Pacific Ocean | Depth, Temperature, Animals, Location, Map, & Facts

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data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean">Introduction & Top Questions</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref36076"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean#ref36076">Physiography</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36077"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean#ref36077">Relief</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref36078"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean#ref36078">Eastern region</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref36079"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean#ref36079">Western region</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref36080"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean#ref36080">Central region</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36081"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean#ref36081">Principal ridges and basins</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36082"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean#ref36082">Bottom deposits</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36083"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean#ref36083">Islands</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref36084"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean#ref36084">Geology</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref36085"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean#ref36085">Climate</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36086"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/The-trade-winds">The trade winds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36087"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/The-trade-winds#ref36087">Tropical storms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36088"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/The-trade-winds#ref36088">The westerlies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36089"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/The-trade-winds#ref36089">The monsoon regime</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref36090"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Temperature-and-salinity">Temperature and salinity</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36091"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Temperature-and-salinity#ref36091">Temperature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36092"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Temperature-and-salinity#ref36092">Salinity</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref36093"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Temperature-and-salinity#ref36093">Hydrology</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36094"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Temperature-and-salinity#ref36094">Surface currents</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36095"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Temperature-and-salinity#ref36095">Deepwater circulation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36096"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Tides">Tides</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref36097"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Tides#ref36097">Economic aspects</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36098"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Tides#ref36098">Biological resources</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36099"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Tides#ref36099">Fisheries</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36100"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Tides#ref36100">Mineral resources</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref36101"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Tides#ref36101">Minerals from seawater and alluvial deposits</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref36102"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Deep-sea-minerals">Deep-sea minerals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref36103"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Deep-sea-minerals#ref36103">Submarine hydrocarbons</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36104"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Deep-sea-minerals#ref36104">Trade and transportation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36105"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Deep-sea-minerals#ref36105">Environmental impact of human activity</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref36106"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Study-and-exploration">Study and exploration</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36107"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Study-and-exploration#ref36107">Early exploration and settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36108"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Study-and-exploration#ref36108">European exploration</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36109"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Pacific-Ocean/Study-and-exploration#ref36109">Exploration since the 20th century</a></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Ocean/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/Pacific-Ocean">Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header 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Author of <i>The Physical Geography of the Oceans.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Charles Henry Cotter</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/John-E-Bardach/3664" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">John E. Bardach</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Senior Fellow Emeritus, Environment and Policy Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu. Director, Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1971–77. Author of <i>Harvest of the Sea...</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> John E. Bardach</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Ocean/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-19T00:00:00CST" >Nov 19, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Ocean/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "FAQPage", "mainEntity": [ { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>Where is the Pacific Ocean located?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "The Pacific Ocean is a body of salt water extending from the Antarctic region in the south to the Arctic in the north and lying between the continents of Asia and Australia on the west and North America and South America on the east." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>How far from north to south does the Pacific Ocean extend?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "The Pacific Ocean stretches from the Bering Strait near the Arctic Circle to the shores of Antarctica through 135\u00B0 of latitude, some 9,600 miles (15,500 km). The mean depth of the Pacific (excluding adjacent seas) is 14,040 feet (4,280 metres), and its greatest known depth is 36,201 feet (11,034 metres)." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>What is the temperature of the deep zone of the Pacific Ocean?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "The deep zone of the Pacific Ocean, which contains about 80 percent of the ocean\u2019s volume, has relatively stable temperature and salinity patterns; its average temperature is 38.3 \u00B0F (3.5 \u00B0C)." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>What is the salinity of the Pacific Ocean?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "The highest surface salinities in the Pacific Ocean occur in the southeastern area, where they reach 37 parts per thousand; the lowest salinities\u2014less than about 32 parts\u2014occur in the extreme northern zone of the Pacific. The salinity in the equatorial belt can be as low as 34 parts per thousand." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>What is the deepest region of the Pacific Ocean?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Mariana-Trench\">Mariana Trench<\/a>, also called the Marianas Trench, is a deep-sea trench in the floor of the western North Pacific Ocean, and it is the deepest such trench known on Earth. It is part of the western Pacific system of oceanic trenches coinciding with subduction zones\u2014points where two adjacent tectonic plates collide, one being forced below the other." } } ] } </script> <div class="top-questions qa-accordion d-flex flex-column module-spacing"><div class="font-weight-bold font-14 mb-5"> Top Questions </div><div id="intent-accordion" class="md-intent-accordion"><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="1"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>Where is the Pacific Ocean located?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>The Pacific Ocean is a body of salt water extending from the Antarctic region in the south to the Arctic in the north and lying between the continents of Asia and Australia on the west and North America and South America on the east.</p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="2"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>How far from north to south does the Pacific Ocean extend?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>The Pacific Ocean stretches from the Bering Strait near the Arctic Circle to the shores of Antarctica through 135° of latitude, some 9,600 miles (15,500 km). The mean depth of the Pacific (excluding adjacent seas) is 14,040 feet (4,280 metres), and its greatest known depth is 36,201 feet (11,034 metres).</p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="3"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>What is the temperature of the deep zone of the Pacific Ocean?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>The deep zone of the Pacific Ocean, which contains about 80 percent of the ocean’s volume, has relatively stable temperature and salinity patterns; its average temperature is 38.3 °F (3.5 °C).</p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="4"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>What is the salinity of the Pacific Ocean?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>The highest surface salinities in the Pacific Ocean occur in the southeastern area, where they reach 37 parts per thousand; the lowest salinities—less than about 32 parts—occur in the extreme northern zone of the Pacific. The salinity in the equatorial belt can be as low as 34 parts per thousand.</p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="5"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>What is the deepest region of the Pacific Ocean?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mariana-Trench" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mariana Trench</a>, also called the Marianas Trench, is a deep-sea trench in the floor of the western North Pacific Ocean, and it is the deepest such trench known on Earth. It is part of the western Pacific system of oceanic trenches coinciding with subduction zones—points where two adjacent tectonic plates collide, one being forced below the other.</p></div></div></div><button class="show-more-button js-toggle-top-questions btn btn-unstyled font-14 d-flex pr-10 rounded-sm"><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></button></div></div><div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/437703/d5006d946cda1fc1f4ecb8fe5b94ba59" rel="nofollow">'Bomb cyclone' brings high winds and soaking rain to Northern California and Pacific Northwest</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 19, 2024, 10:36 PM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/437703/e1531762c91db7e1e5a89ce695657163" rel="nofollow">What is a 'bomb cyclone'?</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 19, 2024, 5:21 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/437703/173baca86b45302f3119f9e51f497c31" rel="nofollow">California researchers discover mysterious, gelatinous new sea slug</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 13, 2024, 3:48 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/437703/bcae9e26ac9c664a427ce118f31e3ebc" rel="nofollow">Norway's Kon-Tiki Museum returns artifacts to Chile's remote Easter Island</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 13, 2024, 7:23 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/437703/bdf2e898b600b2568cd1ada25c0a3c1b" rel="nofollow">Indonesia's Mount Lewotobi Laki Laki unleashes towering columns of hot clouds</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 9, 2024, 11:05 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref414899"></span>Pacific Ocean</strong>, body of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/seawater" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">salt water</a> extending from the 60° <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/salinity" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">S</a> parallel in the south to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Arctic" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Arctic</a> in the north and lying between the continents of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Asia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Asia</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Australia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Australia</a> on the west and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/North-America" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">North America</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/South-America" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">South America</a> on the east.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Of the three major oceans, the Pacific is by far the largest, occupying about one-third of the surface of the globe. Its area, excluding the South China Sea, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="encompasses" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/encompasses" data-type="MW">encompasses</a> about 62.5 million square miles (161.76 million square km). It has double the area and more than double the water volume of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Atlantic-Ocean" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Atlantic Ocean</a>—the next largest division of the hydrosphere—and its area more than exceeds that of the whole land surface of the globe. The Pacific Ocean stretches from the <span id="ref414900"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bering-Strait" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bering Strait</a> to 60° S latitude through more than 120° of latitude, nearly 9,000 miles (about 14,500 km). Its greatest latitudinal extent measures some 12,000 miles (about 19,000 km) along latitude 5° N, between the coasts of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Colombia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Colombia</a> in South America and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Malay-Peninsula" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Malay Peninsula</a> in Asia. The mean depth of the Pacific (excluding <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="adjacent" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/adjacent" data-type="MW">adjacent</a> seas) is 14,040 <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/foot-measurement" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">feet</a> (4,280 metres), and its greatest known depth is 36,201 feet (11,034 metres)—in the <span id="ref414901"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mariana-Trench" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mariana Trench</a>—also the greatest depth found in any ocean.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span><div class="mb-20"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="292926" data-asm-type="infogram"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="infogram"><script id="infogram_0__/KtQFEAQmy8fGJfHO5WRC" src="https://e.infogram.com/js/dist/embed.js?Itp" type="text/javascript" title="Dive deep into the depths of the ocean."></script></div></figure></div></div><span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In the Northern Hemisphere the Pacific Ocean meets the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Arctic-Ocean" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Arctic Ocean</a> in the Bering Sea. In the Southern Hemisphere the Pacific and Atlantic mix in the relatively narrow <span id="ref414902"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Drake-Passage" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Drake Passage</a> between <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tierra-del-Fuego-archipelago-South-America" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tierra del Fuego</a> in South America and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Antarctic-Peninsula" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Graham Land</a> in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Antarctica" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Antarctica</a>, and the Pacific Ocean and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Southern-Ocean" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Southern Ocean</a> meet at the 60° S parallel. The separation between the Pacific and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Indian-Ocean" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Indian</a> oceans is less distinct, but generally it is considered to lie along the line of islands extending eastward from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sumatra" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sumatra</a>, through <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Java-island-Indonesia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Java</a> to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Timor" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Timor</a>, thence across the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Timor-Sea" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Timor Sea</a> to Cape Londonderry in Australia. To the south of Australia the boundary extends across the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bass-Strait" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bass Strait</a> and thence from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tasmania" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tasmania</a> to 60° S.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Because of the pattern of major mountain systems of the globe, a relatively small proportion (one-seventh) of the total continental <span id="ref414903"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/drainage-pattern" class="md-crosslink ">drainage</a> enters the Pacific—a total drainage area of less than about three times the total area of Australia. Of the rivers that drain into the Pacific, those of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">China</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Southeast-Asia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Southeast Asia</a> are of the greatest importance; the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="basins" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/basins" data-type="EB">basins</a> of those rivers support more than one-fourth of the world’s population.</p><a class="link-module shadow-sm d-block qa-quiz-module" href="/quiz/all-about-oceans-and-seas-quiz" data-link-module-iframe-link=""> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/48/172748-131-287B3EAC/wave-ocean-sea-waves-hurricane-cyclone-storm.jpg" alt="wave. ocean. Cresting ocean wave. Large sea waves. storm, hurricane, tropical cyclone" class="rounded-sm mr-15" width="70" /> <div class="line-clamp clamp-5"> <div class="module-title bg-green">Britannica Quiz</div> <div class="font-weight-semi-bold mt-5">All About Oceans and Seas Quiz</div> </div> </a><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The eastern boundary of the Pacific is associated with the <span id="ref414904"></span>American cordilleran system, which stretches from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Alaska" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Alaska</a> in the north to Tierra del Fuego in the south. Except for its extreme northern and southern sections, which are characterized by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/fjord" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">fjords</a> and their numerous off-lying islands, and except for the deeply indented <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Gulf-of-California" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Gulf of California</a>, the coastal boundary is relatively regular and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/continental-shelf" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">continental shelf</a> narrow. The western, or Asiatic, coastal boundary, in contrast, is irregular. Although the mountain systems there lie roughly parallel to the coast, as they do on the eastern Pacific coastlands, the western Pacific is noted for its many marginal seas. From north to south they include the Bering Sea, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sea-of-Okhotsk" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sea of Okhotsk</a>, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sea-of-Japan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sea of Japan</a> (East Sea), the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Yellow-Sea" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Yellow Sea</a>, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/East-China-Sea" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">East China Sea</a>, and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/South-China-Sea" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">South China Sea</a>. Their eastern boundaries are formed by southward-jutting peninsulas or <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/island-arc" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">island arcs</a> or both. It is of oceanographic significance that the great rivers of eastern Asia—including the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Amur-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Amur</a>, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Yellow-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Huang He</a> (Yellow River), the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Yangtze-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Yangtze</a>, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Xi-River-system" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Xi</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pearl-River-Delta" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Pearl</a> (Zhu), and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mekong-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mekong</a>—enter the Pacific indirectly by way of the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="marginal" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/marginal" data-type="EB">marginal</a> seas.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">This article treats the physical and human geography of the Pacific Ocean. For discussion of the physical and chemical oceanography and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/marine-geology" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">marine geology</a> of the Pacific, <em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ocean" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ocean</a>.</p><div class="module-spacing"> <DIV class="marketing-INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content" data-marketing-id="INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION"><style> .student-promo-banner-wrapper { container-type: inline-size; margin-bottom: 15px; } @container (min-width: 475px) { .student-promo-banner { flex-direction: row; } .student-promo-banner-img-wrapper { margin-bottom: 0; margin-right: 10px; justify-content: flex-start; } .student-promo-banner-text-wrapper { text-align: left; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10px; } .student-promo-banner-button-wrapper { margin-right: 0; } }</style> <div class="student-promo-banner-wrapper"> <div class="student-promo-banner d-flex flex-column align-items-center bg-blue rounded p-20"> <div class="student-promo-banner-img-wrapper mb-20 mr-0 d-flex justify-content-center"> <img class="rounded" style="max-width: 100px; min-width: 80px" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/BlueThistle.webp" /> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-text-wrapper ml-0 mb-10 text-center text-white"> <div class="h2 mb-10">Get Unlimited Access</div> <div class="h4 font-weight-semi-bold">Try Britannica Premium for free and discover more.</div> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-button-wrapper d-flex justify-content-center align-items-center ml-auto mr-auto"> <a class="btn btn-m btn-orange" href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=black-friday-2024">Subscribe</a> </div> </div> </div> </DIV></div><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker h2"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref36076"> <h2 class="h1">Physiography</h2> <section data-level="2" id="ref36077"> <h2 class="h2">Relief</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The Pacific basin may conveniently be divided into three major physiographic regions: the eastern, western, and central Pacific regions.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <section data-level="3" id="ref36078"> <h2 class="h3">Eastern region</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="95831" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/94197-050-8225D2EE/coastline-Pacific-Ocean-California-Big-Sur.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/437703/95831"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/94197-050-8225D2EE/coastline-Pacific-Ocean-California-Big-Sur.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/94197-050-8225D2EE/coastline-Pacific-Ocean-California-Big-Sur.jpg?w=300" alt="Big Sur" data-width="1600" data-height="1056" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/94197-050-8225D2EE/coastline-Pacific-Ocean-California-Big-Sur.jpg" data-href="/media/1/437703/95831">Big Sur</a><span>Mountainous coastline of the eastern Pacific Ocean, Big Sur, California.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The eastern Pacific region, which extends southward from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego, is relatively narrow and is associated with the American cordilleran system of almost unbroken mountain chains, the coastal ranges of which rise steeply from the western shores of North and South America. The continental shelf, which runs parallel to it, is narrow, while the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="adjacent" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/adjacent" data-type="EB">adjacent</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/continental-slope" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">continental slope</a> is very steep. Significant <span id="ref414905"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/deep-sea-trench" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">oceanic trenches</a> in this region are the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Middle-America-Trench" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Middle America Trench</a> in the North Pacific and the <span id="ref414906"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Peru-Chile-Trench" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Peru-Chile Trench</a> in the South Pacific.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="3" id="ref36079"> <h2 class="h3">Western region</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="29196" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/29/10729-004-A7030D69/Cape-Iro-Izu-Peninsula-Japan.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/437703/29196"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/29/10729-004-A7030D69/Cape-Iro-Izu-Peninsula-Japan.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/29/10729-004-A7030D69/Cape-Iro-Izu-Peninsula-Japan.jpg?w=300" alt="Cape Irō" data-width="225" data-height="300" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/29/10729-004-A7030D69/Cape-Iro-Izu-Peninsula-Japan.jpg" data-href="/media/1/437703/29196">Cape Irō</a><span>Cape Irō on Izu Peninsula, Japan.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The seaward boundary of the western Pacific region is marked by a broken line of oceanic trenches, extending from the <span id="ref414907"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Aleutian-Trench" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Aleutian Trench</a> in the north through the <span id="ref414908"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kuril-Trench" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kuril</a> and <span id="ref414909"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan-Trench" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Japan</a> trenches and southward to the <span id="ref414910"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tonga-Trench" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tonga</a> and <span id="ref414911"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kermadec-Trench" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kermadec</a> trenches, terminating close to the northeast of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/North-Island" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">North Island</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/New-Zealand" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">New Zealand</a>. Its structure is more complex than that of the eastern region. Characteristically associated with the ocean trenches of the western region are festoons of either peninsulas or islands or both. The islands, which include those of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Japan</a> as well as numerous smaller islands, represent the upper parts of mountain systems that rise abruptly from the deep ocean floor. The island <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="clusters" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/clusters" data-type="EB">clusters</a> of the western Pacific form the boundaries of the several wide and deep continental seas of the region.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="3" id="ref36080"> <h2 class="h3">Central region</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The central Pacific region lies between the boundaries of the eastern and western regions. The largest and the most geologically stable of the structural provinces of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Earth" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Earth’s</a> crust, it is characterized by expansive areas of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/cyclone-meteorology" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">low</a> relief, lying at a general depth of about 15,000 feet (4,600 metres) below the surface.</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section> <section data-level="2" id="ref36081"> <h2 class="h2">Principal <span id="ref414912"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/oceanic-ridge" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ridges</a> and <span id="ref414914"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ocean-basin" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">basins</a></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="95832" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/77/84877-050-08809CF3/view-rock-islands-Palau.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/437703/95832"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/77/84877-050-08809CF3/view-rock-islands-Palau.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/77/84877-050-08809CF3/view-rock-islands-Palau.jpg?w=300" alt="Palau: rock islands" data-width="1600" data-height="975" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/77/84877-050-08809CF3/view-rock-islands-Palau.jpg" data-href="/media/1/437703/95832">Palau: rock islands</a><span>Aerial view of rock islands, Palau.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">To the east of longitude 150° W, the relief of the ocean floor is considerably less pronounced than it is to the west. In the eastern Pacific the <span id="ref414913"></span>Cocos Ridge extends southwestward from the Central American isthmus to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Galapagos-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Galapagos Islands</a>. To the south of the Galapagos lies the Peru <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="Basin" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/Basin" data-type="EB">Basin</a>, which is separated by the extensive Sala y Gómez Ridge from the <span id="ref414915"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Southeast-Pacific-Basin" class="md-crosslink ">Southeast Pacific Basin</a>, which in turn is separated from the Southwest Pacific Basin by the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/East-Pacific-Rise" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">East Pacific Rise</a> and indeterminate Pacific-Antarctic Ridge, which runs from the Sala y Gómez Ridge to Antarctica in the vicinity of 150° W.</p><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD13 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Extending southward from the <span id="ref414916"></span>Tasman Basin (between New Zealand and eastern Australia) is the <span id="ref414917"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Macquarie-Ridge" class="md-crosslink ">Macquarie Ridge</a>, which forms a major boundary between the deep waters of the Pacific and Indian oceans. The <span id="ref414918"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hawaiian-Ridge" class="md-crosslink ">Hawaiian Ridge</a> extends westward from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hawaii-state" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hawaii</a> to the 180° meridian.</p><span class="marker MOD13 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD14 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The submerged parts of the series of ridges that are capped by the island <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="archipelagoes" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/archipelagoes" data-type="EB">archipelagoes</a> of the western Pacific are continuous and are to be found at depths of less than about 2,000 feet (610 metres). These ridges include the Aleutian Ridge in the northwestern Pacific; the series of ridges extending southward through the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kuril-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kuril</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bonin-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bonin</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mariana-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mariana</a> island groups, and the archipelagoes of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Yap-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Yap</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Palau" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Palau</a>; those extending eastward from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/New-Guinea" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">New Guinea</a>, including the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bismarck-Archipelago" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bismarck Archipelago</a> and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Solomon-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Solomon</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Santa-Cruz-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Santa Cruz</a> island chains; and, finally, the ridges extending southward, from which rise the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Samoa-archipelago-Pacific-Ocean" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Samoa</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tonga" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tonga</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kermadec-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kermadec</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Chatham-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Chatham</a> island groups, as well as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Macquarie-Island" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Macquarie Island</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD14 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="2" id="ref36082"> <h2 class="h2">Bottom deposits</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD15 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="35997" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/54/58754-050-24A543D1/Manganese-nodules-floor-Pacific-Ocean.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/437703/35997"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/54/58754-050-24A543D1/Manganese-nodules-floor-Pacific-Ocean.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/54/58754-050-24A543D1/Manganese-nodules-floor-Pacific-Ocean.jpg?w=300" alt="Manganese nodules" data-width="877" data-height="760" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/54/58754-050-24A543D1/Manganese-nodules-floor-Pacific-Ocean.jpg" data-href="/media/1/437703/35997">Manganese nodules</a><span>Manganese nodules on the southern Pacific Ocean floor.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Apart from the narrow coastal zone of the eastern region and the broad continental seas of the western region, the Pacific is floored with <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="pelagic" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/pelagic" data-type="EB">pelagic</a> (oceanic) material derived from the remains of marine plants and animals that once inhabited the waters lying above. Red or brown <span id="ref414919"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/radiolarian" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">radiolarian</a> <span id="ref414920"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ooze" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ooze</a> is found along the zone of the Pacific North <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/equatorial-current" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Equatorial Current</a>, east of longitude 170° W, and on the floors of some deep Indonesian basins. A belt of <span id="ref414921"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/diatom-ooze" class="md-crosslink ">diatom ooze</a> occurs between latitudes 45° and 60° S and across the North Pacific, between Japan and Alaska. <span id="ref414922"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/calcareous-ooze" class="md-crosslink ">Calcareous</a> globigerina ooze occurs in the shallower parts of the South Pacific, the dissolving power of the seawater at great depths being sufficient to dissolve calcareous material to such an extent that these oozes are not generally found at depths in excess of about 15,000 feet (4,600 metres). Silica-containing material, such as radiolarian and diatom ooze, is found at greater depths, but even these siliceous remains are <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="dissolved" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/dissolved" data-type="EB">dissolved</a> at very great depths, where the characteristic deposit is <span id="ref414923"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/red-clay" class="md-crosslink ">red clay</a>. Red clay, which covers no less than half of the Pacific floor, is believed to be formed of colloidal (extremely finely divided) clays derived essentially from the land.</p><span class="marker MOD15 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD16 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">On the <span id="ref414924"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/abyssal-plain" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">abyssal plains</a>, where sediments accumulate slowly, chemical and biological processes lead to the formation of metal-bearing coatings around objects such as the ear bones of fishes. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/nodule-geology" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">nodules</a> so formed contain manganese, iron, nickel, copper, cobalt, and traces of other metals such as platinum. They cover large areas of the ocean floor in the Pacific. Similar processes form coatings, called manganese crusts, on the rock surfaces of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/seamount" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">seamounts</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD16 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD17 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Among the many different forms of land-derived muds (formed by the erosive action of rivers, tides, and currents) that floor the continental shelves and slopes of the Pacific, the yellow mud of the <span id="ref414925"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Yellow-Sea" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Yellow Sea</a> is of particular interest. The mud is <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="conveyed" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/conveyed" data-type="EB">conveyed</a> to the seabed by the Huang He, which drains a vast area of northern China blanketed with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/loess" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">loess</a>, a fine-grained soil.</p><span class="marker MOD17 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="2" id="ref36083"> <h2 class="h2"><span id="ref414926"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Islands</a></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD18 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="3075" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/15/3315-050-4EE4C5DA/summit-volcano-outline-Yankich-Island-Kraternaya-Bay.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/437703/3075"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/15/3315-050-4EE4C5DA/summit-volcano-outline-Yankich-Island-Kraternaya-Bay.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/15/3315-050-4EE4C5DA/summit-volcano-outline-Yankich-Island-Kraternaya-Bay.jpg?w=300" alt="Kraternaya Bay" data-width="1600" data-height="1538" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/15/3315-050-4EE4C5DA/summit-volcano-outline-Yankich-Island-Kraternaya-Bay.jpg" data-href="/media/1/437703/3075">Kraternaya Bay</a><span>The summit of a partially submerged volcano forms the outline of Kraternaya Bay, Yankich Island, in the Kuril Islands of Russia.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The islands of the western region—including the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Aleutian-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Aleutians</a>, the Kurils, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ryukyu-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ryukyus</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Taiwan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Taiwan</a>, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Malay-Archipelago" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Malay Archipelago</a> (including New Guinea), and New Zealand—are continental in character. Geologically, they consist partly of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/sedimentary-rock" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">sedimentary rocks</a>, and their structures are similar to those of the coastal mountain ranges of the adjacent continent.</p><span class="marker MOD18 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD19 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">A geologically important boundary between the continental, or “high,” islands and the numerous truly oceanic, or “low,” islands of the Pacific is the <span id="ref414927"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Andesite-Line" class="md-crosslink ">Andesite Line</a>, a region of intense volcanic and seismic activity. In the northern and western Pacific the Andesite Line follows close to seaward the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="trend" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/trend" data-type="EB">trend</a> of the island arcs from the Aleutians southward to the Yap and Palau arcs, thence eastward through the Bismarck, Solomon, and Santa Cruz archipelagoes, and thence southward through the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Samoa-island-nation-Pacific-Ocean" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Samoa</a>, Tonga, and Chatham groups and Macquarie Island to Antarctica. Islands to the west of the line are rich in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/andesite" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">andesite</a>, a type of intrusive igneous rock; islands to the east (oceanic side) of it are essentially of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/basalt" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">basalt</a>, an <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/extrusive-rock" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">extrusive igneous rock</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD19 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD20 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The numerous oceanic islands of the Pacific are unevenly distributed. They lie, in the main, between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn and occur in great numbers in the western Pacific. The northernmost chain of oceanic islands is associated with the <span id="ref414928"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hawaii-state" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hawaiian</a> Ridge. The Hawaiian <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="archipelago" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/archipelago" data-type="EB">archipelago</a> consists of about 2,000 islands, although the term Hawaiian Islands is usually applied to the small group that lies at the eastern end of the archipelago.</p><span class="marker MOD20 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD21 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="228238" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/65/196865-050-485840CA/view-Funafuti-Atoll-Tuvalu.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/437703/228238"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/65/196865-050-485840CA/view-Funafuti-Atoll-Tuvalu.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/65/196865-050-485840CA/view-Funafuti-Atoll-Tuvalu.jpg?w=300" alt="Funafuti Atoll" data-width="1125" data-height="738" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/65/196865-050-485840CA/view-Funafuti-Atoll-Tuvalu.jpg" data-href="/media/1/437703/228238">Funafuti Atoll</a><span>Aerial view of Funafuti Atoll, Tuvalu.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The numerous small islands of <span id="ref414929"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Micronesia-cultural-region-Pacific-Ocean" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Micronesia</a> lie mainly north of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Equator" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Equator</a> and to the west of the 180° meridian. Nearly all are coralline; the principal groups are the Marianas, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Marshall-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Marshalls</a>, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Caroline-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Carolines</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kiribati" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kiribati</a> (Gilbert Islands), and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tuvalu" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tuvalu</a> (Ellice Islands).</p><span class="marker MOD21 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD22 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">To the south of Micronesia lies <span id="ref414930"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Melanesia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Melanesia</a>, which consists mostly of small <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/coral" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">coral</a> islands. The region’s physiography is dominated by a group of large continental islands, however, including New Guinea. The principal Melanesian island groups are the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomons, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Vanuatu" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Vanuatu</a> (New Hebrides), <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/New-Caledonia-French-unique-collectivity-Pacific-Ocean" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">New Caledonia</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Fiji-republic-Pacific-Ocean" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Fiji</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD22 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD23 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="immense" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/immense" data-type="EB">immense</a> area of <span id="ref414931"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Polynesia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Polynesia</a> includes the Hawaiian Islands, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Phoenix-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Phoenix Islands</a>, Samoa, Tonga, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Cook-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Cook Islands</a>, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Society-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Society Islands</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tuamotu-Archipelago" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tuamotu</a>, and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Marquesas-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Marquesas</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD23 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section> <span class="marker h3"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref36084"> <h2 class="h1">Geology</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD24 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Evidence drawn from various geophysical fields—<a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/seismology" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">seismology</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/volcanology" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">volcanology</a>, gravimetry, and paleomagnetism (<a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/remanent-magnetism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">remanent magnetism</a>)—points to the general validity of the theory of <span id="ref414932"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/plate-tectonics" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">plate tectonics</a>. All the major physical features in the Pacific are understood to originate in plate tectonics. The western Pacific arcs of volcanic islands and deep trenches are convergent zones where two plates are colliding, one being subducted (forced under the other). The East Pacific Rise is an active <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/spreading-center" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">spreading centre</a> where new crust is being created. The northeastern Pacific margin is the strike-slip zone where the American Plate and the Pacific Plate are gliding laterally past each other via the major <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/San-Andreas-Fault" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">San Andreas Fault</a> system. In the southeastern Pacific, however, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Nazca-Plate" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Nazca Plate</a> and the South American Plate are colliding to form the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Andes-Mountains" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Andes Mountains</a> along western South America and, a short distance offshore, the Peru-Chile Trench. The floor of the northeastern Pacific is remarkable for its several major <span id="ref414934"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/submarine-fracture-zone" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">fracture zones</a>, which extend east and west and which, in some instances, are identifiable over distances of thousands of miles.</p><span class="marker MOD24 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD25 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="110960" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/26/95226-050-B9AB7365/Islands-coral-reefs-SolIs-New-Georgia.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/437703/110960"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/26/95226-050-B9AB7365/Islands-coral-reefs-SolIs-New-Georgia.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/26/95226-050-B9AB7365/Islands-coral-reefs-SolIs-New-Georgia.jpg?w=300" alt="Solomon Islands" data-width="1077" data-height="1600" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/26/95226-050-B9AB7365/Islands-coral-reefs-SolIs-New-Georgia.jpg" data-href="/media/1/437703/110960">Solomon Islands</a><span>Fringing coral reefs, New Georgia Islands, Solomon Islands.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Of great geologic interest are the <span id="ref414935"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/seamount" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">seamounts</a> (submerged volcanoes), <span id="ref414936"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/guyot" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">guyots</a> (flat-topped seamounts), and <span id="ref414937"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/oceanic-island" class="md-crosslink ">oceanic islands</a> of the Pacific. The numerous tropical islands of the Pacific are mainly coralline. The principal types of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/coral-reef" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">coral reefs</a>—<a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/fringing-reef" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">fringing</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/barrier-reef" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">barrier</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/atoll" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">atoll</a>—as well as the guyots, which rise within the Pacific from the ocean floor in latitudes north and south of the tropics, are explained partially by the <span id="ref414938"></span>slow <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/subsidence" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">subsidence</a> theory advanced by the English naturalist <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Charles Darwin</a> during the 19th century and partially by the theory of plate tectonics.</p><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD25 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker h4"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref36085"> <h2 class="h1">Climate</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD26 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The wind and pressure systems of the Pacific conform closely to the <span id="ref414939"></span>planetary system—the patterns of air pressure and the consequent wind patterns that develop in the atmosphere of the Earth as a result of its rotation (<a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Coriolis-force" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Coriolis force</a>) and the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="inclination" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/inclination" data-type="EB">inclination</a> of its axis (<a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ecliptic" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ecliptic</a>) toward the Sun. They are, in essence, a three-celled latitudinal arrangement of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/atmospheric-circulation" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">atmospheric circulation</a>, with the systems in the Northern and Southern hemispheres mirroring each other on opposite sides of the Equator. The vast extent of open water in the Pacific influences wind and pressure patterns over it, and climatic conditions in the southern and eastern Pacific—where the steadiness of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/trade-wind" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">trade winds</a> and the westerlies is remarkable—are the most uniform on the globe. In the North Pacific, however, conditions are not so uniform, particularly the considerable climatic differences between the eastern and western regions in the same latitude. The rigour of the winters off the east coast of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Russia</a>, for instance, contrasts sharply with the relative mildness of winters in the region of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/British-Columbia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">British Columbia</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD26 mod-inline"></span> </section><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":6,"pageId":437703,"pageLength":2311,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"B","adLeg":"B","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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