Splits or waves? Trees or webs? How divergence measures and network analysis can unravel language histories

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Trees or webs? 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class="collections-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form action-panel-smaller-selectors" data-existing-collections-url="/list-existing-collections/" data-add-to-existing-collection-url="/add-to-existing-collection/" data-create-and-add-to-new-collection-url="/create-and-add-to-new-collection/" data-get-article-ids-by-search-url="/get-article-ids-by-search/" data-myncbi-max-collection-name-length="100" data-add-to-collection-max-amount="1000" data-collections-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/collections/"> <input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="1IkLtGzcpHPFXrwJRY1KoGN4Z2y9xuw1SCp1FQFTySwDh4POoeMl92PN4ciFqKqe"> <div class="choice-group" role="radiogroup"> <ul class="radio-group-items"> <li> <input type="radio" id="collections-action-panel-new" class="collections-new" name="collections" value="new" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="collections" data-ga-label="collections_radio_new"> <label for="collections-action-panel-new">Create a new collection</label> </li> <li> <input type="radio" id="collections-action-panel-existing" class="collections-existing" name="collections" value="existing" checked="true" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="collections" data-ga-label="collections_radio_existing"> <label for="collections-action-panel-existing">Add to an existing collection</label> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="controls-wrapper"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap new-collections-controls"> <label for="collections-action-panel-add-to-new" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk"> Name your collection: </label> <input type="text" name="add-to-new-collection" id="collections-action-panel-add-to-new" class="collections-action-add-to-new" pattern="[^"&=<>\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: "&=<>/" maxlength="100" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="create_collection" data-ga-label="non_favorties_collection"> <div class="collections-new-name-too-long usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message"> Name must be less than 100 characters </div> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap existing-collections-controls"> <label for="collections-action-panel-add-to-existing" class="action-panel-label"> Choose a collection: </label> <select id="collections-action-panel-add-to-existing" class="action-panel-selector collections-action-add-to-existing" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="select_collection" data-ga-label="($('#collections-action-add-to-existing').val() === 'Favorites') ? 'Favorites' : 'non_favorites_collection'"> </select> <div class="collections-retry-load-on-error usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message"> Unable to load your collection due to an error<br> <a href="#">Please try again</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="action-panel-actions"> <button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Adding..." data-pinger-ignore data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="collections" data-ga-label="add"> Add </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Add to Collections' panel" ref="linksrc=close_collections_panel" aria-controls="collections-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="collections" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div id="bibliography-action-panel" class="bibliography-action-panel action-panel in-progress-dots-panel" aria-hidden="true" data-bibliography-open-panel-enabled="false" data-bibliography-open-panel-url-hash="#open-bibliography-panel"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <h3 class="action-panel-heading"> Add to My Bibliography </h3> <form id="bibliography-action-panel-form" class="bibliography-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form action-panel-smaller-selectors" data-add-to-bibliography-max-amount="100" data-add-to-bibliography-batch-size="10" data-bibliography-delegates-url="/list-bibliography-delegates/" data-add-to-bibliography-url="/add-to-bibliography/" data-get-article-ids-by-search-url="/get-article-ids-by-search/" data-mybib-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/collections/mybibliography/"> <input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="1IkLtGzcpHPFXrwJRY1KoGN4Z2y9xuw1SCp1FQFTySwDh4POoeMl92PN4ciFqKqe"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap bibliographies-controls"> <div class="choice-group"> <ul class="bibliographies-action-add radio-group-items"> <li> <input name="bibliography" id="my-bibliography" class="my-bibliography" type="radio" checked/> <label for="my-bibliography">My Bibliography</label> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="bibliographies-retry-load-on-error usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message"> Unable to load your delegates due to an error<br> <a href="#">Please try again</a> </div> <div class="action-panel-actions"> <button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Adding..." data-pinger-ignore> Add </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Add to bibliography' panel" ref="linksrc=close_bibliography_panel" aria-controls="bibliography-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="mybib" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div id="saved-search-action-panel" class="saved-search-action-panel action-panel " aria-hidden="true" data-saved-search-open-panel-enabled="false" data-saved-search-open-panel-url-hash="#open-saved-search-panel"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <h2 class="action-panel-heading"> Your saved search </h2> <form id="saved-search-action-panel-form" class="saved-search-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form" data-create-saved-search-url="/create-saved-search/" data-try-search-terms-url="/try-search-term/" data-saved-search-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/searches/"> <input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="1IkLtGzcpHPFXrwJRY1KoGN4Z2y9xuw1SCp1FQFTySwDh4POoeMl92PN4ciFqKqe"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"> <label for="saved-search-name" class="action-panel-label saved-search-name-label required-field-asterisk"> Name of saved search: </label> <input maxlength="200" type="text" name="saved-search-name" id="saved-search-name" class="saved-search-name" value="" required pattern="[^"&=<>\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: "&=<>/"> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"> <label for="saved-search-term" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk"> Search terms: </label> <textarea name="saved-search-term" id="saved-search-term" class="saved-search-term" required></textarea> </div> <div class="test-search-term-wrap"> <a href="#" class="try-search-term">Test search terms</a> </div> <div class="choice-group action-panel-extra-margin-top"> <span class="action-panel-label" id="fieldset-label"> Would you like email updates of new search results? </span> <fieldset id="saved-search-alert" aria-describedby="fieldset-label"> <legend class="usa-sr-only">Saved Search Alert Radio Buttons</legend> <ul class="radio-group-items"> <li> <input type="radio" id="saved-search-alert-yes" class="saved-search-alert-yes" name="saved-search-alert" value="yes" checked> <label for="saved-search-alert-yes" class="action-panel-label">Yes</label> </li> <li> <input aria-label="No radio input" type="radio" id="saved-search-alert-no" class="saved-search-alert-no" name="saved-search-alert" value="no"> <label for="saved-search-alert-no" class="action-panel-label">No</label> </li> </ul> </fieldset> </div> <div class="alert-schedule-wrap"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"> <label class="action-panel-label"> Email: </label> <span aria-label="Email address" id="saved-search-email" class="action-panel-label"><span class="action-panel-label-bold"></span> (<a class="myncbi-account-settings" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/account/settings/">change</a>)</span> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap action-panel-extra-margin-top"> <label for="saved-search-frequency" class="action-panel-label"> Frequency: </label> <select id="saved-search-frequency" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-frequency"> <option value="monthly">Monthly</option> <option value="weekly">Weekly</option> <option value="daily">Daily</option> </select> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap saved-search-monthly-additional"> <label for="saved-search-monthly-on-day" class="action-panel-label"> Which day? </label> <select id="saved-search-monthly-on-day" class="no-border-panel-selector"> <option value="Sunday">The first Sunday</option> <option value="Monday">The first Monday</option> <option value="Tuesday">The first Tuesday</option> <option value="Wednesday">The first Wednesday</option> <option value="Thursday">The first Thursday</option> <option value="Friday">The first Friday</option> <option value="Saturday">The first Saturday</option> <option value="day">The first day</option> <option value="weekday">The first weekday</option> </select> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap saved-search-weekly-additional"> <label for="saved-search-weekly-on-day" class="action-panel-label"> Which day? </label> <select id="saved-search-weekly-on-day" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-weekly-on-day"> <option value="Sunday">Sunday</option> <option value="Monday">Monday</option> <option value="Tuesday">Tuesday</option> <option value="Wednesday">Wednesday</option> <option value="Thursday">Thursday</option> <option value="Friday">Friday</option> <option value="Saturday">Saturday</option> </select> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"> <label for="saved-search-report" class="action-panel-label"> Report format: </label> <select id="saved-search-report" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-report"> <option value="DocSum">Summary</option> <option value="DocSumText">Summary (text)</option> <option value="Abstract">Abstract</option> <option value="AbstractText">Abstract (text)</option> <option value="MEDLINE">PubMed</option> </select> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"> <label for="saved-search-amount" class="action-panel-label"> Send at most: </label> <select id="saved-search-amount" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-amount"> <option value="1">1 item</option> <option value="5" selected>5 items</option> <option value="10">10 items</option> <option value="20">20 items</option> <option value="50">50 items</option> <option value="100">100 items</option> <option value="200">200 items</option> </select> </div> <div> <input type="checkbox" id="saved-search-send-if-no-result" class="saved-search-send-if-no-result" name="saved-search-send-if-no-result"> <label for="saved-search-send-if-no-result" class="action-panel-label smaller-checkbox"> Send even when there aren't any new results </label> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap option-text-in-email-wrap"> <label for="saved-search-email-text" class="action-panel-label"> Optional text in email: </label> <textarea name="saved-search-email-text" id="saved-search-email-text" class="saved-search-email-text"></textarea> </div> </div> <div class="action-panel-actions"> <button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Saving..." data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="alert" data-ga-label="save"> Save </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Your saved search' panel" ref="linksrc=close_saved_search_panel" aria-controls="saved-search-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="alert" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div id="citation-manager-action-panel" class="citation-manager-action-panel action-panel" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <h2 class="action-panel-heading"> Create a file for external citation management software </h2> <form id="citation-manager-action-panel-form" class="action-panel-content action-form" action="/results-export-ids/" data-by-search-action="/results-export-search-data/" data-by-ids-action="/results-export-ids/" method="post" data-by-search-method="post" data-by-ids-method="post"> <input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="1IkLtGzcpHPFXrwJRY1KoGN4Z2y9xuw1SCp1FQFTySwDh4POoeMl92PN4ciFqKqe"> <input name="results-format" type="hidden" value="pubmed"/> <div class="action-panel-actions"> <button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Sending..." data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="citation_manager" data-ga-label="save"> Create file </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Send citations to citation manager' panel" ref="linksrc=close_citation_manager_panel" aria-controls="citation-manager-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="citation_manager" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div id="rss-action-panel" class="rss-action-panel action-panel " aria-hidden="true"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <h2 class="action-panel-heading"> Your RSS Feed </h2> <form id="rss-action-panel-form" class="rss-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form" data-create-rss-feed-url="/create-rss-feed-url/" data-search-form-term-value=""> <input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="1IkLtGzcpHPFXrwJRY1KoGN4Z2y9xuw1SCp1FQFTySwDh4POoeMl92PN4ciFqKqe"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"> <label for="rss-name" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk"> Name of RSS Feed: </label> <input maxlength="200" placeholder="Name" type="text" name="rss-name" id="rss-name" class="rss-name" value='' required pattern="[^"&=<>\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: "&=<>/"> </div> <div class="rss-limit-wrap"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap action-panel-extra-margin-top"> <label for="rss-limit" class="action-panel-label"> Number of items displayed: </label> <select id="rss-limit" class="no-border-panel-selector rss-limit"> <option value="5">5</option> <option value="10">10</option> <option value="15" selected="selected">15</option> <option value="20">20</option> <option value="50">50</option> <option value="100">100</option> </select> </div> </div> <div class="action-panel-actions"> <button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Creating..." data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="alert" data-ga-label="save"> Create RSS </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Your RSS' panel" ref="linksrc=close_rss_panel" aria-controls="rss-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="alert" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap rss-link-copy-wrap"> <label for="rss-link" class="usa-sr-only">RSS Link</label> <input placeholder="Your RSS Feed Link" type="text" name="rss-link" id="rss-link" class="rss-link" title="RSS Link"> <button type="button" disabled class="rss-link-copy-button disabled" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="rss" data-ga-label="copy"> Copy </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="article-page" id="article-page" data-article-pmid="21041208"> <aside class="page-sidebar"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <div class="full-text-links"> <div class="full-view"> <h3 class="title"> Full text links </h3> <div class="full-text-links-list"> <a class="link-item dialog-focus" href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2010.0099?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub 0pubmed" target="_blank" rel="noopener" ref="linksrc=fulltextorjournal_fulltext&is_pmc=False&PrId=4487&itool=Abstract-def&log$=linkouticon&uid=21041208&db=pubmed&nlmid=7503623" title="See full text options at Atypon" data-ga-category="full_text" data-ga-action="Atypon" data-ga-label="21041208" ><img src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/corehtml/query/egifs/https:--royalsocietypublishing.org-pb-assets-pubmed-rsj-pubmed-full.png" alt="full text provider logo"><span class="text"> Atypon </span></a><a class="link-item pmc " href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/pmid/21041208/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" ref="linksrc=fulltextorjournal_fulltext&is_pmc=True&PrId=3494&itool=Abstract-def&log$=linkouticon&uid=21041208&db=pubmed&nlmid=7503623" title="Free full text at PubMed Central" data-ga-category="full_text" data-ga-action="PMC" data-ga-label="21041208" ><span class="text"> Free PMC article </span></a> </div> </div> <div class="short-view"> <a href="#" class="full-text-links-button full-text-links-dialog-trigger"> Full text links </a> </div> </div> <div class="actions-buttons sidebar"><h3 class="title">Actions</h3><div class="inner-wrap"><button class="citation-button citation-dialog-trigger" aria-label="Open dialog with citation text in different styles" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="cite" data-ga-label="open" data-all-citations-url="/21041208/citations/" data-citation-style="nlm" data-pubmed-format-link="/21041208/export/"><span class="button-label">Cite</span></button><link type="text/css" href="ncbi-overlay-block/src/overlay-block.css"><div class="collections-button-container" data-article-id="21041208" data-article-db="pubmed"><button class="collections-button collections-dialog-trigger" aria-label="Save article in MyNCBI collections." data-ga-category="collections_button" data-ga-action="click" data-ga-label="collections_button" data-collections-open-dialog-enabled="false" data-collections-open-dialog-url="https://account.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?back_url=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F21041208%2F%23open-collections-dialog" data-in-collections="false"><span class="button-label">Collections</span></button><div class="overlay" role="dialog"><div id="collections-action-dialog" class="dialog collections-dialog" aria-hidden="true"><div class="title">Add to Collections</div><div class="collections-action-panel action-panel"><form id="collections-action-dialog-form" class="collections-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form action-panel-smaller-selectors" data-existing-collections-url="/list-existing-collections/" data-add-to-existing-collection-url="/add-to-existing-collection/" data-create-and-add-to-new-collection-url="/create-and-add-to-new-collection/" data-myncbi-max-collection-name-length="100" data-collections-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/collections/"><input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="1IkLtGzcpHPFXrwJRY1KoGN4Z2y9xuw1SCp1FQFTySwDh4POoeMl92PN4ciFqKqe"><div class="choice-group" role="radiogroup"><ul class="radio-group-items"><li><input type="radio" id="collections-action-dialog-new" class="collections-new" name="collections" value="new" data-ga-category="collections_button" data-ga-action="click" data-ga-label="collections_radio_new"><label for="collections-action-dialog-new">Create a new collection</label></li><li><input type="radio" id="collections-action-dialog-existing" class="collections-existing" name="collections" value="existing" checked="true" data-ga-category="collections_button" data-ga-action="click" data-ga-label="collections_radio_existing"><label for="collections-action-dialog-existing">Add to an existing collection</label></li></ul></div><div class="controls-wrapper"><div class="action-panel-control-wrap 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data-ga-action="select_collection" data-ga-label="($('.collections-action-add-to-existing').val() === 'Favorites') ? 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Trees or webs? How divergence measures and network analysis can unravel language histories </h1> <div class="inline-authors"> <div class="authors"> <div class="authors-list"> <span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Heggarty+P&cauthor_id=21041208" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Paul Heggarty">Paul Heggarty</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Linguistics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany. paul.heggarty@gmail.com" href="#full-view-affiliation-1" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 1 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Maguire+W&cauthor_id=21041208" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Warren Maguire">Warren Maguire</a><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=McMahon+A&cauthor_id=21041208" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="April McMahon">April McMahon</a></span> </div> </div> </div> <div class="short-article-details"> Affiliations <button class="more-details" id="toggle-authors" data-alt-text="Collapse" aria-controls="expanded-authors" aria-expanded="false" data-pinger-ignore data-fetch-url="/21041208/long-authors/" data-id-prefix=""> <span class="title"> Expand </span> </button> </div> <div class="extended-article-details" id="expanded-authors" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="expanded-authors" id="full-view-expanded-authors"> <div class="affiliations"> <h3 class="title"> Affiliation </h3> <ul class="item-list"> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-1" id="full-view-affiliation-1" ><sup class="key">1</sup> Linguistics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany. paul.heggarty@gmail.com</li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <ul class="identifiers" id="full-view-identifiers"> <li> <span class="identifier pubmed"> <span class="id-label"> PMID: </span> <strong class="current-id" title="PubMed ID">21041208</strong> </span> </li> <li> <span class="identifier pmc"> <span class="id-label"> PMCID: </span> <a class="id-link" target="_blank" rel="noopener" ref="linksrc=article_id_link&article_id=PMC2981917&id_type=PMC" href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2981917/" data-ga-category="full_text" data-ga-action="PMCID" > PMC2981917 </a> </span> </li> <li> <span class="identifier doi"> <span class="id-label"> DOI: </span> <a class="id-link" target="_blank" rel="noopener" ref="linksrc=article_id_link&article_id=10.1098/rstb.2010.0099&id_type=DOI" href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0099" data-ga-category="full_text" data-ga-action="DOI" > 10.1098/rstb.2010.0099 </a> </span> </li> </ul> <div class="in-clipboard-label " hidden> Item in Clipboard </div> </div> <div class="short-view" id="short-view-heading"> <h1 class="heading-title"> Splits or waves? Trees or webs? How divergence measures and network analysis can unravel language histories </h1> <div class="short-citation"> <span class="authors-list"> <span class="authors-list-item "><span class="full-name">Paul Heggarty</span><span class="citation-separator"> et al.</span></span> </span> <span class="citation-journal"> Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci<span class="citation-separator">.</span> </span> <span class="date"> <time class="citation-year" datetime="2010">2010</time><span class="citation-separator">.</span> </span> </div> <div class="more-article-details-section with-display-settings"> <button class="more-article-details" id="toggle-article-details" data-alt-text="Hide details" ref="linksrc=toggle_article_details" aria-controls="full-article-details" aria-expanded="false" data-fetch-url="/21041208/long-authors/" data-id-prefix=""> <span class="title">Show details</span> </button> <div class="display-options" data-format-key="format" data-default-format-value="abstract" data-current-format-value="abstract" role="region"> <button class="trigger usa-button" title="Change format" data-ga-category="display_options" data-ga-action="display_options_dialog"> <span class="button-label">Display options</span> </button> <div class="dropdown" hidden> <div class="title"> Display options </div> <div class="content"> <div class="format-container"> <span class="option-label"> Format </span> <select name="format" data-initial-value="abstract" aria-label="Display format" id="mobile-display-format"> <option value="abstract">Abstract</option> <option value="pubmed">PubMed</option> <option value="pmid">PMID</option> </select> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="extended-article-details" id="full-article-details" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="article-citation"> <div class="article-source"> <div class="journal-actions dropdown-block"><button id="short-view-journal-trigger" class="journal-actions-trigger trigger" ref="linksrc=journal_actions_btn" title="Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. 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Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany. paul.heggarty@gmail.com" href="#short-view-affiliation-1" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 1 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Maguire+W&cauthor_id=21041208" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Warren Maguire">Warren Maguire</a><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=McMahon+A&cauthor_id=21041208" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="April McMahon">April McMahon</a></span> </div> </div> <div class="affiliations"> <h3 class="title"> Affiliation </h3> <ul class="item-list"> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-1" id="short-view-affiliation-1" ><sup class="key">1</sup> Linguistics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany. paul.heggarty@gmail.com</li> </ul> </div> </div> <ul class="identifiers" id="short-view-identifiers"> <li> <span class="identifier pubmed"> <span class="id-label"> PMID: </span> <strong class="current-id" title="PubMed ID">21041208</strong> </span> </li> <li> <span class="identifier pmc"> <span class="id-label"> PMCID: </span> <a class="id-link" target="_blank" rel="noopener" ref="linksrc=article_id_link&article_id=PMC2981917&id_type=PMC" href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2981917/" data-ga-category="full_text" data-ga-action="PMCID" > PMC2981917 </a> </span> </li> <li> <span class="identifier doi"> <span class="id-label"> DOI: </span> <a class="id-link" target="_blank" rel="noopener" ref="linksrc=article_id_link&article_id=10.1098/rstb.2010.0099&id_type=DOI" href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0099" data-ga-category="full_text" data-ga-action="DOI" > 10.1098/rstb.2010.0099 </a> </span> </li> </ul> <div class="in-clipboard-label " hidden> Item in Clipboard </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="actions-buttons inline"><div class="inner-wrap"><button class="full-text-links-button full-text-links-dialog-trigger" title="Open dialog with full text links" ref="linksrc=full_text_links"> Full text links </button><button class="citation-button citation-dialog-trigger" aria-label="Open dialog with citation text in different styles" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="cite" data-ga-label="open" data-all-citations-url="/21041208/citations/" data-citation-style="nlm" data-pubmed-format-link="/21041208/export/"><span class="button-label">Cite</span></button><button class="more-actions-button more-actions-dialog-trigger" title="Open dialog with more actions to take" ref="linksrc=more_actions_btn"></button><div class="display-options" data-format-key="format" data-default-format-value="abstract" data-current-format-value="abstract" role="region"><button class="trigger usa-button" title="Change format" data-ga-category="display_options" data-ga-action="display_options_dialog"><span class="button-label">Display options</span></button><div class="dropdown" hidden><div class="title"> Display options </div><div class="content"><div class="format-container"><span class="option-label"> Format </span><select name="format" data-initial-value="abstract" aria-label="Display format" id="inline-actions-display-format"><option value="abstract">Abstract</option><option value="pubmed">PubMed</option><option value="pmid">PMID</option></select></div></div></div></div></div></div> <div class="abstract" id="abstract"> <h2 class="title"> Abstract </h2> <div class="abstract-content selected" id="eng-abstract"> <p> Linguists have traditionally represented patterns of divergence within a language family in terms of either a 'splits' model, corresponding to a branching family tree structure, or the wave model, resulting in a (dialect) continuum. Recent phylogenetic analyses, however, have tended to assume the former as a viable idealization also for the latter. But the contrast matters, for it typically reflects different processes in the real world: speaker populations either separated by migrations, or expanding over continuous territory. Since history often leaves a complex of both patterns within the same language family, ideally we need a single model to capture both, and tease apart the respective contributions of each. The 'network' type of phylogenetic method offers this, so we review recent applications to language data. Most have used lexical data, encoded as binary or multi-state characters. We look instead at continuous distance measures of divergence in phonetics. Our output networks combine branch- and continuum-like signals in ways that correspond well to known histories (illustrated for Germanic, and particularly English). We thus challenge the traditional insistence on shared innovations, setting out a new, principled explanation for why complex language histories can emerge correctly from distance measures, despite shared retentions and parallel innovations. </p> </div> </div> <p class="disclaimer" id="disclaimer"> <a href="/disclaimer/" target="_blank" ga_category="literature_resources" ga_action="disclaimer_link" ga_label="under_abstract">PubMed Disclaimer</a> </p> <div class="figures" id="figures"> <h2 class="title"> Figures </h2> <div class="figures-list" id="slides-container" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageGallery"> <figure class="figure-item " itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="associatedMedia" data-slide-index="0" data-label-slug="figure-1"> <a class="figure-link" href="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/db9d/2981917/c7af37400aff/rstb20100099-g1.jpg" itemprop="contentUrl" aria-describedby="figure-caption-0" role="button" data-image-width="412" data-image-height="388" data-image-alt="Figure 1." data-pmc-id="PMC2981917" data-figure-id="RSTB20100099F1"> <img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail" id="article-image-0" src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/db9d/2981917/d525edf32403/rstb20100099-g1.gif" alt="Figure 1." /> </a> <meta itemprop="width" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="412"> <meta itemprop="height" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="388"> <div class="figure-caption figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="caption" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="caption-wrap"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 1. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> ‘One of the best trees… </p></div> </div> </div> <div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 1. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> ‘One of the best trees with Germanic omitted’. (Reproduced with permission from Ringe… </p></div> </div> <figcaption id="figure-caption-0" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description"> <strong class="figure-label"> Figure 1. </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents">‘One of the best trees with Germanic omitted’. (Reproduced with permission from Ringe <i>et al</i>. 2002, p. 90.)</div> </figcaption> </figure> <figure class="figure-item " itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="associatedMedia" data-slide-index="1" data-label-slug="figure-2"> <a class="figure-link" href="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/db9d/2981917/4cf58b4276bf/rstb20100099-g2.jpg" itemprop="contentUrl" aria-describedby="figure-caption-1" role="button" data-image-width="541" data-image-height="922" data-image-alt="Figure 2." data-pmc-id="PMC2981917" data-figure-id="RSTB20100099F2"> <img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail" id="article-image-1" src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/db9d/2981917/acf8a585bbd3/rstb20100099-g2.gif" alt="Figure 2." /> </a> <meta itemprop="width" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="541"> <meta itemprop="height" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="922"> <div class="figure-caption figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="caption" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="caption-wrap"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 2. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Consensus tree for Indo-European (Reproduced… </p></div> </div> </div> <div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 2. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Consensus tree for Indo-European (Reproduced with permission from Gray & Atkinson 2003, p.… </p></div> </div> <figcaption id="figure-caption-1" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description"> <strong class="figure-label"> Figure 2. </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents">Consensus tree for Indo-European (Reproduced with permission from Gray & Atkinson 2003, p. 437). The numbers up to 100 along each branch (in small font) are posterior probability values—see text. The numbers up to 8700 at each node (in large font) are time-depth estimates expressed in years BP.</div> </figcaption> </figure> <figure class="figure-item " itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="associatedMedia" data-slide-index="2" data-label-slug="figure-3"> <a class="figure-link" href="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/db9d/2981917/26aca99a8d88/rstb20100099-g3.jpg" itemprop="contentUrl" aria-describedby="figure-caption-2" role="button" data-image-width="638" data-image-height="441" data-image-alt="Figure 3." data-pmc-id="PMC2981917" data-figure-id="RSTB20100099F3"> <img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail" id="article-image-2" src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/db9d/2981917/79dc03e18942/rstb20100099-g3.gif" alt="Figure 3." /> </a> <meta itemprop="width" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="638"> <meta itemprop="height" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="441"> <div class="figure-caption figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="caption" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="caption-wrap"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 3. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> NeighborNet of a distance matrix… </p></div> </div> </div> <div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 3. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> NeighborNet of a distance matrix from Anttila's (1989, p. 305) Indo-European isogloss map… </p></div> </div> <figcaption id="figure-caption-2" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description"> <strong class="figure-label"> Figure 3. </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents">NeighborNet of a distance matrix from Anttila's (1989, p. 305) Indo-European isogloss map (figure 4).</div> </figcaption> </figure> <figure class="figure-item " itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="associatedMedia" data-slide-index="3" data-label-slug="figure-4"> <a class="figure-link" href="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/db9d/2981917/ba348976159e/rstb20100099-g4.jpg" itemprop="contentUrl" aria-describedby="figure-caption-3" role="button" data-image-width="451" data-image-height="486" data-image-alt="Figure 4." data-pmc-id="PMC2981917" data-figure-id="RSTB20100099F4"> <img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail" id="article-image-3" src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/db9d/2981917/a27dd126ea22/rstb20100099-g4.gif" alt="Figure 4." /> </a> <meta itemprop="width" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="451"> <meta itemprop="height" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="486"> <div class="figure-caption figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="caption" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="caption-wrap"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 4. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> A dialect map of the… </p></div> </div> </div> <div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 4. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> A dialect map of the Indo-European languages. (Reproduced with permission from Anttila 1989,… </p></div> </div> <figcaption id="figure-caption-3" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description"> <strong class="figure-label"> Figure 4. </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents">A dialect map of the Indo-European languages. (Reproduced with permission from Anttila 1989, p. 305.)</div> </figcaption> </figure> <figure class="figure-item " itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="associatedMedia" data-slide-index="4" data-label-slug="figure-5"> <a class="figure-link" href="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/db9d/2981917/da535dbaa009/rstb20100099-g5.jpg" itemprop="contentUrl" aria-describedby="figure-caption-4" role="button" data-image-width="605" data-image-height="380" data-image-alt="Figure 5." data-pmc-id="PMC2981917" data-figure-id="RSTB20100099F5"> <img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail" id="article-image-4" src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/db9d/2981917/2895b74fa512/rstb20100099-g5.gif" alt="Figure 5." /> </a> <meta itemprop="width" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="605"> <meta itemprop="height" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="380"> <div class="figure-caption figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="caption" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="caption-wrap"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 5. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Unrooted network of 19 Germanic… </p></div> </div> </div> <div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 5. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Unrooted network of 19 Germanic language samples. (Reproduced with permission from Forster <i> et… </i> </p></div> </div> <figcaption id="figure-caption-4" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description"> <strong class="figure-label"> Figure 5. </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents">Unrooted network of 19 Germanic language samples. (Reproduced with permission from Forster <i>et al</i>. 2006, p. 134.)</div> </figcaption> </figure> <figure class="figure-item " itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="associatedMedia" data-slide-index="5" data-label-slug="figure-6"> <a class="figure-link" href="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/db9d/2981917/ac762b9c826d/rstb20100099-g6.jpg" itemprop="contentUrl" aria-describedby="figure-caption-5" role="button" data-image-width="641" data-image-height="560" data-image-alt="Figure 6." data-pmc-id="PMC2981917" data-figure-id="RSTB20100099F6"> <img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail" id="article-image-5" src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/db9d/2981917/1ae4e98d2a22/rstb20100099-g6.gif" alt="Figure 6." /> </a> <meta itemprop="width" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="641"> <meta itemprop="height" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="560"> <div class="figure-caption figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="caption" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="caption-wrap"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 6. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> NeighborNet from a matrix of… </p></div> </div> </div> <div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 6. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> NeighborNet from a matrix of distances in phonetics between traditional dialects in Germanic. </p></div> </div> <figcaption id="figure-caption-5" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description"> <strong class="figure-label"> Figure 6. </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents">NeighborNet from a matrix of distances in phonetics between traditional dialects in Germanic.</div> </figcaption> </figure> <figure class="figure-item tail" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="associatedMedia" data-slide-index="6" data-label-slug="figure-7"> <a class="figure-link" href="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/db9d/2981917/4c8645dd6ece/rstb20100099-g7.jpg" itemprop="contentUrl" aria-describedby="figure-caption-6" role="button" data-image-width="615" data-image-height="551" data-image-alt="Figure 7." data-pmc-id="PMC2981917" data-figure-id="RSTB20100099F7"> <img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail" id="article-image-6" src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/db9d/2981917/b91609d32d97/rstb20100099-g7.gif" alt="Figure 7." /> </a> <meta itemprop="width" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="615"> <meta itemprop="height" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="551"> <div class="figure-caption figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="caption" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="caption-wrap"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 7. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> NeighborNet from a matrix of… </p></div> </div> </div> <div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 7. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> NeighborNet from a matrix of measures of divergence in phonetics between traditional dialects… </p></div> </div> <figcaption id="figure-caption-6" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description"> <strong class="figure-label"> Figure 7. </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents">NeighborNet from a matrix of measures of divergence in phonetics between traditional dialects and reconstructed historical varieties of English.</div> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <div class="see-all actions-bar"> <button class="show-more" aria-controls="slides-container" data-ga-category="figure" data-ga-action="show_all"> All figures (7) </button> </div>  <div class="pswp figures-dialog" id="figures-dialog" 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class="references" id="references"> <h2 class="title"> References </h2> <div id='top-references-list' class="references-lists-container"> <div class="refs-list"> <ol id="top-references-list-1" class="references-list"> <li> <ol class="references-and-notes-list"> <li class="skip-numbering" value="1"> Anttila R.1989Historical and comparative linguistics, 2nd edn. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: John Benjamins </li> </ol> </li> <li> <ol class="references-and-notes-list"> <li class="skip-numbering" value="1"> Atkinson Q. D., Gray R. D.2006How old is the Indo-European language family? Progress or more moths to the flame? In Phylogenetic methods and the prehistory of languages (eds Forster P., Renfrew C.), pp. 91–109 Cambridge, UK: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research </li> </ol> </li> <li> <ol class="references-and-notes-list"> <li class="skip-numbering" value="1"> Atkinson Q. D., Nicholls G., Welch D., Gray R. D.2005From words to dates: water into wine, mathemagic or phylogenetic inference? Trans. Philol. Soc. 103, 193–219 (<a href="http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1111/j.1467-968X.2005.00151.x" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" title="External link: doi:10.1111/j.1467-968X.2005.00151.x">doi:10.1111/j.1467-968X.2005.00151.x</a>) - <a class="reference-link" href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-968x.2005.00151.x" ref="linksrc=references_link&ordinalpos=1" data-ga-category="reference" data-ga-action="10.1111/j.1467-968X.2005.00151.x" > DOI </a> </li> </ol> </li> <li> <ol class="references-and-notes-list"> <li class="skip-numbering" value="1"> Bandelt H. J., Dress A. W.1992Split decomposition: a new and useful approach to phylogenetic analysis of distance data. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 1, 242–252 (<a href="http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/1055-7903(92)90021-8" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" title="External link: doi:10.1016/1055-7903(92)90021-8">doi:10.1016/1055-7903(92)90021-8</a>) - <a class="reference-link" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/1055-7903(92)90021-8" ref="linksrc=references_link&ordinalpos=1" data-ga-category="reference" data-ga-action="10.1016/1055-7903(92)90021-8" > DOI </a> - <a class="reference-link" href="/1342941/" ref="linksrc=references_link&ordinalpos=2" data-ga-category="reference" data-ga-action="1342941" > PubMed </a> </li> </ol> </li> <li> <ol class="references-and-notes-list"> <li class="skip-numbering" value="1"> Bandelt H. J., Forster P., Sykes B. C., Richards M. B.1995Mitochondrial portraits of human populations. Genetics 141, 743–753 - <a class="reference-link" href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1206770/" ref="linksrc=references_link&ordinalpos=1" data-ga-category="reference" data-ga-action="PMC1206770" > PMC </a> - <a class="reference-link" href="/8647407/" ref="linksrc=references_link&ordinalpos=2" data-ga-category="reference" data-ga-action="8647407" > PubMed </a> </li> </ol> </li> </ol> <div class="actions-bar"> <button class="show-all" ref="linksrc=show_all_references_link" aria-controls="top-references-list-1" data-next-page-url="/21041208/references/" data-ga-category="reference" data-ga-action="show_more" > Show all 31 references </button> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="publication-types" class="publication-types keywords-section"> <h2 class="title"> Publication types </h2> <ul class="keywords-list"><li><div class="keyword-actions dropdown-block"><button class="keyword-actions-trigger trigger keyword-link" aria-label="Toggle dropdown menu for keyword Historical 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