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id="toc-Lwów–Warsaw" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lwów–Warsaw"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Lwów–Warsaw</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lwów–Warsaw-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Frege" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frege"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Frege</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frege-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Logic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Logic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Number" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Number"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Number</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Number-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Russell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Paradox" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paradox"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Paradox</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paradox-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_Denoting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_Denoting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>On Denoting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_Denoting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Principia_Mathematica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Principia_Mathematica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span><i>Principia Mathematica</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Principia_Mathematica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ideal_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ideal_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Ideal language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ideal_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Logical_atomism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logical_atomism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Logical atomism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logical_atomism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Wittgenstein" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Wittgenstein"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1.1</span> <span>Early Wittgenstein</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Wittgenstein-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logical_positivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logical_positivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span> <span>Logical positivism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logical_positivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ordinary_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ordinary_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Ordinary language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ordinary_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Later_Wittgenstein" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_Wittgenstein"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.1</span> <span>Later Wittgenstein</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_Wittgenstein-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oxford_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxford_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.2</span> <span>Oxford philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxford_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spread_of_Analytic_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spread_of_Analytic_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Spread of Analytic philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spread_of_Analytic_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Australia_and_New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia_and_New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.1</span> <span>Australia and New Zealand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia_and_New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Finland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.2</span> <span>Finland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_analytic_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_analytic_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Contemporary analytic philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary_analytic_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Contemporary analytic philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_analytic_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Metaphysics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metaphysics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Metaphysics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metaphysics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Decline_of_logical_positivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_of_logical_positivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Decline of logical positivism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline_of_logical_positivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sellars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sellars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1.1</span> <span>Sellars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sellars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1.2</span> <span>Quine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kripke" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kripke"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1.3</span> <span>Kripke</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kripke-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-David_Lewis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#David_Lewis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1.4</span> <span>David Lewis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-David_Lewis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Universals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Universals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Universals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Universals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mereology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mereology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Mereology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mereology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Free_will_and_determinism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free_will_and_determinism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>Free will and determinism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free_will_and_determinism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.5</span> <span>Personal identity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Principle_of_sufficient_reason" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Principle_of_sufficient_reason"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.6</span> <span>Principle of sufficient reason</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Principle_of_sufficient_reason-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_time" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_time"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.7</span> <span>Philosophy of time</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_time-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logical_pluralism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logical_pluralism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.8</span> <span>Logical pluralism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logical_pluralism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epistemology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epistemology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Epistemology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epistemology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Justification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Justification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Justification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Justification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gettier" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gettier"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1.1</span> <span>Gettier</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gettier-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1.2</span> <span>Theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Internalism_and_externalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internalism_and_externalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1.2.1</span> <span>Internalism and externalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internalism_and_externalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Problem_of_the_Criterion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Problem_of_the_Criterion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Problem of the Criterion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Problem_of_the_Criterion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Truth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Truth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Truth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Truth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Closure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Closure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>Closure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Closure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Induction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Induction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.5</span> <span>Induction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Induction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_topics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_topics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.6</span> <span>Other topics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_topics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Meta-ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meta-ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Meta-ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meta-ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Principia_Ethica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Principia_Ethica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1.1</span> <span><i>Principia Ethica</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Principia_Ethica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emotivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emotivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1.2</span> <span>Emotivism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emotivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1.3</span> <span>Critics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Normative_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Normative_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Normative ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Normative_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consequentialism,_or_Utilitarianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consequentialism,_or_Utilitarianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2.1</span> <span>Consequentialism, or Utilitarianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consequentialism,_or_Utilitarianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Virtue_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Virtue_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2.2</span> <span>Virtue ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Virtue_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deontology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deontology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2.3</span> <span>Deontology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deontology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applied_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applied_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Applied ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applied_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Political philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Liberalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liberalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Liberalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liberalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analytical_Marxism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analytical_Marxism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Analytical Marxism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analytical_Marxism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communitarianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communitarianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3</span> <span>Communitarianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communitarianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aesthetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aesthetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Aesthetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aesthetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Philosophy of language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Semantics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semantics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.1</span> <span>Semantics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semantics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pragmatics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pragmatics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.2</span> <span>Pragmatics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pragmatics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_mind_and_cognitive_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_mind_and_cognitive_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Philosophy of mind and cognitive science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_mind_and_cognitive_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Physicalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physicalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.1</span> <span>Physicalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physicalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Behaviorism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Behaviorism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.1.1</span> <span>Behaviorism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Behaviorism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Type_Identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Type_Identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.1.2</span> <span>Type Identity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Type_Identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functionalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functionalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.1.3</span> <span>Functionalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functionalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eliminativism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eliminativism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.1.4</span> <span>Eliminativism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eliminativism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dualism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dualism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.2</span> <span>Dualism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dualism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories_of_consciousness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories_of_consciousness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.3</span> <span>Theories of consciousness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theories_of_consciousness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Philosophy of mathematics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Platonism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Platonism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.1</span> <span>Platonism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Platonism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Critics_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critics_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.1.1</span> <span>Critics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critics_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intuitionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intuitionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.2</span> <span>Intuitionism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intuitionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.3</span> <span>Formalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Philosophy of religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reformed_epistemology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reformed_epistemology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9.1</span> <span>Reformed epistemology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reformed_epistemology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analytic_Thomism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analytic_Thomism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9.2</span> <span>Analytic Thomism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analytic_Thomism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthodox" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthodox"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9.3</span> <span>Orthodox</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthodox-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wittgenstein_and_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wittgenstein_and_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9.4</span> <span>Wittgenstein and religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wittgenstein_and_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Philosophy of science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Confirmation_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confirmation_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10.1</span> <span>Confirmation theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confirmation_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Falsification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Falsification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10.2</span> <span>Falsification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Falsification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Confirmation_holism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confirmation_holism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10.3</span> <span>Confirmation holism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confirmation_holism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constructivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constructivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10.4</span> <span>Constructivism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constructivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10.5</span> <span>Biology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Books_and_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books_and_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Books and articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books_and_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Analytic philosophy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 70 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-70" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">70 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analitiese_filosofie" title="Analitiese filosofie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Analitiese filosofie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="فلسفة تحليلية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فلسفة تحليلية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AE%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%93%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Վերլուծական Փիլիսոփայութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Վերլուծական Փիլիսոփայութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_anal%C3%ADtica" title="Filosofía analítica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Filosofía analítica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analitik_f%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99" title="Analitik fəlsəfə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Analitik fəlsəfə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="آنالیتیک فلسفه – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آنالیتیک فلسفه" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="বিশ্লেষণী দর্শন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিশ্লেষণী দর্শন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Аналітычная філасофія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аналітычная філасофія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аналитична философия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Аналитична философия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_anal%C3%ADtica" title="Filosofia analítica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Filosofia analítica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytick%C3%A1_filozofie" title="Analytická filozofie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Analytická filozofie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athroniaeth_ddadansoddol" title="Athroniaeth ddadansoddol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Athroniaeth ddadansoddol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytisk_filosofi" title="Analytisk filosofi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Analytisk filosofi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytische_Philosophie" title="Analytische Philosophie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Analytische Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anal%C3%BC%C3%BCtiline_filosoofia" title="Analüütiline filosoofia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Analüütiline filosoofia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B1%CE%BB%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%86%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Αναλυτική φιλοσοφία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αναλυτική φιλοσοφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_anal%C3%ADtica" title="Filosofía analítica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Filosofía analítica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analiza_filozofio" title="Analiza filozofio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Analiza filozofio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_analitiko" title="Filosofia analitiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Filosofia analitiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="فلسفه تحلیلی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه تحلیلی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_analytique" title="Philosophie analytique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Philosophie analytique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_anal%C3%ADtica" title="Filosofía analítica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Filosofía analítica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%84%EC%84%9D%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="분석철학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="분석철학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AE%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%83%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Վերլուծական փիլիսոփայություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վերլուծական փիլիսոփայություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="विश्लेषी दर्शन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विश्लेषी दर्शन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analiti%C4%8Dka_filozofija" title="Analitička filozofija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Analitička filozofija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analizala_filozofio" title="Analizala filozofio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Analizala filozofio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat_analitik" title="Filsafat analitik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Filsafat analitik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6kgreiningarheimspeki" title="Rökgreiningarheimspeki – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rökgreiningarheimspeki" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_analitica" title="Filosofia analitica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Filosofia analitica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פילוסופיה אנליטית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פילוסופיה אנליטית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аналитикалық философия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Аналитикалық философия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi_analytik" title="Filozofi analytik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Filozofi analytik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аналитикалык философия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Аналитикалык философия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia_analytica" title="Philosophia analytica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Philosophia analytica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anal%C4%ABtisk%C4%81_filozofija" title="Analītiskā filozofija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Analītiskā filozofija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analitin%C4%97_filosofija" title="Analitinė filosofija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Analitinė filosofija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analitikus_filoz%C3%B3fia" title="Analitikus filozófia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Analitikus filozófia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Аналитичка филозофија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Аналитичка филозофија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="تحلیلی فلسفه – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="تحلیلی فلسفه" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafah_analitik" title="Falsafah analitik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Falsafah analitik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytische_filosofie" title="Analytische filosofie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Analytische filosofie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="分析哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="分析哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytisk_filosofi" title="Analytisk filosofi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Analytisk filosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analitik_falsafa" title="Analitik falsafa – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Analitik falsafa" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A3%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE" title="ਵਿਸ਼ਲੇਸ਼ਣੀ ਫ਼ਲਸਫ਼ਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਿਸ਼ਲੇਸ਼ਣੀ ਫ਼ਲਸਫ਼ਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%86%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="شننيزه فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="شننيزه فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_analityczna" title="Filozofia analityczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Filozofia analityczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_anal%C3%ADtica" title="Filosofia analítica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filosofia analítica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie_analitic%C4%83" title="Filosofie analitică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Filosofie analitică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аналитическая философия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Аналитическая философия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Analytic philosophy" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_analitike" title="Filozofia analitike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Filozofia analitike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Analytic philosophy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytick%C3%A1_filozofia" title="Analytická filozofia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Analytická filozofia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analiti%C4%8Dna_filozofija" title="Analitična filozofija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Analitična filozofija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95%DB%8C_%D8%B4%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%95" title="فەلسەفەی شیکارانە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فەلسەفەی شیکارانە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Аналитичка филозофија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Аналитичка филозофија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analiti%C4%8Dka_filozofija" title="Analitička filozofija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Analitička filozofija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analyyttinen_filosofia" title="Analyyttinen filosofia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Analyyttinen filosofia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytisk_filosofi" title="Analytisk filosofi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Analytisk filosofi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="பகுப்பாய்வு மெய்யியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பகுப்பாய்வு மெய்யியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B8_%D1%82%D0%B0%D2%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D3%A3" title="Фалсафаи таҳлилӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Фалсафаи таҳлилӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analitik_felsefe" title="Analitik felsefe – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Analitik felsefe" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Аналітична філософія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Аналітична філософія" 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href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aesthetic philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Analytic philosophy</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Analysis" title="Analysis">analysis focused</a>, broad, <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">contemporary movement or tradition</a> within <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">anglophone</a> philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Analytic philosophy is characterized by a clarity of <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a>; rigor in arguments; and making use of <a href="/wiki/Formal_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal logic">formal logic</a> and mathematics, and, to a lesser degree, the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PenguinDicP22_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PenguinDicP22-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is further characterized by an interest in <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy)" title="Meaning (philosophy)">meaning</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">linguistic turn</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has developed several new branches of philosophy and logic, notably <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophy of language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">philosophy of mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>, modern <a href="/wiki/Predicate_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Predicate logic">predicate logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">mathematical logic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The proliferation of analysis in philosophy began around the turn of the 20th century and has been dominant since the latter half of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Vienne_1997_p._140_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vienne_1997_p._140-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Luft_2019_p._258_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luft_2019_p._258-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Glock_2008_p._1_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glock_2008_p._1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Central figures in its historical development are <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>, <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>. Other important figures in its history include <a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Franz Brentano</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivists</a> (particularly <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">ordinary language philosophers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>. After the decline of logical positivism, <a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a>, and others led a revival in <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>. </p><p>Analytic philosophy is often contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental philosophy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>j<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was coined as a catch-all term for other methods that were prominent in <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">continental Europe</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>k<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> most notably <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>l<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>m<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is widespread influence and debate between the analytic and continental traditions; some philosophers see the differences between the two traditions as being based on institutions, relationships, and ideology, rather than anything of significant philosophical substance.<sup id="cite_ref-Rinofner-Kreidl_Wiltsche_2016_p._36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rinofner-Kreidl_Wiltsche_2016_p.-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Glock_2008_p._37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glock_2008_p.-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distinction has also been drawn between "analytic" being <a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">academic</a> or technical philosophy and "continental" being <a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">literary</a> philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>o<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>p<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_analytic_philosophy">History of analytic philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History of analytic philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Austrian_realism">Austrian realism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Austrian realism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franz_Brentano_in_Vienna,_1890.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Franz_Brentano_in_Vienna%2C_1890.png/150px-Franz_Brentano_in_Vienna%2C_1890.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Franz_Brentano_in_Vienna%2C_1890.png/225px-Franz_Brentano_in_Vienna%2C_1890.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Franz_Brentano_in_Vienna%2C_1890.png/300px-Franz_Brentano_in_Vienna%2C_1890.png 2x" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="1231" /></a><figcaption>Franz Brentano gave to philosophy the problem of intentionality.</figcaption></figure> <p>Analytic philosophy was deeply influenced by what is called <a href="/wiki/Austrian_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian realism">Austrian realism</a> in the former state of <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>, so much so that Michael Dummett has remarked that analytic philosophy is better characterized as Anglo-Austrian rather than the usual Anglo-American.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brentano">Brentano</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Brentano"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/University_of_Vienna" title="University of Vienna">University of Vienna</a> philosopher and psychologist <a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Franz Brentano</a>—in <i><a href="/wiki/Psychology_from_an_Empirical_Standpoint" title="Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint">Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint</a></i> (1874) and through the subsequent influence of the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Brentano" title="School of Brentano">School of Brentano</a> and its members, such as <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Alexius Meinong</a>—gave to analytic philosophy the problem of <a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">intentionality</a> or of aboutness.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Brentano, all mental events have a real, non-mental intentional object, which the thinking is directed at or "about". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Meinong">Meinong</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Meinong"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Meinong is known for his unique <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> of real <a href="/wiki/Nonexistent_objects" title="Nonexistent objects">nonexistent objects</a> as a solution to the problem of <a href="/wiki/Empty_name" title="Empty name">empty names</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Graz_School" title="Graz School">Graz School</a> followed Meinong. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lwów–Warsaw"><span id="Lw.C3.B3w.E2.80.93Warsaw"></span>Lwów–Warsaw</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Lwów–Warsaw"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Polish <a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w%E2%80%93Warsaw_school" title="Lwów–Warsaw school">Lwów–Warsaw school</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Kazimierz_Twardowski" title="Kazimierz Twardowski">Kazimierz Twardowski</a> in 1895, grew as an offshoot of the Graz School. It was closely associated with the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_School_(mathematics)" title="Warsaw School (mathematics)">Warsaw School of Mathematics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frege">Frege</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Frege"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Young_frege.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Young_frege.jpg/180px-Young_frege.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Young_frege.jpg/270px-Young_frege.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Young_frege.jpg/360px-Young_frege.jpg 2x" data-file-width="458" data-file-height="619" /></a><figcaption>Gottlob Frege, the father of analytic philosophy</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a> (1848–1925) was a German <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a> professor at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Jena" title="University of Jena">University of Jena</a> who is understood as the father of analytic philosophy. Frege proved influential as a <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">philosopher of mathematics</a> in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. He advocated <a href="/wiki/Logicism" title="Logicism">logicism</a>, the project of reducing <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a> to pure logic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Logic">Logic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Logic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a result of his logicist project, Frege developed <a href="/wiki/Predicate_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Predicate logic">predicate logic</a> in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Begriffsschrift" title="Begriffsschrift">Begriffsschrift</a></i> (English: <i>Concept-script</i>, 1879), which allowed for a much greater range of sentences to be parsed into logical form than was possible using the ancient <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian logic">Aristotelian logic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>q<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of this is the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_multiple_generality" title="Problem of multiple generality">problem of multiple generality</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Number">Number</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Number"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a> dominated the late 19th century in German philosophy. Edmund Husserl's 1891 book <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Arithmetic" title="Philosophy of Arithmetic">Philosophie der Arithmetik</a></i> argued that the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_number" title="Cardinal number">cardinal number</a> derived from psychical acts of grouping objects and counting them.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast to this "<a href="/wiki/Psychologism" title="Psychologism">psychologism</a>", Frege in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Foundations_of_Arithmetic" title="The Foundations of Arithmetic">The Foundations of Arithmetic</a></i> (1884) and <i>The Basic Laws of Arithmetic</i> (German: <i lang="de">Grundgesetze der Arithmetik</i>, 1893–1903), argued similarly to <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_platonism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical platonism">Plato</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bolzano</a> that mathematics and logic have their own public objects, independent of the private judgments or mental states of individual mathematicians and logicians. Following Frege, the logicists tended to advocate a kind of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">mathematical Platonism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Language">Language</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Frege also proved influential in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophy of language</a> and analytic philosophy's interest in <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">meaning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Speaks_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Speaks-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a> traces the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">linguistic turn</a> to Frege's <i>Foundations of Arithmetic</i> and his <a href="/wiki/Context_principle" title="Context principle">context principle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Frege's paper "<a href="/wiki/Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">On Sense and Reference</a>" (1892) is seminal, containing <a href="/wiki/Frege%27s_puzzles" title="Frege's puzzles">Frege's puzzles</a> and providing a <a href="/wiki/Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">mediated reference theory</a>. His paper "<a href="/wiki/The_Thought" class="mw-redirect" title="The Thought">The Thought: A Logical Inquiry</a>" (1918) reflects both his anti-idealism or anti-psychologism and his interest in language. In the paper, he argues for a <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonist</a> account of <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">propositions</a> or thoughts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russell">Russell</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Russell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russell1907-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Russell1907-2.jpg/160px-Russell1907-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Russell1907-2.jpg/240px-Russell1907-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Russell1907-2.jpg/320px-Russell1907-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="673" /></a><figcaption>Russell in 1907</figcaption></figure> <p>British philosophy in the 19th century had seen a revival of logic started by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Whately" title="Richard Whately">Richard Whately</a>, in reaction to the anti-logical tradition of <a href="/wiki/British_empiricism" class="mw-redirect" title="British empiricism">British empiricism</a>. The major figure of this period is English mathematician <a href="/wiki/George_Boole" title="George Boole">George Boole</a>. Other figures include <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Hamilton,_9th_Baronet" title="Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet">William Hamilton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augustus_De_Morgan" title="Augustus De Morgan">Augustus de Morgan</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_Jevons" title="William Stanley Jevons">William Stanley Jevons</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Alice%27s_Adventures_in_Wonderland" title="Alice's Adventures in Wonderland">Alice's Adventures in Wonderland</a></i> author <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Carroll" title="Lewis Carroll">Lewis Carroll</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>r<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hugh_MacColl" title="Hugh MacColl">Hugh MacColl</a>, and American pragmatist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>British philosophy in the late 19th century was dominated by <a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British idealism</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Neo-Hegelian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Hegelian">neo-Hegelian</a> movement, as taught by philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/F._H._Bradley" title="F. H. Bradley">F. H. Bradley</a> (1846–1924) and <a href="/wiki/T._H._Green" title="T. H. Green">T. H. Green</a> (1836–1882). </p><p>Analytic philosophy in the narrower sense of 20th and 21st century anglophone philosophy is usually thought to begin with <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">Cambridge</a> philosophers Bertrand Russell and G. E. Moore's rejection of <a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a> for being obscure; or the "revolt against idealism"—see for example Moore's "<a href="/wiki/A_Defence_of_Common_Sense" title="A Defence of Common Sense">A Defence of Common Sense</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>s<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell summed up Moore's influence: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> "G. E. Moore...took the lead in rebellion, and I followed, with a sense of emancipation. Bradley had argued that everything common sense believes in is mere appearance; we reverted to the opposite extreme, and that everything is real that common sense, uninfluenced by philosophy of theology, supposes real. With a sense of escaping from prison, we allowed ourselves to think that grass is green, that the sun and stars would exist if no one was aware of them, and also that there is a pluralistic timeless world of Platonic ideas."<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Paradox">Paradox</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Paradox"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bertrand Russell, during his early career, was much influenced by Frege. Russell famously discovered the <a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_paradox" title="Russell's paradox">paradox</a> in <a href="/wiki/Basic_Law_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic Law V">Basic Law V</a> which undermined Frege's logicist project. However, like Frege, Russell argued that mathematics is reducible to logical fundamentals, in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Principles_of_Mathematics" title="The Principles of Mathematics">The Principles of Mathematics</a></i> (1903). He also argued for <a href="/wiki/Existence#Meinongianism" title="Existence">Meinongianism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="On_Denoting">On Denoting</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: On Denoting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Russell sought to resolve various philosophical problems by applying Frege's new logical apparatus, most famously in his <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">theory</a> of <a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">definite descriptions</a> in "<a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>", published in <i><a href="/wiki/Mind_(journal)" title="Mind (journal)">Mind</a></i> in 1905.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell here argues against Meinongianism. He argues all <a href="/wiki/Name" title="Name">names</a> (aside from demonstratives like "this" or "that") are disguised definite descriptions, using this to solve ascriptions of nonexistence. This position came to be called <a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">descriptivism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Principia_Mathematica"><i>Principia Mathematica</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Principia Mathematica"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Later, his book written with <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Mathematica" title="Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i> (1910–1913), the seminal text of <a href="/wiki/Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">classical logic</a> and of the logicist project, encouraged many philosophers to renew their interest in the development of <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">symbolic logic</a>. It used a <a href="/wiki/Peano%E2%80%93Russell_notation" title="Peano–Russell notation">notation</a> from Italian logician <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Peano" title="Giuseppe Peano">Giuseppe Peano</a>, and it uses a <a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">theory of types</a> to avoid the pitfalls of Russell's paradox. Whitehead developed <a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">process metaphysics</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Process_and_Reality" title="Process and Reality">Process and Reality</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ideal_language">Ideal language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ideal language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ideal_language_philosophy" title="Ideal language philosophy">Ideal language philosophy</a></div> <p>Additionally, Russell adopted Frege's predicate logic as his primary philosophical method, a method Russell thought could expose the underlying structure of philosophical problems. <a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a> would be made clear by <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a>. For example, the English word <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)#English" title="Copula (linguistics)">"is"</a> has three distinct meanings, which predicate logic can express as follows: </p> <ul><li>For the sentence 'the cat <i>is</i> asleep', the <i>is</i> of <a href="/wiki/Predication_(philosophy)" title="Predication (philosophy)">predication</a> means that "x is P" (denoted as P(x)).</li> <li>For the sentence 'there <i>is</i> a cat', the <i>is</i> of existence means that "there is an x" (∃x).</li> <li>For the sentence 'three <i>is</i> half of six', the <i>is</i> of identity means that "x is the same as y" (x=y).</li></ul> <p>From about 1910 to 1930, analytic philosophers like Frege, Russell, Moore, and Russell's student <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a> emphasized creating an ideal language for philosophical analysis, which would be free from the ambiguities of ordinary language that, in their opinion, often made philosophy invalid. During this phase, they sought to understand language (and hence philosophical problems) by using <a href="/wiki/Formal_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal logic">logic</a> to formalize how philosophical <a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">statements</a> are made. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Logical_atomism">Logical atomism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Logical atomism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ludwig_Wittgenstein_1929.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Ludwig_Wittgenstein_1929.jpg/160px-Ludwig_Wittgenstein_1929.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Ludwig_Wittgenstein_1929.jpg/240px-Ludwig_Wittgenstein_1929.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Ludwig_Wittgenstein_1929.jpg/320px-Ludwig_Wittgenstein_1929.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2510" data-file-height="3397" /></a><figcaption>Ludwig Wittgenstein</figcaption></figure> <p>An important aspect of Hegelianism and British idealism was <a href="/wiki/Logical_holism" title="Logical holism">logical holism</a>—the opinion that there are aspects of the world that can be known only by knowing the whole world. This is closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_internal_relations" title="Doctrine of internal relations">doctrine of internal relations</a>, the opinion that <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)#Relations" title="Property (philosophy)">relations</a> between items are <i>internal relations</i>, that is, essential <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">properties</a> of the nature of those items. </p><p>Russell and Moore in response promulgated <a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">logical atomism</a> and the doctrine of <i>external relations</i>—the belief that the world consists of <i>independent</i> facts.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>t<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inspired by developments in modern <a href="/wiki/Formal_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal logic">formal logic</a>, the early Russell claimed that the problems of philosophy can be solved by showing the simple constituents of complex notions.<sup id="cite_ref-PenguinDicP22_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PenguinDicP22-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Early_Wittgenstein">Early Wittgenstein</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Early Wittgenstein"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wittgenstein developed a comprehensive system of logical atomism with a <a href="/wiki/Picture_theory_of_language" title="Picture theory of language">picture theory of meaning</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Logisch-Philosophische Abhandlung</i>, 1921) sometimes known as simply the <i>Tractatus</i>. He claimed the universe is the totality of actual states of affairs and that these states of affairs can be expressed and mirrored by the language of first-order predicate logic. Thus a <i>picture</i> of the universe can be constructed by expressing facts in the form of atomic propositions and linking them using <a href="/wiki/Logical_operator" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical operator">logical operators</a>. </p><p>Wittgenstein thought he had solved all the problems of philosophy with the <i>Tractatus</i>. The work further ultimately concludes that all of its propositions are meaningless, illustrated with a <a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein%27s_ladder" title="Wittgenstein's ladder">ladder</a> one must toss away after climbing up it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Logical_positivism">Logical positivism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Logical positivism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:308px;max-width:308px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Schlick_sitting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Schlick_sitting.jpg/150px-Schlick_sitting.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Schlick_sitting.jpg/225px-Schlick_sitting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Schlick_sitting.jpg/300px-Schlick_sitting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="602" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">(1)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Otto_Neurath.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Otto_Neurath.jpg/150px-Otto_Neurath.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Otto_Neurath.jpg/225px-Otto_Neurath.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Otto_Neurath.jpg/300px-Otto_Neurath.jpg 2x" data-file-width="597" data-file-height="867" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">(2)</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hans_Hahn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Hans_Hahn.jpg/150px-Hans_Hahn.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Hans_Hahn.jpg/225px-Hans_Hahn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Hans_Hahn.jpg/300px-Hans_Hahn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="874" data-file-height="1419" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">(3)</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Members of the Vienna Circle (clockwise):<br />(1) Moritz Schlick<br />(2) Otto Neurath;<br />(3) Hans Hahn</div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></div> <p>During the late 1920s to 1940s, a group of philosophers known as the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a>, and another one known as the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a>, developed Russell and Wittgenstein's philosophy into a doctrine known as "<a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a>" (or logical empiricism). The Vienna Circle was led by <a href="/wiki/Moritz_Schlick" title="Moritz Schlick">Moritz Schlick</a> and included <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Berlin Circle was led by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a> and included <a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Hempel</a> and mathematician <a href="/wiki/David_Hilbert" title="David Hilbert">David Hilbert</a>. </p><p>Logical positivists used formal logical methods to develop an empiricist account of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They adopted the <a href="/wiki/Verification_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Verification principle">verification principle</a>, according to which every meaningful statement is either <a href="/wiki/Analytic_proposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic proposition">analytic</a> or synthetic. The truths of logic and mathematics were <a href="/wiki/Tautology_(logic)" title="Tautology (logic)">tautologies</a>, and those of science were verifiable empirical claims. These two constituted the entire universe of meaningful judgments; anything else was nonsense. </p><p>This led the logical positivists to reject many traditional problems of philosophy, especially those of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, as meaningless. It had the additional effect of making (ethical and aesthetic) value judgments (as well as religious statements and beliefs) meaningless. </p><p>Logical positivists therefore typically considered philosophy as having a <a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">minimal function</a>. For them, philosophy concerned the clarification of thoughts, rather than having a distinct subject matter of its own. </p><p>Several logical positivists were Jewish, such as Neurath, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Hahn_(mathematician)" title="Hans Hahn (mathematician)">Hans Hahn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Frank" title="Philipp Frank">Philipp Frank</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Waismann" title="Friedrich Waismann">Friedrich Waissmann</a>, and Reichenbach. Others, like Carnap, were gentiles but socialists or pacifists. With the coming to power of <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a> in 1933, many members of the Vienna and Berlin Circles fled to Britain and the United States, which helped to reinforce the dominance of logical positivism and analytic philosophy in anglophone countries. </p><p>In 1936, Schlick was murdered in Vienna by his former student <a href="/wiki/Johann_Nelb%C3%B6ck" title="Johann Nelböck">Hans Nelböck</a>. The same year, <a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a>'s work <i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language Truth and Logic</a></i> introduced the English speaking world to logical positivism.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>u<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The logical positivists saw their rejection of metaphysics in some ways as a recapitulation of a quote by <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>: </p> <blockquote><p>If we take in our hand any volume; of divinity or school metaphysics, for instance; let us ask, Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number? No. Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence? No. Commit it then to the flames: for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ordinary_language">Ordinary language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ordinary language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></div> <p>After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, from the late 1940s to the 1950s, analytic philosophy became involved with ordinary-language analysis. This resulted in two main trends. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Later_Wittgenstein">Later Wittgenstein</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Later Wittgenstein"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One strain of language analysis continued Wittgenstein's later philosophy, from the <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i> (1953), which differed dramatically from his early work of the <i>Tractatus</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>v<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The criticisms of <a href="/wiki/Frank_Ramsey_(mathematician)" title="Frank Ramsey (mathematician)">Frank P. Ramsey</a> on color and logical form in the <i>Tractatus</i> led to some of Wittgenstein's first doubts with regard to his early philosophy. Philosophers refer to them like two different philosophers: "early Wittgenstein" and "later Wittgenstein". In his later philosophy, Wittgenstein develops the concept of a "<a href="/wiki/Language_game_(philosophy)" title="Language game (philosophy)">language-game</a>" and, rather than his prior picture theory of meaning, advocates a theory of <a href="/wiki/Meaning_as_use" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning as use">meaning as use</a>. It also contains the <a href="/wiki/Private_language_argument" title="Private language argument">private language argument</a> and the notion of <a href="/wiki/Family_resemblance" title="Family resemblance">family resemblance</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Oxford_philosophy">Oxford philosophy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Oxford philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The other trend was known as "<a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">Oxford</a> philosophy", in contrast to earlier analytic Cambridge philosophers (including the early Wittgenstein) who thought philosophers should avoid the deceptive trappings of natural language by constructing ideal languages. Influenced by Moore's <i>Common Sense</i> and what they perceived as the later Wittgenstein's <a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">quietism</a>, the Oxford philosophers claimed that ordinary language already represents many subtle distinctions not recognized in the formulation of traditional philosophical theories or problems. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rex_Whistler_-_Gilbert_Ryle,_Fellow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Rex_Whistler_-_Gilbert_Ryle%2C_Fellow.jpg/160px-Rex_Whistler_-_Gilbert_Ryle%2C_Fellow.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Rex_Whistler_-_Gilbert_Ryle%2C_Fellow.jpg/240px-Rex_Whistler_-_Gilbert_Ryle%2C_Fellow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Rex_Whistler_-_Gilbert_Ryle%2C_Fellow.jpg/320px-Rex_Whistler_-_Gilbert_Ryle%2C_Fellow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="944" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Gilbert Ryle</figcaption></figure> <p>While schools such as logical positivism emphasize logical terms, which are supposed to be universal and separate from contingent factors (such as culture, language, historical conditions), ordinary-language philosophy emphasizes the use of language by ordinary people. The most prominent ordinary-language philosophers during the 1950s were <a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ordinary-language philosophers often sought to resolve philosophical problems by showing them to be the result of misunderstanding ordinary language. Ryle, in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_Mind" title="The Concept of Mind">The Concept of Mind</a></i> (1949), criticized Cartesian <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">dualism</a>, arguing in favor of disposing of "<a href="/wiki/Ghost_in_the_machine" title="Ghost in the machine">Descartes' myth</a>" via recognizing "<a href="/wiki/Category_mistake" title="Category mistake">category errors</a>". </p><p>Strawson first became well known with his article "On Referring" (1950), a criticism of Russell's theory of descriptions explained in the latter's famous "On Denoting" article. In his book <i>Individuals</i> (1959), Strawson examines our conceptions of basic <a href="/wiki/Particular" title="Particular">particulars</a>. Austin, in the posthumously published <i><a href="/wiki/How_to_Do_Things_with_Words" class="mw-redirect" title="How to Do Things with Words">How to Do Things with Words</a></i> (1962), emphasized the theory of <a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">speech acts</a> and the ability of words to <a href="/wiki/Performative_utterance" title="Performative utterance"><i>do</i> things</a> (e. g. "I promise") and not just say things. This influenced several fields to undertake what is called a <a href="/wiki/Performative_turn" class="mw-redirect" title="Performative turn">performative turn</a>. In <i><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_Sensibilia_(Austin_book)" title="Sense and Sensibilia (Austin book)">Sense and Sensibilia</a></i> (1962), Austin criticized <a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">sense-data</a> theories. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spread_of_Analytic_philosophy">Spread of Analytic philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Spread of Analytic philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Australia_and_New_Zealand">Australia and New Zealand</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Australia and New Zealand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The school known as <a href="/wiki/Australian_realism" title="Australian realism">Australian realism</a> began when <a href="/wiki/John_Anderson_(philosopher)" title="John Anderson (philosopher)">John Anderson</a> accepted the Challis Chair of Philosophy at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sydney" title="University of Sydney">University of Sydney</a> in 1927. His elder brother was William Anderson, Professor of Philosophy at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Auckland" title="University of Auckland">Auckland University College</a> from 1921 to his death in 1955, who was described as "the most dominant figure in New Zealand philosophy."<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/J._N._Findlay" title="J. N. Findlay">J. N. Findlay</a> was a student of <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mally" title="Ernst Mally">Ernst Mally</a> of the Austrian realists and taught at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Otago" title="University of Otago">University of Otago</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Finland">Finland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Finland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Finnish <a href="/wiki/Georg_Henrik_von_Wright" title="Georg Henrik von Wright">Georg Henrik von Wright</a> succeeded Wittgenstein at Cambridge in 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_analytic_philosophy">Contemporary analytic philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Contemporary analytic philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Metaphysics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div> <p>One striking difference with respect to early analytic philosophy was the revival of metaphysical theorizing during the second half of the 20th century, and metaphysics remains a fertile topic of research. Although many discussions are continuations of old ones from previous decades and centuries, the debates remains active.<sup id="cite_ref-inwagenetall1998_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inwagenetall1998-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decline_of_logical_positivism">Decline of logical positivism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Decline of logical positivism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The rise of metaphysics mirrored the decline of logical positivism, first challenged by the later Wittgenstein. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Sellars">Sellars</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Sellars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfred Sellars</a>'s criticism of the "Myth of the Given", in <i>Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind</i> (1956), challenged logical positivism by arguing against sense-data theories. In his "Philosophy and the Scientific Image of Man" (1962), Sellars distinguishes between the "manifest image" and the "scientific image" of the world. Sellars's goal of a <a href="/wiki/Synoptic_philosophy" title="Synoptic philosophy">synoptic philosophy</a> that unites the everyday and scientific views of reality is the foundation and archetype of what is sometimes called the Pittsburgh School, whose members include <a href="/wiki/Robert_Brandom" title="Robert Brandom">Robert Brandom</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Haugeland" title="John Haugeland">John Haugeland</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Quine">Quine</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Quine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Willard_Van_Orman_Quine_on_Bluenose_II_in_Halifax_NS_harbor_1980.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine_on_Bluenose_II_in_Halifax_NS_harbor_1980.jpg/120px-Willard_Van_Orman_Quine_on_Bluenose_II_in_Halifax_NS_harbor_1980.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine_on_Bluenose_II_in_Halifax_NS_harbor_1980.jpg/180px-Willard_Van_Orman_Quine_on_Bluenose_II_in_Halifax_NS_harbor_1980.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine_on_Bluenose_II_in_Halifax_NS_harbor_1980.jpg/240px-Willard_Van_Orman_Quine_on_Bluenose_II_in_Halifax_NS_harbor_1980.jpg 2x" data-file-width="649" data-file-height="829" /></a><figcaption>W. V. O. Quine helped to undermine logical positivism.</figcaption></figure> <p>Also among the developments that resulted in the decline of logical positivism and the revival of metaphysical theorizing was <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a>'s attack on the <a href="/wiki/Analytic_proposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic proposition">analytic–synthetic distinction</a> in "<a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a>", published in 1951 in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Philosophical_Review" title="The Philosophical Review">The Philosophical Review</a></i> and republished in Quine's book <i>From A Logical Point of View</i> (1953), a paper "sometimes regarded as the most important in all of <a href="/wiki/20th_century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="20th century philosophy">twentieth-century philosophy</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-qui_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-qui-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>From a Logical Point of View</i> also contains Quine's essay "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_What_There_Is" class="extiw" title="wikisource:On What There Is">On What There Is</a>" (1948), which elucidates Russell's theory of descriptions and contains Quine's famous dictum of <a href="/wiki/Ontological_commitment" title="Ontological commitment">ontological commitment</a>, "To be is to be the value of a <a href="/wiki/Free_variables_and_bound_variables" title="Free variables and bound variables">variable</a>". He also dubbed the problem of nonexistence <a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_beard" title="Plato's beard">Plato's beard</a>. </p><p>Quine sought to naturalize philosophy and saw philosophy as continuous with science, but instead of logical positivism advocated a kind of <a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">semantic holism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ontological_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontological relativity">ontological relativity</a>, which explained that every term in any statement has its meaning contingent on a vast network of knowledge and belief, the speaker's conception of the entire world. In his magnum opus <i><a href="/wiki/Word_and_Object" title="Word and Object">Word and Object</a></i> (1960), Quine introduces the idea of <a href="/wiki/Radical_translation" title="Radical translation">radical translation</a>, an introduction to his theory of the <a href="/wiki/Indeterminacy_of_translation" title="Indeterminacy of translation">indeterminacy of translation</a>, and specifically to prove the <a href="/wiki/Inscrutability_of_reference" title="Inscrutability of reference">inscrutability of reference</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Kripke">Kripke</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Kripke"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kripke.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Kripke.JPG/160px-Kripke.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Kripke.JPG/240px-Kripke.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Kripke.JPG/320px-Kripke.JPG 2x" data-file-width="366" data-file-height="349" /></a><figcaption>Saul Kripke helped to revive interest in metaphysics among analytic philosophers.</figcaption></figure> <p>Important also for the revival of metaphysics was the further development of <a href="/wiki/Modal_logic" title="Modal logic">modal logic</a>, first introduced by pragmatist <a href="/wiki/C._I._Lewis" title="C. I. Lewis">C. I. Lewis</a>, especially the work of <a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a> and his <i><a href="/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a></i> (1980).<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>w<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to one author, <i>Naming and Necessity</i> "played a large role in the implicit, but widespread, rejection of the view—so popular among ordinary language philosophers—that philosophy is nothing more than the analysis of language."<sup id="cite_ref-ageofm_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ageofm-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kripke was influential in arguing that flaws in common theories of descriptions and proper names are indicative of larger misunderstandings of the <a href="/wiki/Modal_metaphysics" title="Modal metaphysics">metaphysics</a> of necessity and <a href="/wiki/Contingency_(philosophy)" title="Contingency (philosophy)">possibility</a>. Kripke also argued that <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">necessity</a> is a metaphysical notion distinct from the <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemic</a> notion of <i><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a></i>, and that there are <a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">necessary truths</a> that are known <i><a href="/wiki/A_posteriori_necessity" title="A posteriori necessity">a posteriori</a></i>, such as that water is H<sub>2</sub>O.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kripke is widely regarded as having revived theories of <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">identity</a> as respectable topics of philosophical discussion.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kripke and <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a> argued for realism about <a href="/wiki/Natural_kind" title="Natural kind">natural kinds</a>. Kripke holds that it is <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essential</a> that water is H<sub>2</sub>O, or for <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> to be <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a> 79. Putnam's <a href="/wiki/Twin_Earth_thought_experiment" title="Twin Earth thought experiment">Twin Earth thought experiment</a> can be used to illustrate the same point with water.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="David_Lewis">David Lewis</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: David Lewis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>American philosopher <a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a> defended a number of elaborate metaphysical theories. In works such as <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Plurality_of_Worlds" title="On the Plurality of Worlds">On the Plurality of Worlds</a></i> (1986) and <i>Counterfactuals</i> (1973) he argued for <a href="/wiki/Modal_realism" title="Modal realism">modal realism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Counterpart_theory" title="Counterpart theory">counterpart theory</a> – the belief in real, concrete <a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">possible worlds</a>. According to Lewis, "actual" is merely an indexical label we give a world when we are in it. Lewis also defended what he called Humean <a href="/wiki/Supervenience" title="Supervenience">supervenience</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Counterfactual_conditional" title="Counterfactual conditional">counterfactual theory</a> of <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and contributed to <a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">abstract object</a> theory.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He became closely associated with Australia, whose philosophical community he visited almost annually for more than 30 years. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Universals">Universals</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Universals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In response to the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_universals" title="Problem of universals">problem</a> of <a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">universals</a>, Australian <a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a> defended a kind of <a href="/wiki/Moderate_realism" title="Moderate realism">moderate realism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quine and Lewis defended <a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">nominalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mereology">Mereology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Mereology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Polish philosopher <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Le%C5%9Bniewski" title="Stanisław Leśniewski">Stanisław Leśniewski</a> coined the term <a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">mereology</a>, which is the formal study of parts and wholes, a subject that arguably goes back to the time of the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">pre-Socratics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> David Lewis believed in <a href="/wiki/Perdurantism" title="Perdurantism">perdurantism</a> and introduced the term '<a href="/wiki/Gunk_(mereology)" title="Gunk (mereology)">gunk</a>'. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Van_Inwagen" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Van Inwagen">Peter Van Inwagen</a> believes in <a href="/wiki/Mereological_nihilism" title="Mereological nihilism">mereological nihilism</a>, except for living beings, a view called <a href="/wiki/Organicism" title="Organicism">organicism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Free_will_and_determinism">Free will and determinism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Free will and determinism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Peter van Inwagen's 1983 <a href="/wiki/Monograph" title="Monograph">monograph</a> <i>An Essay on Free Will</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_Inwagen1983_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_Inwagen1983-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> played an important role in rehabilitating <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">libertarianism</a> with respect to <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a>, in mainstream analytical philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKane200523_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKane200523-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the book, he introduces the <a href="/wiki/Consequence_argument" title="Consequence argument">consequence argument</a> and the term <a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">incompatibilism</a> about free will and <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">determinism</a>, to stand in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">compatibilism</a>—the view that free will is compatible with determinism. <a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">Charlie Broad</a> had previously made similar arguments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Personal_identity">Personal identity</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Personal identity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, philosophers have been concerned with the problem of <a href="/wiki/Personal_identity" title="Personal identity">personal identity</a>. <a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a></i> (1984) defends a kind of <a href="/wiki/Bundle_theory" title="Bundle theory">bundle theory</a>, while David Lewis again defends perdurantism. <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a> in <i>The Self and the Future</i> (1970) argues that personal identity is bodily identity rather than mental continuity.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Principle_of_sufficient_reason">Principle of sufficient reason</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Principle of sufficient reason"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a> philosophers have discussed the <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_sufficient_reason" title="Principle of sufficient reason">principle of sufficient reason</a> or PSR. Van Inwagen criticizes the PSR.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_Inwagen1983_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_Inwagen1983-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a> defends it.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philosophy_of_time">Philosophy of time</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Philosophy of time"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Analytic <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">philosophy of time</a> traces its roots to the British idealist <a href="/wiki/J._M._E._McTaggart" title="J. M. E. McTaggart">J. M. E. McTaggart</a>'s article "<a href="/wiki/The_Unreality_of_Time" title="The Unreality of Time">The Unreality of Time</a>" (1908). In it, McTaggart distinguishes between the dynamic, <a href="/wiki/A_series_and_B_series" title="A series and B series">A-, or tensed, theory</a> of time (past, present, future), in which <a href="/wiki/Flow_of_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Flow of time">time flows</a>; and the static or tenseless <a href="/wiki/B-theory_of_time" title="B-theory of time">B-theory of time</a> (earlier than, simultaneous with, later than). <a href="/wiki/Eternalism_(philosophy_of_time)" title="Eternalism (philosophy of time)">Eternalism</a> holds that past, present, and future are equally real. In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Presentism_(philosophy_of_time)" class="mw-redirect" title="Presentism (philosophy of time)">Presentism</a> holds that only entities in the present exist.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The theory of special relativity seems to advocate a B-theory of time. David Lewis's perdurantism, or <a href="/wiki/Four-dimensionalism" title="Four-dimensionalism">four-dimensionalism</a>, requires a B-theory of time.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/A._N._Prior" class="mw-redirect" title="A. N. Prior">A. N. Prior</a>, who invented <a href="/wiki/Tense_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tense logic">tense logic</a>, advocated the A-theory of time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Logical_pluralism">Logical pluralism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Logical pluralism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Many-valued_logic" title="Many-valued logic">Many-valued</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">non-classical</a> logics have been popular since the Polish logician <a href="/wiki/Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz" title="Jan Łukasiewicz">Jan Lukasiewicz</a>. <a href="/wiki/Graham_Priest" title="Graham Priest">Graham Priest</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Dialetheism" title="Dialetheism">dialetheist</a>, seeing it as the most natural solution to problems such as the <a href="/wiki/Liar_paradox" title="Liar paradox">liar paradox</a>. <a href="/wiki/JC_Beall" class="mw-redirect" title="JC Beall">JC Beall</a>, together with <a href="/wiki/Greg_Restall" title="Greg Restall">Greg Restall</a>, is a pioneer of a widely-discussed version of <a href="/wiki/Logical_pluralism" title="Logical pluralism">logical pluralism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epistemology">Epistemology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Epistemology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Justification">Justification</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Justification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Gettier">Gettier</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Gettier"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edmund_L_Gettier_III_ca_1960s_umass.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Edmund_L_Gettier_III_ca_1960s_umass.jpg/140px-Edmund_L_Gettier_III_ca_1960s_umass.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Edmund_L_Gettier_III_ca_1960s_umass.jpg/210px-Edmund_L_Gettier_III_ca_1960s_umass.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Edmund_L_Gettier_III_ca_1960s_umass.jpg/280px-Edmund_L_Gettier_III_ca_1960s_umass.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2023" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Edmund Gettier helped to revitalize analytic epistemology.</figcaption></figure> <p>Owing largely to <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a>'s 1963 paper "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?",<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the so-called <a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a>, epistemology has enjoyed a resurgence as a topic of analytic philosophy during the last 50 years. A large portion of current epistemological research is intended to resolve the problems that Gettier's examples presented to the traditional "justified true belief" model of knowledge, found as early as Plato's dialogue <i><a href="/wiki/Theaetetus_(dialogue)" title="Theaetetus (dialogue)">Theaetetus</a></i>. These include developing <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of justification">theories of justification</a> to deal with Gettier's examples, or giving alternatives to the justified-true-belief model. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Theories">Theories</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chisholm defended <a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">foundationalism</a>. Quine defended <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">coherentism</a>, a "web of belief".<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quine proposed <a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">naturalized epistemology</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Internalism_and_externalism">Internalism and externalism</h6><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Internalism and externalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The debate between <a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">internalism and externalism</a> still exists in analytic philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a> is an externalist known for developing a popular form of externalism called <a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">reliabilism</a>. Most externalists reject the <a href="/wiki/KK_thesis" title="KK thesis">KK thesis</a>, which has been disputed since the introduction of the epistemic logic by <a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Jaakko Hintikka</a> in 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Problem_of_the_Criterion">Problem of the Criterion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Problem of the Criterion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While a problem since antiquity, American philosopher <a href="/wiki/Roderick_Chisholm" title="Roderick Chisholm">Roderick Chisholm</a>, in his <i>Theory of Knowledge</i>, details the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_the_criterion" title="Problem of the criterion">problem of the criterion</a> with two sets of questions: </p> <ol><li>What do we know? or What is the extent of our knowledge?</li> <li>How do we know? or What is the criterion for deciding whether we have knowledge in any particular case?</li></ol> <p>An answer to either set of questions will allow us to devise a means of answering the other. Answering the former question-set first is called <i><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">particularism</a></i>, whereas answering the latter set first is called <i><a href="/wiki/Methodism_(philosophy)" title="Methodism (philosophy)">methodism</a></i>. A third solution is <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">skepticism</a></i>, or doubting there is such a thing as knowledge. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Truth">Truth</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Truth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AlfredTarski1968.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/AlfredTarski1968.jpeg/150px-AlfredTarski1968.jpeg" decoding="async" width="150" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/AlfredTarski1968.jpeg/225px-AlfredTarski1968.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/AlfredTarski1968.jpeg/300px-AlfredTarski1968.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="271" /></a><figcaption>Alfred Tarski has an influential theory of truth.</figcaption></figure> <p>Frege questioned standard theories of <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>, and sometimes advocated a <a href="/wiki/Redundancy_theory_of_truth" title="Redundancy theory of truth">redundancy theory of truth</a>. Frank Ramsey also advocated a redundancy theory. <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a> put forward a <a href="/wiki/Semantic_theory_of_truth" title="Semantic theory of truth">semantic theory of truth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vaught_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vaught-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FF_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FF-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i>Truth-Makers</i> (1984), <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Mulligan" title="Kevin Mulligan">Kevin Mulligan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Simons_(academic)" title="Peter Simons (academic)">Peter Simons</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Barry_Smith_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Barry Smith (academic)">Barry Smith</a> introduced the <a href="/wiki/Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">truth-maker</a> idea as a contribution to the <a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">correspondence theory of truth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A truth-maker is contrasted with a <a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">truth-bearer</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Closure">Closure</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Closure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3349839-left-hand-outstretched.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/3349839-left-hand-outstretched.jpg/140px-3349839-left-hand-outstretched.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/3349839-left-hand-outstretched.jpg/210px-3349839-left-hand-outstretched.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/3349839-left-hand-outstretched.jpg/280px-3349839-left-hand-outstretched.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="684" /></a><figcaption>"Here is one hand"</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_closure" title="Epistemic closure">Epistemic closure</a> is the claim that knowledge is closed under <a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">entailment</a>; in other words epistemic closure is a <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">property</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">principle</a> that if a subject <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}"></span> knows <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></span>, and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}"></span> knows that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></span> <a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">entails</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>q</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/06809d64fa7c817ffc7e323f85997f783dbdf71d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.07ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q}"></span>, then <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}"></span> can thereby come to know <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>q</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/06809d64fa7c817ffc7e323f85997f783dbdf71d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.07ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q}"></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-stanford_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> theories involve a closure principle, and many skeptical arguments assume a closure principle. In <i>Proof of An External World</i>, G. E. Moore uses closure in his famous anti-skeptical "<a href="/wiki/Here_is_one_hand" title="Here is one hand">here is one hand</a>" argument. Shortly before his death, Wittgenstein wrote <i><a href="/wiki/On_Certainty" title="On Certainty">On Certainty</a></i> in response to Moore. </p><p>While the principle of epistemic closure is generally regarded as intuitive,<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a> with <a href="/wiki/Relevant_alternatives_theory" title="Relevant alternatives theory">relevant alternatives theory</a> and Robert Nozick in <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Explanations" title="Philosophical Explanations">Philosophical Explanations</a></i>, have argued against it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Induction">Induction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Induction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%97%D2%AF%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/%D0%97%D2%AF%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82.jpg/150px-%D0%97%D2%AF%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/%D0%97%D2%AF%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82.jpg/225px-%D0%97%D2%AF%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/%D0%97%D2%AF%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82.jpg/300px-%D0%97%D2%AF%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>All emeralds are "grue".</figcaption></figure> <p>In his book <i><a href="/wiki/Fact,_Fiction,_and_Forecast" title="Fact, Fiction, and Forecast">Fact, Fiction, and Forecast</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a> introduced the "<a href="/wiki/New_riddle_of_induction" title="New riddle of induction">new riddle of induction</a>", so-called by analogy with <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a>'s classical <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">problem of induction</a>. Goodman's famous example was to introduce the predicates <a href="/wiki/New_riddle_of_induction" title="New riddle of induction">grue and bleen</a>. "Grue" applies to all things before a certain time <i>t</i>, just in case they are green, but also just in case they are blue after time <i>t</i>; and "bleen" applies to all things before a certain time <i>t</i>, just in the case they are blue, but also just in case they are green after time <i>t</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_topics">Other topics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Other topics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other, related topics of contemporary research include debates over basic knowledge, the nature of <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a>, the value of knowledge, <a href="/wiki/Epistemic_luck" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemic luck">epistemic luck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">virtue epistemology</a>, the role of <a href="/wiki/Intuition_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intuition (philosophy)">intuitions</a> in justification, and treating knowledge as a primitive concept. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics">Ethics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to the commitments to <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">symbolic logic</a> in the early analytic period, early analytic philosophers often thought that inquiry in the ethical domain could not be made rigorous enough to merit any attention.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was only with the emergence of ordinary-language philosophers that ethics started to become an acceptable area of inquiry for analytic philosophers.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philosophers working within the analytic tradition have gradually come to distinguish three major types of moral philosophy. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a>, which investigates moral terms and concepts;<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a>, which examines and produces normative ethical judgments;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a>, which investigates how existing normative principles should be applied to difficult or borderline cases, often cases created by new technology or new scientific knowledge.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Meta-ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As well as Hume's famous <a href="/wiki/Is%E2%80%93ought_problem" title="Is–ought problem">is/ought distinction</a>, twentieth-century meta-ethics has two original strains. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Principia_Ethica"><i>Principia Ethica</i></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Principia Ethica"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1914_George_Edward_Moore_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/1914_George_Edward_Moore_%28cropped%29.jpg/160px-1914_George_Edward_Moore_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/1914_George_Edward_Moore_%28cropped%29.jpg/240px-1914_George_Edward_Moore_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/1914_George_Edward_Moore_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="258" data-file-height="339" /></a><figcaption>G. E. Moore was an ethical non-naturalist.</figcaption></figure> <p>The first is <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a>'s investigation into the nature of ethical terms (e.g., good) in his <i>Principia Ethica</i> (1903), which advances a kind of <a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">moral realism</a> called <a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">ethical non-naturalism</a> and is known for the <a href="/wiki/Open-question_argument" title="Open-question argument">open question argument</a> and identifying the <a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_fallacy" title="Naturalistic fallacy">naturalistic fallacy</a>, a major topic of investigation for analytical philosophers. According to Moore, "<a href="/wiki/Goodness_and_value_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Goodness and value theory">Goodness</a> is a simple, undefinable, non-natural <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">property</a>." </p><p>Contemporary philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/Russ_Shafer-Landau" title="Russ Shafer-Landau">Russ Shafer-Landau</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Moral_Realism:_A_Defence" title="Moral Realism: A Defence">Moral Realism: A Defence</a></i>, defend ethical non-naturalism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Emotivism">Emotivism</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Emotivism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The second is founded on logical positivism and its attitude that unverifiable statements are meaningless. As a result, they avoided normative ethics and instead began <a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">meta-ethical</a> investigations into the nature of moral terms, statements, and judgments. </p><p>The logical positivists opined that statements about <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">value</a>—including all ethical and aesthetic judgments—are <a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">non-cognitive</a>; that is, they cannot be objectively verified or falsified. Instead, the logical positivists adopted an <a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">emotivist</a> theory, which was that value judgments expressed the attitude of the speaker. It is also known as the boo/hurrah theory. For example, in this view, saying, "Murder is wrong", is equivalent to saying, "Boo to murder", or saying the word "murder" with a particular tone of disapproval. </p><p>While analytic philosophers generally accepted non-cognitivism, emotivism had many deficiencies. It evolved into more sophisticated non-cognitivist theories, such as the <a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">expressivism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Stevenson_(philosopher)" title="Charles Stevenson (philosopher)">Charles Stevenson</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">universal prescriptivism</a> of <a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a>, which was based on J. L. Austin's philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Speech_acts" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech acts">speech acts</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Critics">Critics</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Critics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As non-cognitivism, the is/ought distinction, and the naturalistic fallacy were questioned, analytic philosophers showed a renewed interest in the traditional questions of moral philosophy. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a> defended <a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">naturalist</a> moral realism and contributed several essays attacking other theories.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>x<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Foot introduced the famous "<a href="/wiki/Trolley_problem" title="Trolley problem">trolley problem</a>" into the ethical discourse.<sup id="cite_ref-Philippa_Foot_1978_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Philippa_Foot_1978-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Perhaps the most influential critic was <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth Anscombe">Elizabeth Anscombe</a>, whose monograph <i>Intention</i> was called by <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a> "the most important treatment of <a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">action</a> since Aristotle".<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A favorite student and friend of Ludwig Wittgenstein, her 1958 article "<a href="/wiki/Modern_Moral_Philosophy" title="Modern Moral Philosophy">Modern Moral Philosophy</a>" declared the "is-ought" impasse to be unproductive. <a href="/wiki/J.O._Urmson" class="mw-redirect" title="J.O. Urmson">J.O. Urmson</a>'s article "On Grading" also called the is/ought distinction into question. </p><p>Australian <a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a>, in <i>Ethics: Inventing Right And Wrong</i>, defended anti-realist <a href="/wiki/Error_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Error theory">error theory</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a> also influenced ethics by advocating a kind of <a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">moral relativism</a> and rejecting all other theories.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Normative_ethics">Normative ethics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Normative ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first half of the 20th century was marked by skepticism toward, and neglect of, normative ethics. However, contemporary normative ethics is dominated by three schools: <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">deontology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>y<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Consequentialism,_or_Utilitarianism"><span id="Consequentialism.2C_or_Utilitarianism"></span>Consequentialism, or Utilitarianism</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Consequentialism, or Utilitarianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the early 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a> was the only non-skeptical type of ethics to remain popular among analytic philosophers. However, as the influence of logical positivism declined mid-century, analytic philosophers had a renewed interest in ethics. <i>Utilitarianism: For and Against</i> was written with <a href="/wiki/J._J._C._Smart" title="J. J. C. Smart">J. J. C. Smart</a> arguing for and Bernard Williams arguing against. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Virtue_ethics">Virtue ethics</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Virtue ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anscombe, Foot, and <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair Macintyre</a>'s <i>After Virtue</i> sparked a revival of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethical</a> approach. This increased interest in virtue ethics has been dubbed the "<a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">aretaic turn</a>" mimicking the linguistic turn. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Deontology">Deontology</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Deontology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a>'s 1971 <i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> restored interest in <a href="/wiki/Kantian" class="mw-redirect" title="Kantian">Kantian</a> ethical philosophy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Applied_ethics">Applied ethics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Applied ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since around 1970, a significant feature of analytic philosophy has been the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">applied ethics</a>—an interest in the application of moral principles to specific practical issues. The philosophers following this orientation view ethics as involving humanistic values, which involve practical implications and applications in the way people interact and lead their lives socially.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Topics of special interest for applied ethics include <a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">environmental ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animal_rights" title="Animal rights">animal rights</a>, and the many challenges created by advancing <a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">medical science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In education, applied ethics addressed themes such as punishment in schools, <a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">equality of educational opportunity</a>, and education for democracy.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_philosophy">Political philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Political philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Liberalism">Liberalism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Liberalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Rawls_(1971_photo_portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/John_Rawls_%281971_photo_portrait%29.jpg/140px-John_Rawls_%281971_photo_portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/John_Rawls_%281971_photo_portrait%29.jpg/210px-John_Rawls_%281971_photo_portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/John_Rawls_%281971_photo_portrait%29.jpg/280px-John_Rawls_%281971_photo_portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1092" data-file-height="1529" /></a><figcaption>John Rawls</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a> had a lasting influence on both analytic political philosophy and liberalism with his lecture "<a href="/wiki/Two_Concepts_of_Liberty" title="Two Concepts of Liberty">Two Concepts of Liberty</a>".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Berlin defined 'negative liberty' as absence of coercion or interference in private actions. 'Positive liberty' Berlin maintained, could be thought of as self-mastery, which asks not what we are free from, but what we are free to do. </p><p>Current analytic political philosophy owes much to <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a>, who in a series of papers from the 1950s onward (most notably "Two Concepts of Rules" and "Justice as Fairness") and his 1971 book <i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i>, produced a sophisticated defense of a generally liberal <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarian</a> account of distributive justice. Rawls introduced the term the <a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">veil of ignorance</a>. </p><p>This was followed soon by Rawls's colleague <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a>'s book <i><a href="/wiki/Anarchy,_State,_and_Utopia" title="Anarchy, State, and Utopia">Anarchy, State, and Utopia</a></i>, a defense of <a href="/wiki/Free-market" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-market">free-market</a> <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">libertarianism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Consequentialist_libertarianism" title="Consequentialist libertarianism">Consequentialist libertarianism</a> also derives from the analytic tradition <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p><p>During recent decades there have also been several critics of liberalism, including the <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminist</a> critiques by <a href="/wiki/Catharine_MacKinnon" class="mw-redirect" title="Catharine MacKinnon">Catharine MacKinnon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Dworkin" title="Andrea Dworkin">Andrea Dworkin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multiculturalist</a> critiques by <a href="/wiki/Amy_Gutmann" title="Amy Gutmann">Amy Gutmann</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">communitarian</a> critiques by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Michael Sandel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a> (although neither of them endorses the term). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Analytical_Marxism">Analytical Marxism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Analytical Marxism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another development of political philosophy was the emergence of the school of <a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">analytical Marxism</a>. Members of this school seek to apply techniques of analytic philosophy and modern social science to clarify the theories of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and his successors. The best-known member of this school is <a href="/wiki/G._A._Cohen" title="G. A. Cohen">G. A. Cohen</a>, whose 1978 book, <i><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx%27s_Theory_of_History:_A_Defence" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence">Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence</a></i>, is generally considered to represent the genesis of this school. In that book, Cohen used logical and linguistic analysis to clarify and defend Marx's materialist conception of history. Other prominent analytical Marxists include the economist <a href="/wiki/John_Roemer" title="John Roemer">John Roemer</a>, the social scientist <a href="/wiki/Jon_Elster" title="Jon Elster">Jon Elster</a>, and the sociologist <a href="/wiki/Erik_Olin_Wright" title="Erik Olin Wright">Erik Olin Wright</a>. The work of these later philosophers has furthered Cohen's work by bringing to bear modern social science methods, such as <a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">rational choice theory</a>, to supplement Cohen's use of analytic philosophical techniques in the interpretation of Marxian theory. </p><p>Cohen himself would later engage directly with Rawlsian political philosophy to advance a <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a> theory of justice that contrasts with both traditional Marxism and the theories advanced by Rawls and Nozick. In particular, he indicates Marx's principle of <a href="/wiki/From_each_according_to_his_ability,_to_each_according_to_his_need" class="mw-redirect" title="From each according to his ability, to each according to his need">from each according to his ability, to each according to his need</a>. </p><p>Although not an analytic philosopher, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> is another influential—if controversial—author in contemporary analytic political philosophy, whose social theory is a blend of social science, Marxism, <a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">neo-Kantianism</a>, and American <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Communitarianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alasdair_MacIntyre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Alasdair_MacIntyre.jpg/130px-Alasdair_MacIntyre.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Alasdair_MacIntyre.jpg/195px-Alasdair_MacIntyre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Alasdair_MacIntyre.jpg/260px-Alasdair_MacIntyre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1085" data-file-height="1461" /></a><figcaption>Alasdair MacIntyre</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Communitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Communitarian">Communitarians</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Michael Walzer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Michael Sandel</a> advance a critique of liberalism that uses analytic techniques to isolate the main assumptions of liberal individualists, such as Rawls, and then challenges these assumptions. In particular, communitarians challenge the liberal assumption that the individual can be considered as fully autonomous from the community in which he is brought up and lives. Instead, they argue for a conception of the individual that emphasizes the role that the community plays in forming his or her values, thought processes, and opinions. While in the analytic tradition, its major exponents often also engage at length with figures generally considered continental, notably <a href="/wiki/G._W._F._Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="G. W. F. Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Aesthetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></div> <p>As a result of logical positivism, as well as what seemed like rejections of the traditional aesthetic notions of beauty and sublimity from <a href="/wiki/Post-modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-modern">post-modern</a> thinkers, analytic philosophers were slow to consider art and aesthetic judgment. <a href="/wiki/Susanne_Langer" title="Susanne Langer">Susanne Langer</a><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> addressed these problems in an analytic style during the 1950s and 1960s. Since Goodman, aesthetics as a discipline for analytic philosophers has flourished.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Danto" title="Arthur Danto">Arthur Danto</a> argued for a "institutional definition of art" in the 1964 essay "The Artworld" in which Danto coined the term "artworld" (as opposed to the existing "<a href="/wiki/Art_world" title="Art world">art world</a>", though they mean the same), by which he meant cultural context or "an atmosphere of <a href="/wiki/Art_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Art theory">art theory</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rigorous efforts to pursue analyses of traditional aesthetic concepts were performed by <a href="/wiki/Guy_Sircello" title="Guy Sircello">Guy Sircello</a> in the 1970s and 1980s, resulting in new analytic theories of love,<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sublimity,<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and beauty.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the opinion of <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Tatarkiewicz" title="Władysław Tatarkiewicz">Władysław Tatarkiewicz</a>, there are six conditions for the presentation of art: beauty, form, representation, reproduction of reality, artistic expression, and innovation. However, one may not be able to pin down these qualities in a work of art.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/George_Dickie_(philosopher)" title="George Dickie (philosopher)">George Dickie</a> was an influential philosopher of art. Dickie's student <a href="/wiki/No%C3%ABl_Carroll" title="Noël Carroll">Noël Carroll</a> is a leading philosopher of art. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_language">Philosophy of language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Philosophy of language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></div> <p>Given the linguistic turn, it can be hard to separate logic, metaphysics, and the philosophy of language in analytic philosophy. Philosophy of language is a topic that has decreased in activity during the last four decades, as evidenced by the fact that few major philosophers today treat it as a primary research topic. While the debate remains fierce, it is still strongly influenced by those authors from the first half of the century, e.g. Frege, Russell, Wittgenstein, Austin, Tarski, and Quine. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Semantics">Semantics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Semantics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a> provided a <a href="/wiki/Kripke_semantics" title="Kripke semantics">semantics</a> for modal logic. In his book <i><a href="/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a></i> (1980), Kripke challenges the descriptivist theory with a <a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">causal theory of reference</a>. In it he introduced the term <a href="/wiki/Rigid_designator" title="Rigid designator">rigid designator</a>. According to one author, "In the philosophy of language, <i>Naming and Necessity</i> is among the most important works ever."<sup id="cite_ref-ageofm_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ageofm-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Barcan_Marcus" title="Ruth Barcan Marcus">Ruth Barcan Marcus</a> also challenged descriptivism. So did <a href="/wiki/Keith_Donnellan" title="Keith Donnellan">Keith Donnellan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hilary Putnam used the Twin Earth thought experiment to argue for <a href="/wiki/Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">semantic externalism</a>, or the view that the meanings of words are not psychological. <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a> uses the thought experiment of Swampman to advocate for semantic externalism. </p><p>Kripke in <i><a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein_on_Rules_and_Private_Language" title="Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language">Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language</a></i> provides a rule-following paradox that undermines the possibility of our ever following rules in our use of language and, so, calls into question the idea of meaning. Kripke writes that this paradox is "the most radical and original skeptical problem that philosophy has seen to date". The <a href="/wiki/Portmanteau" class="mw-redirect" title="Portmanteau">portmanteau</a> "Kripkenstein" has been coined as a term for a fictional person who holds the views expressed by Kripke's reading of Wittgenstein. </p><p>Another influential philosopher, <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Tich%C3%BD" title="Pavel Tichý">Pavel Tichý</a> initiated Transparent Intensional Logic, an original theory of the <a href="/wiki/Logical_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical analysis">logical analysis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural languages</a>—the theory is devoted to the problem of saying exactly what it is that we learn, know, and can communicate when we come to understand what a sentence means. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Pragmatics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a> and his maxims and theory of <a href="/wiki/Implicature" title="Implicature">implicature</a> established the discipline of pragmatics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_mind_and_cognitive_science">Philosophy of mind and cognitive science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Philosophy of mind and cognitive science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_searle2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/John_searle2.jpg/130px-John_searle2.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/John_searle2.jpg/195px-John_searle2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/John_searle2.jpg/260px-John_searle2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2272" /></a><figcaption>John Searle</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a> suggests that the obsession with the philosophy of language during the 20th century has been superseded by an emphasis on the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Physicalism">Physicalism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Physicalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Motivated by the logical positivists' interest in verificationism, <a href="/wiki/Logical_behaviorism" title="Logical behaviorism">logical behaviorism</a> was the most prominent <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">theory of mind</a> of analytic philosophy for the first half of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Behaviorism later became much less popular, in favor of either <a href="/wiki/Identity_theory_of_mind" class="mw-redirect" title="Identity theory of mind">type physicalism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">functionalism</a>. During this period, topics of the philosophy of mind were often related strongly to topics of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">innateness</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Behaviorism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Behaviorists such as <a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a> tended to opine either that statements about the mind were equivalent to <i>statements about</i> behavior and dispositions to behave in particular ways or that mental states were directly equivalent to behavior and dispositions to behave. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hilary_Putnam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Hilary_Putnam.jpg/120px-Hilary_Putnam.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Hilary_Putnam.jpg/180px-Hilary_Putnam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Hilary_Putnam.jpg/240px-Hilary_Putnam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2028" data-file-height="2902" /></a><figcaption>Hilary Putnam</figcaption></figure> <p>Hilary Putnam criticized behaviorism by arguing that it confuses the symptoms of mental states with the mental states themselves, positing "super Spartans" who never display signs of pain.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>See also: <a href="/wiki/Verbal_Behavior#Chomsky's_review_and_replies" title="Verbal Behavior">Verbal Behavior § Chomsky's review and replies</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Type_Identity">Type Identity</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Type Identity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Type physicalism or type identity theory identified mental states with brain states. Former students of Ryle at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Adelaide" title="University of Adelaide">University of Adelaide</a> <a href="/wiki/J._J._C._Smart" title="J. J. C. Smart">J. J. C. Smart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ullin_Place" title="Ullin Place">Ullin Place</a> argued for type physicalism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Functionalism">Functionalism</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Functionalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Functionalism remains the dominant theory. Type identity was criticized using <a href="/wiki/Multiple_realizability" title="Multiple realizability">multiple realizability</a>. </p><p>Searle's <a href="/wiki/Chinese_room" title="Chinese room">Chinese room</a> argument criticized functionalism and holds that while a computer can understand syntax, it could never understand semantics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Eliminativism">Eliminativism</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Eliminativism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The view of <a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">eliminative materialism</a> is most closely associated with <a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a>, who deny the existence of propositional attitudes, and with <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a>, who is generally considered an eliminativist about <a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">qualia</a> and phenomenal aspects of consciousness. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dualism">Dualism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Dualism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:David_chalmers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/David_chalmers.jpg/140px-David_chalmers.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/David_chalmers.jpg/210px-David_chalmers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/David_chalmers.jpg/280px-David_chalmers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2356" data-file-height="1939" /></a><figcaption>David Chalmers</figcaption></figure> <p>Finally, analytic philosophy has featured a certain number of philosophers who were <a href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">dualists</a>, and recently forms of <a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">property dualism</a> have had a resurgence; the most prominent representative is <a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kripke also makes a notable argument for dualism.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/What_Is_It_Like_to_Be_a_Bat%3F" title="What Is It Like to Be a Bat?">What is it like to be a bat</a>?" challenged the physicalist account of mind. So did <a href="/wiki/Frank_Jackson_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Jackson (philosopher)">Frank Jackson</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_argument" title="Knowledge argument">knowledge argument</a>, which argues for <a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">qualia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Theories_of_consciousness">Theories of consciousness</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Theories of consciousness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In recent years, a central focus of research in the philosophy of mind has been <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">philosophy of perception</a>. While there is a general consensus for the global neuronal workspace model of consciousness,<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there are many opinions as to the specifics. The best known theories are Searle's <a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">naive realism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Tye_(philosopher)" title="Michael Tye (philosopher)">Michael Tye</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">representationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Heterophenomenology" title="Heterophenomenology">heterophenomenology</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Higher-order_theories_of_consciousness" title="Higher-order theories of consciousness">higher-order theories</a> of either <a href="/wiki/David_M._Rosenthal_(philosopher)" title="David M. Rosenthal (philosopher)">David M. Rosenthal</a>—who advocates a higher-order thought (HOT) model—or <a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Armstrong</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Lycan" title="William Lycan">William Lycan</a>—who advocate a higher-order perception (HOP) model. An alternative higher-order theory, the higher-order global states (HOGS) model, is offered by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_van_Gulick&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert van Gulick (page does not exist)">Robert van Gulick</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: Philosophy of mathematics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kurt_g%C3%B6del.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Kurt_g%C3%B6del.jpg/130px-Kurt_g%C3%B6del.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Kurt_g%C3%B6del.jpg/195px-Kurt_g%C3%B6del.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Kurt_g%C3%B6del.jpg 2x" data-file-width="212" data-file-height="270" /></a><figcaption>Kurt Gödel</figcaption></figure> <p>Since the beginning, analytic philosophy has had an interest in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">philosophy of mathematics</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a>, a student of Hans Hahn of the Vienna Circle, produced his <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theorems" title="Gödel's incompleteness theorems">incompleteness theorems</a> showing that Russell and Whitehead's <i>Principia Mathematica</i> also failed to reduce arithmetic to logic. Gödel has been ranked as one of the four greatest logicians of all time, along with <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, Frege, and Tarski.<sup id="cite_ref-Restall_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Restall-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Zermelo" title="Ernst Zermelo">Ernst Zermelo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Fraenkel" title="Abraham Fraenkel">Abraham Fraenkel</a> established <a href="/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory" title="Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory">Zermelo Fraenkel Set Theory</a>. Quine developed his own system, dubbed <a href="/wiki/New_Foundations" title="New Foundations">New Foundations</a>. </p><p>Physicist <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a>'s seminal paper "<a href="/wiki/The_Unreasonable_Effectiveness_of_Mathematics_in_the_Natural_Sciences" title="The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences">The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences</a>" poses the question of why a formal pursuit like mathematics can have real utility.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Benardete" title="José Benardete">José Benardete</a> argued for the reality of <a href="/wiki/Infinity" title="Infinity">infinity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Akin to the medieval debate on universals, between realists, idealists, and nominalists; the philosophy of mathematics has the debate between logicists or platonists, conceptualists or <a href="/wiki/Intuitionism" title="Intuitionism">intuitionists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Formalism_(philosophy_of_mathematics)" title="Formalism (philosophy of mathematics)">formalists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Platonism">Platonism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: Platonism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gödel was a platonist who postulated a special kind of mathematical intuition that lets us perceive mathematical objects directly. Quine and Putnam argued for platonism with the <a href="/wiki/Quine%E2%80%93Putnam_indispensability_argument" title="Quine–Putnam indispensability argument">indispensability argument</a>. <a href="/wiki/Crispin_Wright" title="Crispin Wright">Crispin Wright</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/Bob_Hale_(philosopher)" title="Bob Hale (philosopher)">Bob Hale</a>, led a Neo-Fregean revival with his work <i>Frege's Conception of Numbers as Objects</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Critics_2">Critics</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: Critics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_mathematics)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of mathematics)">Structuralist</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Benacerraf" title="Paul Benacerraf">Paul Benacerraf</a> has an epistemological objection to mathematical platonism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Intuitionism">Intuitionism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: Intuitionism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The intuitionists, led by <a href="/wiki/L._E._J._Brouwer" title="L. E. J. Brouwer">L. E. J. Brouwer</a>, are a <a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(philosophy_of_mathematics)" title="Constructivism (philosophy of mathematics)">constructivist</a> school of mathematics that argues that mathematics is a <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive</a> <a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">construct</a> rather than a type of <a href="/wiki/Objective_truth" class="mw-redirect" title="Objective truth">objective truth</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Formalism">Formalism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: Formalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The formalists, best exemplified by David Hilbert, considered mathematics to be merely the investigation of <a href="/wiki/Formal_system" title="Formal system">formal axiom systems</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hartry_Field" title="Hartry Field">Hartry Field</a> defended <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_fictionalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical fictionalism">mathematical fictionalism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_religion">Philosophy of religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: Philosophy of religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>Analytic Philosophy of Religion</i>, <a href="/wiki/James_Franklin_Harris" title="James Franklin Harris">James Franklin Harris</a> noted that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>...analytic philosophy has been a very heterogeneous 'movement'.... some forms of analytic philosophy have proven very sympathetic to the philosophy of religion and have provided a philosophical mechanism for responding to other more radical and hostile forms of analytic philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-harris2001_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harris2001-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3">: 3 </span></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>As with the study of ethics, early analytic philosophy tended to avoid the study of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">religion</a>, largely dismissing (as per the logical positivists) the subject as a part of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> and therefore meaningless.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>z<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The demise of logical positivism led to a renewed interest in the philosophy of religion, prompting philosophers not only to introduce new problems, but to re-study classical topics such as the <a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">existence of God</a>, the nature of <a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">miracles</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">problem of evil</a>, the rationality of belief in God, concepts of the nature of God, and several others.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Christian_Philosophers" title="Society of Christian Philosophers">Society of Christian Philosophers</a> was established in 1978. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reformed_epistemology">Reformed epistemology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: Reformed epistemology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Analytic philosophy formed the basis for some sophisticated Christian arguments, such as those of the <a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">reformed epistemologists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a>. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AlvinPlantinga.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/AlvinPlantinga.JPG/160px-AlvinPlantinga.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/AlvinPlantinga.JPG/240px-AlvinPlantinga.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/AlvinPlantinga.JPG/320px-AlvinPlantinga.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1427" data-file-height="1432" /></a><figcaption>Alvin Plantinga</figcaption></figure> <p>Plantinga was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Templeton_Prize" title="Templeton Prize">Templeton Prize</a> in 2017 and was once described by <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i> magazine as "America's leading orthodox <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> philosopher of God".<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His seminal work <i><a href="/wiki/God_and_Other_Minds" title="God and Other Minds">God and Other Minds</a></i> (1967) argues that belief in God is a properly basic belief akin to the belief in <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">other minds</a>. Plantinga also developed a modal <a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument#Alvin_Plantinga" title="Ontological argument">ontological argument</a> in <i>The Nature of Necessity</i> (1974). </p><p>Plantinga, J. L. Mackie, and <a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a> debated the use of the <i><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga%27s_free-will_defense" title="Alvin Plantinga's free-will defense">free will defense</a></i> as a way to solve the problem of evil.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plantinga's <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_argument_against_naturalism" title="Evolutionary argument against naturalism">evolutionary argument against naturalism</a> contends that there is a problem in asserting both evolution and naturalism. Plantinga further issued a trilogy on epistemology, and especially justification, <i><a href="/wiki/Warrant:_The_Current_Debate" title="Warrant: The Current Debate">Warrant: The Current Debate</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Warrant_and_Proper_Function" title="Warrant and Proper Function">Warrant and Proper Function</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Warranted_Christian_Belief" title="Warranted Christian Belief">Warranted Christian Belief</a>.</i> </p><p>Alston defended <a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">divine command theory</a> and applied the analytic philosophy of language to religious language. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a> also defended divine command theory, and worked on the relationship between faith and morality.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a> defends the <a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam cosmological argument</a> in the <a href="/wiki/The_Kal%C4%81m_Cosmological_Argument" title="The Kalām Cosmological Argument">book</a> of the same name. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Analytic_Thomism">Analytic Thomism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=81" title="Edit section: Analytic Thomism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Catholic philosophers in the analytic tradition—such as Elizabeth Anscombe, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a>, Alasdair MacIntyre, <a href="/wiki/John_Haldane_(philosopher)" title="John Haldane (philosopher)">John Haldane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eleonore_Stump" title="Eleonore Stump">Eleonore Stump</a>, and others—developed an <a href="/wiki/Analytical_Thomism" title="Analytical Thomism">analytic approach</a> to <a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Orthodox">Orthodox</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=82" title="Edit section: Orthodox"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a> wrote a trilogy of books, arguing for God, consisting of <i>The Coherence of Theism</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Existence_of_God_(book)" title="The Existence of God (book)">The Existence of God</a></i>, and <i>Faith and Reason</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wittgenstein_and_religion">Wittgenstein and religion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=83" title="Edit section: Wittgenstein and religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The analytic philosophy of religion has been preoccupied with Wittgenstein, as well as his interpretation of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a>'s philosophy of religion.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wittgenstein fought for the Austrian army in the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> and came upon a copy of <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>'s <i>Gospel in Brief</i>. At that time, he underwent some kind of religious conversion.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Using first-hand remarks (which were later published in <i>Philosophical Investigations</i>, <i>Culture and Value</i>, and other works), philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Peter_Winch" title="Peter Winch">Peter Winch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norman_Malcolm" title="Norman Malcolm">Norman Malcolm</a> developed what has come to be known as "contemplative philosophy", a Wittgensteinian school of thought rooted in the "<a href="/wiki/Swansea_University" title="Swansea University">Swansea</a> school", and which includes Wittgensteinians such as <a href="/wiki/Rush_Rhees" title="Rush Rhees">Rush Rhees</a>, Peter Winch, and <a href="/wiki/D.Z._Phillips" class="mw-redirect" title="D.Z. Phillips">D.Z. Phillips</a>, among others. </p><p>The name "contemplative philosophy" was coined by D. Z. Phillips in <i>Philosophy's Cool Place</i>, which rests on an interpretation of a passage from Wittgenstein's <i>Culture and Value</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This interpretation was first labeled "Wittgensteinian <a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a>" by <a href="/wiki/Kai_Nielsen_(philosopher)" title="Kai Nielsen (philosopher)">Kai Nielsen</a>, but those who consider themselves members of the Swansea school have relentlessly and repeatedly rejected this construal as a caricature of Wittgenstein's position; this is especially true of Phillips.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Responding to this interpretation, Nielsen and Phillips became two of the most prominent interpreters of Wittgenstein's philosophy of religion.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_science">Philosophy of science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=84" title="Edit section: Philosophy of science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div> <p>Science and the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> have also had increasingly significant roles in analytic metaphysics. The theory of special relativity has had a profound effect on the philosophy of time, and quantum physics is routinely discussed in the free will debate.<sup id="cite_ref-inwagenetall1998_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inwagenetall1998-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The weight given to scientific evidence is largely due to commitments of philosophers to <a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">scientific realism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalism</a>. Others will see a commitment to using science in philosophy as <a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">scientism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Confirmation_theory">Confirmation theory</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=85" title="Edit section: Confirmation theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Carl Hempel advocated confirmation theory or <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_epistemology" title="Bayesian epistemology">Bayesian epistemology</a>. He introduced the famous <a href="/wiki/Raven_paradox" title="Raven paradox">raven's paradox</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fitelson_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fitelson-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Falsification">Falsification</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=86" title="Edit section: Falsification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karl_Popper.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Karl_Popper.jpg/130px-Karl_Popper.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Karl_Popper.jpg/195px-Karl_Popper.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Karl_Popper.jpg/260px-Karl_Popper.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="769" /></a><figcaption>Karl Popper</figcaption></figure> <p>In reaction to what he considered excesses of logical positivism, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>, in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a></i>, insisted on the role of <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsification</a> in the philosophy of science, using it to solve the <a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">demarcation problem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Confirmation_holism">Confirmation holism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=87" title="Edit section: Confirmation holism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Duhem%E2%80%93Quine_thesis" title="Duhem–Quine thesis">Duhem–Quine thesis</a>, or problem of <a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">underdetermination</a>, posits that no <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">scientific hypothesis</a> can be understood in isolation, a viewpoint called <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">confirmation holism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-qui_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-qui-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Constructivism">Constructivism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=88" title="Edit section: Constructivism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In reaction to both the logical positivists and Popper, discussions of the philosophy of science during the last 40 years were dominated by <a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">social constructivist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_relativism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive relativism">cognitive relativist</a> theories of science. Following Quine and Duhem, subsequent theories emphasized <a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">theory-ladenness</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Samuel_Kuhn" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Samuel Kuhn">Thomas Samuel Kuhn</a>, with his formulation of <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a>, with his <a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">epistemological anarchism</a>, are significant for these discussions.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biology">Biology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=89" title="Edit section: Biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">philosophy of biology</a> has also undergone considerable growth, particularly due to the considerable debate in recent years over the nature of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Daniel Dennett and his 1995 book <i><a href="/wiki/Darwin%27s_Dangerous_Idea" title="Darwin's Dangerous Idea">Darwin's Dangerous Idea</a></i>, which defends <a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a>, stand at the forefront of this debate.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Jerry Fodor</a> criticizes natural selection. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=90" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/A.P._Martinich" class="mw-redirect" title="A.P. Martinich">A.P. Martinich</a> draws an analogy between analytic philosophy and analytic chemistry, which aims to determine chemical compositions.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Without exception, the best philosophy departments in the United States are dominated by analytic philosophy, and among the leading philosophers in the United States, all but a tiny handful would be classified as analytic philosophers. Practitioners of types of philosophizing that are not in the analytic tradition—such as phenomenology, classical pragmatism, existentialism, or Marxism—feel it necessary to define their position in relation to analytic philosophy."<sup id="cite_ref-Searle03P1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Searle03P1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quote on the definition: "'Analytic' philosophy today names a <i>style</i> of doing philosophy, not a philosophical program or a set of substantive views. Analytic philosophers, crudely speaking, aim for argumentative clarity and precision; draw freely on the tools of logic; and often identify, professionally and intellectually, more closely with the sciences and mathematics, than with the humanities."<sup id="cite_ref-LeiterWeb_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeiterWeb-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"analytical philosophy [is] too narrow a label, since [it] is not generally a matter of taking a word or concept and analyzing it (whatever exactly that might be). [...] This tradition emphasizes clarity, rigor, argument, theory, truth. It is not a tradition that aims primarily for inspiration or consolation or ideology. Nor is it particularly concerned with 'philosophy of life', though parts of it are. This kind of philosophy is more like science than religion, more like mathematics than poetry—though it is neither science nor mathematics."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to <a href="/wiki/Scott_Soames" title="Scott Soames">Scott Soames</a>, "an implicit commitment—albeit faltering and imperfect—to the ideals of clarity, rigor and argumentation" and it "aims at truth and knowledge, as opposed to moral or spiritual improvement [...] the goal in analytic philosophy is to discover what is true, not to provide a useful recipe for living one's life". Soames also states that analytic philosophy is characterized by "a more piecemeal approach. There is, I think, a widespread presumption within the tradition that it is often possible to make philosophical progress by intensively investigating a small, circumscribed range of philosophical issues while holding broader, systematic questions in abeyance".<sup id="cite_ref-Soames_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soames-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"[I]t is difficult to give a precise definition of 'analytic philosophy' since it is not so much a specific doctrine as a loose concatenation of approaches to problems."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"I think <a href="/wiki/Hans_Sluga" title="Hans Sluga">Sluga</a> is right in saying 'it may be hopeless to try to determine the essence of analytic philosophy.' Nearly every proposed definition has been challenged by some scholar. [...] [W]e are dealing with a family resemblance concept."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The answer to the title question, then, is that analytic philosophy is a tradition held together <i>both</i> by ties of mutual influence <i>and</i> by family resemblances."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The 1950s saw challenges to much which had been taken for granted, and roughly by 1960 anglophone philosophy began to incorporate a wider range of interests, opinions, and methods.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this, most philosophers in Britain and America still consider themselves "analytic philosophers".<sup id="cite_ref-LeiterWeb_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeiterWeb-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They have done so largely by expanding the notion of "analytic philosophy" from the specific programs that dominated anglophone philosophy before 1960 to a much more general notion of an "analytic" style,<sup id="cite_ref-LeiterWeb_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeiterWeb-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> characterized by mathematical precision and thoroughness about a specific topic, and resistance to "imprecise or cavalier discussions of broad topics".<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Most non-analytic philosophers of the twentieth century do not belong to continental philosophy."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The distinction rests upon a confusion of geographical and methodological terms, as if one were to classify cars into front-wheel drive and Japanese. [...] the distinction between analytic and Continental philosophy rests upon a confused comparison of methodological and geographical categories.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Analytic philosophy is mainly associated with the contemporary English-speaking world, but it is by no means the only important philosophical tradition. In this volume two other immensely rich and important such traditions are introduced: Indian philosophy, and philosophical thought in Europe from the time of Hegel."<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"So, despite a few overlaps, analytical philosophy is not difficult to distinguish broadly [...] from other modern movements, like phenomenology, say, or existentialism, or from the large amount of philosophizing that has also gone on in the present century within frameworks deriving from other influential thinkers like Aquinas, Hegel, or Marx."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven D. Hales described analytic philosophy as one of three types of philosophical method practiced in the West: "[i]n roughly reverse order by number of proponents, they are phenomenology, ideological philosophy, and analytic philosophy".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The distinction which Russell sets up between 'technical' philosophy and 'literary' philosophy has had many incarnations, from Plato's 'ancient quarrel between poetry and philosophy'..."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The tradition has also been criticized for excessive formalism, ahistoricism, and aloofness towards alternative disciplines and outsiders.<sup id="cite_ref-Glock_2008_p._231_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glock_2008_p._231-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some have tried to develop a <a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">postanalytic philosophy</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It has recently been argued Frege plagiarized <a href="/wiki/Stoic_logic" title="Stoic logic">Stoic logic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carroll's paper "<a href="/wiki/What_The_Tortoise_Said_To_Achilles" class="mw-redirect" title="What The Tortoise Said To Achilles">What The Tortoise Said To Achilles</a>" humorously shows an infinite regress paradox at the heart of logic.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Analytic philosophy opposed right from its beginning English neo-Hegelianism of Bradley's sort and similar ones. It did not only criticize the latter's denial of the existence of an external world (anyway an unjust criticism), but also the bombastic, obscure style of Hegel's writings."<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell once explained, "Hegel had maintained that all separateness is illusory and that the universe is more like a pot of <a href="/wiki/Treacle" title="Treacle">treacle</a> than a heap of <a href="/wiki/Shot_(pellet)" title="Shot (pellet)">shot</a>. I therefore said, "The universe is exactly like a heap of shot."<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Named in reference to Waismann's <i>Logik, Sprache, Philosophie</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> A survey among American university and college teachers ranked the <i>Investigations</i> as the most important philosophical book of the <a href="/wiki/20th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="20th-century philosophy">20th century</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Named in reference to Carnap's <i><a href="/wiki/Meaning_and_Necessity" title="Meaning and Necessity">Meaning and Necessity</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Foot was the granddaughter of former US President <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anscombe introduced the term "<a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialism</a>" into the philosophical lexicon.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A notable exception is the series of <a href="/wiki/Michael_Foster_(philosopher)" title="Michael Foster (philosopher)">Michael B. Foster</a>'s 1934–36 <i><a href="/wiki/Mind_(journal)" title="Mind (journal)">Mind</a></i> articles involving the Christian doctrine of creation and the rise of modern science.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=91" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:4-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMartinichSosa2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aloysius_Martinich" title="Aloysius Martinich">Martinich, A. P.</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_Sosa" title="David Sosa">Sosa, David</a>, eds. (2001). <i>A Companion to Analytic Philosophy</i>. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. Blackwell Publishers Ltd. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470998656">10.1002/9780470998656</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21415-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21415-1"><bdi>978-0-631-21415-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Analytic+Philosophy&rft.series=Blackwell+Companions+to+Philosophy&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers+Ltd&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9780470998656&rft.isbn=978-0-631-21415-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Searle03P1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Searle03P1_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a> (2003), <i>Contemporary Philosophy in the United States</i> in N. Bunnin and E. P. Tsui-James (eds.), <i>The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy</i>, 2nd ed., (Blackwell, 2003), p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlock2004" class="citation journal cs1">Glock, H.J. (2004). "Was Wittgenstein an Analytic Philosopher?". <i>Metaphilosophy</i>. <b>35</b> (4): 419–444. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9973.2004.00329.x">10.1111/j.1467-9973.2004.00329.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Metaphilosophy&rft.atitle=Was+Wittgenstein+an+Analytic+Philosopher%3F&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=419-444&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9973.2004.00329.x&rft.aulast=Glock&rft.aufirst=H.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PenguinDicP22-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PenguinDicP22_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PenguinDicP22_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mautner, Thomas (editor) (2005) <i>The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, entry for "Analytic philosophy", pp. 22–23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LeiterWeb-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LeiterWeb_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LeiterWeb_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LeiterWeb_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Leiter" title="Brian Leiter">Brian Leiter</a> (2006) webpage <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061115002425/https://www.philosophicalgourmet.com/analytic.asp"><i>"Analytic" and "Continental" Philosophy</i></a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Colin McGinn, <i>The Making of a Philosopher: My Journey through Twentieth-Century Philosophy</i> (HarperCollins, 2002), p. xi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Soames-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Soames_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoames2003" class="citation book cs1">Soames, Scott (2003). <i>The dawn of analysis</i> (2nd print., 1st papers. print ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press. pp. xiii–xvii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11573-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11573-3"><bdi>978-0-691-11573-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+dawn+of+analysis&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pages=xiii-xvii&rft.edition=2nd+print.%2C+1st+papers.+print&rft.pub=Princeton+Univ.+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-691-11573-3&rft.aulast=Soames&rft.aufirst=Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:5_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDummett1993">Dummett 1993</a>, p. 4, 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., Avrum Stroll, <i>Twentieth-Century Analytic Philosophy</i> (Columbia University Press, 2000), p. 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see Stroll (2000), p. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Hans-Johann_Glock" title="Hans-Johann Glock">Hans-Johann Glock</a>, <i>What Is Analytic Philosophy?</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 205</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoopman" class="citation web cs1">Koopman, Colin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pages.uoregon.edu/koopman/pub/2010rev-metaP_williams_hist_phil-final.pdf">"Bernard Williams on Philosophy's Need for History"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>pages.uoregon.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=pages.uoregon.edu&rft.atitle=Bernard+Williams+on+Philosophy%27s+Need+for+History&rft.aulast=Koopman&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpages.uoregon.edu%2Fkoopman%2Fpub%2F2010rev-metaP_williams_hist_phil-final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vienne_1997_p._140-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vienne_1997_p._140_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVienne1997" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Vienne, J.M. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LVXgT6lo6cwC&pg=PA140"><i>Philosophie analytique et histoire de la philosophie: actes du colloque (Université de Nantes, 1991)</i></a>. Problèmes et controverses (in French). J. Vrin. p. 140. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7116-1312-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7116-1312-0"><bdi>978-2-7116-1312-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophie+analytique+et+histoire+de+la+philosophie%3A+actes+du+colloque+%28Universit%C3%A9+de+Nantes%2C+1991%29&rft.series=Probl%C3%A8mes+et+controverses&rft.pages=140&rft.pub=J.+Vrin&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-2-7116-1312-0&rft.aulast=Vienne&rft.aufirst=J.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLVXgT6lo6cwC%26pg%3DPA140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Luft_2019_p._258-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Luft_2019_p._258_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuft2019" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Luft, S. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mCu6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT258"><i>Philosophie lehren: Ein Buch zur philosophischen Hochschuldidaktik</i></a> (in German). Felix Meiner Verlag. p. 258. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7873-3766-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7873-3766-8"><bdi>978-3-7873-3766-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Epistemological Contextualism: Problems and Prospects". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Philosophical_Quarterly" title="The Philosophical Quarterly">The Philosophical Quarterly</a></i>. <b>55</b> (219): 161–171. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0031-8094.2005.00393.x">10.1111/j.0031-8094.2005.00393.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Philosophical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Epistemological+Contextualism%3A+Problems+and+Prospects&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=219&rft.pages=161-171&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.0031-8094.2005.00393.x&rft.au=Brady%2C+Michael&rft.au=Pritchard%2C+Duncan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz2012" class="citation book cs1">Schwartz, Stephen P. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5lK6DTadnaQC&q=%22analytic+philosophy%22+ethics&pg=PT213"><i>A Brief History of Analytic Philosophy: From Russell to Rawls</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-27172-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-27172-8"><bdi>978-1-118-27172-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Analytic+Philosophy%3A+From+Russell+to+Rawls&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-118-27172-8&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Stephen+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5lK6DTadnaQC%26q%3D%2522analytic%2Bphilosophy%2522%2Bethics%26pg%3DPT213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuusela2011" class="citation book cs1">Kuusela, Oskari (2011). <i>Key Terms in Ethics</i>. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-6610-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-6610-4"><bdi>978-1-4411-6610-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Key+Terms+in+Ethics&rft.place=London&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-6610-4&rft.aulast=Kuusela&rft.aufirst=Oskari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Philippa_Foot_1978-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Philippa_Foot_1978_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philippa Foot, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.econ.iastate.edu/classes/econ362/hallam/Readings/FootDoubleEffect.pdf">The Problem of Abortion and the Doctrine of the Double Effect</a>" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190824083120/http://www2.econ.iastate.edu/classes/econ362/hallam/Readings/FootDoubleEffect.pdf">Archived</a> 24 August 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> in <i>Virtues and Vices</i> (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1978) (originally in the <i>Oxford Review</i>, No. 5, 1967).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From the cover of the 2000 Harvard University Press edition of <i>Intention</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIkuenobe2006" class="citation book cs1">Ikuenobe, Polycarp (2006). <i>Philosophical Perspectives on Communalism and Morality in African Traditions</i>. Oxford: Lexington Books. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-1131-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-1131-4"><bdi>978-0-7391-1131-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophical+Perspectives+on+Communalism+and+Morality+in+African+Traditions&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-1131-4&rft.aulast=Ikuenobe&rft.aufirst=Polycarp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brennan, Andrew and Yeuk-Sze Lo (2002). "Environmental Ethics" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-environmental/#2">§2</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130801143528/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-environmental/">Archived</a> 1 August 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gruen, Lori (2003). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-animal/">The Moral Status of Animals</a>," in <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Hursthouse, Rosalind (2003). "Virtue Ethics" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/#3">§3</a>, in <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> and Donchin, Anne (2004). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminist-bioethics/">Feminist Bioethics</a>" in <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeytingLenzenWhite2002" class="citation book cs1">Heyting, Frieda; Lenzen, Dieter; White, John (2002). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/methodsphilosoph00heyt"><i>Methods in Philosophy of Education</i></a></span>. New York: Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/methodsphilosoph00heyt/page/n30">18</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-24260-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-24260-8"><bdi>978-0-415-24260-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Methods+in+Philosophy+of+Education&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-24260-8&rft.aulast=Heyting&rft.aufirst=Frieda&rft.au=Lenzen%2C+Dieter&rft.au=White%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmethodsphilosoph00heyt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Susanne_Langer" title="Susanne Langer">Susanne Langer</a>, <i>Feeling and Form: A Theory of Art</i> (1953)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a>, <i>Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols</i>. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1968. 2nd ed. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1976. Based on his 1960–61 John Locke lectures.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kivy, Peter, "Introduction: Aesthetics Today" in <i>The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics</i> (Blackwell Publishing, 2004), p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adajian, Thomas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/art-definition/">"The Definition of Art"</a>, <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, London, Oct 23, 2007. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Guy_Sircello" title="Guy Sircello">Guy Sircello</a>, <i>Love and Beauty.</i> Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Guy_Sircello" title="Guy Sircello">Guy Sircello</a> "How Is a Theory of the Sublime Possible?" <i>The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism</i>, Vol. 51, No. 4 (Autumn, 1993), pp. 541–550</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Guy_Sircello" title="Guy Sircello">Guy Sircello</a>, <i>A New Theory of Beauty.</i> Princeton Essays on the Arts, 1. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTatarkiewicz1980" class="citation book cs1">Tatarkiewicz, Władysław (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eD4qAQAAMAAJ"><i>A History of Six Ideas: an essay in aesthetics</i></a>. PWN/Polish Scientific Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8301008246" title="Special:BookSources/978-8301008246"><bdi>978-8301008246</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Six+Ideas%3A+an+essay+in+aesthetics&rft.pub=PWN%2FPolish+Scientific+Publishers&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-8301008246&rft.aulast=Tatarkiewicz&rft.aufirst=W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeD4qAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith Donnellan, "Reference and Definite Descriptions"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Postrel and Feser, February 2000, <i>Reality Principles: An Interview with John R. Searle</i> at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080929023644/http://www.reason.com/news/show/27599.html">"Reality Principles: An Interview with John R. Searle"</a>. February 2000. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reason.com/news/show/27599.html">the original</a> on 29 September 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reality+Principles%3A+An+Interview+with+John+R.+Searle&rft.date=2000-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.reason.com%2Fnews%2Fshow%2F27599.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Graham, George, "Behaviorism", <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Fall 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2010/entries/behaviorism/">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brains and Behavior, Hilary Putnam</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/">"Dualism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dualism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fdualism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www3.nd.edu/~jspeaks/courses/mcgill/415/kripke-mind-body.html">"Kripke on the distinctness of the mind from the body"</a>. <i>www3.nd.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www3.nd.edu&rft.atitle=Kripke+on+the+distinctness+of+the+mind+from+the+body&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww3.nd.edu%2F~jspeaks%2Fcourses%2Fmcgill%2F415%2Fkripke-mind-body.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDennett2001" class="citation journal cs1">Dennett, D. (2001). "Are we explaining consciousness yet?". <i>Cognition</i>. <b>79</b> (1–2): 221–237. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0010-0277%2800%2900130-X">10.1016/S0010-0277(00)00130-X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11164029">11164029</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2235514">2235514</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognition&rft.atitle=Are+we+explaining+consciousness+yet%3F&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=221-237&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2235514%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11164029&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0010-0277%2800%2900130-X&rft.aulast=Dennett&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For summaries and some criticism of the different higher-order theories, see Van Gulick, Robert (2006) "Mirror Mirror – Is That All?" In Kriegel & Williford (eds.), <i>Self-Representational Approaches to Consciousness</i>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. The final draft is also available here <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081002035247/http://web.syr.edu/~rnvangul/mirror-mirror.final.pdf">"Mirror Mirror – Is That All?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.syr.edu/~rnvangul/mirror-mirror.final.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2 October 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mirror+Mirror+%E2%80%93+Is+That+All%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.syr.edu%2F~rnvangul%2Fmirror-mirror.final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span>. For Van Gulick's own view, see Van Gulick, Robert. "Higher-Order Global States HOGS: An Alternative Higher-Order Model of Consciousness." In Gennaro, R.J., (ed.) <i>Higher-Order Theories of Consciousness: An Anthology.</i> Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Restall-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Restall_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRestall2002–2006" class="citation web cs1">Restall, Greg (2002–2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://consequently.org/writing/logicians/">"Great Moments in Logic"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081206052240/http://consequently.org/writing/logicians/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 December 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 January</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Great+Moments+in+Logic&rft.date=2002%2F2006&rft.aulast=Restall&rft.aufirst=Greg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconsequently.org%2Fwriting%2Flogicians%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWigner1960" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Wigner, E. P.</a> (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210212111540/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html">"The unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics in the natural sciences. Richard Courant lecture in mathematical sciences delivered at New York University, May 11, 1959"</a>. <i>Communications on Pure and Applied Mathematics</i>. <b>13</b> (1): 1–14. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1960CPAM...13....1W">1960CPAM...13....1W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcpa.3160130102">10.1002/cpa.3160130102</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6112252">6112252</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html">the original</a> on 12 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Communications+on+Pure+and+Applied+Mathematics&rft.atitle=The+unreasonable+effectiveness+of+mathematics+in+the+natural+sciences.+Richard+Courant+lecture+in+mathematical+sciences+delivered+at+New+York+University%2C+May+11%2C+1959&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-14&rft.date=1960&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6112252%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fcpa.3160130102&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1960CPAM...13....1W&rft.aulast=Wigner&rft.aufirst=E.+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dartmouth.edu%2F~matc%2FMathDrama%2Freading%2FWigner.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Infinity: An Essay In Metaphysics</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quine, On What There Is</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Reason's Proper Study: Essays Towards a Neo-Fregean Philosophy of Mathematics</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harris2001-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-harris2001_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2002" class="citation book cs1">Harris, James Franklin (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rx2Qf9ieFKYC"><i>Analytic philosophy of religion</i></a>. Dordrecht: Kluwer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-0530-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-0530-5"><bdi>978-1-4020-0530-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Analytic+philosophy+of+religion&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pub=Kluwer&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-0530-5&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=James+Franklin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRx2Qf9ieFKYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span> (432 pages) (volume 3 of Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1568-1556">1568-1556</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peterson, Michael et al. (2003). <i>Reason and Religious Belief</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130831050623/http://philosophy.nd.edu/people/alvin-plantinga/">"Emeritae and Emeriti // Department of Philosophy // University of Notre Dame"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophy.nd.edu/people/alvin-plantinga/">the original</a> on 31 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Emeritae+and+Emeriti+%2F%2F+Department+of+Philosophy+%2F%2F+University+of+Notre+Dame&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphilosophy.nd.edu%2Fpeople%2Falvin-plantinga%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mackie, John L. (1982). <i>The Miracle of Theism: Arguments For and Against the Existence of God</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adams, Robert M. (1987). <i>The Virtue of Faith And Other Essays in Philosophical Theology</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Creegan, Charles. (1989). <i>Wittgenstein and Kierkegaard: Religion, Individuality and Philosophical Method</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.the-philosopher.co.uk/2001/04/wittgenstein-tolstoy-and-the-gospel-in.html">"Wittgenstein Tolstoy and the Gospel in Brief (2001)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wittgenstein+Tolstoy+and+the+Gospel+in+Brief+%282001%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-philosopher.co.uk%2F2001%2F04%2Fwittgenstein-tolstoy-and-the-gospel-in.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillips, D.Z. (1999). <i>Philosophy's Cool Place</i>. Cornell University Press. The quote is from Wittgenstein's <i>Culture and Value</i> (2e): "My ideal is a certain coolness. A temple providing a setting for the passions without meddling with them."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fideism/">"Fideism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fideism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Ffideism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nielsen, Kai and D.Z. Phillips. (2005). <i>Wittgensteinian Fideism?</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fitelson-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fitelson_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitelsonHawthorne2010" class="citation book cs1">Fitelson, Branden; Hawthorne, James (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/HAWHBC">"How Bayesian Confirmation Theory Handles the Paradox of the Ravens"</a>. <i>The Place of Probability in Science</i>. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science. Vol. 284. Springer. pp. 247–275. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-90-481-3615-5_11">10.1007/978-90-481-3615-5_11</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-3614-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-481-3614-8"><bdi>978-90-481-3614-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=How+Bayesian+Confirmation+Theory+Handles+the+Paradox+of+the+Ravens&rft.btitle=The+Place+of+Probability+in+Science&rft.series=Boston+Studies+in+the+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.pages=247-275&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-90-481-3615-5_11&rft.isbn=978-90-481-3614-8&rft.aulast=Fitelson&rft.aufirst=Branden&rft.au=Hawthorne%2C+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FHAWHBC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopper,_Karl_R.2002" class="citation book cs1">Popper, Karl R. (2002). <i>The Logic of Scientific Discovery</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27844-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27844-7"><bdi>978-0-415-27844-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Logic+of+Scientific+Discovery&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-27844-7&rft.au=Popper%2C+Karl+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glock 2008, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hull, David L. and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Ruse" title="Michael Ruse">Ruse, Michael</a>, "Preface" in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Philosophy of Biology</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. xix, xx.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lennox, James G., "Darwinism and Neo-Darwinism" in Sakar and Plutynski (eds.), <i>A Companion to the Philosophy of Biology</i> (Blackwell Publishing, 2008), p. 89.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Books_and_articles">Books and articles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=92" title="Edit section: Books and articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Aristotle, <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDesmetIrvine2022" class="citation web cs1">Desmet, Ronald; Irvine, Andrew David (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/whitehead/">"Alfred North Whitehead"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Alfred+North+Whitehead&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Desmet&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft.au=Irvine%2C+Andrew+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fwhitehead%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDummett1993" class="citation book cs1">Dummett, Michael (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsofanalyti0000dumm/"><i>The Origins of Analytical Philosophy</i></a>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-64473-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-64473-1"><bdi>978-0-674-64473-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Analytical+Philosophy&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-674-64473-1&rft.aulast=Dummett&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginsofanalyti0000dumm%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Geach, P., <i>Mental Acts</i>, London 1957</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKane2005" class="citation book cs1">Kane, Robert (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9BRiQgAACAAJ"><i>A Contemporary Introduction to Free Will</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514970-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514970-8"><bdi>978-0-19-514970-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Contemporary+Introduction+to+Free+Will&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514970-8&rft.aulast=Kane&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9BRiQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kenny, A.J.P., <i>Wittgenstein</i>, London 1973.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLouxCrisp2017" class="citation book cs1">Loux, Michael J.; Crisp, Thomas M. (2017). <i>Metaphysics: A Contemporary Introduction</i> (4 ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-63933-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-63933-1"><bdi>978-1-138-63933-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Metaphysics%3A+A+Contemporary+Introduction&rft.edition=4&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-138-63933-1&rft.aulast=Loux&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft.au=Crisp%2C+Thomas+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer1998" class="citation book cs1">Palmer, Clare (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZT2pI9IMiYUC&pg=PA175"><i>Environmental Ethics and Process Thinking</i></a>. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-826952-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-826952-6"><bdi>978-0-19-826952-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240402175535/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZT2pI9IMiYUC&pg=PA175">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental+Ethics+and+Process+Thinking&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-826952-6&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=Clare&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZT2pI9IMiYUC%26pg%3DPA175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAaron_Preston" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Aaron Preston. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu//a/analytic.htm">"Analytic philosophy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Analytic+philosophy&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.au=Aaron+Preston&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2F%2Fa%2Fanalytic.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Soames, Scott. <i>Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century: Volume 1, The Dawn of Analysis</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Inwagen1983" class="citation book cs1">van Inwagen, Peter (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=of1sJaUSdcYC"><i>An Essay on Free Will</i></a>. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-824924-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-824924-5"><bdi>978-0-19-824924-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Essay+on+Free+Will&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-19-824924-5&rft.aulast=van+Inwagen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dof1sJaUSdcYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Wittgenstein, <i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=93" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/">London Philosophy Study Guide</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090923081848/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Language.htm">Archived</a> 23 September 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/FRW.htm">Frege, Russell, and Wittgenstein</a></li> <li>Hirschberger, Johannes. <i>A Short History of Western Philosophy</i>, ed. Clare Hay. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090413090205/http://www.lutterworth.com/lp/titles/shwphil.htm">Short History of Western Philosophy, A</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7188-3092-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7188-3092-2">978-0-7188-3092-2</a></li> <li>Hylton, Peter. <i>Russell, Idealism, and the Emergence of Analytic Philosophy</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.</li> <li>Passmore, John. <i>A Hundred Years of Philosophy</i>, revised ed. New York: Basic Books, 1966.</li> <li>Weitz, Morris, ed. <i>Twentieth Century Philosophy: The Analytic Tradition</i>. New York: Free Press, 1966.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&section=94" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/analytic">"Analytic philosophy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Analytic+philosophy&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fanalytic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analysis/s6/">"Conceptions of Analysis in Analytic Philosophy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Conceptions+of+Analysis+in+Analytic+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fanalysis%2Fs6%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnalytic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Aretaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performativity" title="Performativity">Performative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Logic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviant_logic" title="Deviant logic">Deviant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">Non-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraconsistent_logic" title="Paraconsistent logic">Paraconsistent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First-order_logic" title="First-order logic">Predicate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">Logical atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophilosophy" title="Neurophilosophy">Neurophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Scientific structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_theology" title="Analytic theology">Analytic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Thomism" title="Analytical Thomism">Analytical Thomism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_analysis" title="Paradox of analysis">paradox of analysis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterfactual_conditional" title="Counterfactual conditional">Counterfactual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_kind" title="Natural kind">Natural kind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflective_equilibrium" title="Reflective equilibrium">Reflective equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervenience" title="Supervenience">Supervenience</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Modality" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Modality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actualism" title="Actualism">Actualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_possibility" title="Logical possibility">Possibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_realism" title="Modal realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigid_designator" title="Rigid designator">Rigid designator</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Donnellan" title="Keith Donnellan">Keith Donnellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Jaakko Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Peano" title="Giuseppe Peano">Giuseppe Peano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russ_Shafer-Landau" title="Russ Shafer-Landau">Russ Shafer-Landau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Stroud" title="Barry Stroud">Barry Stroud</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australian_realism" title="Australian realism">Australian realism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._C._Smart" title="J. J. C. Smart">J. J. C. Smart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cambridge</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arif_Ahmed_(philosopher)" title="Arif Ahmed (philosopher)">Arif Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">Charlie Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casimir_Lewy" title="Casimir Lewy">Casimir Lewy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Malcolm" title="Norman Malcolm">Norman Malcolm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Priest" title="Graham Priest">Graham Priest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_P._Ramsey" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank P. Ramsey">Frank P. Ramsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Oxford</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Nagel" title="Ernest Nagel">Ernest Nagel</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hahn_(mathematician)" title="Hans Hahn (mathematician)">Hans Hahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Schlick" title="Moritz Schlick">Moritz Schlick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Waismann" title="Friedrich Waismann">Friedrich Waismann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Harvard</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roderick_Chisholm" title="Roderick Chisholm">Roderick Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Christine Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notre Dame</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Pittsburgh School">Pittsburgh School</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brandom" title="Robert Brandom">Robert Brandom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Gr%C3%BCnbaum" title="Adolf Grünbaum">Adolf Grünbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Millikan" title="Ruth Millikan">Ruth Millikan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Pragmatism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morton_White" title="Morton White">Morton White</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Princeton</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Alonzo Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Jerry Fodor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaegwon_Kim" title="Jaegwon Kim">Jaegwon Kim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Salmon" title="Nathan Salmon">Nathan Salmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Michael Walzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Conant" title="James F. Conant">James F. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Crary" title="Alice Crary">Alice Crary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cora_Diamond" title="Cora Diamond">Cora Diamond</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reformed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stanford_School" title="Stanford School">Stanford School</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Cartwright_(philosopher)" title="Nancy Cartwright (philosopher)">Nancy Cartwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dupr%C3%A9" title="John Dupré">John Dupré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Galison" title="Peter Galison">Peter Galison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Suppes" title="Patrick Suppes">Patrick Suppes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lwow-Warsaw</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz" title="Jan Łukasiewicz">Jan Łukasiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Analytic_philosophy" title="Category:Analytic philosophy">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/16px-Symbol_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/23px-Symbol_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/31px-Symbol_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_analytic_philosophy_articles" title="Index of analytic philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template talk:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Index_of_language_articles" title="Index of language articles">Index of language articles</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_language" title="List of philosophers of language">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilkins" title="John Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Arnauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lancelot" title="Claude Lancelot">Lancelot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Mauthner" title="Fritz Mauthner">Mauthner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Boas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Sapir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Whorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Watzlawick</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_language" title="Category:Theories of language">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrast theory of meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrastivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylism" title="Cratylism">Cratylism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reference_theory" title="Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phallogocentrism" title="Phallogocentrism">Phallogocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">Relevance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Semantic holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosism" title="Symbiosism">Symbiosism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">Definite description</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilalianism" title="Unilalianism">Unilalianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verification theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cant_(language)" title="Cant (language)">Cant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use%E2%80%93mention_distinction" title="Use–mention distinction">Use–mention distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">Set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(philosophy)" title="Class (philosophy)">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_resemblance" title="Family resemblance">Family resemblance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modality_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (natural language)">Modality (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Principle of compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">Sense and reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">Sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_language_articles" title="Index of philosophy of language articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(n.d.)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Port-Royal_Grammar" title="Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1660)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1666)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Towards_a_Real_Character,_and_a_Philosophical_Language" title="An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language">An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1668)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alciphron_(book)" title="Alciphron (book)">Alciphron</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1732)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1905)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1921)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1953)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein_on_Rules_and_Private_Language" title="Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language">Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1982)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Limited_Inc" title="Limited Inc">Limited Inc</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1988)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantics (natural language)">Semantics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">Formal semantics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_language" title="Category:Philosophy of 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4em">Branches</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" 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culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 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href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European 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title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q183216#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist 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1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7fc47fc68d-q764n","timestamp":"20241128193729","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Analytic philosophy","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytic_philosophy","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q183216","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q183216","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-12-18T06:56:25Z","dateModified":"2024-10-21T03:28:56Z","headline":"20th-century tradition of Western philosophy"}</script> </body> </html>