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href="#Women_in_national_organisations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Women in national organisations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_in_national_organisations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_as_national_leaders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_as_national_leaders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Women as national leaders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_as_national_leaders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_and_Informal_Methods_of_Protest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_and_Informal_Methods_of_Protest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Women and Informal Methods of Protest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_and_Informal_Methods_of_Protest-sublist" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">black nationalism</a> which defines national identity in purely racial terms.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-124-8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-124-8.jpg/250px-The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-124-8.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-124-8.jpg/375px-The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-124-8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-124-8.jpg/500px-The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-124-8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="702" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Kaunda" title="Kenneth Kaunda">Kenneth Kaunda</a>, a leading Zambian independence activist, pictured at a political rally in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Rhodesia" title="Northern Rhodesia">Northern Rhodesia</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>) in 1960.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>African nationalism</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Umbrella_term" class="mw-redirect" title="Umbrella term">umbrella term</a> which refers to a group of political ideologies in West, Central, East and Southern Africa, which are based on the idea of <a href="/wiki/National_self-determination" class="mw-redirect" title="National self-determination">national self-determination</a> and the creation of <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation states</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-talktalk_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-talktalk-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ideology emerged under <a href="/wiki/Western_European_colonialism_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Western European colonialism and colonization">European colonial rule</a> during the 19th and 20th centuries and was loosely inspired by nationalist ideas from Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Originally, African <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a> was based on demands for <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a> and played an important role in forcing the process of <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">decolonisation of Africa</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1957–66). However, the term refers to a broad range of different ideological and political movements and should not be confused with <a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a> which may seek the <a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">federation</a> of many or all nation states in Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERotberg196633_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERotberg196633-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African_nationalism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nationalist ideas in Africa emerged during the mid-19th century among the emerging black middle classes in <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>. Early nationalists hoped to overcome ethnic fragmentation by creating <a href="/wiki/Nation-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-states">nation-states</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Berman_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berman-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In its earliest period, it was inspired by <a href="/wiki/African-American" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American">African-American</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afro-Caribbean" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Caribbean">Afro-Caribbean</a> intellectuals from the <a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a> who imported <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalist ideals</a> current in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson1978165_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson1978165-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early African nationalists were elitist and believed in the supremacy of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a> but sought a greater role for themselves in political decision-making.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson1978166–7_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson1978166–7-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They rejected <a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional African religion">African traditional religions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tribal_chief" title="Tribal chief">tribalism</a> as "primitive" and embraced western ideas of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson1978167_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson1978167-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, one of the challenges faced by nationalists in unifying their nation after European rule were the divisions of tribes and the formation of ethnicism. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ghanas_50th_Independence_Anniversary_national_parade.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Ghanas_50th_Independence_Anniversary_national_parade.jpg/220px-Ghanas_50th_Independence_Anniversary_national_parade.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Ghanas_50th_Independence_Anniversary_national_parade.jpg/330px-Ghanas_50th_Independence_Anniversary_national_parade.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Ghanas_50th_Independence_Anniversary_national_parade.jpg/440px-Ghanas_50th_Independence_Anniversary_national_parade.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghanaian</a> nationalists celebrating the 50th anniversary of national independence in 2007</figcaption></figure> <p>African nationalism first emerged as a <a href="/wiki/Mass_movement_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass movement (politics)">mass movement</a> in the years after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> as a result of wartime changes in the nature of colonial rule as well as social change in Africa itself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson1978202_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson1978202-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nationalist political parties were established in almost all African colonies during the 1950s, and their rise was an important reason for the <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">decolonisation of Africa</a> between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1957 and 1966. However, African nationalism was never a single movement, and political groups considered to be African nationalists varied by economic orientation and degrees of radicalism and violence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERotberg196633_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERotberg196633-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nationalists leaders struggled to find their own social and national identity following the European influence that controlled the political landscape during the colonial occupation. </p><p>African nationalism in the colonial era was often framed purely in opposition to colonial rule and was therefore frequently unclear or contradictory about its other objectives.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson1978374_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson1978374-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to historian <a href="/wiki/Robert_I._Rotberg" title="Robert I. Rotberg">Robert I. Rotberg</a>, African nationalism would not have emerged without colonialism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERotberg196637_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERotberg196637-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its relation to <a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a> was also ambiguous, with many nationalist leaders professing Pan-African loyalties but still refusing to commit to <a href="/wiki/Supranational_union" title="Supranational union">supranational unions</a>. African nationalists of the period have also been criticised for their continued use of ideas and policies associated with colonial states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson1978374_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson1978374-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, nationalists usually attempted to preserve <a href="/wiki/Border" title="Border">national frontiers</a> created arbitrarily under colonial rule after independence and create a national sense of national identity among the heterogeneous populations inside them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERotberg196637_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERotberg196637-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tribalism_and_ethnic_nationalism">Tribalism and ethnic nationalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African_nationalism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Tribalism and ethnic nationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>African nationalism exists in an uneasy relationship with <a href="/wiki/Tribalism" title="Tribalism">tribalism</a> and sub-national <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">ethnic nationalism</a> which differ in their conceptions of political allegiance. Many Africans distinguish between their ethnic and national identities.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some nationalists have argued that tribes were a colonial creation.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusion_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusion-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Women_in_African_nationalism">Women in African nationalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African_nationalism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Women in African nationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Essay-like plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-essay-like" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>is written like a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_publisher_of_original_thought" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay</a></b> that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=African_nationalism&action=edit">help improve it</a> by rewriting it in an <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Information_style_and_tone" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles">encyclopedic style</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>During the late 1950s and 1960s, scholars of African nationalist struggles primarily focused on the Western-educated male elites who led the nationalist movements and assumed power after independence. The history of studies of women's involvement in African nationalist struggle, mobilization, and party politics can be traced along intellectual and political paths that initially followed, later paralleled, but have seldom deviated from or led the course of Africanist historiography. The goal of these women involved in the African nationalism movement was to recover Africa's past and to celebrate the independent emergence of independent Africa. It was necessary to raise awareness of this cause, calling to the new emerging generation of African women, raised in a better, more stable society. Although the challenges they faced seemed increasingly more significant, they, however, had it better than past generations, allowing them to raise awareness of the African Nationalist moment. Whereas women's historians interested in effecting changes in the process and production of American or European history had to fight their way onto trains that had been moving through centuries on well-worn gauges, the "new" Africanist train had barely left the station in the early '60s. With a few exceptions, scholars have devoted little more than a passing mention of the presence of African women as conscious political actors in African nationalism. <a href="/wiki/Anne_McClintock" title="Anne McClintock">Anne McClintock</a> has stressed that "all nationalisms are gendered."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Undoubtedly, women played a significant role in arousing national consciousness as well as elevating their own political and social position through African nationalism.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is with this in mind, that both feminism and the research of these women become critical to the re-evaluation of the history of African nationalism. In 1943, a prominent organization called the African National Congress Women's League used its branches throughout the continent to build an international campaign. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_in_national_organisations">Women in national organisations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African_nationalism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Women in national organisations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As leaders and activists, women participated in African nationalism through national organisations. The decade of the 1950s was a landmark because of the significant number of women who were politically involved in the nationalist struggle. A minority of women were incorporated and affiliated into male-dominated national organisations. Founded by women in 1960, The <a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Sierra_Leone" title="National Council of Sierra Leone">National Council of Sierra Leone</a> was to become, in 1968, the women's section of the ruling <a href="/wiki/All_People%27s_Congress" title="All People's Congress">All People's Congress</a> and dedicated primarily to the vigorous support of head of state, President Stevens. Women activists extended and conveyed militant behaviours. Nancy Dolly Steele was the organizing secretary and co-founder of the Congress, and has been noted for her militant political and nationalist activities. In the same way, throughout Africa, the influence of trade union movements, in particular, became the spawning ground for women organisers as such. South African women, for instance, emerged as primary catalysts for protests against the Apartheid regime. These women first participated in resistance movements through women's branches of the larger male-dominated liberation organizations, as through the <a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> (ANC). Nevertheless, in 1943, the ANC adopted a new constitution which included a new position for women to become full members of the national movement. Women also formed their own national organisations, such as the Federation of South African Women in 1954, which boasted a membership of 230,000 women. Though at the time women viewed themselves primarily as mothers and wives, the act of their joining in political organisations illustrated a kind of feminist consciousness.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_as_national_leaders">Women as national leaders</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African_nationalism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Women as national leaders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Women were fundamental nationalist leaders in their own right. Under the inspiration of <a href="/wiki/Bibi_Titi_Mohammed" title="Bibi Titi Mohammed">Bibi Titi Mohammed</a>, a former singer in Dar es Salaam who became a Tanganyikan nationalist, Tanzanian women were organised into a Women's Section of the Tanganyikan African National Union. Mohammed, who was semi-illiterate, was an impressive orator and later combined her nationalist work in the 1950s with her political ambitions. She was one of the most visible Tanganyikan nationalists during the struggle against colonialism and imperialism.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She was the only nationalist leader, besides <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nyerere" title="Julius Nyerere">Julius Nyerere</a>, who was recognized across the country at the time of Tanzanian independence. Her legacy as a leader, speaker, organiser and activist is testimony to the pivotal role played by many uneducated women in spreading a national consciousness, a political awareness and securing independence from British rule in Tanzania. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_and_Informal_Methods_of_Protest">Women and Informal Methods of Protest</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African_nationalism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Women and Informal Methods of Protest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Whilst some female-oriented initiatives may have been conceived and presented to women by male party-leaders, others were clearly created by women themselves. These women used nationalism as a platform to address their own concerns as wives, mothers, industrial workers, peasants, and as women affiliated to the ANC. The 1940s Anti-tax protest in <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> involved the women of Peasant Pare, where women employed methods of direct confrontation, provocative language and physical violence. Explicit use of sexual insult was also central to the powerful Anlu protest of the <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a> in 1958, where women refused to implement agricultural regulations that would have undermined their farming system.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same way, women used music, dance and informal methods to convey their solidarity for African nationalism. The production of Tanganyikan nationalism in Tanzania can be seen as “woman’s work,” where women evoked, created and performed nationalism through their dances and songs.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Equally, women were considered the best sloganeers, as traditional story-tellers and singers using ideas, images and phrases that appealed to the non-elite population. Market women in coastal Nigeria and Guinea also used their networks to convey anti-government information.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ‘Ordinary’ women themselves had transformed "traditional" methods for networking and expressing disapproval against individuals, into mechanisms for challenging and unsettling the local colonial administration. However, although these women contributed to African nationalist politics, they had limited impact as their strategies were concerned with shaming, retaliation, restitution and compensation, and were not directly about radical transformation. This problem was a reflection of the extent to which most African women had already been marginalized politically, economically and educationally under colonial regimes in Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_country">By country</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African_nationalism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: By country"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=African_nationalism&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2018</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gambia">Gambia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African_nationalism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Gambia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alieu_Ebrima_Cham_Joof" title="Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof">Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Gambia" title="Politics of the Gambia">Politics of the Gambia</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Gambia" title="History of the Gambia">History of the Gambia</a></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">Gambia</a>, one of the prominent Gambian nationalists and <a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanists</a> during the colonial era was <a href="/wiki/Alieu_Ebrima_Cham_Joof" title="Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof">Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof</a>. From the 1950s up to <a href="/wiki/Gambia_Independence_Act_1964" title="Gambia Independence Act 1964">Gambia's independence</a>, Cham Joof (as he is commonly referred to), held a series of campaigns against the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British colonial</a> administration. In 1958, he spearheaded the All Party Committee – the purpose of which was for self-governance and to determine the political direction of the Gambia free from European colonialism and neo-colonialism. In 1959, he organised the Bread and Butter demonstration from outside his house in Barthurst now <a href="/wiki/Banjul" title="Banjul">Banjul</a>, and led his followers to Government House to lobby the British colonial administration. Following that demonstration, Cham Joof and his associates Crispin Grey Johnson and M. B. Jones were indicted as "inciting the public to disobey the laws of the land" and charged as political prisoners.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>'<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Africa">South Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African_nationalism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: South Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a></div> <p>The African National Congress (ANC) is a political party in <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of South Africa">South Africa</a>. It originated as a <a href="/wiki/Liberation_movement" title="Liberation movement">liberation movement</a> known for its opposition to <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a> and has governed the country since 1994, when the <a href="/wiki/1994_South_African_general_election" title="1994 South African general election">first post-apartheid election</a> resulted in <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> being elected as <a href="/wiki/President_of_South_Africa" title="President of South Africa">President of South Africa</a>. </p><p>Founded on 8 January 1912 in <a href="/wiki/Bloemfontein" title="Bloemfontein">Bloemfontein</a> as the South African Native National Congress, the organisation was formed to advocate for the rights of <a href="/wiki/Black_South_Africans" class="mw-redirect" title="Black South Africans">black South Africans</a>. When the <a href="/wiki/National_Party_(South_Africa)" title="National Party (South Africa)">National Party</a> government came to power <a href="/wiki/1948_South_African_general_election" title="1948 South African general election">in 1948</a>, the ANC's central purpose became to oppose the new government's policy of institutionalised <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a>. </p><p>In the post-apartheid era, the ANC continues to identify itself foremost as a <a href="/wiki/Liberation_movement" title="Liberation movement">liberation movement</a>, although it is also a registered political party. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African_nationalism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <dl><dt>General</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Nationalist_Movement" title="African Nationalist Movement">African Nationalist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_socialism" title="African socialism">African socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Green resistance">Green resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Organisation of African Unity">Organisation of African Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Types_of_nationalism" title="Types of nationalism">Types of nationalism</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <dl><dt>By state</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_nationalism" title="Ethiopian nationalism">Ethiopian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congolese_nationalism_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="Congolese nationalism (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">Congolese nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_nationalism" title="Nigerian nationalism">Nigerian nationalism</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <dl><dt>By ethnicity</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_nationalism" title="Somali nationalism">Somali nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_nationalism" title="Igbo nationalism">Igbo nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amhara_nationalism" title="Amhara nationalism">Amhara nationalism</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/28px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/42px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/56px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Africa" title="Portal:Africa">Africa portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/28px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/42px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/56px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></span></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African_nationalism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-talktalk-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-talktalk_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talktalk.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0029558.html">African nationalism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131221122620/http://www.talktalk.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0029558.html">Archived</a> 21 December 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span 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no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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Geiger, “Women in Nationalist Struggle: Tanu Activists in Dar es Salaam,” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, Vol. 20, No. 1, (1987), 1 – 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jean O'Barr, ‘African Women in Politics,’ in African Women South of the Sahara, ed. M. J. Hay and S. Stichter (London, 1984).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S. Geiger, ‘Women and African Nationalism,’ Journal of Women's History Vol. 2, No.1 (SAPRING, 1990), 227 – 244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E. Schmidt, ‘Top Down or Bottom Up? Nationalist Mobilization Reconsidered, with Special Reference to Guinea (French West Africa,’ American Historical Review (October, 2005), 975 – 1014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S. Geiger, ‘Women and African Nationalism,’ Journal of Women's History Vol. 2, No.1 (SAPRING, 1990), 227 – 244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">*<a href="/wiki/Foroyaa" title="Foroyaa">Foroyaa</a> : <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111003130110/http://www.foroyaa.gm/modules/news/article.php?storyid=6832">Exclusive interview with Foroyaa Panorama</a> (<i>TRIBUTE TO ALHAJI A.E. CHAM JOOF</i>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joof, Alh. A. E. Cham. <i>Party Politics in The Gambia (1945–1970)</i>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/AllAfrica.com" class="mw-redirect" title="AllAfrica.com">All Africa</a><i>Gambia: AE Cham Joof Passes Away</i> (4 APRIL 2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://allafrica.com/stories/201104050521.html">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joof, Alh. A. E. Cham. <i>The root cause of the bread and butter demonstration. s.n. (1959)</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joof, Alh. A. E. Cham. <i>Party Politics in The Gambia (1945–1970)</i>,, pp. 53–56).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Dawda_Kairaba_Jawara" class="mw-redirect" title="Dawda Kairaba Jawara">Jawara, Dawda Kairaba</a>. <i>Kairaba</i> (2009). p. 200, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9563968-0-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-9563968-0-1">0-9563968-0-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/The_Point_(Gambia)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Point (Gambia)">The Point Newspaper</a> : <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.thepoint.gm/Opinion%20-%20Talking%20Point52.htm">"Cham Joof's speech on Pan-Africanism".</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111123024430/http://archive.thepoint.gm/Opinion%20-%20Talking%20Point52.htm">Archived</a> 2011-11-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African_nationalism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidson1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Basil_Davidson" title="Basil Davidson">Davidson, Basil</a> (1978). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/letfreedomcomeaf00davi"><i>Let Freedom Come: Africa in Modern History</i></a></span> (First US ed.). Boston: Little-Brown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-316-17435-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-316-17435-1"><bdi>0-316-17435-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Let+Freedom+Come%3A+Africa+in+Modern+History&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=First+US&rft.pub=Little-Brown&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-316-17435-1&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=Basil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fletfreedomcomeaf00davi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRotberg1966" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_I._Rotberg" title="Robert I. Rotberg">Rotberg, Robert I.</a> (May 1966). "African Nationalism: Concept or Confusion?". <i>The Journal of Modern African Studies</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 33–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0022278x00012957">10.1017/s0022278x00012957</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/159414">159414</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144714462">144714462</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+African+Studies&rft.atitle=African+Nationalism%3A+Concept+or+Confusion%3F&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=33-46&rft.date=1966-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144714462%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F159414%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0022278x00012957&rft.aulast=Rotberg&rft.aufirst=Robert+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeiger1990" class="citation journal cs1">Geiger, S. (1990). "Women and African Nationalism". <i>Journal of Women's History</i>. <b>2</b> (1): 227–244. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjowh.2010.0247">10.1353/jowh.2010.0247</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145550056">145550056</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Women%27s+History&rft.atitle=Women+and+African+Nationalism&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=227-244&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjowh.2010.0247&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145550056%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Geiger&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt2005" class="citation journal cs1">Schmidt, E. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fahr.110.4.975">"Top Down or Bottom Up? Nationalist Mobilization Reconsidered, with Special Reference to Guinea (French West Africa)"</a>. <i>American Historical Review</i>. <b>110</b> (4): 975–1014. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fahr.110.4.975">10.1086/ahr.110.4.975</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162562610">162562610</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Top+Down+or+Bottom+Up%3F+Nationalist+Mobilization+Reconsidered%2C+with+Special+Reference+to+Guinea+%28French+West+Africa%29&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=975-1014&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2Fahr.110.4.975&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162562610%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1086%252Fahr.110.4.975&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeiger1987" class="citation journal cs1">Geiger, S. (1987). "Women in Nationalist Struggle: Tanu Activists in Dar es Salaam". <i>The International Journal of African Historical Studies</i>. <b>20</b> (1): 1–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F219275">10.2307/219275</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/219275">219275</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+African+Historical+Studies&rft.atitle=Women+in+Nationalist+Struggle%3A+Tanu+Activists+in+Dar+es+Salaam&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-26&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F219275&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F219275%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Geiger&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeigerAllmanMusisi2002" class="citation book cs1">Geiger, S.; Allman, J.; Musisi, N. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ky1lol7-vdcC&pg=PP1"><i>Women in African Colonial Histories</i></a>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780253108876" title="Special:BookSources/9780253108876"><bdi>9780253108876</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+African+Colonial+Histories&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780253108876&rft.aulast=Geiger&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Allman%2C+J.&rft.au=Musisi%2C+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKy1lol7-vdcC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrates1993" class="citation journal cs1">Frates, L. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5070%2FF7211-2016742">"Women in the South African National Liberation Movement, 1948 – 1960: An Historiographical Overview"</a>. <i>Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies</i>. <b>21</b> (1/2). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5070%2FF7211-2016742">10.5070/F7211-2016742</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ufahamu%3A+A+Journal+of+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Women+in+the+South+African+National+Liberation+Movement%2C+1948+%E2%80%93+1960%3A+An+Historiographical+Overview&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5070%2FF7211-2016742&rft.aulast=Frates&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5070%252FF7211-2016742&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'BarrHayStichter1984" class="citation book cs1">O'Barr, J.; Hay, M.; Stichter, S. (1984). <i>African Women South of the Sahara</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+Women+South+of+the+Sahara&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=O%27Barr&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Hay%2C+M.&rft.au=Stichter%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcClintockMuftiShohat1997" class="citation book cs1">McClintock, A.; Mufti, A.; Shohat, E. (1997). <i>Dangerous Liaisons: Gender, Nation and Postcolonial Perspectives</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dangerous+Liaisons%3A+Gender%2C+Nation+and+Postcolonial+Perspectives&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=McClintock&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Mufti%2C+A.&rft.au=Shohat%2C+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheldon2017" class="citation book cs1">Sheldon, Kathleen (2017). <i>African Women: Early History to the 21st Century</i>. Indiana Press University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-02716-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-02716-0"><bdi>978-0-253-02716-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+Women%3A+Early+History+to+the+21st+Century&rft.pub=Indiana+Press+University&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-253-02716-0&rft.aulast=Sheldon&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foroyaa" title="Foroyaa">Foroyaa</a> : <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111003130110/http://www.foroyaa.gm/modules/news/article.php?storyid=6832">Exclusive interview with Foroyaa Panorama</a> (<i>TRIBUTE TO ALHAJI A.E. CHAM JOOF</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alieu_Ebrima_Cham_Joof" title="Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof">Joof, Alh. A. E. Cham</a>, <i>Party Politics in The Gambia (1945–1970)</i>, pp. 21, 53–56</li> <li><a href="/wiki/AllAfrica.com" class="mw-redirect" title="AllAfrica.com">All Africa</a>: <i>Gambia: AE Cham Joof Passes Away</i> (4 APRIL 2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://allafrica.com/stories/201104050521.html">[2]</a></li> <li>Joof, Alh. A. E. Cham. <i>The root cause of the bread and butter demonstration. s.n. (1959)</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawda_Kairaba_Jawara" class="mw-redirect" title="Dawda Kairaba Jawara">Jawara, Dawda Kairaba</a>. <i>Kairaba</i> (2009). p. 200, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9563968-0-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-9563968-0-1">0-9563968-0-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Point_(Gambia)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Point (Gambia)">The Point Newspaper</a> : <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.thepoint.gm/Opinion%20-%20Talking%20Point52.htm">"Cham Joof's speech on Pan-Africanism".</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111123024430/http://archive.thepoint.gm/Opinion%20-%20Talking%20Point52.htm">Archived</a> 2011-11-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African_nationalism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Almond Gabriel and James S. Coleman, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DaUWAAAAIAAJ"><i>The Politics of the Developing Areas</i></a> (1971)</li> <li>Eze, M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HcHHAAAAQBAJ"><i>The Politics of History in Contemporary Africa</i></a> (Springer, 2010.)</li> <li>Hodgkin, Thomas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1i6KPQAACAAJ"><i>Nationalism in Colonial Africa</i></a> (1956).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHussain1974" class="citation journal cs1">Hussain, Arif (1974). "The educated elite: collaborators, assailants nationalists: A note on African nationalists and nationalism". <i>Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria</i>. <b>7</b> (3): 485–497. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41857033">41857033</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Historical+Society+of+Nigeria&rft.atitle=The+educated+elite%3A+collaborators%2C+assailants+nationalists%3A+A+note+on+African+nationalists+and+nationalism&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=485-497&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41857033%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hussain&rft.aufirst=Arif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ohaegbulam, Festus Ugboaja. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pfJxAAAAMAAJ"><i>Nationalism in colonial and post-colonial Africa</i></a> (University Press of America, 1977).</li> <li>Shepherd, George W., junior (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicsofafrica0000shep"><i>The Politics of African Nationalism: Challenge to American Policy</i>.</a> New York: F.A. Praeger.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="width:1%">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Variants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">African nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_socialism" title="African socialism">African socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Western_sentiment" title="Anti-Western sentiment">Anti-Western sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Black nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkrumaism" title="Nkrumaism">Nkrumaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sankarism" title="Sankarism">Sankarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uhuru_Movement" title="Uhuru Movement">Uhuru Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zikism" title="Zikism">Zikism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_century" title="African century">African century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9gritude" title="Négritude">Négritude</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Ubuntu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ujamaa" title="Ujamaa">Ujamaa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Africa" title="United States of Africa">United States of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Pan-Africanists" title="Category:Pan-Africanists">Proponents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Politicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Akumu" title="Dennis Akumu">Dennis Akumu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idi_Amin" title="Idi Amin">Idi Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nnamdi_Azikiwe" title="Nnamdi Azikiwe">Nnamdi Azikiwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Am%C3%ADlcar_Cabral" title="Amílcar Cabral">Amílcar Cabral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Comissiong" title="David Comissiong">David Comissiong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Dessalines" title="Jean-Jacques Dessalines">Jean-Jacques Dessalines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%A9nor_Firmin" title="Anténor Firmin">Anténor Firmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alieu_Ebrima_Cham_Joof" title="Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof">Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Kaunda" title="Kenneth Kaunda">Kenneth Kaunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modibo_Ke%C3%AFta" title="Modibo Keïta">Modibo Keïta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jomo_Kenyatta" title="Jomo Kenyatta">Jomo Kenyatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toussaint_Louverture" title="Toussaint Louverture">Toussaint Louverture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samora_Machel" title="Samora Machel">Samora Machel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ochola_Ogaye_Mak%27Anyengo" title="Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo">Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thabo_Mbeki" title="Thabo Mbeki">Thabo Mbeki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Mboya" title="Tom Mboya">Tom Mboya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe">Robert Mugabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdias_do_Nascimento" title="Abdias do Nascimento">Abdias do Nascimento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Kwame Nkrumah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Nyerere" title="Julius Nyerere">Julius Nyerere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Nyathi_Pokela" title="John Nyathi Pokela">John Nyathi Pokela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sankara" title="Thomas Sankara">Thomas Sankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_S%C3%A9kou_Tour%C3%A9" title="Ahmed Sékou Touré">Ahmed Sékou Touré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sobukwe" title="Robert Sobukwe">Robert Sobukwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._T._A._Wallace-Johnson" title="I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson">I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marimba_Ani" title="Marimba Ani">Marimba Ani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molefi_Kete_Asante" title="Molefi Kete Asante">Molefi Kete Asante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Biko" title="Steve Biko">Steve Biko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Wilmot_Blyden" title="Edward Wilmot Blyden">Edward Wilmot Blyden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aim%C3%A9_C%C3%A9saire" title="Aimé Césaire">Aimé Césaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henrik_Clarke" title="John Henrik Clarke">John Henrik Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Delany" title="Martin Delany">Martin R. Delany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheikh_Anta_Diop" title="Cheikh Anta Diop">Cheikh Anta Diop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Ashwood_Garvey" title="Amy Ashwood Garvey">Amy Ashwood Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_G._Jackson_(writer)" title="John G. Jackson (writer)">John G. Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Jeffries" title="Leonard Jeffries">Leonard Jeffries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yosef_Ben-Jochannan" title="Yosef Ben-Jochannan">Yosef Ben-Jochannan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maulana_Karenga" title="Maulana Karenga">Maulana Karenga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Kinloch" title="Alice Kinloch">Alice Kinloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fela_Kuti" title="Fela Kuti">Fela Kuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Mafeje" title="Archie Mafeje">Archie Mafeje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Mazrui" title="Ali Mazrui">Ali Mazrui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zephania_Mothopeng" title="Zephania Mothopeng">Zephania Mothopeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Padmore" title="George Padmore">George Padmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motsoko_Pheko" title="Motsoko Pheko">Motsoko Pheko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runoko_Rashidi" title="Runoko Rashidi">Runoko Rashidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randall_Robinson" title="Randall Robinson">Randall Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Walter Rodney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burning_Spear" title="Burning Spear">Burning Spear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issa_Laye_Thiaw" title="Issa Laye Thiaw">Issa Laye Thiaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Cress_Welsing" title="Frances Cress Welsing">Frances Cress Welsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sylvester_Williams" title="Henry Sylvester Williams">Henry Sylvester Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_N._Wilson" title="Amos N. Wilson">Amos N. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omali_Yeshitela" title="Omali Yeshitela">Omali Yeshitela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Pan-Africanist_organizations" title="Category:Pan-Africanist organizations">Organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Educational</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Leadership_Academy" title="African Leadership Academy">African Leadership Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Leadership_University" title="African Leadership University">African Leadership University</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Unification_Front" title="African Unification Front">African Unification Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-African_People%27s_Revolutionary_Party" title="All-African People's Revolutionary Party">All-African People's Revolutionary Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-African_Trade_Union_Federation" title="All-African Trade Union Federation">All-African Trade Union Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conseil_de_l%27Entente" title="Conseil de l'Entente">Conseil de l'Entente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_People%27s_Party" title="Convention People's Party">Convention People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_Community" title="East African Community">East African Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Freedom_Fighters" title="Economic Freedom Fighters">Economic Freedom Fighters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Pan-African_Conference" title="First Pan-African Conference">First Pan-African Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_African_Service_Bureau" title="International African Service Bureau">International African Service Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Trade_Union_Unity" title="Organisation of African Trade Union Unity">Organisation of African Trade Union Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Organisation of African Unity">Organisation of African Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_African_Association" title="Pan African Association">Pan African Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Freedom_Movement_for_East_and_Central_Africa" title="Pan-African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa">Pan-African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Congress" title="Pan-African Congress">Pan-African Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Africanist_Congress_of_Azania" title="Pan Africanist Congress of Azania">Pan Africanist Congress of Azania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_and_Social_League_of_the_Great_Sahara_Tribes" title="Popular and Social League of the Great Sahara Tribes">Popular and Social League of the Great Sahara Tribes</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rassemblement_D%C3%A9mocratique_Africain" title="Rassemblement Démocratique Africain">Rassemblement Démocratique Africain</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZANU%E2%80%93PF" title="ZANU–PF">ZANU–PF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Star_of_Africa" title="Black Star of Africa">Black Star of Africa</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Le_Marron_Inconnu" title="Le Marron Inconnu">Le Marron Inconnu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lion_of_Judah" title="Lion of Judah">Lion of Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_colours" title="Pan-African colours">Pan-African colours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_flag" title="Pan-African flag">Pan-African flag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynamics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa" title="List of ethnic groups of Africa">Ethnic groups of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Languages of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Religion in Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Africa" title="List of conflicts in Africa">Conflicts in Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">African-American leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africanization" title="Africanization">Africanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-African_Peoples%27_Conference" title="All-African Peoples' Conference">All-African Peoples' Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_Federation" title="East African Federation">East African Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_African_States" title="Union of African States">Union of African States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Africa" title="United States of Africa">United States of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Latin_Africa" title="United States of Latin Africa">United States of Latin Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Year_of_Africa" title="Year of Africa">Year of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Pan-Africanism" title="Category:Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Africa" title="Category:Africa">Africa category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Pan-Africanism" title="Portal:Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/16px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/24px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/32px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Africa" title="Portal:Africa">Africa portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Africa_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Africa_topics" title="Template:Africa topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Africa_topics" title="Template talk:Africa topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Africa_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Africa topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Africa_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Africa-related_articles" title="Index of Africa-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa" title="History of Africa">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Chronology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient history of Africa">Antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Africa_during_classical_antiquity" title="North Africa during classical antiquity">North Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_archaeology" title="African archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_pre-colonial_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa">Pre-colonial kingdoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">Empires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahelian_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahelian kingdoms">Sahelian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_trade" title="Indian Ocean trade">Indian Ocean trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">Muslim conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_exploration_of_Africa" title="European exploration of Africa">European exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonisation_of_Africa" title="Colonisation of Africa">European colonisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">Barbary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">Decolonisation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Africa" title="Economic history of Africa">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">Empires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_Africa#Historiography_of_Africa" title="Talk:History of Africa">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Africa" title="Military history of Africa">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Africa" title="List of conflicts in Africa">conflicts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Science and technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Central_Africa" title="History of Central Africa">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Africa" title="History of East Africa">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Africa" title="History of North Africa">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southern_Africa" title="History of Southern Africa">South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Africa" title="History of West Africa">West</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Africa" title="Geography of Africa">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Africa" title="List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa">Countries and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_highest_points_of_African_countries" title="List of highest points of African countries">Highest points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_impact_craters_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="List of impact craters in Africa">Impact craters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Africa" title="List of islands of Africa">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history_of_Africa" title="Natural history of Africa">Natural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_Africa" title="List of regions of Africa">Regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Africa" title="List of rivers of Africa">Rivers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Africa#Politics" title="Africa">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Africa" title="Elections in Africa">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Africa" title="Democracy in Africa">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Heads_of_government_in_Africa" title="Category:Heads of government in Africa">Heads of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Heads_of_state_in_Africa" title="Category:Heads of state in Africa">Heads of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Africa" title="Human rights in Africa">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Africa_by_country" title="Freedom of religion in Africa by country">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Africa">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_linguistic_rights_in_African_constitutions" title="List of linguistic rights in African constitutions">Linguistic rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Africa#More_Women_Rights" title="Women in Africa">Women's rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_feminism" title="African feminism">feminism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_organisations_in_Africa" title="International organisations in Africa">International organisations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Parliament" title="Pan-African Parliament">Pan-African Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of Africa">Politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_parties_in_Africa" title="Category:Political parties in Africa">parties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Africa" title="United States of Africa">United States of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Africa" title="Economy of Africa">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_central_banks_of_Africa" title="List of central banks of Africa">Central banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)" title="List of African countries by GDP (nominal)">Countries by GDP (nominal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)" title="List of African countries by GDP (PPP)">Countries by GDP (PPP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_Human_Development_Index" title="List of African countries by Human Development Index">Countries by HDI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Africans_by_net_worth" title="List of Africans by net worth">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Africa" title="Education in Africa">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_in_Africa" title="Infrastructure in Africa">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Africa" title="Internet in Africa">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resources_of_Africa" title="Natural resources of Africa">Natural resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Africa" title="Poverty in Africa">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Africa" title="Renewable energy in Africa">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_stock_exchanges" title="List of African stock exchanges">Stock exchanges</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Africa" title="Abortion in Africa">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_Africa" title="Birth control in Africa">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_systems_in_Africa" title="Caste systems in Africa">Caste systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette_in_Africa" title="Etiquette in Africa">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Health_in_Africa" title="Category:Health in Africa">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Africa" title="Culture of Africa">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Africa" title="Architecture of Africa">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_art" title="African art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Africa" title="Cinema of Africa">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_cuisine" title="African cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_literature" title="African literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africanfuturism" title="Africanfuturism">Africanfuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Africa">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Africa" title="Music of Africa">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Africa" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Africa">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Africa" title="Sport in Africa">Sport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa_Cricket_Association" title="Africa Cricket Association">Africa Cricket Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Games" title="African Games">African Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Asian_Games" title="Afro-Asian Games">Afro-Asian Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_rules_football_in_Africa" title="Australian rules football in Africa">Australian-rules football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_African_Football" title="Confederation of African Football">Confederation of African Football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FIBA_Africa" title="FIBA Africa">FIBA Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugby_Africa" title="Rugby Africa">Rugby Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_stadiums_by_capacity" title="List of African stadiums by capacity">Stadiums by capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tour_d%27Afrique" title="Tour d'Afrique">Tour d'Afrique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Africa" title="Demographics of Africa">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_population" title="List of African countries by population">Countries by population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_population_density" title="List of African countries by population density">density</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_Africa" title="Emigration from Africa">Emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa" title="List of ethnic groups of Africa">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Africa" title="HIV/AIDS in Africa">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_life_expectancy" title="List of African countries by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_Africa" title="Urbanization in Africa">Urbanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_cities_in_Africa" title="Lists of cities in Africa">cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_urban_areas_in_Africa_by_population" title="List of urban areas in Africa by population">urban areas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_in_Africa" title="Youth in Africa">Youth in Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Years_in_Africa" title="Category:Years in Africa">By year</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2005_in_Africa" title="2005 in Africa">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_in_Africa" title="2006 in Africa">2006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_in_Africa" title="2007 in Africa">2007</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2008_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2008 in Africa (page does not exist)">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2009_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2009 in Africa (page does not exist)">2009</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2010_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2010 in Africa (page does not exist)">2010</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2011_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2011 in Africa (page does not exist)">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2012_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2012 in Africa (page does not exist)">2012</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2013_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2013 in Africa (page does not exist)">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2014_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2014 in Africa (page does not exist)">2014</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2015_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2015 in Africa (page does not exist)">2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_in_Africa" title="2016 in Africa">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2017_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2017 in Africa (page does not exist)">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2018_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" 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