crisis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inuit">Inuit</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Inuit">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a> are the descendants of what <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropologists</a> call the <a href="/wiki/Thule_people" title="Thule people">Thule culture</a>, which emerged from western Alaska around 1,000 CE and spread eastward across the <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a>, displacing the <a href="/wiki/Dorset_culture" title="Dorset culture">Dorset culture</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Inuktitut" title="Inuktitut">Inuktitut</a>, the Tuniit). Inuit historically referred to the Tuniit as "giants", who were taller and stronger than the Inuit.<a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a> Researchers hypothesize that the Dorset culture lacked dogs, larger weapons and other technologies used by the expanding Inuit society.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> By 1300, the Inuit had settled in west Greenland, and finally moved into east Greenland over the following century. The Inuit had trade routes with more southern cultures. Boundary disputes were common and led to aggressive actions.<a href="#cite_note-warin-103">[101]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inuit_hunter_with_harpoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt=""black and white image of an Inuit hunter seated in a kayak holding a harpoon"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Inuit_hunter_with_harpoon.jpg/220px-Inuit_hunter_with_harpoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Inuit_hunter_with_harpoon.jpg/330px-Inuit_hunter_with_harpoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Inuit_hunter_with_harpoon.jpg/440px-Inuit_hunter_with_harpoon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="323" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuk</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Kayak" title="Kayak">kayak</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1908–1914</figcaption></figure> Warfare was common among Inuit groups with sufficient population density. Inuit, such as the <a href="/wiki/Nunamiut" title="Nunamiut">Nunamiut</a> (<a href="/wiki/Uummarmiut" title="Uummarmiut">Uummarmiut</a>) who inhabited the <a href="/wiki/Mackenzie_River" title="Mackenzie River">Mackenzie River</a> delta area, often engaged in common warfare. The Central Arctic Inuit lacked the population density to engage in warfare. In the 13th century, the Thule culture began arriving in Greenland from what is now Canada. Norse accounts are scant. Norse-made items from Inuit campsites in Greenland were obtained by either trade or plunder.<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> One account, <a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Dvar_B%C3%A1r%C3%B0arson" class="extiw" title="is:Ívar Bárðarson">Ívar Bárðarson</a>, speaks of "small people" with whom the Norsemen fought.<a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a> 14th-century accounts relate that a western settlement, one of the two Norse settlements, was taken over by the <a href="/wiki/Skr%C3%A6ling" title="Skræling">Skræling</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a> After the disappearance of the Norse colonies in Greenland, the Inuit had no contact with Europeans for at least a century. By the mid-16th century, <a href="/wiki/Basques" title="Basques">Basque</a> fishers were already working the Labrador coast and had established whaling stations on land, such as those excavated at <a href="/wiki/Red_Bay,_Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Red Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador">Red Bay</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a> The Inuit appear not to have interfered with their operations, but they did raid the stations in winter for tools, and particularly worked iron, which they adapted to native needs.<a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> Notable among the Inuit are <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Ulrikab" title="Abraham Ulrikab">Abraham Ulrikab</a> and family who became a <a href="/wiki/Zoo" title="Zoo">zoo</a> exhibit in <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a>, Germany, and <a href="/wiki/Tanya_Tagaq" title="Tanya Tagaq">Tanya Tagaq</a>, a traditional <a href="/wiki/Inuit_throat_singing" title="Inuit throat singing">throat singer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/Abe_Okpik" title="Abe Okpik">Abe Okpik</a> was instrumental in helping Inuit obtain <a href="/wiki/Surname" title="Surname">surnames</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Disc_number" title="Disc number">disc numbers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kiviaq" title="Kiviaq">Kiviaq</a> (David Ward) won the legal right to use his single-word <a href="/wiki/Inuktitut" title="Inuktitut">Inuktitut</a> name.<a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Métis">Métis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Métis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis" title="Métis">Métis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mixed_blood_Fur_trader_1870.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Black and white photograph of a man with a short moustache and earrings, wearing a fur lined dress jacket, bow tie and fur hat" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Mixed_blood_Fur_trader_1870.jpg/170px-Mixed_blood_Fur_trader_1870.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Mixed_blood_Fur_trader_1870.jpg/255px-Mixed_blood_Fur_trader_1870.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Mixed_blood_Fur_trader_1870.jpg/340px-Mixed_blood_Fur_trader_1870.jpg 2x" data-file-width="369" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mixed-blood" title="Mixed-blood">Mixed-blood</a> <a href="/wiki/North_American_fur_trade" title="North American fur trade">fur trader</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1870</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis" title="Métis">Métis</a> are people descended from marriages between Europeans (mainly French)<a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Cree</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ojibwe" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algonquin_people" title="Algonquin people">Algonquin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saulteaux" title="Saulteaux">Saulteaux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Menominee" title="Menominee">Menominee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq" title="Mi'kmaq">Mi'kmaq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maliseet" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliseet">Maliseet</a>, and other First Nations.<a href="#cite_note-testt-12">[12]</a> Their history dates to the mid-17th century.<a href="#cite_note-First_Nations_Culture_Areas_Index-3">[3]</a> When Europeans first arrived to Canada they relied on Aboriginal peoples for fur trading skills and survival. To ensure alliances, relationships between European fur traders and Aboriginal women were often consolidated through marriage.<a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a> The Métis homeland consists of the <a href="/wiki/Provinces_and_territories_of_Canada" title="Provinces and territories of Canada">Canadian provinces</a> of <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan">Saskatchewan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manitoba" title="Manitoba">Manitoba</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territories" title="Northwest Territories">Northwest Territories</a> (NWT).<a href="#cite_note-114">[112]</a> Amongst notable Métis people are singer and actor <a href="/wiki/Tom_Jackson_(actor)" title="Tom Jackson (actor)">Tom Jackson</a>,<a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Commissioner_of_the_Northwest_Territories" title="Commissioner of the Northwest Territories">Commissioner of the Northwest Territories</a> <a href="/wiki/Tony_Whitford" title="Tony Whitford">Tony Whitford</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Louis_Riel" title="Louis Riel">Louis Riel</a> who led two resistance movements: the <a href="/wiki/Red_River_Rebellion" title="Red River Rebellion">Red River Rebellion</a> of 1869–1870 and the <a href="/wiki/North-West_Rebellion" title="North-West Rebellion">North-West Rebellion</a> of 1885, which ended in his <a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Louis_Riel" title="Trial of Louis Riel">trial</a> and subsequent execution.<a href="#cite_note-LouisRielCE-116">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[116]</a> The languages inherently Métis are either <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_French" title="Métis French">Métis French</a> or a mixed language called <a href="/wiki/Michif" title="Michif">Michif</a>. Michif, Mechif or Métchif is a <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_respelling" title="Pronunciation respelling">phonetic spelling</a> of Métif, a variant of Métis.<a href="#cite_note-mist-119">[117]</a> The Métis today predominantly speak <a href="/wiki/Canadian_English" title="Canadian English">English</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Canadian_French" title="Canadian French">French</a> a strong second language, as well as numerous <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Aboriginal tongues</a>. A 19th-century community of the Métis people, the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-M%C3%A9tis" title="Anglo-Métis">Anglo-Métis</a>, were referred to as Countryborn. They were children of <a href="/wiki/Rupert%27s_Land" title="Rupert's Land">Rupert's Land</a> fur trade typically of <a href="/wiki/Orcadians" title="Orcadians">Orcadian</a>, Scottish, or English paternal descent and Aboriginal maternal descent.<a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a> Their first languages would have been Aboriginal (<a href="/wiki/Cree_language" title="Cree language">Cree</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Ojibwa_language" title="Western Ojibwa language">Saulteaux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assiniboine_language" title="Assiniboine language">Assiniboine</a>, etc.) and English. Their fathers spoke <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Gaelic" title="Canadian Gaelic">Gaelic</a>, thus leading to the development of an English dialect referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Bungi_dialect" title="Bungi dialect">Bungee</a>".<a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Talk:Indigenous peoples in Canada">discuss</a>] S.35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 mentions the Métis yet there has long been debate over legally defining the term Métis,<a href="#cite_note-Foster2006gh-122">[120]</a> but on September 23, 2003, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada" title="Supreme Court of Canada">Supreme Court of Canada</a> ruled that Métis are a distinct people with significant rights (<a href="/wiki/R_v_Powley" title="R v Powley">Powley ruling</a>).<a href="#cite_note-pow-123">[121]</a> Unlike First Nations people, there has been no distinction between status and non-status Métis;<a href="#cite_note-Company2005-124">[122]</a> the Métis, their heritage and Aboriginal ancestry have often been absorbed and assimilated into their surrounding populations.<a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forced_assimilation">Forced assimilation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Forced assimilation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Canadian_genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples">Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism_in_Canada" title="Settler colonialism in Canada">Settler colonialism in Canada</a></div> From the late 18th century, European Canadians (and the Canadian government) encouraged <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">assimilation</a> of Aboriginal culture into what was referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Canada" title="Culture of Canada">Canadian culture</a>."<a href="#cite_note-RoyalCom-sg3-126">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a> These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with a series of initiatives that aimed at complete assimilation and subjugation of the Aboriginal peoples. These policies, which were made possible by legislation such as the <a href="/wiki/Gradual_Civilization_Act" title="Gradual Civilization Act">Gradual Civilization Act</a><a href="#cite_note-gradcivact-128">[126]</a> and the Indian Act,<a href="#cite_note-Indian_Act-129">[127]</a> focused on European ideals of Christianity, sedentary living, agriculture, and education.<a href="#cite_note-h269-130">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Christianization">Christianization</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Christianization">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Study_period_at_Roman_Catholic_Indian_Residential_School,_Fort_Resolution,_NWT_(14112957392).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Indigenous children working at long desks" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Study_period_at_Roman_Catholic_Indian_Residential_School%2C_Fort_Resolution%2C_NWT_%2814112957392%29.jpg/220px-Study_period_at_Roman_Catholic_Indian_Residential_School%2C_Fort_Resolution%2C_NWT_%2814112957392%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Study_period_at_Roman_Catholic_Indian_Residential_School%2C_Fort_Resolution%2C_NWT_%2814112957392%29.jpg/330px-Study_period_at_Roman_Catholic_Indian_Residential_School%2C_Fort_Resolution%2C_NWT_%2814112957392%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Study_period_at_Roman_Catholic_Indian_Residential_School%2C_Fort_Resolution%2C_NWT_%2814112957392%29.jpg/440px-Study_period_at_Roman_Catholic_Indian_Residential_School%2C_Fort_Resolution%2C_NWT_%2814112957392%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>Study period at a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> Indian Residential School in <a href="/wiki/Fort_Resolution" title="Fort Resolution">Fort Resolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territories" title="Northwest Territories">NWT</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">Missionary work</a> directed at the Aboriginal people of Canada had been ongoing since the first missionaries arrived in the 1600s, generally from France, some of whom were martyred (<a href="/wiki/List_of_saints_of_the_Society_of_Jesus" title="List of saints of the Society of Jesus">Jesuit saints</a> called the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Martyrs" title="Canadian Martyrs">Canadian Martyrs</a>). <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a> as government policy became more systematic with the Indian Act in 1876, which would bring new sanctions for those who did not <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Christianity" title="Conversion to Christianity">convert to Christianity</a>. For example, the new laws would prevent non-Christian Aboriginal people from testifying or having their cases heard in court, and ban alcohol consumption.<a href="#cite_note-Armitage-131">[129]</a> When the Indian Act was amended in 1884, traditional religious and social practices, such as the <a href="/wiki/Potlatch" title="Potlatch">Potlatch</a>, would be banned, and further amendments in 1920 would prevent "<a href="/wiki/Indian_Register" title="Indian Register">status Indians</a>" (as defined in the Act) from wearing traditional dress or performing traditional dances in an attempt to stop all non-Christian practices.<a href="#cite_note-Armitage-131">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sedentary_living,_reserves,_and_"gradual_civilization"">Sedentary living, reserves, and "gradual civilization"</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Sedentary living, reserves, and "gradual civilization"">edit</a>]</div> Another focus of the Canadian government was to make the Aboriginal groups of Canada sedentary, as they thought that this would make them easier to assimilate. In the 19th century, the government began to support the creation of model farming villages, which were meant to encourage non-sedentary Aboriginal groups to settle in an area and begin to cultivate agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-Doesett-132">[130]</a> When most of these model farming villages failed,<a href="#cite_note-Doesett-132">[130]</a> the government turned instead to the creation of <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">Indian reserves</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Act" title="Indian Act">Indian Act</a> of 1876.<a href="#cite_note-Indian_Act-129">[127]</a> With the creation of these reserves came many restricting laws, such as further bans on all intoxicants, restrictions on eligibility to vote in band elections, decreased hunting and fishing areas, and inability for status Indians to visit other groups on their reserves.<a href="#cite_note-Indian_Act-129">[127]</a> Farming was still seen as an important practice for assimilation on reserves; however, by the late 19th century the government had instituted restrictive policies here too, such as the <a href="/wiki/Peasant_Farm_Policy" title="Peasant Farm Policy">Peasant Farm Policy</a>, which restricted reserve farmers largely to the use of hand tools.<a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a> This was implemented largely to limit the competitiveness of First Nations farming.<a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a> Through the <a href="/wiki/Gradual_Civilization_Act" title="Gradual Civilization Act">Gradual Civilization Act</a> in 1857, the government would encourage Indians (i.e., First Nations) to <a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">enfranchise</a> – to remove all legal distinctions between [Indians] and Her Majesty's other Canadian Subjects.<a href="#cite_note-gradcivact-128">[126]</a> If an Aboriginal chose to enfranchise, it would strip them and their family of <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">Aboriginal title</a>, with the idea that they would become "less savage" and "more civilized," thus become assimilated into Canadian society.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-135">[133]</a> However, they were often still defined as non-citizens by Europeans, and those few who did enfranchise were often met with disappointment.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-135">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Residential_system">Residential system</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Residential system">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stpauls-middlechurch-man.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Stpauls-middlechurch-man.jpg/220px-Stpauls-middlechurch-man.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Stpauls-middlechurch-man.jpg/330px-Stpauls-middlechurch-man.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Stpauls-middlechurch-man.jpg/440px-Stpauls-middlechurch-man.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="499" /></a><figcaption>St. Paul's Indian Industrial School, Middlechurch, Manitoba, 1901</figcaption></figure> The final government strategy of assimilation, made possible by the Indian Act was the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Canadian Indian residential school system">Canadian residential school system</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Of all the initiatives that were undertaken in the first century of Confederation, none was more ambitious or central to the civilizing strategy of the Department, to its goal of assimilation than the residential school system… it was the residential school experience that would lead children most effectively out of their "savage" communities into "higher civilization" and "full citizenship."<a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a></blockquote> Beginning in 1874 and lasting until 1996, the Canadian government, in partnership with the dominant Christian Churches, ran 130 residential boarding schools across Canada for Aboriginal children, who were forcibly taken from their homes.<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a> While the schools provided some education, they were plagued by under-funding, disease, and abuse.<a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> According to some scholars, the Canadian government's laws and policies, including the residential school system, that encouraged or required Indigenous peoples to <a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">assimilate</a> into a <a href="/wiki/Eurocentrism" title="Eurocentrism">Eurocentric</a> society, violated the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> <a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention" title="Genocide Convention">Genocide Convention</a> that Canada signed in 1949 and passed through Parliament in 1952. Therefore, these scholars believe that Canada could be tried in <a href="/wiki/International_court" title="International court">international court</a> for <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Restoule,_Jean-Paul_2002-139">[137]</a> A legal case resulted in settlement of CA$2 billion in 2006 and the 2008 establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Reconciliation_Commission_of_Canada" title="Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada">Truth and Reconciliation Commission</a>, which confirmed the injurious effect on children of this system and turmoil created between Indigenous peoples and non-Indigenous peoples.<a href="#cite_note-T&RC-140">[138]</a> In 2008, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Harper" title="Stephen Harper">Stephen Harper</a> issued an apology on behalf of the Canadian government and its citizens for the residential school system.<a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Politics,_law,_and_legislation">Politics, law, and legislation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Politics, law, and legislation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Canada_and_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_Canada" title="Monarchy of Canada and the Indigenous peoples of Canada">Monarchy of Canada and the Indigenous peoples of Canada</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indigenous_law_vs._Aboriginal_law">Indigenous law vs. Aboriginal law</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Indigenous law vs. Aboriginal law">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indigenous_law" title="Canadian Indigenous law">Canadian Indigenous law</a></div> The term <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indigenous_law" title="Canadian Indigenous law">Canadian Indigenous law</a> refers to Indigenous peoples' own legal systems. This includes the laws and legal processes developed by Indigenous groups to govern their relationships, manage their natural resources, and manage conflicts.<a href="#cite_note-Borrows-142">[140]</a> Indigenous law is developed from a variety of sources and institutions, which differ across legal traditions.<a href="#cite_note-Guides-143">[141]</a> <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_law" title="Canadian Aboriginal law">Canadian Aboriginal law</a> is the area of law related to the Canadian government's relationship with the Indigenous peoples. Section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867 gives the federal parliament exclusive power to legislate in matters related to Aboriginals, which includes groups governed by the Indian Act, different Numbered Treaties and outside of those acts.<a href="#cite_note-LeuprechtRussell2011-144">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treaties">Treaties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Treaties">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medal-Viki.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph showing the two sides of a round silver medal, showing the profile of Queen Victoria on one side and the inscription "Victoria Regina", with the other side having a depiction of a man in European garb shaking hands with a man in historical First Nation clothing with the inscription "Indian Treaty 187"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Medal-Viki.jpg/220px-Medal-Viki.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Medal-Viki.jpg/330px-Medal-Viki.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Medal-Viki.jpg/440px-Medal-Viki.jpg 2x" data-file-width="796" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>The Indian Chiefs Medal, presented to commemorate <a href="/wiki/Numbered_Treaties" title="Numbered Treaties">Treaties</a> <a href="/wiki/Treaty_3" title="Treaty 3">3</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treaty_4" title="Treaty 4">4</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treaty_5" title="Treaty 5">5</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treaty_6" title="Treaty 6">6</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_7" title="Treaty 7">7</a>, bearing the image of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Canada_and_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_Canada" title="Monarchy of Canada and the Indigenous peoples of Canada">Monarchy of Canada and the Indigenous peoples of Canada</a> began <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_European_colonization_of_North_America" title="Timeline of the European colonization of North America">interactions in North America</a> during the European colonization period. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 recognized aboriginal title and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Niagara" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Niagara">Treaty of Niagara</a> of 1764 bound the Crown and the Indigenous peoples of the Great Lakes basin together in a familial relationship, a relationship that exists to this day, exemplified by First Nations attendance at the coronation of <a href="/wiki/King_Charles_III" class="mw-redirect" title="King Charles III">King Charles III</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoteTidridge202443-145">[143]</a> Post-Confederation Canada adopted a paternalistic approach and imposed an approach as though the nation-to-nation relationship did not exist, administering relations solely under Canadian law.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] After Canada's acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Rupert%27s_Land" title="Rupert's Land">Rupert's Land</a> and the <a href="/wiki/North-Western_Territory" title="North-Western Territory">North-Western Territory</a> in 1870, the eleven <a href="/wiki/Numbered_Treaties" title="Numbered Treaties">Numbered Treaties</a> were imposed on the First Nations from 1871 to 1921. These treaties are agreements with the Crown administered by <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_law" title="Canadian Aboriginal law">Canadian Aboriginal law</a> and overseen by the <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Crown%E2%80%93Indigenous_Relations" title="Minister of Crown–Indigenous Relations">Minister of Crown–Indigenous Relations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a> Treaty rights would be recognized and incorporated into the 1982 Constitution. Many agreements signed before the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Confederation" title="Canadian Confederation">Confederation of Canada</a> are recognized in Canadian law, such as the <a href="/wiki/Peace_and_Friendship_Treaties" title="Peace and Friendship Treaties">Peace and Friendship Treaties</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Robinson_Treaties" title="Robinson Treaties">Robinson Treaties</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Treaties" title="Douglas Treaties">Douglas Treaties</a>, and many others, although many First Nations still have no treaty with the Crown recognizing their title, such as the Mikmaq, the Anishnaabe and several northern British Columbia nations.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] For many years, Canada did not negotiate with First Nations to address <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_claims_in_Canada" title="Indigenous land claims in Canada">their aboriginal title</a>. Canadian court judgments and political pressure led to a change in ways following the Canadian Centennial year. The first treaty implemented under the new framework was the <a href="/wiki/James_Bay_and_Northern_Quebec_Agreement" title="James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement">James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement</a> in 1970 between the Cree and Quebec. This was followed by the Inuvialuit Final Agreement in 1984 that led to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Inuvialuit_Settlement_Region" title="Inuvialuit Settlement Region">Inuvialuit Settlement Region</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[145]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Nunavut_Land_Claims_Agreement" title="Nunavut Land Claims Agreement">Nunavut Land Claims Agreement</a> of 1993 lead to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a>-majority territory of <a href="/wiki/Nunavut" title="Nunavut">Nunavut</a> later that decade. The Canadian Crown continues to sign new treaties with Indigenous peoples, notably though the <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Treaty_Process" title="British Columbia Treaty Process">British Columbia Treaty Process</a>.<a href="#cite_note-148">[146]</a> According to the First Nations–Federal Crown Political Accord, "cooperation will be a cornerstone for partnership between Canada and First Nations, wherein Canada is the short-form reference to <a href="/wiki/Style_of_the_British_sovereign" title="Style of the British sovereign">Her Majesty the Queen</a> in Right of Canada.<a href="#cite_note-FN-32">[31]</a> The Supreme Court of Canada argued that treaties "served to reconcile pre-existing Aboriginal sovereignty with assumed Crown sovereignty, and to define Aboriginal rights."<a href="#cite_note-FN-32">[31]</a> First Nations interpreted agreements covered in <a href="/wiki/Treaty_8" title="Treaty 8">Treaty 8</a> to last "as long as the sun shines, grass grows and rivers flow."<a href="#cite_note-149">[147]</a> However, the Canadian government has frequently breached the Crown's treaty obligations over the years, and tries to address these issues by negotiating <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_specific_land_claims_in_Canada" title="Indigenous specific land claims in Canada">specific land claim</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_Act">Indian Act</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Indian Act">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_Act" title="Indian Act">Indian Act</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crombie1983.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Colour photograph of former federal Indian affairs minister David Crombie speaking to reporters on the floor of the 1983 Progressive Conservative leadership convention" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Crombie1983.jpg/220px-Crombie1983.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Crombie1983.jpg/330px-Crombie1983.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Crombie1983.jpg/440px-Crombie1983.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption>Former federal Indian affairs minister <a href="/wiki/David_Crombie" title="David Crombie">David Crombie</a> was responsible for Bill C-31.</figcaption></figure> The Indian Act is Canadian law that dates from 1876. The Act replaced pre-Confederation Canadian laws, and was intended to administer the Indigenous people, and define Canadian interactions. Successive Canadian governments used its powers to impose conditions on the First Nations, and guide their integration into Canada. Today still, the Indian Act indicates how reserves and bands can operate and defines who is recognized as an "Indian."<a href="#cite_note-laws-151">[149]</a> There have been many updates to this law since then, allowing Canadian citizenship and voting rights among others.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1985, the Canadian Parliament passed Bill C-31, An Act to Amend the Indian Act. Because of a constitutional requirement, the bill took effect on April 17, 1985.<a href="#cite_note-bill-152">[150]</a> <ul><li>It ends discriminatory provisions of the Indian Act, especially those that discriminated against women.<a href="#cite_note-bill-152">[150]</a></li> <li>It changes the meaning of status and for the first time allows for limited reinstatement of Indians who were denied or lost status or band membership.<a href="#cite_note-bill-152">[150]</a></li> <li>It allows bands to define their own membership rules.<a href="#cite_note-bill-152">[150]</a></li></ul> Those people accepted into band membership under band rules may not be status Indians. C-31 clarified that various sections of the Indian Act apply to band members. The sections under debate concern community life and land holdings. Sections pertaining to Indians (First Nations peoples) as individuals (in this case, wills and taxation of personal property) were not included.<a href="#cite_note-bill-152">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Royal_Commission">Royal Commission</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Royal Commission">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Aboriginal_Peoples" title="Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples">Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TRC_in_the_Community_(Map_1)_without_captions.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/TRC_in_the_Community_%28Map_1%29_without_captions.svg/220px-TRC_in_the_Community_%28Map_1%29_without_captions.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/TRC_in_the_Community_%28Map_1%29_without_captions.svg/330px-TRC_in_the_Community_%28Map_1%29_without_captions.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/TRC_in_the_Community_%28Map_1%29_without_captions.svg/440px-TRC_in_the_Community_%28Map_1%29_without_captions.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1549" data-file-height="1028" /></a><figcaption>Map with areas labelled where the <a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Reconciliation_Commission_of_Canada" title="Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada">Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada</a> took part in outreach and statement gathering events over the impact of <a href="/wiki/Canadian_residential_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian residential schools">Canadian residential schools</a> with the Indigenous peoples of Canada</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Aboriginal_Peoples" title="Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples">Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Royal_commission" title="Royal commission">royal commission</a> undertaken by the Government of Canada in 1991 to address issues of the Aboriginal peoples of Canada.<a href="#cite_note-royal-153">[151]</a> It assessed past government policies toward Aboriginal people, such as residential schools, and provided policy recommendations to the government.<a href="#cite_note-Cairns200j0-154">[152]</a> The Commission issued its final report in November 1996. The five-volume, 4,000-page report covered a vast range of issues; its 440 recommendations called for sweeping changes to the interaction between Aboriginal, non-Aboriginal people and the governments in Canada.<a href="#cite_note-royal-153">[151]</a> The report "set out a 20-year agenda for change."<a href="#cite_note-McCaslinCentre2005fu-155">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_policy">Health policy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Health policy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_Health_Transfer_Policy" title="Indian Health Transfer Policy">Indian Health Transfer Policy</a></div> In 1995, the Government of Canada announced the Aboriginal Right to Self-Government Policy.<a href="#cite_note-156">[154]</a> This policy recognizes that First Nations and Inuit have the constitutional right to shape their own forms of government to suit their particular historical, cultural, political and economic circumstances. The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Health_Transfer_Policy" title="Indian Health Transfer Policy">Indian Health Transfer Policy</a> provided a framework for the assumption of control of health services by Aboriginal peoples, and set forth a developmental approach to transfer centred on self-determination in health.<a href="#cite_note-157">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[156]</a> Through this process, the decision to enter transfer discussions with <a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a> rests with each community. Once involved in transfer, communities can take control of health programme responsibilities at a pace determined by their individual circumstances and health management capabilities.<a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Aboriginal_Health_Organization" title="National Aboriginal Health Organization">National Aboriginal Health Organization</a> (NAHO) incorporated in 2000, was an Aboriginal-designed and-controlled not-for-profit body in Canada that worked to influence and advance the health and well-being of Aboriginal Peoples.<a href="#cite_note-WaldramHerring2006-160">[158]</a> Its funding was discontinued in 2012.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_organization">Political organization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Political organization">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Band_government" title="Band government">Band government</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Indigenous_organizations_in_Canada" title="History of Indigenous organizations in Canada">History of Indigenous organizations in Canada</a></div> First Nations and Inuit organizations ranged in size from <a href="/wiki/Band_society" title="Band society">band societies</a> of a few people to multi-nation confederacies like the Iroquois. First Nations leaders from across the country formed the <a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_First_Nations" title="Assembly of First Nations">Assembly of First Nations</a>, which began as the National Indian Brotherhood in 1968.<a href="#cite_note-price-161">[159]</a> The Métis and the Inuit are represented nationally by the <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_National_Council" title="Métis National Council">Métis National Council</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inuit_Tapiriit_Kanatami" title="Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami">Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami</a> respectively.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Today's political organizations have resulted from interaction with European-style methods of government through the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Interlocutor_for_M%C3%A9tis_and_Non-Status_Indians" title="Federal Interlocutor for Métis and Non-Status Indians">Federal Interlocutor for Métis and Non-Status Indians</a>. Indigenous political organizations throughout Canada vary in political standing, viewpoints, and reasons for forming.<a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a> First Nations, Métis and Inuit negotiate with the Government of Canada through <a href="/wiki/Crown%E2%80%93Indigenous_Relations_and_Northern_Affairs_Canada" title="Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada">Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada</a> in all affairs concerning land, entitlement, and rights.<a href="#cite_note-price-161">[159]</a> The First Nation groups that operate independently do not belong to these groups.<a href="#cite_note-price-161">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Culture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mythologies_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Mythologies of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Mythologies of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snow_Shoe_Maker_between_ca._1900-1930.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Black and white photo of a woman kneeling on the ground making a snowshoe. She is wearing a plaid shirt and white dress locking down at the snowshoe. Around her is four frames of snowshoe to be made leaning on a tippy," src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Snow_Shoe_Maker_between_ca._1900-1930.jpg/170px-Snow_Shoe_Maker_between_ca._1900-1930.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Snow_Shoe_Maker_between_ca._1900-1930.jpg/255px-Snow_Shoe_Maker_between_ca._1900-1930.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Snow_Shoe_Maker_between_ca._1900-1930.jpg/340px-Snow_Shoe_Maker_between_ca._1900-1930.jpg 2x" data-file-width="342" data-file-height="586" /></a><figcaption>Traditional <a href="/wiki/Snowshoe" title="Snowshoe">snowshoe</a> maker, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1900</figcaption></figure> Countless Indigenous words, inventions and games have become an everyday part of <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Canada" title="Languages of Canada">Canadian language</a> and use. The <a href="/wiki/Canoe" title="Canoe">canoe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snowshoe" title="Snowshoe">snowshoes</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Toboggan" title="Toboggan">toboggan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lacrosse" title="Lacrosse">lacrosse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tug_of_war" title="Tug of war">tug of war</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maple_syrup" title="Maple syrup">maple syrup</a> and tobacco are just a few of the products, inventions and games.<a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a> Some of the words include the <a href="/wiki/Barbecue" title="Barbecue">barbecue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reindeer" title="Reindeer">caribou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chipmunk" title="Chipmunk">chipmunk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Groundhog" title="Groundhog">woodchuck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hammock" title="Hammock">hammock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Skunk" title="Skunk">skunk</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Moose" title="Moose">moose</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Edinburgh-164">[162]</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_place_names_in_Canada_of_Indigenous_origin" title="List of place names in Canada of Indigenous origin">Many places in Canada</a>, both natural features and human habitations, use Indigenous names. The word Canada itself derives from the <a href="/wiki/Laurentian_language" title="Laurentian language">St. Lawrence Iroquoian</a> word meaning 'village' or 'settlement'.<a href="#cite_note-165">[163]</a> The province of Saskatchewan derives its name from the <a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan_River" title="Saskatchewan River">Saskatchewan River</a>, which in the Cree language is called Kisiskatchewani Sipi, meaning 'swift-flowing river'.<a href="#cite_note-places-166">[164]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ottawa" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a>, the name of Canada's capital city, comes from the <a href="/wiki/Algonquin_language" title="Algonquin language">Algonquin language</a> term adawe, meaning 'to trade'.<a href="#cite_note-places-166">[164]</a> Modern youth groups, such as <a href="/wiki/Scouts_Canada" title="Scouts Canada">Scouts Canada</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Girl_Guides_of_Canada" title="Girl Guides of Canada">Girl Guides of Canada</a>, include programs based largely on Indigenous lore, arts and crafts, character building and outdoor camp craft and living.<a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a> Aboriginal cultural areas depend upon their ancestors' primary <a href="/wiki/Society#Types" title="Society">lifeway</a>, or occupation, at the time of European contact. These culture areas correspond closely with <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Canada" title="Geography of Canada">physical and ecological</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_Canada" title="List of regions of Canada">regions of Canada</a>.<a href="#cite_note-three1-168">[166]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest_Coast" title="Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast">Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast</a> were centred around ocean and river fishing; in the interior of British Columbia, hunter-gatherer and river fishing. In both of these areas, the salmon was of chief importance. For the people of the plains, bison hunting was the primary activity. In the <a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">subarctic forest</a>, other species such as the moose were more important. For peoples near the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> and <a href="/wiki/St._Lawrence_River" title="St. Lawrence River">St. Lawrence River</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shifting_cultivation" title="Shifting cultivation">shifting agriculture</a> was practised, including the raising of <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bean" title="Bean">beans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cucurbita" title="Cucurbita">squash</a>.<a href="#cite_note-three2-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-three1-168">[166]</a> While for the Inuit, hunting was the primary source of food with <a href="/wiki/Pinniped" title="Pinniped">seals</a> the primary component of their diet.<a href="#cite_note-Searles-169">[167]</a> The caribou, fish, other <a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">marine mammals</a> and to a lesser extent plants, berries and seaweed are part of the <a href="/wiki/Inuit_cuisine" title="Inuit cuisine">Inuit diet</a>. One of the most noticeable symbols of <a href="/wiki/Inuit_culture" title="Inuit culture">Inuit culture</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Inuksuk" title="Inuksuk">inuksuk</a> is the emblem of the <a href="/wiki/Vancouver" title="Vancouver">Vancouver</a> <a href="/wiki/2010_Winter_Olympics" title="2010 Winter Olympics">2010 Winter Olympics</a>. Inuksuit are rock sculptures made by stacking stones; in the shape of a human figure, they are called inunnguaq.<a href="#cite_note-vancouver-170">[168]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsuu_Tsina_parade.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Colour photograph of Tsuu T'ina children in traditional costume on horseback at a Stampede Parade in front of an audience" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Tsuu_Tsina_parade.JPG/220px-Tsuu_Tsina_parade.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Tsuu_Tsina_parade.JPG/330px-Tsuu_Tsina_parade.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Tsuu_Tsina_parade.JPG/440px-Tsuu_Tsina_parade.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="908" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tsuu_T%27ina_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsuu T'ina Nation">Tsuu T'ina</a> children at a parade</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">Indian reserves</a>, established in <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Canada" title="Law of Canada">Canadian law</a> by treaties such as <a href="/wiki/Treaty_7" title="Treaty 7">Treaty 7</a>, are lands of First Nations recognized by non-Indigenous governments.<a href="#cite_note-171">[169]</a> Some reserves are within cities, such as the Opawikoscikan Reserve in <a href="/wiki/Prince_Albert,_Saskatchewan" title="Prince Albert, Saskatchewan">Prince Albert, Saskatchewan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wendake" title="Wendake">Wendake</a> in <a href="/wiki/Quebec_City" title="Quebec City">Quebec City</a> or <a href="/wiki/Enoch_Cree_Nation_135" title="Enoch Cree Nation 135">Enoch Cree Nation 135</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Edmonton_Metropolitan_Region" title="Edmonton Metropolitan Region">Edmonton Metropolitan Region</a>. There are more reserves in Canada than there are First Nations, which were ceded multiple reserves by treaty.<a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a> Aboriginal people currently work in a variety of occupations and may live outside their ancestral homes. The traditional cultures of their ancestors, shaped by nature, still exert a strong influence on them, from spirituality to political attitudes.<a href="#cite_note-three2-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-three1-168">[166]</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Indigenous_Peoples_Day" title="National Indigenous Peoples Day">National Indigenous Peoples Day</a> is a day of recognition of the cultures and contributions of the First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada. The day was first celebrated in 1996, after it was proclaimed that year, by then <a href="/wiki/Governor_General_of_Canada" title="Governor General of Canada">Governor General of Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rom%C3%A9o_LeBlanc" title="Roméo LeBlanc">Roméo LeBlanc</a>, to be celebrated on June 21 annually.<a href="#cite_note-history-15">[15]</a> Most provincial jurisdictions do not recognize it as a <a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Canada" title="Public holidays in Canada">statutory holiday</a>.<a href="#cite_note-history-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Languages">Languages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Languages">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous languages of the Americas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Canada#Indigenousl_languages" title="Languages of Canada">Languages of Canada § Indigenousl languages</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian Aboriginal syllabics</a></div> There are thirteen <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Canada#Indigenous_languages" title="Languages of Canada">Indigenous language groups</a>, eleven oral and two <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign</a>, in Canada, made up of more than sixty-five distinct dialects.<a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a> Of these, only <a href="/wiki/Cree_language" title="Cree language">Cree</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inuktitut" title="Inuktitut">Inuktitut</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwe</a> have a large enough population of fluent speakers to be considered viable to survive in the long term.<a href="#cite_note-online-174">[172]</a> Two of Canada's territories give official status to native languages. In Nunavut, <a href="/wiki/Inuktut" title="Inuktut">Inuktut</a>, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Inuit_languages" title="Inuit languages">Inuit language</a>, (Inuktitut and <a href="/wiki/Inuinnaqtun" title="Inuinnaqtun">Inuinnaqtun</a>) are official languages alongside the national languages of English and French.<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a> In the Northwest Territories, the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territories#Languages" title="Northwest Territories">Official Languages Act</a> declares that there are 11 different languages: <a href="/wiki/Chipewyan_language" title="Chipewyan language">Chipewyan</a>, Cree, English, French, <a href="/wiki/Gwich%CA%BCin_language" title="Gwichʼin language">Gwichʼin</a>, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, <a href="/wiki/Inuvialuktun" title="Inuvialuktun">Inuvialuktun</a>, North <a href="/wiki/Slavey_language" title="Slavey language">Slavey</a>, South Slavey, and <a href="/wiki/Dogrib_language" title="Dogrib language">Tłįchǫ</a>.<a href="#cite_note-178">[176]</a> Besides English and French, these languages are not vehicular in government; official status entitles citizens to receive services in them on request and to deal with the government in them.<a href="#cite_note-online-174">[172]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Aboriginal language </th> <th scope="col">No. of speakers </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">Mother tongue</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">Home language</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Cree_language" title="Cree language">Cree</a> </th> <td align="right">99,950 </td> <td align="right">78,855 </td> <td align="right">47,190 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Inuktitut" title="Inuktitut">Inuktitut</a> </th> <td align="right">35,690 </td> <td align="right">32,010 </td> <td align="right">25,290 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibway</a> </th> <td align="right">32,460 </td> <td align="right">24,190 </td> <td align="right">11,115 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Innu-aimun" title="Innu-aimun">Montagnais-Naskapi (Innu)</a> </th> <td align="right">11,815 </td> <td align="right">10,970 </td> <td align="right">9,720 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Dene_Suline" class="mw-redirect" title="Dene Suline">Dene</a> </th> <td align="right">11,130 </td> <td align="right">9,750 </td> <td align="right">7,490 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Oji-Cree_language" title="Oji-Cree language">Oji-Cree (Anihshininiimowin)</a> </th> <td align="right">12,605 </td> <td align="right">11,690 </td> <td align="right">8,480 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq_language" title="Mi'kmaq language">Mi'kmaq</a> </th> <td align="right">8,750 </td> <td align="right">7,365 </td> <td align="right">3,985 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Sioux_language" title="Sioux language">Siouan languages (Dakota/Sioux)</a> </th> <td align="right">6,495 </td> <td align="right">5,585 </td> <td align="right">3,780 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Atikamekw_language" title="Atikamekw language">Atikamekw</a> </th> <td align="right">5,645 </td> <td align="right">5,245 </td> <td align="right">4,745 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot</a> </th> <td align="right">4,915 </td> <td align="right">3,085 </td> <td align="right">1,575 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4">For a complete list see: <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Canada#Indigenous_languages" title="Languages of Canada">Spoken languages of Canada</a> </td></tr></tbody></table><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Source': <a href="/wiki/Statistics_Canada" title="Statistics Canada">Statistics Canada</a>, 2006 Census Profile of Federal Electoral Districts (2003 Representation Order): Language, Mobility and Migration and Immigration and Citizenship Ottawa, 2007, pp. 2, 6, 10.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visual_art">Visual art</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Visual art">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Visual_arts_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Visual arts of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Visual arts of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Metis_shawl.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A colour photograph of a young girl in a traditional shawl between two adults" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Metis_shawl.JPG/220px-Metis_shawl.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Metis_shawl.JPG/330px-Metis_shawl.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Metis_shawl.JPG/440px-Metis_shawl.JPG 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="334" /></a><figcaption>A young <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_people_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Métis people (Canada)">Métis</a> girl wearing a traditional <a href="/wiki/Shawl" title="Shawl">shawl</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Visual_arts_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Visual arts of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples were producing art</a> for thousands of years before the arrival of European <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonists</a> and the eventual establishment of Canada as a <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a>. Like the peoples who produced them, Indigenous art traditions spanned territories across North America. Indigenous art traditions are organized by art historians according to cultural, linguistic or regional groups: Northwest Coast, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northwest_Plateau" title="Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau">Plateau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">Plains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Eastern_Woodlands" title="Indigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlands">Eastern Woodlands</a>, Subarctic, and Arctic.<a href="#cite_note-art-179">[177]</a> Art traditions vary enormously amongst and within these diverse groups. Indigenous art with a focus on portability and the body is distinguished from European traditions and its focus on architecture. Indigenous visual art may be used in conjunction with other arts. Among Inuit the <a href="/wiki/Masks_among_Eskimo_peoples" title="Masks among Eskimo peoples">masks</a> and rattles of the <a href="/wiki/Angakkuq" title="Angakkuq">angakkuq</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">shaman</a>) are used ceremoniously in dance, storytelling and music.<a href="#cite_note-art-179">[177]</a> Artworks preserved in museum collections date from the period after European contact and show evidence of the creative adoption and adaptation of European trade goods such as metal and glass beads.<a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a> The distinct Métis cultures that have arisen from inter-cultural relationships with Europeans contribute culturally hybrid art forms.<a href="#cite_note-Hempstead2010-181">[179]</a> During the 19th and the first half of the 20th century the Canadian government pursued an active policy of <a href="/wiki/Forced_assimilation" title="Forced assimilation">forced</a> and cultural assimilation toward Indigenous peoples. The Indian Act banned manifestations of the <a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a>, the Potlatch, and works of art depicting them.<a href="#cite_note-IA1880-182">[180]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drumdance.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Female dancer in costume performing in front of an audience" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Drumdance.jpg/170px-Drumdance.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Drumdance.jpg/255px-Drumdance.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Drumdance.jpg/340px-Drumdance.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Dancer at Drum Dance Festival, <a href="/wiki/Gjoa_Haven" title="Gjoa Haven">Gjoa Haven</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nunavut" title="Nunavut">Nunavut</a></figcaption></figure> It was not until the 1950s and 1960s that Indigenous artists such as <a href="/wiki/Mungo_Martin" title="Mungo Martin">Mungo Martin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bill_Reid" title="Bill Reid">Bill Reid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norval_Morrisseau" title="Norval Morrisseau">Norval Morrisseau</a> began to publicly renew and re-invent Indigenous art traditions. Currently, there are Indigenous artists practising in all media in Canada and two Indigenous artists, Edward Poitras and <a href="/wiki/Rebecca_Belmore" title="Rebecca Belmore">Rebecca Belmore</a>, have represented Canada at the <a href="/wiki/Venice_Biennale" title="Venice Biennale">Venice Biennale</a> in 1995 and 2005 respectively.<a href="#cite_note-art-179">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Music">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_music_of_Canada" title="Indigenous music of Canada">Indigenous music of Canada</a></div> Indigenous peoples in Canada encompass diverse ethnic groups with their <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_music_of_Canada" title="Indigenous music of Canada">individual musical traditions</a>. Music is usually social (public) or ceremonial (private). Public, social music may be <a href="/wiki/Dance_music" title="Dance music">dance music</a> accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Rattle_(percussion_instrument)" title="Rattle (percussion instrument)">rattles</a> and drums. Private, ceremonial music includes vocal songs with accompaniment on percussion, used to mark occasions like Midewivin ceremonies and <a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dances</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Traditionally, Indigenous peoples used the materials at hand to make their instruments for centuries before Europeans immigrated to Canada.<a href="#cite_note-second-183">[181]</a> First Nations people made <a href="/wiki/Gourd" title="Gourd">gourds</a> and animal <a href="/wiki/Horn_(anatomy)" title="Horn (anatomy)">horns</a> into rattles, which were elaborately carved and brightly painted.<a href="#cite_note-PDF-184">[182]</a> In woodland areas, they made horns of <a href="/wiki/Birch_bark" title="Birch bark">birch bark</a> and <a href="/wiki/Percussion_mallet" title="Percussion mallet">drumsticks</a> of carved antlers and wood. Traditional percussion instruments such as drums were generally made of carved wood and animal <a href="/wiki/Hide_(skin)" title="Hide (skin)">hides</a>. These <a href="/wiki/Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">musical instruments</a> provide the background for songs, and songs the background for dances. Traditional First Nations people consider song and dance to be sacred. For years after Europeans came to Canada, First Nations people were forbidden to practice their ceremonies.<a href="#cite_note-IA1880-182">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-second-183">[181]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demography">Demography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Demography">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Population_of_Canada#Indigenous_peoples" title="Population of Canada">Population of Canada § Indigenous peoples</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_First_Nations_peoples_in_Canada" title="List of First Nations peoples in Canada">List of First Nations peoples in Canada</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reserves_in_Canada" title="List of Indian reserves in Canada">List of Indian reserves in Canada</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indigenous_population_by_census_division.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indigenous_population_by_census_division.svg/330px-Indigenous_population_by_census_division.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indigenous_population_by_census_division.svg/495px-Indigenous_population_by_census_division.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indigenous_population_by_census_division.svg/660px-Indigenous_population_by_census_division.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1032" /></a><figcaption>Percent reporting indigenous identity by census division as of the <a href="/wiki/2021_Canadian_census" title="2021 Canadian census">2021 census</a>.</figcaption></figure> There are three (<a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a>,<a href="#cite_note-First_Nations_Culture_Areas_Index-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a><a href="#cite_note-ICCcharter-4">[4]</a> and <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis#Métis_people_in_Canada" title="Métis">Métis</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToddThorntonCollins200110-5">[5]</a>) distinctive groups of Indigenous peoples that are recognized in the Canadian Constitution Act, 1982, <a href="/wiki/Section_25_of_the_Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms" title="Section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms">sections 25</a> and 35.<a href="#cite_note-defe-17">[17]</a> Under the <a href="/wiki/Employment_equity_(Canada)" title="Employment equity (Canada)">Employment Equity Act</a>, Aboriginal people are a designated group along with women, visible minorities, and persons with disabilities;<a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a> as such, they are neither a <a href="/wiki/Visible_minority" title="Visible minority">visible minority</a> under the Act or in the view of <a href="/wiki/Statistics_Canada" title="Statistics Canada">Statistics Canada</a>.<a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a> The <a href="/wiki/2016_Canadian_census" title="2016 Canadian census">2016 Canadian census</a> enumerated 1,673,785 Aboriginal people in Canada, 4.9% of the country's total population.<a href="#cite_note-Aboriginal_peoples_in_Canada_2016-187">[185]</a> This total includes 977,230 First Nations people, 587,545 Métis, and 65,025 Inuit. National representative bodies of Aboriginal people in Canada include the Assembly of First Nations, the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, the Métis National Council, the <a href="/wiki/Native_Women%27s_Association_of_Canada" title="Native Women's Association of Canada">Native Women's Association of Canada</a>, the National Association of <a href="/wiki/Native_Friendship_Centre" title="Native Friendship Centre">Native Friendship Centres</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Aboriginal_Peoples" title="Congress of Aboriginal Peoples">Congress of Aboriginal Peoples</a>.<a href="#cite_note-188">[186]</a> In 2016, Indigenous children ages zero to four accounted for 7.7% of those aged zero to four in Canada, and made up 51.2% of children in this age group living in <a href="/wiki/Foster_care" title="Foster care">foster care</a>.<a href="#cite_note-189">[187]</a> In the 20th century, the Aboriginal population of Canada increased tenfold.<a href="#cite_note-statcan_aboriginal_demographics-190">[188]</a> Between 1900 and 1950 the population grew by 29%. After the 1960s the <a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">infant mortality</a> level on reserves dropped dramatically.<a href="#cite_note-191">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-babies-192">[190]</a> Since the 1980s, the number of First Nations babies more than doubled and currently almost half of the First Nations population is under the age of 25.<a href="#cite_note-statcan_aboriginal_demographics-190">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-babies-192">[190]</a> Indigenous people assert that their <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereign rights</a> are valid, and point to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a>, which is mentioned in the Canadian Constitution Act, 1982, Section 25, the <a href="/wiki/British_North_America_Acts" title="British North America Acts">British North America Acts</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Convention_on_the_Law_of_Treaties" title="Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties">1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties</a> (to which Canada is a signatory) in support of this claim.<a href="#cite_note-193">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[192]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geographical_distribution">Geographical distribution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Geographical distribution">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Provinces_&_territories">Provinces & territories</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Provinces & territories">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Province / Territory </th> <th scope="col">Number </th> <th scope="col">%<a href="#cite_note-195">[a]</a> </th> <th scope="col">First Nations (Indian) </th> <th scope="col">Métis </th> <th scope="col">Inuit </th> <th scope="col">Multiple </th> <th scope="col">Other<a href="#cite_note-196">[b]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> </th> <td align="right">270,585</td> <td align="right">5.9%</td> <td align="right">172,520</td> <td align="right">89,405</td> <td align="right">1,615</td> <td align="right">4,350</td> <td align="right">2,695 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a> </th> <td align="right">258,640</td> <td align="right">6.5%</td> <td align="right">136,590</td> <td align="right">114,370</td> <td align="right">2,500</td> <td align="right">2,905</td> <td align="right">2,280 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan">Saskatchewan</a> </th> <td align="right">175,020</td> <td align="right">16.3%</td> <td align="right">114,565</td> <td align="right">57,875</td> <td align="right">360</td> <td align="right">1,305</td> <td align="right">905 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Manitoba" title="Manitoba">Manitoba</a> </th> <td align="right">223,310</td> <td align="right">18.0%</td> <td align="right">130,505</td> <td align="right">89,360</td> <td align="right">605</td> <td align="right">2,020</td> <td align="right">820 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> </th> <td align="right">374,395</td> <td align="right">2.8%</td> <td align="right">236,685</td> <td align="right">120,585</td> <td align="right">3,860</td> <td align="right">5,725</td> <td align="right">7,540 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a> </th> <td align="right">182,890</td> <td align="right">2.3%</td> <td align="right">92,650</td> <td align="right">69,360</td> <td align="right">13,940</td> <td align="right">2,760</td> <td align="right">4,170 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a> </th> <td align="right">29,385</td> <td align="right">4.0%</td> <td align="right">17,570</td> <td align="right">10,205</td> <td align="right">385</td> <td align="right">470</td> <td align="right">750 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a> </th> <td align="right">51,490</td> <td align="right">5.7%</td> <td align="right">25,830</td> <td align="right">23,315</td> <td align="right">795</td> <td align="right">835</td> <td align="right">720 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Prince_Edward_Island" title="Prince Edward Island">Prince Edward Island</a> </th> <td align="right">2,740</td> <td align="right">2.0%</td> <td align="right">1,870</td> <td align="right">710</td> <td align="right">75</td> <td align="right">20</td> <td align="right">65 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland and Labrador</a> </th> <td align="right">45,725</td> <td align="right">8.9%</td> <td align="right">28,370</td> <td align="right">7,790</td> <td align="right">6,450</td> <td align="right">560</td> <td align="right">2,560 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Yukon" title="Yukon">Yukon</a> </th> <td align="right">8,195</td> <td align="right">23.3%</td> <td align="right">6,690</td> <td align="right">1,015</td> <td align="right">225</td> <td align="right">160</td> <td align="right">105 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territories" title="Northwest Territories">Northwest Territories</a> </th> <td align="right">20,860</td> <td align="right">50.7%</td> <td align="right">13,180</td> <td align="right">3,390</td> <td align="right">4,080</td> <td align="right">155</td> <td align="right">55 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Nunavut" title="Nunavut">Nunavut</a> </th> <td align="right">30,550</td> <td align="right">85.9%</td> <td align="right">190</td> <td align="right">165</td> <td align="right">30,140</td> <td align="right">55</td> <td align="right">10 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Canada </th> <td align="right">1,673,780</td> <td align="right">4.9%</td> <td align="right">977,230</td> <td align="right">587,545</td> <td align="right">65,025</td> <td align="right">21,310</td> <td align="right">22,670 </td></tr> <tr class="sortbottom"> <td colspan="9">Source: 2016 Census<a href="#cite_note-197">[193]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> % of the provincial or territorial population that is Aboriginal </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Statistics_Canada" title="Statistics Canada">Statistics Canada</a>, this figure "Includes those who identified themselves as Registered Indians and/or band members without identifying themselves as North American Indian, Métis or Inuit in the Aboriginal identity question." </li> </ol></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographers</a> commonly classify Indigenous peoples of the Americas in the United States and Canada into ten geographical regions, <a href="/wiki/Classification_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Classification of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">cultural areas</a>, with shared cultural traits.<a href="#cite_note-198">[194]</a> The Canadian regions are: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Arctic cultural area</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eskaleut_languages" title="Eskaleut languages">Eskaleut languages</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Subarctic" title="Indigenous peoples of the Subarctic">Subarctic culture area</a> (<a href="/wiki/Na-Dene_languages" title="Na-Dene languages">Na-Dene languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic languages</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Eastern_Woodlands" title="Indigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlands">Eastern Woodlands (Northeast) cultural area</a> (<a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iroquoian_languages" title="Iroquoian languages">Iroquoian languages</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">Plains cultural area</a> (<a href="/wiki/Siouan_languages" title="Siouan languages">Siouan–Catawban languages</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northwest_Plateau" title="Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau">Northwest Plateau cultural area</a> (<a href="/wiki/Salishan_languages" title="Salishan languages">Salishan languages</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest_Coast" title="Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast">Northwest Coast cultural area</a> (<a href="/wiki/Penutian_languages" title="Penutian languages">Penutian languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tsimshianic_languages" title="Tsimshianic languages">Tsimshianic languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan languages</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Urban_population">Urban population</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Urban population">edit</a>]</div> Across Canada, 56% of Indigenous peoples live in urban areas. The urban Indigenous population is the fastest-growing population segment in Canada.<a href="#cite_note-aadnc-aandc.gc.ca-199">[195]</a> <table class="wikitable collapsible sortable"> <caption>Urban Indigenous Population (2001−2021) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/List_of_metropolitan_areas_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="List of metropolitan areas in Canada">Metro area</a> </th> <th rowspan="2">Province </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/2021_Canadian_census" title="2021 Canadian census">2021</a><a href="#cite_note-population2021-1">[1]</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/2011_Canadian_census" title="2011 Canadian census">2011</a><a href="#cite_note-population2011-200">[196]</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/2001_Canadian_census" title="2001 Canadian census">2001</a><a href="#cite_note-population2001-201">[197]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population"><abbr title="Population">Pop.</abbr></a> </th> <th><abbr title="percentage">%</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="Population">Pop.</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="percentage">%</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="Population">Pop.</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="percentage">%</abbr> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Winnipeg_Metropolitan_Region" title="Winnipeg Metropolitan Region">Winnipeg</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Manitoba" title="Manitoba">Manitoba</a> </td> <td>102,075 </td> <td>12.45% </td> <td>78,415 </td> <td>10.97% </td> <td>55,755 </td> <td>8.43% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Edmonton_Metropolitan_Region" title="Edmonton Metropolitan Region">Edmonton</a> </td> <td>Alberta </td> <td>87,600 </td> <td>6.27% </td> <td>61,770 </td> <td>5.42% </td> <td>40,930 </td> <td>4.42% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Metro_Vancouver_Regional_District" title="Metro Vancouver Regional District">Vancouver</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> </td> <td>63,340 </td> <td>2.43% </td> <td>52,375 </td> <td>2.3% </td> <td>36,860 </td> <td>1.87% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Calgary_Metropolitan_Region" title="Calgary Metropolitan Region">Calgary</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a> </td> <td>48,625 </td> <td>3.32% </td> <td>33,375 </td> <td>2.78% </td> <td>21,915 </td> <td>2.32% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Capital_Region_(Canada)" title="National Capital Region (Canada)">Ottawa-Gatineau</a> </td> <td>Ontario-Quebec </td> <td>46,540 </td> <td>3.18% </td> <td>30,570 </td> <td>2.51% </td> <td>13,485 </td> <td>1.28% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Greater_Montreal" title="Greater Montreal">Montreal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a> </td> <td>46,085 </td> <td>1.1% </td> <td>26,285 </td> <td>0.7% </td> <td>11,085 </td> <td>0.33% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Greater_Toronto_Area" title="Greater Toronto Area">Toronto</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ontario,_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontario, Canada">Ontario</a> </td> <td>44,635 </td> <td>0.73% </td> <td>36,990 </td> <td>0.67% </td> <td>20,300 </td> <td>0.44% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Saskatoon_metropolitan_area" title="Saskatoon metropolitan area">Saskatoon</a> </td> <td>Saskatchewan </td> <td>34,890 </td> <td>11.2% </td> <td>23,890 </td> <td>9.32% </td> <td>20,275 </td> <td>9.11% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Regina,_Saskatchewan" title="Regina, Saskatchewan">Regina</a> </td> <td>Saskatchewan </td> <td>24,520 </td> <td>10.01% </td> <td>19,785 </td> <td>9.55% </td> <td>15,685 </td> <td>8.25% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Greater_Victoria" title="Greater Victoria">Victoria</a> </td> <td>British Columbia </td> <td>19,455 </td> <td>5.01% </td> <td>14,200 </td> <td>4.22% </td> <td>8,695 </td> <td>2.83% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Greater_Sudbury" title="Greater Sudbury">Greater Sudbury</a> </td> <td>Ontario </td> <td>19,005 </td> <td>11.34% </td> <td>13,410 </td> <td>8.47% </td> <td>7,385 </td> <td>4.8% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Halifax,_Nova_Scotia" title="Halifax, Nova Scotia">Halifax</a> </td> <td>Nova Scotia </td> <td>18,850 </td> <td>4.09% </td> <td>9,655 </td> <td>2.51% </td> <td>3,525 </td> <td>0.99% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Prince_Albert,_Saskatchewan" title="Prince Albert, Saskatchewan">Prince Albert</a> </td> <td>Saskatchewan </td> <td>18,135 </td> <td>41.86% </td> <td>15,780 </td> <td>38.53% </td> <td>11,640 </td> <td>29.18% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Thunder_Bay" title="Thunder Bay">Thunder Bay</a> </td> <td>Ontario </td> <td>16,935 </td> <td>14% </td> <td>11,675 </td> <td>9.8% </td> <td>8,200 </td> <td>6.81% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hamilton,_Ontario" title="Hamilton, Ontario">Hamilton</a> </td> <td>Ontario </td> <td>15,420 </td> <td>1.99% </td> <td>11,980 </td> <td>1.69% </td> <td>7,270 </td> <td>1.11% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Metropolitan_Area" class="mw-redirect" title="Quebec Metropolitan Area">Quebec</a> </td> <td>Quebec </td> <td>14,725 </td> <td>1.8% </td> <td>6,450 </td> <td>0.86% </td> <td>4,130 </td> <td>0.61% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/London,_Ontario" title="London, Ontario">London</a> </td> <td>Ontario </td> <td>13,675 </td> <td>2.55% </td> <td>8,475 </td> <td>1.81% </td> <td>5,640 </td> <td>1.32% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Greater_Kelowna" title="Greater Kelowna">Kelowna</a> </td> <td>British Columbia </td> <td>13,420 </td> <td>6.14% </td> <td>8,255 </td> <td>4.68% </td> <td>3,950 </td> <td>2.71% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Prince_George,_British_Columbia" title="Prince George, British Columbia">Prince George</a> </td> <td>British Columbia </td> <td>13,100 </td> <td>14.9% </td> <td>9,930 </td> <td>11.98% </td> <td>7,980 </td> <td>9.43% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/St._Catharines" title="St. Catharines">St. Catharines</a> - <a href="/wiki/Niagara-on-the-Lake" title="Niagara-on-the-Lake">Niagara</a> </td> <td>Ontario </td> <td>13,080 </td> <td>3.07% </td> <td>8,850 </td> <td>2.3% </td> <td>4,970 </td> <td>1.34% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kamloops" title="Kamloops">Kamloops</a> </td> <td>British Columbia </td> <td>12,255 </td> <td>11.09% </td> <td>8,265 </td> <td>8.56% </td> <td>5,470 </td> <td>6.36% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Abbotsford,_British_Columbia" title="Abbotsford, British Columbia">Abbotsford-Mission</a> </td> <td>British Columbia </td> <td>10,525 </td> <td>5.48% </td> <td>6,970 </td> <td>4.18% </td> <td>4,215 </td> <td>2.91% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chilliwack" title="Chilliwack">Chilliwack</a> </td> <td>British Columbia </td> <td>10,515 </td> <td>9.43% </td> <td>8,340 </td> <td>9.24% </td> <td>4,015 </td> <td>5.81% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Oshawa" title="Oshawa">Oshawa</a> </td> <td>Ontario </td> <td>10,045 </td> <td>2.44% </td> <td>6,095 </td> <td>1.73% </td> <td>3,020 </td> <td>1.03% </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peoples">Peoples</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Peoples">edit</a>]</div> Canada census 2021.<a href="#cite_note-202">[198]</a> <ul><li>The abbreviation "n.o.s." means "not otherwise specified." This category includes responses indicating North American Indigenous origins, not otherwise specified (e.g., "Aboriginal," "Indigenous").</li> <li>The abbreviation "n.i.e." means "not included elsewhere." This category includes specific Anishinaabe origins, not included elsewhere (e.g., "Mississauga," "Nipissing").</li></ul> <table class="wikitable collapsible sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Single and multiple Indigenous ancestry responses (4A)4 </th> <th>Language group</th> <th>Total - Single or multiple Indigenous ancestry responses</th> <th>Single Indigenous ancestry responses </th> <th>Province/Territory<a href="#cite_note-203">[199]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Total </th> <td> </td> <td></td> <td align="right">2,082,515 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>North American Indigenous origins </td> <td> </td> <td align="right">2,204,475</td> <td align="right">2,082,515 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>North American Indigenous n.o.s. </td> <td> </td> <td align="right">194,840</td> <td align="right">193,105 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>First Nations (North American Indian) origins </td> <td> </td> <td align="right">1,426,950</td> <td align="right">1,307,280 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>First Nations (North American Indian) n.o.s. </td> <td> </td> <td align="right">632,340</td> <td align="right">613,125 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki">Abenaki</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> - <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Algonquian_languages" title="Eastern Algonquian languages">Eastern Algonquian</a> </td> <td align="right">18,420</td> <td align="right">16,310 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a> 89% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a> origins </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> - Ojibwe-<a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a> </td> <td align="right">189,710</td> <td align="right">152,640 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> 46.8%, Manitoba 19.7%, Quebec 17.4% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Apache" title="Apache">Apache</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan</a> - <a href="/wiki/Southern_Athabaskan_languages" title="Southern Athabaskan languages">Southern Athabascan</a> </td> <td align="right">1,265</td> <td align="right">995 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Atikamekw" title="Atikamekw">Atikamekw</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> - <a href="/wiki/Cree_language" title="Cree language">Cree</a>-<a href="/wiki/Innu-aimun" title="Innu-aimun">Montagnais</a>-<a href="/wiki/Naskapi_language" title="Naskapi language">Naskapi</a> </td> <td align="right">8,400</td> <td align="right">7,630 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a> 98.4% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_Confederacy" title="Blackfoot Confederacy">Blackfoot</a> origins </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> - Siksika </td> <td align="right">23,200</td> <td align="right">18,540 </td> <td>Alberta 65.6%, Ontario 15.5% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Iroquoian_languages" title="Iroquoian languages">Iroquoian</a> - Cherokee </td> <td align="right">10,825</td> <td align="right">9,120 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cheyenne" title="Cheyenne">Cheyenne</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> - Cheyenne </td> <td align="right">565</td> <td align="right">360 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Muskogean_languages" title="Muskogean languages">Muskogean</a> </td> <td align="right">685</td> <td align="right">485 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Cree</a> origins </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> - <a href="/wiki/Cree_language" title="Cree language">Cree</a>-<a href="/wiki/Innu-aimun" title="Innu-aimun">Montagnais</a>-<a href="/wiki/Naskapi_language" title="Naskapi language">Naskapi</a> </td> <td align="right">250,330</td> <td align="right">198,655 </td> <td>Alberta 28%, Saskatchewan 24.4%, Manitoba 17.3% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lenape" title="Lenape">Delaware</a> (Lenape) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> - <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Algonquian_languages" title="Eastern Algonquian languages">Eastern Algonquian</a> </td> <td align="right">1,180</td> <td align="right">810 </td> <td>Ontario 84.3% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dene" title="Dene">Dene</a> origins </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan</a> - <a href="/wiki/Northern_Athabaskan_languages" title="Northern Athabaskan languages">Northern Athabaskan languages</a> </td> <td align="right">47,565</td> <td align="right">33,960 </td> <td>British Columbia 29.2%, Northwest territories 20.4%, Saskatchewan 18.5%, Alberta 17.9% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gitxsan" title="Gitxsan">Gitxsan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tsimshianic_languages" title="Tsimshianic languages">Tsimshianic</a> </td> <td align="right">5,075</td> <td align="right">3,515 </td> <td>British Columbia 95.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Haida_people" title="Haida people">Haida</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Haida_language" title="Haida language">Haida</a> </td> <td align="right">4,725</td> <td align="right">3,680 </td> <td>British Columbia 86.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Haisla_people" title="Haisla people">Haisla</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan</a> - Northern </td> <td align="right">1,495</td> <td align="right">890 </td> <td>British Columbia 90.6% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Heiltsuk" title="Heiltsuk">Heiltsuk</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan</a> - Northern </td> <td align="right">1,620</td> <td align="right">1,065 </td> <td>British Columbia 97.8% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Wyandot_people" title="Wyandot people">Huron</a> (Wendat) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Iroquoian_languages" title="Iroquoian languages">Iroquoian</a> - Northern </td> <td align="right">15,915</td> <td align="right">12,460 </td> <td>Quebec 80.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Innu" title="Innu">Innu</a> origins </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> - <a href="/wiki/Cree_language" title="Cree language">Cree</a>-<a href="/wiki/Innu-aimun" title="Innu-aimun">Montagnais</a>-<a href="/wiki/Naskapi_language" title="Naskapi language">Naskapi</a> </td> <td align="right">28,960</td> <td align="right">25,155 </td> <td>Quebec 84.8% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Iroquoian_peoples" title="Iroquoian peoples">Iroquoian</a> (Haudenosaunee) origins </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Iroquoian_languages" title="Iroquoian languages">Iroquoian</a> - Northern </td> <td align="right">55,200</td> <td align="right">45,495 </td> <td>Ontorio 53.5%, Quebec 28.3% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kutenai" title="Kutenai">Ktunaxa</a> (Kutenai) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kutenai_language" title="Kutenai language">Kutenai</a> </td> <td align="right">810</td> <td align="right">565 </td> <td>British Columbia 82.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw" title="Kwakwakaʼwakw">Kwakwaka'wakw</a> origins </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan</a> - Northern </td> <td align="right">2,720</td> <td align="right">1,930 </td> <td>British Columbia 88.8% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Wolastoqiyik" title="Wolastoqiyik">Maliseet</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> - <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Algonquian_languages" title="Eastern Algonquian languages">Eastern Algonquian</a> </td> <td align="right">7,220</td> <td align="right">6,180 </td> <td>Quebec 42.5%,New Brunswick 41.3% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq" title="Mi'kmaq">Mi'kmaq</a> origins </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> - <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Algonquian_languages" title="Eastern Algonquian languages">Eastern Algonquian</a> </td> <td align="right">122,350</td> <td align="right">111,890 </td> <td>Newfoundland and Labrador 21.3%, Ontario 18.8%, Nova Scotia 18.1%, Quebec 16.6% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Navajo" title="Navajo">Navajo</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan</a> - <a href="/wiki/Southern_Athabaskan_languages" title="Southern Athabaskan languages">Southern Athabascan</a> </td> <td align="right">755</td> <td align="right">440 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nisga%27a" title="Nisga'a">Nisga'a</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tsimshianic_languages" title="Tsimshianic languages">Tsimshianic</a> </td> <td align="right">5,000</td> <td align="right">3,360 </td> <td>British Columbia 95.6% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth" title="Nuu-chah-nulth">Nuu-chah-nulth</a> origins </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan</a> - Southern </td> <td align="right">2,900</td> <td align="right">2,225 </td> <td>British Columbia 93.8% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nuxalk" title="Nuxalk">Nuxalk</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Salishan_languages" title="Salishan languages">Salishan</a> - <a href="/wiki/Nuxalk_language" title="Nuxalk language">Nuxalk</a> </td> <td align="right">1,055</td> <td align="right">615 </td> <td>British Columbia 98.6% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Passamaquoddy" title="Passamaquoddy">Passamaquoddy</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> - <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Algonquian_languages" title="Eastern Algonquian languages">Eastern Algonquian</a> </td> <td align="right">560</td> <td align="right">435 </td> <td>New Brunswick 66.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Salish_peoples" title="Salish peoples">Salish</a> origins </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Salishan_languages" title="Salishan languages">Salishan</a> </td> <td align="right">25,685</td> <td align="right">20,260 </td> <td>British Columbia 87.0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Salish n.o. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Salishan_languages" title="Salishan languages">Salishan</a> </td> <td align="right">2,225</td> <td align="right">1,510 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Coast_Salish" title="Coast Salish">Coast Salish</a> origins </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Salishan_languages" title="Salishan languages">Salishan</a> </td> <td align="right">13,040</td> <td align="right">10,290 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nlaka%27pamux" title="Nlaka'pamux">Interior Salish</a> origins </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Salishan_languages" title="Salishan languages">Salishan</a> </td> <td align="right">11,310</td> <td align="right">8,465 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Siouan origins </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Siouan_languages" title="Siouan languages">Siouan</a> </td> <td align="right">16,570</td> <td align="right">8,820 </td> <td>Saskatchewan 31.9%, Manitoba 25.4%, Alberta 21.8% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tsimshian" title="Tsimshian">Tsimshian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tsimshianic_languages" title="Tsimshianic languages">Tsimshianic</a> </td> <td align="right">4,945</td> <td align="right">3,110 </td> <td>British Columbia 94.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Wuikinuxv" title="Wuikinuxv">Wuikinuxv</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan</a> - Northern </td> <td align="right">195</td> <td align="right">70 </td> <td>British Columbia 86.7% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a> (North American Indian) origins n.i.e.35 </td> <td> </td> <td align="right">3,605</td> <td align="right">2,480 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a> origins </td> <td> </td> <td align="right">82,010</td> <td align="right">73,995 </td> <td>Nunavut 37.6%, Quebec 22.0%, Newfoundland and Labrador 12.5% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis" title="Métis">Métis</a> </td> <td> </td> <td align="right">560,335</td> <td align="right">508,135 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Non-Indigenous origins </td> <td> </td> <td align="right">35,343,280</td> <td align="right">1,155,115 </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 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education in Canada">Indigenous education in Canada</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> The words Aboriginal and Indigenous are capitalized when used in a Canadian context.<a href="#cite_note-v778-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-j729-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-s316-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-McKay-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-28">[28]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Indian is used here because of the historical nature of the article and the precision of the name, as with <a href="/wiki/Indian_hospital" title="Indian hospital">Indian hospital</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Indian-39">[38]</a> It was, and continues to be, used by government officials, Indigenous peoples and historians while referencing the school system. The use of the name also provides relevant context about the era in which the system was established, specifically one in which Indigenous peoples in Canada were homogeneously referred to as Indians rather than by language that distinguishes <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a> and <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis" title="Métis">Métis</a> peoples.<a href="#cite_note-Indian-39">[38]</a> Use of Indian is limited throughout the article to proper nouns and references to government legislation. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-population2021-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-population2021_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-population2021_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810026501">"Indigenous identity by Registered or Treaty Indian status: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts"</a>. www12.statcan.gc.ca. Government of Canada, <a href="/wiki/Statistics_Canada" title="Statistics Canada">Statistics Canada</a>. September 21, 2022. Retrieved September 21, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www12.statcan.gc.ca&rft.atitle=Indigenous+identity+by+Registered+or+Treaty+Indian+status%3A+Canada%2C+provinces+and+territories%2C+census+metropolitan+areas+and+census+agglomerations+with+parts&rft.date=2022-09-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww150.statcan.gc.ca%2Ft1%2Ftbl1%2Fen%2Ftv.action%3Fpid%3D9810026501&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-indian-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-indian_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-indian_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-indian_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-indian_2-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100714021655/http://www.aidp.bc.ca/terminology_of_native_aboriginal_metis.pdf">"Terminology of First Nations, Native, Aboriginal and Métis"</a> (PDF). Aboriginal Infant Development Programs of B.C. 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aidp.bc.ca/terminology_of_native_aboriginal_metis.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on July 14, 2010. 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Retrieved November 18, 2009. <q>Archaeological evidence, in fact, recognizes that people started to leave Beringia for the New World around 40,000 years ago, but rapid expansion into North America didn't occur until about 15,000 years ago, when the ice had literally broken</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=First+Americans+Endured+20%2C000-Year+Layover+%E2%80%93+Jennifer+Viegas%2C+Discovery+News&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdsc.discovery.com%2Fnews%2F2008%2F02%2F13%2Fberingia-native-american.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/02/13/beringia-native-american-02.html">page 2</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120313061401/http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/02/13/beringia-native-american-02.html">Archived</a> March 13, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-aaa-54"><a href="#cite_ref-aaa_54-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTammKivisildReidla2007" class="citation journal cs1">Tamm, Erika; Kivisild, Toomas; Reidla, Maere; et al. 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(2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120216073131/http://geopub.nrcan.gc.ca/moreinfo_e.php?id=214399">"Deglaciation of North America"</a>. Geological Survey of Canada Open File, 1574. 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John Macionis and Nijole v. Benokraitis and Bruce Ravelli"</a>. Aboriginal Identity: The Need for Historical and Contextual Perspectives. Vol. 24. Toronto, ON: Pearson/Prentice Hall. pp. 102–12. 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BBC. Retrieved February 25, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Canada+commission+issues+details+abuse+of+native+children&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2012-02-25&rft.au=Unattributed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld-us-canada-17161893&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenjoe2008" class="citation news cs1">Benjoe, Kerry (June 12, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120915023426/http://www2.canada.com/reginaleaderpost/news/story.html?id=2e362bf9-0f5a-43c6-ab5e-81a276b4767c">"Group gathers for Harper's apology"</a>. The Leader-Post. 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Retrieved October 2, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Leader-Post&rft.atitle=Group+gathers+for+Harper%27s+apology&rft.date=2008-06-12&rft.aulast=Benjoe&rft.aufirst=Kerry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.canada.com%2Freginaleaderpost%2Fnews%2Fstory.html%3Fid%3D2e362bf9-0f5a-43c6-ab5e-81a276b4767c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Borrows-142"><a href="#cite_ref-Borrows_142-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Borrows2006" class="citation web cs1">John Borrows (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2008/lcc-cdc/JL2-66-2006E.pdf">"Indigenous Legal Traditions in Canada"</a> (PDF). Report for the Law Commission of Canada. 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Connecticut Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-27497-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-27497-8"><bdi>978-0-313-27497-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Ethnohistorical+dictionary+of+the+Russian+and+Soviet+empires&rft.pub=Connecticut+Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-313-27497-8&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=James+Stuart&rft.au=Pappas%2C+Nicholas+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCquTz6ps5YgC%26q%3DYupik%2520of%2520Alaska%2520and%2520Siberia%2520do%2520not%2520consider%2520themselves%2520Inuit%26pg%3DPA213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2002" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Colin F. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1oqv8kf5bWUC&pg=PA10">The American Indian</a>. Running Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7624-1389-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7624-1389-8"><bdi>978-0-7624-1389-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Indian&rft.pub=Running+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7624-1389-8&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Colin+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1oqv8kf5bWUC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRay1996" class="citation book cs1">Ray, Arthur J. (1996). <a href="/wiki/History_of_Canada" title="History of Canada">I Have Lived Here Since The World Began: An Illustrated History of Canada's Native People</a>. Toronto, ON: Lester Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55263-633-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55263-633-6"><bdi>978-1-55263-633-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I+Have+Lived+Here+Since+The+World+Began%3A+An+Illustrated+History+of+Canada%27s+Native+People&rft.place=Toronto%2C+ON&rft.pub=Lester+Publishing&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-55263-633-6&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.aufirst=Arthur+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToddThorntonCollins2001" class="citation book cs1">Todd, Roy; Thornton, Martin; Collins, D. N. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ndPJEysK2O0C&pg=PA10">Aboriginal people and other Canadians: shaping new relationships</a>. University of Ottawa Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7766-0541-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7766-0541-8"><bdi>978-0-7766-0541-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aboriginal+people+and+other+Canadians%3A+shaping+new+relationships&rft.pub=University+of+Ottawa+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7766-0541-8&rft.aulast=Todd&rft.aufirst=Roy&rft.au=Thornton%2C+Martin&rft.au=Collins%2C+D.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DndPJEysK2O0C%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinchell1881" class="citation book cs1">Winchell, N.H. (1881). Ancient Copper Mines of Isle Royale. Vol. 19. New York: <a href="/wiki/Popular_Science" title="Popular Science">Popular Science</a> Monthly.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Copper+Mines+of+Isle+Royale&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Popular+Science+Monthly&rft.date=1881&rft.aulast=Winchell&rft.aufirst=N.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Canadian_history#Indigenous" title="Bibliography of Canadian history">Bibliography of Canadian history § Indigenous</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handbook_of_North_American_Indians" title="Handbook of North American Indians">Handbook of North American Indians</a>, ongoing 20-volume series generally edited by <a href="/wiki/William_C._Sturtevant" title="William C. Sturtevant">William C. Sturtevant</a>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1978–.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsch1998" class="citation book cs1">Asch, Michael (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9Uae4mTTyYYC&q=Aboriginal%20and%20treaty%20rights%20in%20Canada%20%3A%20essays%20on%20law%2C%20equality%2C%20and%20respect%20for%20differen&pg=PP1">Aboriginal and treaty rights in Canada: essays on law, equality, and respect for difference</a>. University of British Columbia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0581-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0581-0"><bdi>978-0-7748-0581-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aboriginal+and+treaty+rights+in+Canada%3A+essays+on+law%2C+equality%2C+and+respect+for+difference&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-0581-0&rft.aulast=Asch&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9Uae4mTTyYYC%26q%3DAboriginal%2520and%2520treaty%2520rights%2520in%2520Canada%2520%253A%2520essays%2520on%2520law%252C%2520equality%252C%2520and%2520respect%2520for%2520differen%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeavonVoyageurNewhouse2005" class="citation book cs1">Beavon, D; Voyageur, C; Newhouse, D (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u_KHdgEr61UC&q=Aboriginal%20peoples%20%20Canada&pg=PP1">Hidden in plain sight: contributions of Aboriginal peoples to Canadian</a>. University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8800-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8800-0"><bdi>978-0-8020-8800-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hidden+in+plain+sight%3A+contributions+of+Aboriginal+peoples+to+Canadian&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-8800-0&rft.aulast=Beavon&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Voyageur%2C+C&rft.au=Newhouse%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du_KHdgEr61UC%26q%3DAboriginal%2520peoples%2520%2520Canada%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorrows2002" class="citation book cs1">Borrows, John (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3c0x55W22qoC&q=law%20in%20%20Canada&pg=PP1">Recovering Canada: the resurgence of Indigenous law</a>. University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-3679-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-3679-7"><bdi>978-0-8020-3679-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recovering+Canada%3A+the+resurgence+of+Indigenous+law&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-3679-7&rft.aulast=Borrows&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3c0x55W22qoC%26q%3Dlaw%2520in%2520%2520Canada%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCairns2000" class="citation book cs1">Cairns, Alan (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Kjjn8Rvbk1UC&q=Aboriginal%20peoples%20%20Canada&pg=PP1">Citizens plus: aboriginal peoples and the Canadian state</a>. University of British Columbia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0767-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0767-8"><bdi>978-0-7748-0767-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Citizens+plus%3A+aboriginal+peoples+and+the+Canadian+state&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-0767-8&rft.aulast=Cairns&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKjjn8Rvbk1UC%26q%3DAboriginal%2520peoples%2520%2520Canada%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCardinal2004" class="citation book cs1">Cardinal, Tantoo (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XfUnl0yiW0gC&q=Canadian%20Aboriginals&pg=PP1">Our story: Aboriginal voices on Canada's past</a>. Doubleday Canada. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-66075-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-66075-4"><bdi>978-0-385-66075-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Our+story%3A+Aboriginal+voices+on+Canada%27s+past&rft.pub=Doubleday+Canada&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-385-66075-4&rft.aulast=Cardinal&rft.aufirst=Tantoo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXfUnl0yiW0gC%26q%3DCanadian%2520Aboriginals%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCavell2009" class="citation book cs1">Cavell, Edward (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/classicimagesofc00edwa_0">Classic Images of Canada's First Nations: 1850–1920</a>. Heritage House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-894974-64-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-894974-64-6"><bdi>978-1-894974-64-6</bdi></a>. <q>First nations of canada.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classic+Images+of+Canada%27s+First+Nations%3A+1850%E2%80%931920&rft.pub=Heritage+House&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-894974-64-6&rft.aulast=Cavell&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fclassicimagesofc00edwa_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2011" class="citation book cs1">Clark, Ella Elizabeth (October 5, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YbWB7HDOwCMC&pg=PP1">Indian Legends of Canada</a>. Random House Digital, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55199-512-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55199-512-0"><bdi>978-1-55199-512-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Legends+of+Canada&rft.pub=Random+House+Digital%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2011-10-05&rft.isbn=978-1-55199-512-0&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Ella+Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYbWB7HDOwCMC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickason1992" class="citation book cs1">Dickason, Olive Patricia (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M5KhH8l1ldMC&q=First%20nations%20of%20canada&pg=PP1">Canada's first nations: a history of founding peoples from earliest times</a>. University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2438-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2438-4"><bdi>978-0-8061-2438-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canada%27s+first+nations%3A+a+history+of+founding+peoples+from+earliest+times&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-2438-4&rft.aulast=Dickason&rft.aufirst=Olive+Patricia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM5KhH8l1ldMC%26q%3DFirst%2520nations%2520of%2520canada%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaschuk2013" class="citation book cs1">Daschuk, James W. (2013). <a href="/wiki/Clearing_the_Plains:_Disease,_Politics_of_Starvation,_and_the_Loss_of_Aboriginal_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Aboriginal Life">Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Aboriginal Life</a>. <a href="/wiki/Regina,_Saskatchewan" title="Regina, Saskatchewan">Regina, Saskatchewan</a>, Canada: University of Regina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-088977-296-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-088977-296-0"><bdi>978-088977-296-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Clearing+the+Plains%3A+Disease%2C+Politics+of+Starvation%2C+and+the+Loss+of+Aboriginal+Life&rft.place=Regina%2C+Saskatchewan%2C+Canada&rft.pub=University+of+Regina+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-088977-296-0&rft.aulast=Daschuk&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDupuis2002" class="citation book cs1">Dupuis, Renée (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IDtqbuKaRb8C&q=Aboriginal%20peoples%20%20Canada&pg=PP1">Justice for Canada's Aboriginal peoples</a>. James Lorimer and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55028-775-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55028-775-2"><bdi>978-1-55028-775-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Justice+for+Canada%27s+Aboriginal+peoples&rft.pub=James+Lorimer+and+Company&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-55028-775-2&rft.aulast=Dupuis&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9e&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIDtqbuKaRb8C%26q%3DAboriginal%2520peoples%2520%2520Canada%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElias1991" class="citation book cs1">Elias, Peter Douglas (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/developmentofabo0000elia">Development of aboriginal people's communities</a>. Captus Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-921801-51-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-921801-51-1"><bdi>978-0-921801-51-1</bdi></a>. <q>Aboriginal peoples Canada.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Development+of+aboriginal+people%27s+communities&rft.pub=Captus+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-921801-51-1&rft.aulast=Elias&rft.aufirst=Peter+Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdevelopmentofabo0000elia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnopf2008" class="citation book cs1">Knopf, Kerstin (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8-CyfD-Exc4C&q=Canadian%20Aboriginals&pg=PP1">Aboriginal Canada revisited</a>. University of Ottawa Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7766-0679-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7766-0679-8"><bdi>978-0-7766-0679-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aboriginal+Canada+revisited&rft.pub=University+of+Ottawa+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7766-0679-8&rft.aulast=Knopf&rft.aufirst=Kerstin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8-CyfD-Exc4C%26q%3DCanadian%2520Aboriginals%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Leacock, Stephen (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vDPhCLHXybsC&dq=Canadian%20History&pg=PP1">The Dawn of Canadian History: A Chronicle of Aboriginal Canada</a>, Dodo Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4099-4930-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-4099-4930-3">1-4099-4930-3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoovers2019" class="citation book cs1">Loovers, Jan Peter Laurens (2019). Reading Life with Gwich'in An Educational Approach. Oxon: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-86804-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-86804-7"><bdi>978-0-429-86804-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reading+Life+with+Gwich%27in+An+Educational+Approach&rft.place=Oxon&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-429-86804-7&rft.aulast=Loovers&rft.aufirst=Jan+Peter+Laurens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagocsi2002" class="citation book cs1">Magocsi, Robert (2002). Aboriginal peoples of Canada: a short introduction. University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-3630-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-3630-8"><bdi>978-0-8020-3630-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aboriginal+peoples+of+Canada%3A+a+short+introduction&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-3630-8&rft.aulast=Magocsi&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNockHaig-BroWN2006" class="citation book cs1">Nock, David; Haig-BroWN, Celia (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vxFzgKZ0LKoC&q=Canadian%20Aboriginals&pg=PP1">With good intentions: Euro-Canadian and Aboriginal relations in colonial Canada</a>. University of British Columbia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-1138-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-1138-5"><bdi>978-0-7748-1138-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=With+good+intentions%3A+Euro-Canadian+and+Aboriginal+relations+in+colonial+Canada&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-1138-5&rft.aulast=Nock&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Haig-BroWN%2C+Celia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvxFzgKZ0LKoC%26q%3DCanadian%2520Aboriginals%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPettipas1994" class="citation book cs1">Pettipas, Katherine (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/91800582">Serving the Ties That Bind: Government Repression of Indigenous Religious Ceremonies on the Prairies</a> (PDF). Manitoba Studies in Native American History. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88755-638-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-88755-638-8"><bdi>0-88755-638-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Serving+the+Ties+That+Bind%3A+Government+Repression+of+Indigenous+Religious+Ceremonies+on+the+Prairies&rft.place=Winnipeg&rft.series=Manitoba+Studies+in+Native+American+History&rft.pub=University+of+Manitoba+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-88755-638-8&rft.aulast=Pettipas&rft.aufirst=Katherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F91800582&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External 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Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/aboriginal-heritage/Pages/introduction.aspx">Aboriginal Heritage Resources and Services</a> – Library and Archives Canada</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.museevirtuel-virtualmuseum.ca/Search.do?Ntk=SearchAll_EN&Ntx=mode%2Bmatchallany&Ntt=Aboriginal&QSo=Search&ex=on">Aboriginal Virtual Exhibits</a> – Virtual Museum of Canada</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080218001822/http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-73-1238/politics_economy/aboriginal_treaty_rights/">Battle for Aboriginal Treaty Rights</a> – Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (Digital Archives)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/aborig/fp/fpint01e.shtml">First Peoples of Canada</a> – The Canadian Museum of Civilization</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040603022752/http://www.canadiana.org/citm/themes/aboriginals_e.html">"Aboriginals: Treaties and Relations"</a>. Canada in the Making. Canadiana.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.canadiana.org/citm/themes/aboriginals_e.html">the original</a> on June 3, 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Canada+in+the+Making&rft.atitle=Aboriginals%3A+Treaties+and+Relations&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.canadiana.org%2Fcitm%2Fthemes%2Faboriginals_e.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+peoples+in+Canada" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305005704/http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100029169/1100100029170">Map of historical territory treaties</a> – Natural Resources Canada</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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href="/wiki/Berber_Canadians" title="Berber Canadians">Berber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Canadians" title="Algerian Canadians">Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Canadians" title="Libyan Canadians">Libyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Canadians" title="Moroccan Canadians">Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Canadians" title="Tunisian Canadians">Tunisian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_Canadians" title="Coptic Canadians">Coptic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Canadians" title="Egyptian Canadians">Egyptian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">East Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Sudanese_Canadians" title="South Sudanese Canadians">South Sudanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Canadians" title="Sudanese Canadians">Sudanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Southern Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Canadians" title="South African Canadians">South African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwean_Canadians" title="Zimbabwean Canadians">Zimbabwean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">West Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_Canadians" title="Ghanaian Canadians">Ghanaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Canadians" title="Nigerian Canadians">Nigerian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Canadians" title="Igbo Canadians">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Canadians" title="Yoruba Canadians">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Canadians" title="American Canadians">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Canadians" title="Mexican Canadians">Mexican</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Caribbean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbadian_Canadians" title="Barbadian Canadians">Barbadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuban Canadians">Cuban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Dominican Canadians">Dominican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyanese_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Guyanese Canadians">Guyanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Canadians" title="Haitian Canadians">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Canadians" title="Jamaican Canadians">Jamaican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Rican Canadians">Puerto Rican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidadian_and_Tobagonian_Canadians" title="Trinidadian and Tobagonian Canadians">Trinidadian and Tobagonian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Central and South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Argentine Canadians">Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Brazilian Canadians">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilean_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Chilean Canadians">Chilean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Colombian Canadians">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Guatemalan Canadians">Guatemalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Peruvian Canadians">Peruvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Salvadoran Canadians">Salvadoran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguayan_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Uruguayan Canadians">Uruguayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Venezuelan Canadians">Venezuelan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asian_Canadians" title="Asian Canadians">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/West_Asian_Canadians" title="West Asian Canadians">Central Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Canadians" title="Afghan Canadians">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Canadians" title="Kazakh Canadians">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_Canadians" title="Tajik Canadians">Tajik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_Canadians" title="Tatar Canadians">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_Canadians" title="Uzbek Canadians">Uzbek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Canadians" title="East Asian Canadians">East Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Canadians" title="Chinese Canadians">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Canadians" title="Hong Kong Canadians">Hong Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Canadians" title="Japanese Canadians">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Canadians" title="Korean Canadians">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Canadians" title="Mongolian Canadians">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Canadians" title="Taiwanese Canadians">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Canadians" title="Tibetan Canadians">Tibetan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Canadians" title="South Asian Canadians">South Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshi_Canadians" title="Bangladeshi Canadians">Bangladeshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Canadians">Indian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Indian_Canadians" title="Anglo-Indian Canadians">Anglo-Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Canadians" title="Tamil Canadians">Tamil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_Canadians" title="Nepalese Canadians">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_Canadians" title="Pakistani Canadians">Pakistani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Canadians" title="Punjabi Canadians">Punjabi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_people_in_Canada" title="Romani people in Canada">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Canadians" title="Sri Lankan Canadians">Sri Lankan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asian_Canadians" title="Southeast Asian Canadians">Southeast Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Canadians" title="Cambodian Canadians">Cambodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filipino_Canadians" title="Filipino Canadians">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_Canadians" title="Indonesian Canadians">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laotian_Canadians" title="Laotian Canadians">Laotian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Canadians" title="Malaysian Canadians">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Canadians" title="Singaporean Canadians">Singaporean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_Canadians" title="Thai Canadians">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Canadians" title="Vietnamese Canadians">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/West_Asian_Canadians" title="West Asian Canadians">West Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Canadians" title="Arab Canadians">Arab</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Canadians" title="Iraqi Canadians">Iraqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Canadians" title="Jordanian Canadians">Jordanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Canadians" title="Lebanese Canadians">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Canadians" title="Palestinian Canadians">Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Canadians" title="Saudi Canadians">Saudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Canadians" title="Syrian Canadians">Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Canadians" title="Yemeni Canadians">Yemeni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Canadians" title="Armenian Canadians">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Canadians" title="Assyrian Canadians">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_Canadians" title="Azerbaijani Canadians">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Canadians" title="Iranian Canadians">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Canada" title="History of the Jews in Canada">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Canadians" title="Israeli Canadians">Israeli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Canadians" title="Kurdish Canadians">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Canadians" title="Turkish Canadians">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/European_Canadians" title="European Canadians">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Central Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Canadians" title="Austrian Canadians">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Canadians" title="Czech Canadians">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Canadians" title="German Canadians">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Canadians" title="Hungarian Canadians">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Canadians" title="Polish Canadians">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Canadians" title="Slovak Canadians">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_Canadians" title="Slovene Canadians">Slovenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Canadians" title="Swiss Canadians">Swiss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Eastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Canadians" title="Belarusian Canadians">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Canadians" title="Russian Canadians">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Canadians" title="Ukrainian Canadians">Ukrainian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Northern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_and_Scandinavian_Canadians" title="Nordic and Scandinavian Canadians">Nordic and Scandinavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Canadians" title="Danish Canadians">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Canadians" title="Finnish Canadians">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_Canadians" title="Icelandic Canadians">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Canadians" title="Norwegian Canadians">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Canadians" title="Swedish Canadians">Swedish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_Canadians" title="Estonian Canadians">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_Canadians" title="Latvian Canadians">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Canadians" title="Lithuanian Canadians">Lithuanian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Southeast Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian Canadians">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Canadians" title="Bosnian Canadians">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Canadians" title="Bulgarian Canadians">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_Canadians" title="Croatian Canadians">Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Canadians" title="Greek Canadians">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Canadians" title="Macedonian Canadians">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_Canadians" title="Montenegrin Canadians">Montenegrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Canadians" title="Romanian Canadians">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Canadians" title="Serbian Canadians">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Canadians" title="Yugoslav Canadians">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Southern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Canadians" title="Italian Canadians">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Canadians" title="Maltese Canadians">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Canadians" title="Portuguese Canadians">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Canadians" title="Spanish Canadians">Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basque_Canadians" title="Basque Canadians">Basque</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Western Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Canadians" title="Belgian Canadians">Belgian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flemish_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Flemish Canadians">Flemish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Canadians" title="British Canadians">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_Canadians" title="Cornish Canadians">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Canadians" title="English Canadians">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotch-Irish_Canadians" title="Scotch-Irish Canadians">Scotch-Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Canadians" title="Scottish Canadians">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Canadians" title="Welsh Canadians">Welsh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Canadians" title="Dutch Canadians">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Canadians" title="French Canadians">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acadians" title="Acadians">Acadians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_Canadians" title="Breton Canadians">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois_people" title="Québécois people">Québécois</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Canadian" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish Canadian">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Canadians" title="Luxembourgish Canadians">Luxembourger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_Canadians" title="Oceanian Canadians">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Canadians" title="Australian Canadians">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanaka_(Pacific_Island_worker)" title="Kanaka (Pacific Island worker)">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Canadians" title="New Zealand Canadians">New Zealander</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background: #FFDD99"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Template:Indigenous peoples of the Americas"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Template talk:Indigenous peoples of the Americas"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous peoples of the Americas"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFDD99;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;background:#FFDD99">Pre-history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classification_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Classification of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_the_Americas" title="Archaeology of the Americas">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solutrean_hypothesis" title="Solutrean hypothesis">Solutrean hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Americas_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/120px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/180px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/240px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFDD99;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;background:#FFDD99">Mythology/Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mythologies_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Mythologies of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Mythologies</a>‎ <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_deities" title="List of Native American deities">List of deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice_in_pre-Columbian_cultures" title="Human sacrifice in pre-Columbian cultures">Human sacrifice</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arborglyph" title="Arborglyph">Arborglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_World_(mythology)" title="Fifth World (mythology)">Fifth World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Spirit" title="Great Spirit">Great Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_man" title="Medicine man">Medicine man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_wheel" title="Medicine wheel">Medicine wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_red_road" title="The red road">The red road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totem_pole" title="Totem pole">Totem pole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turtle_Island" title="Turtle Island">Turtle Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99">Mesoamerica</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99">Common</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_cosmovision" title="Mesoamerican cosmovision">Cosmovision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_creation_myths" title="Mesoamerican creation myths">Creation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_religion" title="Mesoamerican religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_world_tree" title="Mesoamerican world tree">World tree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99">Variations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_religion" title="Olmec religion">Olmec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Inca_Empire" title="Religion in the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_religion" title="Mapuche religion">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_religion" title="Muisca religion">Muisca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFDD99;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;background:#FFDD99"><a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_cultures" title="List of pre-Columbian cultures">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andean_civilizations" title="Andean civilizations">Andes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_cultures_of_Colombia" title="Pre-Columbian cultures of Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_Ecuador" title="Pre-Columbian Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodization_of_pre-Columbian_Peru" title="Periodization of pre-Columbian Peru">Peru</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Art" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_art" title="Pre-Columbian art">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_music_of_North_America" title="Indigenous music of North America">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Visual arts of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Visual arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Painting_in_the_Americas_before_European_colonization" title="Painting in the Americas before European colonization">Painting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_artists_of_the_Americas" title="List of Indigenous artists of the Americas">Artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_writers_of_the_Americas" title="List of Indigenous writers of the Americas">Writers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFDD99;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;background:#FFDD99">European colonization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFDD99;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;background:#FFDD99">Modern groups by country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas#North_America" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas#Belize" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Belize</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Costa_Rica" title="Indigenous peoples of Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinago" title="Kalinago">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipil_people" title="Pipil people">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Inuit" title="Greenlandic Inuit">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Guatemala" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous peoples of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Honduras" title="Indigenous peoples of Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Jamaica" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous peoples of Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Mexico" title="Indigenous peoples of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Nicaragua" title="Indigenous peoples of Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Panama" title="Indigenous peoples of Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Rosa_First_Peoples_Community" title="Santa Rosa First Peoples Community">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_South_America" title="Indigenous peoples of South America">South America</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_peoples_of_South_America" title="List of Indigenous peoples of South America">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Argentina" title="Indigenous peoples in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Bolivia" title="Indigenous peoples in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Brazil" title="Indigenous peoples in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Chile" title="Indigenous peoples in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Colombia" title="Indigenous peoples in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Ecuador" title="Indigenous peoples in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Guyana" title="Indigenous peoples in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Paraguay" title="Indigenous peoples in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Peru" title="Indigenous peoples of Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Suriname" title="Indigenous peoples in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Uruguay" title="Indigenous peoples in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Venezuela" title="Indigenous peoples in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFDD99;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;background:#FFDD99">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_ethnobotany" title="Native American ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_ethnobotany" title="Cherokee ethnobotany">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_ethnobotany" title="Iroquois ethnobotany">Iroquois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_ethnobotany" title="Navajo ethnobotany">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_ethnobotany" title="Zuni ethnobotany">Zuni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States" title="Native American identity in the United States">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_movements_in_the_Americas" title="Indigenous movements in the Americas">Movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_studies" title="Native American studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_trade" title="Native American trade">Trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deerskin_trade" title="Deerskin trade">Deerskin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_popular_culture" title="Native Americans in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #FFDD99"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Category:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q863284#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q863284#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q863284#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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17 Template:Sfn"," 4.85% 108.656 1 Template:Ubl"," 4.70% 105.154 1 Template:Indigenous_peoples_of_Canada"," 4.50% 100.700 12 Template:Fix"," 4.43% 99.092 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.478","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":23575636,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n [\"text\"] = \"Indigenous North Americas\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAlbers2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArmitage1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAsch1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarkwellDorionHourie2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarkwellDorionPrefontaine2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeavonVoyageurNewhouse2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenjoe2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlain1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorrows2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBranch\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuckley1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurenhult2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCairns2000\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCameron1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCardinal2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarlson,_Keith_Thor1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarter,_Sarah1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCavell2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCharlesDeGane2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristian_LeuprechtPeter_H._Russell2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClark2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCordellLightfootMcManamonMilner2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoteTidridge2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrowe2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarnell2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaschuk2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDhamoon2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDickason1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDorsett1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDupuis2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDykeMooreRobertson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDykePrest1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwards2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElias1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElizabeth_II2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFagan1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFagan2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaganDurrani2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFirst_Nations_\u0026amp;_Inuit_Health_Branch2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFitzhugh2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFladmark1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriesen1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoddard,_Ives1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoebelWatersO\u0026#039;Rourke2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGulløv2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrisTuttleTuttle2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarroun_Foster2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHempstead2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHesselHessel,_Dieter1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHillerman1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHirschfelderBeamer2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoughton_Mifflin_Company2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoward1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFImbrieImbrie1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacklinWarry2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJameson1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoeChoyce2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Borrows2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJordan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKalmanMills2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaufman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennettKennettWest2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKleivan1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnopf2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeerDoug_HitchJohn_Ritter2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemchuk-Favel1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLepper1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoovers2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacDonaldHudson2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacklem2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagocsi2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCaslinUniversity_of_Saskatchewan._Native_Law_Centre2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGhee1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKay2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNeil1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeltzer2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerchant2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilloy1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMinogue2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewhouse\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNockHaig-BroWN2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOhio_Historical_Society2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlsonPappas1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatterson1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPettipas1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPielou1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPopic2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrice1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPriceFeinman2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrine2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRay1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRestoule2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReynolds2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReynoldsMacKinnonMacDonald\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRigby\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRinella2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSearles2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSigurðardóttirHelgasonGulcherStefansson2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanley2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStevenson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTammKivisildReidla2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTitley1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToddThorntonCollins2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTodorova2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTriggerPendergast1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuck1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurchinGrininKorotayevde_Munck2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnattributed2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_Nations_Committee_on_the_Elimination_of_Racial_Discrimination\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWade2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaldramHerringYoung2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWellsRead2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilleyPhillips1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinchell1881\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolf1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodcock1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoolford2009\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 4,\n [\"=\"] = 1,\n [\"Abbr\"] = 6,\n [\"Annotated image\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotation\"] = 3,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"CAD\"] = 1,\n [\"Center\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 84,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 17,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 107,\n [\"Clear\"] = 2,\n [\"Cn\"] = 9,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Indigenous Peoples In Canada\"] = 1,\n [\"Dubious\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 2,\n [\"Further\"] = 5,\n [\"Hs\"] = 14,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"Indigenous peoples of Canada\"] = 1,\n [\"Indigenous peoples of the Americas\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox ethnic group\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 8,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"People of Canada\"] = 1,\n [\"Percentage\"] = 72,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n 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