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searchaux" style="display:none">Group of related languages</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Linkage_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Linkage (disambiguation)">Linkage</a>.</div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a>, a <b>linkage</b> is a network of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_relationship_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic relationship (linguistics)">related dialects or languages</a> that formed from a gradual diffusion and differentiation of a <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">proto-language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term was introduced by <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Ross_(linguist)" title="Malcolm Ross (linguist)">Malcolm Ross</a> in his study of <a href="/wiki/Western_Oceanic_languages" title="Western Oceanic languages">Western Oceanic languages</a> (<a href="#CITEREFRoss1988">Ross 1988</a>). It is contrasted with a <a href="/wiki/Tree_model" title="Tree model">family</a>, which arises when the proto-language speech community separates into groups that remain isolated from each other and do not form a network.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Principle">Principle</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linkage_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Principle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Linkages are formed when languages emerged historically from the diversification of an earlier <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>. Its members may have diverged despite sharing subsequent innovations, or such dialects may have come into <a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">contact</a> and so converged.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In any dialect continuum, innovations are shared between neighbouring dialects in intersecting patterns. The patterns of intersecting innovations continue to be evident as the dialect continuum turns into a linkage. </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparative method (linguistics)">comparative method</a>, a group of languages that exclusively shares a set of innovations constitutes a "<a href="/wiki/Genetic_relationship_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic relationship (linguistics)">(genealogical) subgroup</a>". A linkage is thus usually characterised by the presence of intersecting subgroups.<sup id="cite_ref-F172_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-F172-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Tree_model" title="Tree model">tree model</a> does not allow for the existence of intersecting subgroups and so is ill-suited to represent linkages, which are better approached using the <a href="/wiki/Wave_model" title="Wave model">wave model</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-F14_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-F14-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LRC_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LRC-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">cladistic</a> approach underlying the tree model requires the common ancestor of each subgroup to be discontiguous from other related languages and unable to share any innovation with them after their "separation". That assumption is absent from Ross and François's approach to linkages. Their genealogical subgroups also have languages descended from a common ancestor, as defined by a set of exclusively-shared innovations), but whose common ancestor may not have been discretely separated from its neighbours. For example, a chain of dialects {A B C D E F} may undergo a number of linguistic innovations, some affecting {BCD}, others {CDE}, still others {DEF}.<sup id="cite_ref-LRC_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LRC-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Insofar as each set of dialects was mutually intelligible at the time of the innovations, all can be seen as forming separate languages. Among them, Proto-BCD will be the language ancestral to the subgroup BCD, Proto-CDE the language ancestral to CDE and so on. As for the language descended from dialect D, it will belong simultaneously to three "intersecting subgroups" (BCD, CDE and DEF). </p><p>In both the tree and the linkage approaches, genealogical subgroups are strictly defined by their shared inheritance from a common ancestor. Simply, although trees entail that all proto-languages must be discretely separated, the linkage model avoids that assumption. François also claims that a tree can be considered a special case of a linkage in which all subgroups happen to be nested and temporally ordered from broadest to narrowest.<sup id="cite_ref-F172_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-F172-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In order to unravel the genealogical structure of linkages, Kalyan and François have designed a dedicated quantitative method, named <a href="/wiki/Historical_glottometry" title="Historical glottometry">Historical glottometry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-F14_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-F14-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-KF18_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KF18-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linkage_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An example of a linkage is the one formed by the <a href="/wiki/Central_Malayo-Polynesian_languages" title="Central Malayo-Polynesian languages">Central Malayo-Polynesian languages</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Banda_Sea" title="Banda Sea">Banda Sea</a> (a sea in the South Moluccas in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-banda_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-banda-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Central%E2%80%93Eastern_Malayo-Polynesian_languages" title="Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages">Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages</a> are commonly divided into two branches, Central Malayo-Polynesian and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Malayo-Polynesian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages">Eastern Malayo-Polynesian</a>, each having certain defining features that unify them and distinguish them from the other. However, whereas Proto-Eastern and Proto-Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian can be reconstructed (the sibling and the parent of Central Malayo-Polynesian, respectively), a Proto-Central Malayo-Polynesian language reconstruction, distinct from Proto-Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian does not seem feasible. </p><p>It may be that the branches of Central Malayo-Polynesian are each as old as Eastern Malayo-Polynesian but that they went on to exchange features that are now considered to define them as a family. The features common to Eastern Malayo-Polynesian can be assumed to have been present in a single ancestral language, but that is not the case for Central Malayo-Polynesian. </p><p>This scenario does not amount to a denial of a common ancestry of the Central Malayo-Polynesian languages. It is only a reinterpretation of the <i>age</i> of the relationship to be just as old as their relationship to Eastern Malayo-Polynesian. </p><p><a href="#CITEREFFrançois2014">François (2014</a>, p. 171) suggests that most of the world's language families are really <i>linkages</i> that are made up of intersecting, not nested, subgroups. He cites the <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_languages" title="Oceanic languages">Oceanic languages</a> of northern <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Vanuatu" title="Languages of Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a> as well as those of <a href="/wiki/Central_Pacific_languages" title="Central Pacific languages">Fiji</a> and of <a href="/wiki/Polynesian_languages" title="Polynesian languages">Polynesia</a> and at least some sections of the <a href="/wiki/Pama-Nyungan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pama-Nyungan languages">Pama-Nyungan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">families</a>. </p><p>Within Indo-European, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Romance" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Romance">Western Romance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a>, in turn, form linkages of their own. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linkage_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Areal_feature" title="Areal feature">Areal feature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_glottometry" title="Historical glottometry">Historical glottometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">Language contact</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linkage_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ross's concept of a linkage differs from <a href="/wiki/R._M._W._Dixon" class="mw-redirect" title="R. M. W. Dixon">R. M. W. Dixon</a>, who posits that over long periods, unrelated languages in contact may converge until they appear to be related (this concept is closer to what is otherwise known as a <a href="/wiki/Sprachbund" title="Sprachbund">Sprachbund</a> or <a href="/wiki/Areal_feature" title="Areal feature">areal features</a>).</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linkage_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"I use the term <i>linkage</i> to refer to a group of communalects [i.e. dialects or languages] which have arisen by dialect differentiation" (<a href="#CITEREFRoss1988">Ross 1988</a>, p. 8).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"I use the term <i>family</i> to refer to a group of communalects which have diversified from a single language by separation, rather than by dialect differentiation" (<a href="#CITEREFRoss1988">Ross 1988</a>, p. 8).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-F172-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-F172_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-F172_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="#CITEREFFrançois2014">François (2014</a>:171–172).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="#CITEREFHeggartyMaguireMcMahon2010">Heggarty, Maguire & McMahon (2010)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-F14-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-F14_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-F14_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrançois2014">François (2014)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LRC-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LRC_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LRC_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="#LRC">Lynch, Ross & Crowley (2002)</a>:92–93).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KF18-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KF18_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#KF18">Kalyan & François (2018)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-banda-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-banda_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9012118/Banda-Sea">"Banda Sea"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica Online</i>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Inc" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Inc">Encyclopædia Britannica Inc</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-01-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Banda+Sea&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9012118%2FBanda-Sea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinkage+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linkage_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrançois2014" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Fran%C3%A7ois" title="Alexandre François">François, Alexandre</a> (2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.francois.online.fr/data/AlexFrancois_2014_HHL_Trees-waves-linkages_Diversification.pdf">"Trees, Waves and Linkages: Models of Language Diversification"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, in Bowern, Claire; Evans, Bethwyn (eds.), <i>The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics</i>, London: Routledge, pp. 161–189, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-41552-789-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-41552-789-7"><bdi>978-0-41552-789-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Trees%2C+Waves+and+Linkages%3A+Models+of+Language+Diversification&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Handbook+of+Historical+Linguistics&rft.place=London&rft.pages=161-189&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-41552-789-7&rft.aulast=Fran%C3%A7ois&rft.aufirst=Alexandre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Falex.francois.online.fr%2Fdata%2FAlexFrancois_2014_HHL_Trees-waves-linkages_Diversification.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinkage+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeggartyMaguireMcMahon2010" class="citation journal cs1">Heggarty, Paul; Maguire, Warren; McMahon, April (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2981917">"Splits or waves? Trees or webs? How divergence measures and network analysis can unravel language histories"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</i>. <b>365</b> (1559): 3829–3843. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2010.0099">10.1098/rstb.2010.0099</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2981917">2981917</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21041208">21041208</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+B&rft.atitle=Splits+or+waves%3F+Trees+or+webs%3F+How+divergence+measures+and+network+analysis+can+unravel+language+histories&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1559&rft.pages=3829-3843&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2981917%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21041208&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2010.0099&rft.aulast=Heggarty&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Maguire%2C+Warren&rft.au=McMahon%2C+April&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2981917&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinkage+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="KF18" class="citation cs2">Kalyan, Siva; François, Alexandre (2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.francois.online.fr/data/Kalyan-Francois_2018_Freeing-Comparative-Method-from-Tree-model.pdf">"Freeing the Comparative Method from the tree model: A framework for Historical Glottometry"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, in Kikusawa, Ritsuko; Reid, Laurie (eds.), <i>Let's Talk about Trees: Genetic Relationships of Languages and Their Phylogenic Representation</i>, Senri Ethnological Studies, 98, Ōsaka: National Museum of Ethnology, pp. 59–89</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Freeing+the+Comparative+Method+from+the+tree+model%3A+A+framework+for+Historical+Glottometry&rft.btitle=Let%27s+Talk+about+Trees%3A+Genetic+Relationships+of+Languages+and+Their+Phylogenic+Representation&rft.place=%C5%8Csaka&rft.series=Senri+Ethnological+Studies%2C+98&rft.pages=59-89&rft.pub=National+Museum+of+Ethnology&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Kalyan&rft.aufirst=Siva&rft.au=Fran%C3%A7ois%2C+Alexandre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Falex.francois.online.fr%2Fdata%2FKalyan-Francois_2018_Freeing-Comparative-Method-from-Tree-model.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinkage+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="LRC" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Lynch_(linguist)" title="John Lynch (linguist)">Lynch, John</a>; <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Ross_(linguist)" title="Malcolm Ross (linguist)">Malcolm Ross</a>; <a href="/wiki/Terry_Crowley_(linguist)" title="Terry Crowley (linguist)">Terry Crowley</a> (2002). <i>The Oceanic languages</i>. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1128-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1128-4"><bdi>978-0-7007-1128-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48929366">48929366</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oceanic+languages&rft.place=Richmond%2C+Surrey&rft.pub=Curzon&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48929366&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1128-4&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Malcolm+Ross&rft.au=Terry+Crowley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinkage+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Ross_(linguist)" title="Malcolm Ross (linguist)">Ross, Malcolm D.</a> (1988). <i>Proto Oceanic and the Austronesian languages of Western Melanesia</i>. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proto+Oceanic+and+the+Austronesian+languages+of+Western+Melanesia&rft.place=Canberra&rft.pub=Pacific+Linguistics&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Malcolm+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinkage+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linkage_(linguistics)&oldid=1196943062">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linkage_(linguistics)&oldid=1196943062</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_linguistics" title="Category:Historical linguistics">Historical linguistics</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 18 January 2024, at 22:59<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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