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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Decompression_illness_and_dysbarism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decompression_illness_and_dysbarism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Decompression illness and dysbarism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decompression_illness_and_dysbarism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signs_and_symptoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signs_and_symptoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Signs and symptoms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Signs_and_symptoms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Signs and symptoms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Signs_and_symptoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Frequency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frequency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Frequency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frequency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Onset" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Onset"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Onset</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Onset-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Causes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Causes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ascent_from_depth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ascent_from_depth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Ascent from depth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ascent_from_depth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leaving_a_high-pressure_environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leaving_a_high-pressure_environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Leaving a high-pressure environment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leaving_a_high-pressure_environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ascent_to_altitude_and_loss_of_pressure_from_a_pressurised_environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ascent_to_altitude_and_loss_of_pressure_from_a_pressurised_environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Ascent to altitude and loss of pressure from a pressurised environment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ascent_to_altitude_and_loss_of_pressure_from_a_pressurised_environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Predisposing_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predisposing_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Predisposing factors</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Predisposing_factors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Predisposing factors subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Predisposing_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Environmental" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Environmental</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Individual" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Individual"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Individual</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Individual-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Mechanism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mechanism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mechanism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mechanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Inert_gases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inert_gases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Inert gases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inert_gases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Isobaric_counterdiffusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Isobaric_counterdiffusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Isobaric counterdiffusion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Isobaric_counterdiffusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bubble_formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bubble_formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Bubble formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bubble_formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathophysiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathophysiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Pathophysiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pathophysiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Diagnosis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Diagnosis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Test_of_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Test_of_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Test of pressure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Test_of_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Differential_diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differential_diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Differential diagnosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differential_diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Prevention</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prevention subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Underwater_diving" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Underwater_diving"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Underwater diving</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Underwater_diving-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exposure_to_altitude" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exposure_to_altitude"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Exposure to altitude</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exposure_to_altitude-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Treatment</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Treatment subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_aid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_aid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>First aid</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_aid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Delay_of_recompression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Delay_of_recompression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Delay of recompression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Delay_of_recompression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transport_of_a_symptomatic_diver" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transport_of_a_symptomatic_diver"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Transport of a symptomatic diver</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transport_of_a_symptomatic_diver-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In-water_recompression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In-water_recompression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>In-water recompression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In-water_recompression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Contraindications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contraindications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4.1</span> <span>Contraindications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contraindications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Definitive_treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definitive_treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Definitive treatment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definitive_treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Altitude_decompression_sickness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Altitude_decompression_sickness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6</span> <span>Altitude decompression sickness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Altitude_decompression_sickness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prognosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prognosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Prognosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prognosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Epidemiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Timeline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Society and culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Society and culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Economics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Other animals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Decompression sickness</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 43 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-43" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">43 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%B6_%D8%AA%D8%AE%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%81_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B6%D8%BA%D8%B7" title="مرض تخفيف الضغط – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مرض تخفيف الضغط" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dekompression_x%C9%99st%C9%99lik" title="Dekompression xəstəlik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Dekompression xəstəlik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADndrome_de_descompressi%C3%B3" title="Síndrome de descompressió – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Síndrome de descompressió" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dekompresn%C3%AD_nemoc" title="Dekompresní nemoc – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dekompresní nemoc" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trykfaldssyge" title="Trykfaldssyge – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Trykfaldssyge" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dekompressionskrankheit" title="Dekompressionskrankheit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Dekompressionskrankheit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kessoont%C3%B5bi" title="Kessoontõbi – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kessoontõbi" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%B4%CF%85%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Νόσος των δυτών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νόσος των δυτών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADndrome_de_descompresi%C3%B3n" title="Síndrome de descompresión – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Síndrome de descompresión" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deskonpresio-sindrome" title="Deskonpresio-sindrome – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Deskonpresio-sindrome" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%B4_%D9%86%D8%A7%DA%AF%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%81%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="بیماری ناشی از کاهش ناگهانی فشار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بیماری ناشی از کاهش ناگهانی فشار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accident_de_d%C3%A9compression" title="Accident de décompression – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Accident de décompression" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galar_d%C3%ADbhr%C3%BA" title="Galar díbhrú – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Galar díbhrú" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADndrome_de_descompresi%C3%B3n" title="Síndrome de descompresión – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Síndrome de descompresión" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%A0%EC%88%98%EB%B3%91" title="잠수병 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="잠수병" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%AB%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Կեսոնային հիվանդություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կեսոնային հիվանդություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deskompreso-maladeso" title="Deskompreso-maladeso – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Deskompreso-maladeso" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyakit_dekompresi" title="Penyakit dekompresi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penyakit dekompresi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kafaraveiki" title="Kafaraveiki – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kafaraveiki" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malattia_da_decompressione" title="Malattia da decompressione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Malattia da decompressione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyakit_dh%C3%A9kompr%C3%A8si" title="Penyakit dhékomprèsi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Penyakit dhékomprèsi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keszonbetegs%C3%A9g" title="Keszonbetegség – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Keszonbetegség" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panyakik_dekompresi" title="Panyakik dekompresi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Panyakik dekompresi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caissonziekte" title="Caissonziekte – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Caissonziekte" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%9B%E5%9C%A7%E7%97%87" title="減圧症 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="減圧症" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trykkfallsyke" title="Trykkfallsyke – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Trykkfallsyke" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dykkarsjuke" title="Dykkarsjuke – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Dykkarsjuke" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dekompression_kasalliklar" title="Dekompression kasalliklar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Dekompression kasalliklar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choroba_dekompresyjna" title="Choroba dekompresyjna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Choroba dekompresyjna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doen%C3%A7a_de_descompress%C3%A3o" title="Doença de descompressão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Doença de descompressão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accident_de_decompresie" title="Accident de decompresie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Accident de decompresie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BD%D1%8C" title="Декомпрессионная болезнь – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Декомпрессионная болезнь" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Decompression sickness" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dekompresn%C3%A9_ochorenie" title="Dekompresné ochorenie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dekompresné ochorenie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dekompresiona_bolest" title="Dekompresiona bolest – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Dekompresiona bolest" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dekompresiona_bolest" title="Dekompresiona bolest – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Dekompresiona bolest" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panyakit_d%C3%A9kompresi" title="Panyakit dékompresi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Panyakit dékompresi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukeltajantauti" title="Sukeltajantauti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sukeltajantauti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryckfallssjuka" title="Tryckfallssjuka – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tryckfallssjuka" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%94" title="โรคลดความกด – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โรคลดความกด" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vurgun" title="Vurgun – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Vurgun" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%85%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Кесонна хвороба – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кесонна хвороба" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%9B%E5%A3%93%E7%97%87" title="減壓症 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="減壓症" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q460591#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Disorder caused by dissolved gases forming bubbles in tissues</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Decompression_illness" title="Decompression illness">Decompression illness</a> or <a href="/wiki/Decompression_(diving)" title="Decompression (diving)">Decompression (diving)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"The bends" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/The_Bends_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="The Bends (disambiguation)">The Bends</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Decompression sickness</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data">Divers' disease, the bends, aerobullosis, caisson disease</td></tr><tr style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Naval_Base_Guam_dive_locker_(150225-N-ZB122-002).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of the cramped interior of a decompression chamber with a Hospital Corpsman preparing a patient for an intravenous line during a demonstration of patient care for decompression illness." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Naval_Base_Guam_dive_locker_%28150225-N-ZB122-002%29.jpg/220px-Naval_Base_Guam_dive_locker_%28150225-N-ZB122-002%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Naval_Base_Guam_dive_locker_%28150225-N-ZB122-002%29.jpg/330px-Naval_Base_Guam_dive_locker_%28150225-N-ZB122-002%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Naval_Base_Guam_dive_locker_%28150225-N-ZB122-002%29.jpg/440px-Naval_Base_Guam_dive_locker_%28150225-N-ZB122-002%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Two <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> sailors demonstrate treatment for decompression sickness inside a <a href="/wiki/Decompression_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression chamber">decompression chamber</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Emergency_medicine" title="Emergency medicine">Emergency medicine</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Decompression sickness</b> (<b>DCS</b>; also called <b>divers' disease</b>, <b>the bends</b>, <b>aerobullosis</b>, and <b>caisson disease</b>) is a medical condition caused by dissolved gases emerging from <a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">solution</a> as bubbles inside the body tissues during <a href="/wiki/Decompression_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression (physics)">decompression</a>. DCS most commonly occurs during or soon after a <a href="/wiki/Decompression_(diving)" title="Decompression (diving)">decompression</a> ascent from <a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving" title="Underwater diving">underwater diving</a>, but can also result from other causes of depressurisation, such as emerging from a <a href="/wiki/Caisson_(engineering)" title="Caisson (engineering)">caisson</a>, decompression from <a href="/wiki/Saturation_diving" title="Saturation diving">saturation</a>, flying in an <a href="/wiki/Cabin_pressurization" title="Cabin pressurization">unpressurised aircraft</a> at high altitude, and <a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">extravehicular activity</a> from <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a>. DCS and <a href="/wiki/Air_embolism" title="Air embolism">arterial gas embolism</a> are collectively referred to as <a href="/wiki/Decompression_illness" title="Decompression illness">decompression illness</a>. </p><p>Since bubbles can form in or migrate to any part of the body, DCS can produce many symptoms, and its effects may vary from joint pain and rashes to paralysis and death. DCS often causes air bubbles to settle in major joints like knees or elbows, causing individuals to bend over in excruciating pain, hence its common name, the bends. Individual susceptibility can vary from day to day, and different individuals under the same conditions may be affected differently or not at all. The classification of types of DCS according to symptoms has evolved since its original description in the 19th century. The severity of symptoms varies from barely noticeable to rapidly fatal. </p><p>Decompression sickness can occur after an exposure to increased pressure while breathing a gas with a metabolically inert component, then decompressing too fast for it to be harmlessly eliminated through respiration, or by decompression by an upward excursion from a condition of saturation by the inert breathing gas components, or by a combination of these routes. Theoretical decompression risk is controlled by the tissue compartment with the highest inert gas concentration, which for decompression from saturation is the slowest tissue to outgas. </p><p>The risk of DCS can be managed through proper <a href="/wiki/Decompression_practice" title="Decompression practice">decompression procedures</a>, and contracting the condition has become uncommon. Its potential severity has driven much research to prevent it, and divers almost universally use <a href="/wiki/Decompression_schedule" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression schedule">decompression schedules</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dive_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive computers">dive computers</a> to limit their exposure and to monitor their ascent speed. If DCS is suspected, it is treated by <a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_oxygen_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperbaric oxygen therapy">hyperbaric oxygen therapy</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Recompression_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Recompression chamber">recompression chamber</a>. Where a chamber is not accessible within a reasonable time frame, in-water recompression may be indicated for a narrow range of presentations, if there are suitably skilled personnel and appropriate equipment available on site. Diagnosis is confirmed by a positive response to the treatment. Early treatment results in a significantly higher chance of successful recovery.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Walker_and_Murphy-Lavoie_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker_and_Murphy-Lavoie-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>DCS is classified by symptoms. The earliest descriptions of DCS used the terms: "bends" for joint or skeletal pain; "chokes" for breathing problems; and "staggers" for neurological problems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancis_&_Mitchell,_''Manifestations''578_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancis_&_Mitchell,_''Manifestations''578-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1960, Golding <i>et al.</i> introduced a simpler classification using the term "Type I ('simple')" for symptoms involving only the <a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">skin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Musculoskeletal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Musculoskeletal system">musculoskeletal system</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">lymphatic system</a>, and "Type II ('serious')" for symptoms where other organs (such as the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>) are involved.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancis_&_Mitchell,_''Manifestations''578_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancis_&_Mitchell,_''Manifestations''578-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Type II DCS is considered more serious and usually has worse outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-emed_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emed-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This system, with minor modifications, may still be used today.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarx1908_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx1908-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following changes to treatment methods, this classification is now much less useful in diagnosis,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancis_&_Mitchell,_''Manifestations''579_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancis_&_Mitchell,_''Manifestations''579-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> since neurological symptoms may develop after the initial presentation, and both Type I and Type II DCS have the same initial management.<sup id="cite_ref-Francis_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Francis-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decompression_illness_and_dysbarism">Decompression illness and dysbarism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Decompression illness and dysbarism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <a href="/wiki/Dysbarism" title="Dysbarism">dysbarism</a> encompasses decompression sickness, <a href="/wiki/Arterial_gas_embolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Arterial gas embolism">arterial gas embolism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">barotrauma</a>, whereas decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism are commonly classified together as <a href="/wiki/Decompression_illness" title="Decompression illness">decompression illness</a> when a precise diagnosis cannot be made.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancis_&_Mitchell,_''Manifestations''580_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancis_&_Mitchell,_''Manifestations''580-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DCS and arterial gas embolism are treated very similarly because they are both the result of gas bubbles in the body.<sup id="cite_ref-Francis_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Francis-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. Navy prescribes identical treatment for Type II DCS and arterial gas embolism.<sup id="cite_ref-USNDM2008_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNDM2008-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their spectra of symptoms also overlap, although the symptoms from arterial gas embolism are generally more severe because they often arise from an <a href="/wiki/Infarction" title="Infarction">infarction</a> (blockage of blood supply and tissue death). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Signs and symptoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_signs_and_symptoms_of_diving_disorders" title="List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders">List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders</a></div> <p>While bubbles can form anywhere in the body, DCS is most frequently observed in the shoulders, elbows, knees, and ankles. Joint pain ("the bends") accounts for about 60% to 70% of all altitude DCS cases, with the shoulder being the most common site for altitude and bounce diving, and the knees and hip joints for saturation and compressed air work.<sup id="cite_ref-Cronje_2014_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronje_2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Neurological" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurological">Neurological</a> symptoms are present in 10% to 15% of DCS cases with <a href="/wiki/Headache" title="Headache">headache</a> and visual disturbances being the most common symptom. Skin manifestations are present in about 10% to 15% of cases. Pulmonary DCS ("the chokes") is very rare in divers and has been observed much less frequently in aviators since the introduction of oxygen pre-breathing protocols.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell71_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell71-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The table below shows symptoms for different DCS types.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancis_&_Mitchell,_''Manifestations''578–584_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancis_&_Mitchell,_''Manifestations''578–584-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><b>Signs and symptoms of decompression sickness</b> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">DCS type </th> <th scope="col">Bubble location </th> <th scope="col">Signs & symptoms (clinical manifestations) </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Musculoskeletal </th> <td>Mostly large joints of the limbs <p>(elbows, shoulders, hip, wrists, knees, ankles) </p> </td> <td> <ul><li>Localized deep pain, ranging from mild to excruciating. Sometimes a dull ache, more rarely a sharp pain.</li> <li>Active and passive motion of the joint may aggravate the pain.</li> <li>The pain may be reduced by bending the joint to find a more comfortable position.</li> <li>If caused by altitude, pain can occur immediately or up to many hours later.</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Cutaneous </th> <td>Skin </td> <td> <ul><li>Itching, usually around the ears, face, neck, arms, and upper torso</li> <li>Sensation of tiny insects crawling over the skin (<a href="/wiki/Formication" title="Formication">formication</a>)</li> <li>Mottled or marbled skin usually around the shoulders, upper chest and abdomen, with itching (<i><a href="/wiki/Cutis_marmorata" title="Cutis marmorata">cutis marmorata</a></i>)</li> <li>Swelling of the skin, accompanied by tiny scar-like skin depressions (<a href="/wiki/Pitting_edema" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitting edema">pitting edema</a>)</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Neurologic </th> <td>Brain </td> <td> <ul><li>Altered sensation, tingling or numbness (<a href="/wiki/Paresthesia" title="Paresthesia">paresthesia</a>), increased sensitivity (<a href="/wiki/Hyperesthesia" title="Hyperesthesia">hyperesthesia</a>)</li> <li>Confusion or memory loss (<a href="/wiki/Amnesia" title="Amnesia">amnesia</a>)</li> <li>Visual abnormalities</li> <li>Unexplained mood or behaviour changes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-epileptic_seizure" title="Non-epileptic seizure">Seizures</a>, unconsciousness</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Neurologic </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a> </td> <td> <ul><li>Ascending weakness or <a href="/wiki/Paralysis" title="Paralysis">paralysis</a> in the legs</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_incontinence" title="Urinary incontinence">Urinary incontinence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fecal_incontinence" title="Fecal incontinence">fecal incontinence</a></li> <li>Girdling (also referred to as girdle, banding, or tightening feeling) around the <a href="/wiki/Abdominal" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdominal">abdominal</a> region and/or <a href="/wiki/Chest" class="mw-redirect" title="Chest">chest</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Constitutional </th> <td>Whole body </td> <td> <ul><li>Headache</li> <li>Unexplained fatigue</li> <li>Generalised malaise, poorly localised aches</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Audiovestibular </th> <td>Inner ear <sup id="cite_ref-pmid12562679_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12562679-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ICD_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICD-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> <ul><li>Loss of balance</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dizziness" title="Dizziness">Dizziness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vertigo_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertigo (medical)">vertigo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">nausea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vomiting" title="Vomiting">vomiting</a></li> <li>Hearing loss</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Pulmonary </th> <td>Lungs </td> <td> <ul><li>Dry persistent cough</li> <li>Burning chest pain under the <a href="/wiki/Human_sternum" class="mw-redirect" title="Human sternum">sternum</a>, aggravated by breathing</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortness_of_breath" title="Shortness of breath">Shortness of breath</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frequency">Frequency</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Frequency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The relative frequencies of different symptoms of DCS observed by the U.S. Navy are as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell70_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell70-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Symptoms by frequency </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Symptoms </th> <th scope="col">Frequency </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">local joint pain </th> <td>89% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">arm symptoms </th> <td>70% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">leg symptoms </th> <td>30% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">dizziness </th> <td>5.3% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">paralysis </th> <td>2.3% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">shortness of breath </th> <td>1.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">extreme fatigue </th> <td>1.3% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">collapse/unconsciousness </th> <td>0.5% </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Onset">Onset</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Onset"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although onset of DCS can occur rapidly after a dive, in more than half of all cases symptoms do not begin to appear for at least an hour. In extreme cases, symptoms may occur before the dive has been completed. The <a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Technical_Diving_International" title="Technical Diving International">Technical Diving International</a>, a leading technical diver training organization, have published a table that documents time to onset of first symptoms. The table does not differentiate between types of DCS, or types of symptom.<sup id="cite_ref-usn520-3.1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usn520-3.1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TdiDpm_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TdiDpm-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Onset of DCS symptoms </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Time to onset </th> <th scope="col">Percentage of cases </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">within 1 hour </th> <td>42% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">within 3 hours </th> <td>60% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">within 8 hours </th> <td>83% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">within 24 hours </th> <td>98% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">within 48 hours </th> <td>100% </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Decompression_(diving)#Bubble_formation,_growth_and_elimination" title="Decompression (diving)">Decompression (diving) § Bubble formation, growth and elimination</a></div> <p>DCS is caused by a reduction in <a href="/wiki/Ambient_pressure" title="Ambient pressure">ambient pressure</a> that results in the formation of bubbles of <a href="/wiki/Inert_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Inert gases">inert gases</a> within tissues of the body. It may happen when leaving a high-pressure environment, ascending from depth, or ascending to altitude. A closely related condition of bubble formation in body tissues due to <a href="/wiki/Isobaric_counterdiffusion" title="Isobaric counterdiffusion">isobaric counterdiffusion</a> can occur with no change of pressure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ascent_from_depth">Ascent from depth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ascent from depth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>DCS is best known as a <a href="/wiki/Diving_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving disorder">diving disorder</a> that affects divers having breathed gas that is at a higher pressure than the surface pressure, owing to the pressure of the surrounding water. The risk of DCS increases when diving for extended periods or at greater depth, without ascending gradually and making the <a href="/wiki/Decompression_stops" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression stops">decompression stops</a> needed to slowly reduce the excess pressure of inert gases dissolved in the body. The specific risk factors are not well understood and some divers may be more susceptible than others under identical conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-38uhms_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38uhms-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Benton_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benton-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DCS has been confirmed in rare cases of <a href="/wiki/Apnea" title="Apnea">breath-holding</a> divers who have made a sequence of many deep dives with short surface intervals, and may be the cause of the disease called <a href="/wiki/Taravana" title="Taravana">taravana</a> by South Pacific island natives who for centuries have dived by breath-holding for food and <a href="/wiki/Pearl" title="Pearl">pearls</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wong1999_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wong1999-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two principal factors control the risk of a diver developing DCS: </p> <ol><li>the rate and duration of gas absorption under pressure – the deeper or longer the dive the more gas is absorbed into body tissue in higher concentrations than normal (<a href="/wiki/Henry%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry's Law">Henry's Law</a>);</li> <li>the rate and duration of outgassing on depressurization – the faster the ascent and the shorter the interval between dives the less time there is for absorbed gas to be offloaded safely through the lungs, causing these gases to come out of solution and form "micro bubbles" in the blood.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELippmann_&_Mitchell65–66_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELippmann_&_Mitchell65–66-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Even when the change in pressure causes no immediate symptoms, rapid pressure change can cause permanent <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bone</a> injury called <a href="/wiki/Dysbaric_osteonecrosis" title="Dysbaric osteonecrosis">dysbaric osteonecrosis</a> (DON). DON can develop from a single exposure to rapid decompression.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohta1974_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohta1974-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leaving_a_high-pressure_environment">Leaving a high-pressure environment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Leaving a high-pressure environment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caisson_Schematic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Schematic of a caisson" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Caisson_Schematic.svg/300px-Caisson_Schematic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Caisson_Schematic.svg/450px-Caisson_Schematic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Caisson_Schematic.svg/600px-Caisson_Schematic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="504" data-file-height="432" /></a><figcaption>The principal features of a caisson are the workspace, pressurised by an external air supply, and the access tube with an airlock</figcaption></figure> <p>When workers leave a pressurized <a href="/wiki/Caisson_(engineering)" title="Caisson (engineering)">caisson</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mine</a> that has been pressurized to keep water out, they will experience a significant reduction in <a href="/wiki/Ambient_pressure" title="Ambient pressure">ambient pressure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38uhms_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38uhms-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Elliott_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elliott-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar pressure reduction occurs when <a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">astronauts</a> exit a space vehicle to perform a space-walk or <a href="/wiki/Extra-vehicular_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Extra-vehicular activity">extra-vehicular activity</a>, where the pressure in their <a href="/wiki/Spacesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Spacesuit">spacesuit</a> is lower than the pressure in the vehicle.<sup id="cite_ref-38uhms_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38uhms-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dehart_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehart-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pilmanis_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pilmanis-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vann2_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann2-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The original name for DCS was "caisson disease". This term was introduced in the 19th century, when caissons under pressure were used to keep water from flooding large engineering excavations below the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a>, such as bridge supports and tunnels. Workers spending time in high ambient pressure conditions are at risk when they return to the lower pressure outside the caisson if the pressure is not reduced slowly. DCS was a major factor during construction of <a href="/wiki/Eads_Bridge" title="Eads Bridge">Eads Bridge</a>, when 15 workers died from what was then a mysterious illness, and later during construction of the <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Bridge" title="Brooklyn Bridge">Brooklyn Bridge</a>, where it incapacitated the project leader <a href="/wiki/Washington_Roebling" title="Washington Roebling">Washington Roebling</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eads_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eads-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other side of the Manhattan island during construction of the <a href="/wiki/Downtown_Hudson_Tubes" title="Downtown Hudson Tubes">Hudson River Tunnel</a>, contractor's agent <a href="/wiki/Ernest_William_Moir" title="Ernest William Moir">Ernest William Moir</a> noted in 1889 that workers were dying due to decompression sickness; Moir pioneered the use of an <a href="/wiki/Airlock" title="Airlock">airlock</a> chamber for treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-Hudson_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hudson-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ascent_to_altitude_and_loss_of_pressure_from_a_pressurised_environment">Ascent to altitude and loss of pressure from a pressurised environment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ascent to altitude and loss of pressure from a pressurised environment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most common health risk on ascent to altitude is not decompression sickness but <a href="/wiki/Altitude_sickness" title="Altitude sickness">altitude sickness</a>, or acute mountain sickness (AMS), which has an entirely different and unrelated set of causes and symptoms. AMS results not from the formation of bubbles from dissolved gasses in the body but from exposure to a low partial pressure of oxygen and <a href="/wiki/Alkalosis" title="Alkalosis">alkalosis</a>. However, passengers in unpressurized aircraft at <a href="/wiki/High_altitude" class="mw-redirect" title="High altitude">high altitude</a> may also be at some risk of DCS.<sup id="cite_ref-38uhms_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38uhms-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dehart_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehart-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pilmanis_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pilmanis-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gerth_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gerth-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Altitude DCS became a problem in the 1930s with the development of high-altitude balloon and aircraft flights but not as great a problem as AMS, which drove the development of <a href="/wiki/Cabin_pressurization" title="Cabin pressurization">pressurized cabins</a>, which coincidentally controlled DCS. Commercial aircraft are now required to maintain the cabin at or below a <a href="/wiki/Pressure_altitude" title="Pressure altitude">pressure altitude</a> of 2,400 m (7,900 ft) even when flying above 12,000 m (39,000 ft). Symptoms of DCS in healthy individuals are subsequently very rare unless there is a <a href="/wiki/Cabin_pressurization#Unplanned_decompression" title="Cabin pressurization">loss of pressurization</a> or the individual has been diving recently.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA1999_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA1999-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RRR1181_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RRR1181-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Divers who drive up a mountain or fly shortly after diving are at particular risk even in a pressurized aircraft because the regulatory cabin altitude of 2,400 m (7,900 ft) represents only 73% of <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea level pressure">sea level pressure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38uhms_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38uhms-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dehart_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehart-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vann1_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann1-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Generally, the higher the altitude the greater the risk of altitude DCS but there is no specific, maximum, safe altitude below which it never occurs. There are very few symptoms at or below 5,500 m (18,000 ft) unless the person had predisposing medical conditions or had dived recently. There is a correlation between increased altitudes above 5,500 m (18,000 ft) and the frequency of altitude DCS but there is no direct relationship with the severity of the various types of DCS. A US Air Force study reports that there are few occurrences between 5,500 m (18,000 ft) and 7,500 m (24,600 ft) and 87% of incidents occurred at or above 7,500 m (24,600 ft). <sup id="cite_ref-FAA2005_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAA2005-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/High-altitude_military_parachuting" title="High-altitude military parachuting">High-altitude parachutists</a> may reduce the risk of altitude DCS if they flush nitrogen from the body by <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_prebreathing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygen prebreathing">pre-breathing pure oxygen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid14620473_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid14620473-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar procedure is used by astronauts and cosmonauts preparing for extravehicular activity in low pressure <a href="/wiki/Space_suit" title="Space suit">space suits</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Predisposing_factors">Predisposing factors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Predisposing factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Physiology_of_decompression#Factors_influencing_decompression_stress_and_risk" title="Physiology of decompression">Physiology of decompression § Factors influencing decompression stress and risk</a></div> <p>Although the occurrence of DCS is not easily predictable, many predisposing factors are known. They may be considered as either environmental or individual. Decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism in <a href="/wiki/Recreational_diving" title="Recreational diving">recreational diving</a> are associated with certain demographic, environmental, and dive style factors. A statistical study published in 2005 tested potential risk factors: age, gender, body mass index, smoking, asthma, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, previous decompression illness, years since certification, dives in the last year, number of diving days, number of dives in a repetitive series, last dive depth, nitrox use, and drysuit use. No significant associations with risk of decompression sickness or arterial gas embolism were found for asthma, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, smoking, or body mass index. Increased depth, previous DCI, larger number of consecutive days diving, and being male were associated with higher risk for decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism. Nitrox and drysuit use, greater frequency of diving in the past year, increasing age, and years since certification were associated with lower risk, possibly as indicators of more extensive training and experience.<sup id="cite_ref-DeNoble_2005_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeNoble_2005-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental">Environmental</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Environmental"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following environmental factors have been shown to increase the risk of DCS: </p> <ul><li>the magnitude of the pressure reduction ratio – a large pressure reduction ratio is more likely to cause DCS than a small one.<sup id="cite_ref-Dehart_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehart-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vann1_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann1-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fryer_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fryer-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>repetitive exposures – repetitive dives within a short period of time (a few hours) increase the risk of developing DCS. Repetitive ascents to altitudes above 5,500 metres (18,000 ft) within similar short periods increase the risk of developing altitude DCS.<sup id="cite_ref-Dehart_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehart-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fryer_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fryer-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>the rate of ascent – the faster the ascent the greater the risk of developing DCS. The <i><a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy_Diving_Manual" title="U.S. Navy Diving Manual">U.S. Navy Diving Manual</a></i> indicates that ascent rates greater than about 20 m/min (66 ft/min) when diving increase the chance of DCS, while recreational dive tables such as the <a href="/wiki/B%C3%BChlmann_tables" class="mw-redirect" title="Bühlmann tables">Bühlmann tables</a> require an ascent rate of 10 m/min (33 ft/min) with the last 6 m (20 ft) taking at least one minute.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELippmann_&_Mitchell232_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELippmann_&_Mitchell232-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An individual exposed to a rapid decompression (high rate of ascent) above 5,500 metres (18,000 ft) has a greater risk of altitude DCS than being exposed to the same altitude but at a lower rate of ascent.<sup id="cite_ref-Dehart_24-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehart-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fryer_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fryer-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>the duration of exposure – the longer the duration of the dive, the greater is the risk of DCS. Longer flights, especially to altitudes of 5,500 m (18,000 ft) and above, carry a greater risk of altitude DCS.<sup id="cite_ref-Dehart_24-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehart-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>underwater diving before flying – divers who ascend to altitude soon after a dive increase their risk of developing DCS even if the dive itself was within the dive table safe limits. Dive tables make provisions for post-dive time at surface level before flying to allow any residual excess nitrogen to outgas. However, the pressure maintained inside even a pressurized aircraft may be as low as the pressure equivalent to an altitude of 2,400 m (7,900 ft) above sea level. Therefore, the assumption that the dive table surface interval occurs at normal atmospheric pressure is invalidated by flying during that surface interval, and an otherwise-safe dive may then exceed the dive table limits.<sup id="cite_ref-Bassett_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bassett-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FAD_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAD-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid17672177_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17672177-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>diving before travelling to altitude – DCS can occur without flying if the person moves to a high-altitude location on land immediately after diving, for example, scuba divers in <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> who drive from the coast to the <a href="/wiki/Asmara" title="Asmara">Asmara</a> plateau at 2,400 m (7,900 ft) increase their risk of DCS.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELippmann_&_Mitchell79_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELippmann_&_Mitchell79-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altitude_diving" title="Altitude diving">diving at altitude</a> – diving in water whose surface pressure is significantly below sea level pressure – for example, <a href="/wiki/Lake_Titicaca" title="Lake Titicaca">Lake Titicaca</a> is at 3,800 m (12,500 ft). Versions of <a href="/wiki/Decompression_table" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression table">decompression tables</a> for altitudes exceeding 300 m (980 ft), or <a href="/wiki/Dive_computer" title="Dive computer">dive computers</a> with high-altitude settings or surface pressure sensors may be used to reduce this risk.<sup id="cite_ref-Bassett_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bassett-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Egi_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Egi-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Individual">Individual</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Individual"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atrial_septal_defect-en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram of the four chambers of the heart. There is a gap in the wall between the upper-left and upper-right chambers" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Atrial_septal_defect-en.png/220px-Atrial_septal_defect-en.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Atrial_septal_defect-en.png/330px-Atrial_septal_defect-en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Atrial_septal_defect-en.png/440px-Atrial_septal_defect-en.png 2x" data-file-width="730" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>Atrial septal defect (PFO) showing left-to-right shunt. A right-to-left shunt may allow bubbles to pass into the arterial circulation.</figcaption></figure> <p>The following individual factors have been identified as possibly contributing to increased risk of DCS: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dehydration" title="Dehydration">dehydration</a> – Studies by Walder concluded that decompression sickness could be reduced in aviators when the serum surface tension was raised by drinking isotonic saline,<sup id="cite_ref-Walder_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walder-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the high surface tension of water is generally regarded as helpful in controlling bubble size.<sup id="cite_ref-Fryer_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fryer-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maintaining proper hydration is recommended.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELippmann_&_Mitchell71_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELippmann_&_Mitchell71-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no convincing evidence that overhydration has any benefits, and it is implicated in <a href="/wiki/Immersion_pulmonary_oedema" class="mw-redirect" title="Immersion pulmonary oedema">immersion pulmonary oedema</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-UKDMC_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UKDMC-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_foramen_ovale" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent foramen ovale">patent foramen ovale</a> – a hole between the atrial chambers of the <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetus</a> is normally closed by a flap with the first breaths at birth. In about 20% of adults the flap does not completely seal, however, allowing blood through the hole when coughing or during activities that raise chest pressure. In diving, this can allow venous blood with microbubbles of inert gas to bypass the lungs, where the bubbles would otherwise be filtered out by the lung capillary system, and return directly to the arterial system (including arteries to the brain, spinal cord and heart).<sup id="cite_ref-Moon_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moon-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the arterial system, bubbles (<a href="/wiki/Arterial_gas_embolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Arterial gas embolism">arterial gas embolism</a>) are far more dangerous because they block circulation and cause <a href="/wiki/Infarction" title="Infarction">infarction</a> (tissue death, due to local loss of blood flow). In the brain, infarction results in <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, and in the spinal cord it may result in <a href="/wiki/Paralysis" title="Paralysis">paralysis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELippmann_&_Mitchell70_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELippmann_&_Mitchell70-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>a person's age – there are some reports indicating a higher risk of altitude DCS with increasing age.<sup id="cite_ref-38uhms_18-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38uhms-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fryer_36-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fryer-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>previous injury – there is some indication that recent joint or limb injuries may predispose individuals to developing decompression-related bubbles.<sup id="cite_ref-38uhms_18-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38uhms-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Karlsson_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Karlsson-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ambient" class="extiw" title="wikt:ambient">ambient</a> temperature – there is some evidence suggesting that individual exposure to very cold ambient temperatures may increase the risk of altitude DCS.<sup id="cite_ref-38uhms_18-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38uhms-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fryer_36-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fryer-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Decompression sickness risk can be reduced by increased ambient temperature during decompression following dives in cold water,<sup id="cite_ref-Gerth2_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gerth2-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though risk is also increased by ingassing while the diver is warm and peripherally well-perfused, and decompressing when the diver is cold.<sup id="cite_ref-Pollock_2023_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pollock_2023-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>body type – typically, a person who has a high body fat content is at greater risk of DCS.<sup id="cite_ref-38uhms_18-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38uhms-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fryer_36-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fryer-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because nitrogen is five times more soluble in fat than in water, leading to greater amounts of total body dissolved nitrogen during time at pressure. Fat represents about 15–25 percent of a healthy adult's body, but stores about half of the total amount of nitrogen (about 1 litre) at normal pressures.<sup id="cite_ref-fatness_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fatness-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>alcohol consumption – although <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a> consumption increases dehydration and therefore may increase susceptibility to DCS,<sup id="cite_ref-Fryer_36-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fryer-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a 2005 study found no evidence that alcohol consumption increases the incidence of DCS.<sup id="cite_ref-leigh2005_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leigh2005-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanism">Mechanism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Mechanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Preparing_for_recompression.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A diver being helped out of his bulky diving gear" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Preparing_for_recompression.jpg/170px-Preparing_for_recompression.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Preparing_for_recompression.jpg/255px-Preparing_for_recompression.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Preparing_for_recompression.jpg/340px-Preparing_for_recompression.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="839" /></a><figcaption>This surfacing diver must enter a <a href="/wiki/Decompression_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression chamber">decompression chamber</a> for <a href="/wiki/Decompression_practice#Surface_decompression" title="Decompression practice">surface decompression</a>, a standard operating procedure to avoid decompression sickness after long or deep <span title="See entry on this page at § bounce dives." class="glossary-link-internal" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed #86a1ff; color:initial;"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_underwater_diving_terminology:_A%E2%80%93C#bounce_dives." title="Glossary of underwater diving terminology: A–C">bounce dives.</a></span></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Physiology_of_decompression" title="Physiology of decompression">Physiology of decompression</a></div> <p>Depressurisation causes <a href="/wiki/Inert_gas" title="Inert gas">inert gases</a>, which were dissolved under higher <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>, to come out of physical <a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">solution</a> and form gas <a href="/wiki/Liquid_bubble" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid bubble">bubbles</a> within the body. These bubbles produce the symptoms of decompression sickness.<sup id="cite_ref-38uhms_18-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38uhms-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ackles_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ackles-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bubbles may form whenever the body experiences a reduction in pressure, but not all bubbles result in DCS.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENishi_Brubakk_&_Eftedal501_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENishi_Brubakk_&_Eftedal501-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amount of gas dissolved in a liquid is described by <a href="/wiki/Henry%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry's Law">Henry's Law</a>, which indicates that when the pressure of a gas in contact with a liquid is decreased, the amount of that gas dissolved in the liquid will also decrease proportionately. </p><p>On ascent from a dive, inert gas comes out of solution in a process called "<a href="/wiki/Outgassing" title="Outgassing">outgassing</a>" or "offgassing". Under normal conditions, most offgassing occurs by <a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange" title="Gas exchange">gas exchange</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kindwall1_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kindwall1-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kindwall2_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kindwall2-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If inert gas comes out of solution too quickly to allow outgassing in the lungs then bubbles may form in the blood or within the solid tissues of the body. The formation of bubbles in the skin or joints results in milder symptoms, while large numbers of bubbles in the venous blood can cause lung damage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancis_&_Mitchell,_''Manifestations''583–584_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancis_&_Mitchell,_''Manifestations''583–584-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most severe types of DCS interrupt – and ultimately damage – spinal cord function, leading to <a href="/wiki/Paralysis" title="Paralysis">paralysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">sensory</a> dysfunction, or death. In the presence of a <a href="/wiki/Right-to-left_shunt" title="Right-to-left shunt">right-to-left shunt</a> of the heart, such as a <a href="/wiki/Patent_foramen_ovale" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent foramen ovale">patent foramen ovale</a>, venous bubbles may enter the arterial system, resulting in an <a href="/wiki/Arterial_gas_embolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Arterial gas embolism">arterial gas embolism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Francis_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Francis-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancis_&_Mitchell,_''Pathophysiology''530–541_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancis_&_Mitchell,_''Pathophysiology''530–541-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar effect, known as <a href="/wiki/Ebullism" title="Ebullism">ebullism</a>, may occur during <a href="/wiki/Explosive_decompression" class="mw-redirect" title="Explosive decompression">explosive decompression</a>, when water vapour forms bubbles in body fluids due to a dramatic reduction in environmental pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-Landis_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landis-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inert_gases">Inert gases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Inert gases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The main inert gas in air is <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, but nitrogen is not the only gas that can cause DCS. <a href="/wiki/Breathing_gas" title="Breathing gas">Breathing gas</a> mixtures such as <a href="/wiki/Trimix_(breathing_gas)" title="Trimix (breathing gas)">trimix</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heliox" title="Heliox">heliox</a> include <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>, which can also cause decompression sickness. Helium both enters and leaves the body faster than nitrogen, so different decompression schedules are required, but, since helium does not cause <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_narcosis" title="Nitrogen narcosis">narcosis</a>, it is preferred over nitrogen in gas mixtures for deep diving.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamilton_&_Thalmann475_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton_&_Thalmann475-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is some debate as to the decompression requirements for helium during short-duration dives. Most divers do longer decompressions; however, some groups like the <a href="/wiki/WKPP" class="mw-redirect" title="WKPP">WKPP</a> have been experimenting with the use of shorter decompression times by including <a href="/wiki/Decompression_practice#Deep_stops" title="Decompression practice">deep stops</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wienke2002_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wienke2002-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The balance of evidence as of 2020 does not indicate that deep stops increase decompression efficiency. </p><p>Any inert gas that is breathed under pressure can form bubbles when the ambient pressure decreases. Very deep dives have been made using <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>–oxygen mixtures (<a href="/wiki/Hydrox_(breathing_gas)" title="Hydrox (breathing gas)">hydrox</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-fife_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fife-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but controlled decompression is still required to avoid DCS.<sup id="cite_ref-uhms33_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uhms33-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Isobaric_counterdiffusion">Isobaric counterdiffusion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Isobaric counterdiffusion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Isobaric_counterdiffusion" title="Isobaric counterdiffusion">Isobaric counterdiffusion</a></div> <p>DCS can also be caused at a constant ambient pressure when switching between gas mixtures containing different proportions of inert gas. This is known as <a href="/wiki/Isobaric_counterdiffusion" title="Isobaric counterdiffusion">isobaric counterdiffusion</a>, and presents a problem for very deep dives.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamilton_&_Thalmann477_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton_&_Thalmann477-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, after using a very helium-rich <a href="/wiki/Trimix_(breathing_gas)" title="Trimix (breathing gas)">trimix</a> at the deepest part of the dive, a diver will switch to mixtures containing progressively less helium and more oxygen and nitrogen during the ascent. Nitrogen diffuses into tissues 2.65 times slower than helium but is about 4.5 times more soluble. Switching between gas mixtures that have very different fractions of nitrogen and helium can result in "fast" tissues (those tissues that have a good blood supply) actually increasing their total inert gas loading. This is often found to provoke inner ear decompression sickness, as the ear seems particularly sensitive to this effect.<sup id="cite_ref-burton2004_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-burton2004-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bubble_formation">Bubble formation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bubble formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The location of micronuclei or where bubbles initially form is not known.<sup id="cite_ref-Papadopoulou_2013_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papadopoulou_2013-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most likely mechanisms for bubble formation are <a href="/wiki/Tribonucleation" title="Tribonucleation">tribonucleation</a>, when two surfaces make and break contact (such as in joints), and heterogeneous <a href="/wiki/Nucleation" title="Nucleation">nucleation</a>, where bubbles are created at a site based on a surface in contact with the liquid. Homogeneous nucleation, where bubbles form within the liquid itself is less likely because it requires much greater pressure differences than experienced in decompression.<sup id="cite_ref-Papadopoulou_2013_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papadopoulou_2013-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spontaneous formation of nanobubbles on <a href="/wiki/Hydrophobic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrophobic">hydrophobic</a> surfaces is a possible source of micronuclei, but it is not yet clear if these can grow large enough to cause symptoms as they are very stable.<sup id="cite_ref-Papadopoulou_2013_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papadopoulou_2013-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once microbubbles have formed, they can grow by either a reduction in pressure or by diffusion of gas into the gas from its surroundings. In the body, bubbles may be located within tissues or carried along with the bloodstream. The speed of blood flow within a blood vessel and the rate of delivery of blood to capillaries (<a href="/wiki/Perfusion" title="Perfusion">perfusion</a>) are the main factors that determine whether dissolved gas is taken up by tissue bubbles or circulation bubbles for bubble growth.<sup id="cite_ref-Papadopoulou_2013_66-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papadopoulou_2013-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pathophysiology">Pathophysiology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Pathophysiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The primary provoking agent in decompression sickness is bubble formation from excess dissolved gases. Various hypotheses have been put forward for the nucleation and growth of bubbles in tissues, and for the level of supersaturation which will support bubble growth. The earliest bubble formation detected is subclinical intravascular bubbles detectable by doppler ultrasound in the venous systemic circulation. The presence of these "silent" bubbles is no guarantee that they will persist and grow to be symptomatic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalder_1986241–245_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalder_1986241–245-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vascular bubbles formed in the systemic capillaries may be trapped in the lung capillaries, temporarily blocking them. If this is severe, the symptom called "chokes" may occur.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_1989_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_1989-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the diver has a <a href="/wiki/Patent_foramen_ovale" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent foramen ovale">patent foramen ovale</a> (or a <a href="/wiki/Shunt_(medical)" title="Shunt (medical)">shunt</a> in the pulmonary circulation), bubbles may pass through it and bypass the pulmonary circulation to enter the arterial blood. If these bubbles are not absorbed in the arterial plasma and lodge in systemic capillaries they will block the flow of oxygenated blood to the tissues supplied by those capillaries, and those tissues will be starved of oxygen. Moon and Kisslo (1988) concluded that "the evidence suggests that the risk of serious neurological DCI or early onset DCI is increased in divers with a resting right–to-left shunt through a PFO. There is, at present, no evidence that PFO is related to mild or late onset bends.<sup id="cite_ref-Moon1998_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moon1998-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bubbles form within other tissues as well as the blood vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_1989_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_1989-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inert gas can diffuse into bubble nuclei between tissues. In this case, the bubbles can distort and permanently damage the tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-Spira_1999_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spira_1999-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As they grow, the bubbles may also compress nerves, causing pain.<sup id="cite_ref-Stephenson_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephenson-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Medscape_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Medscape-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Extravascular" class="mw-redirect" title="Extravascular">Extravascular</a> or autochthonous<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><sup class="citation nobold" id="ref_a"><a href="#endnote_a">[a]</a></sup> bubbles usually form in slow tissues such as joints, tendons and muscle sheaths. Direct expansion causes tissue damage, with the release of <a href="/wiki/Histamines" class="mw-redirect" title="Histamines">histamines</a> and their associated affects. Biochemical damage may be as important as, or more important than mechanical effects.<sup id="cite_ref-Vann_1989_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vann_1989-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stephenson_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephenson-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kitano_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kitano-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bubble size and growth may be affected by several factors – gas exchange with adjacent tissues, the presence of <a href="/wiki/Surfactants" class="mw-redirect" title="Surfactants">surfactants</a>, coalescence and disintegration by collision.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalder_1986241–245_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalder_1986241–245-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vascular bubbles may cause direct blockage, aggregate platelets and red blood cells, and trigger the coagulation process, causing local and downstream clotting.<sup id="cite_ref-Spira_1999_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spira_1999-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Arteries may be blocked by intravascular fat aggregation. <a href="/wiki/Platelet" title="Platelet">Platelets</a> accumulate in the vicinity of bubbles. <a href="/wiki/Endothelium" title="Endothelium">Endothelial</a> damage may be a mechanical effect of bubble pressure on the vessel walls, a toxic effect of stabilised platelet aggregates and possibly toxic effects due to the association of lipids with the air bubbles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalder_1986241–245_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalder_1986241–245-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Protein molecules may be denatured by reorientation of the secondary and tertiary structure when non-polar groups protrude into the bubble gas and hydrophilic groups remain in the surrounding blood, which may generate a cascade of pathophysiological events with consequent production of clinical signs of decompression sickness.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalder_1986241–245_67-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalder_1986241–245-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The physiological effects of a reduction in environmental pressure depend on the rate of bubble growth, the site, and surface activity. A sudden release of sufficient pressure in saturated tissue results in a complete disruption of cellular organelles, while a more gradual reduction in pressure may allow accumulation of a smaller number of larger bubbles, some of which may not produce clinical signs, but still cause physiological effects typical of a blood/gas interface and mechanical effects. Gas is dissolved in all tissues, but decompression sickness is only clinically recognised in the central nervous system, bone, ears, teeth, skin and lungs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalder_1986246–254_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalder_1986246–254-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Necrosis has frequently been reported in the lower cervical, thoracic, and upper lumbar regions of the spinal cord. A catastrophic pressure reduction from saturation produces explosive mechanical disruption of cells by local effervescence, while a more gradual pressure loss tends to produce discrete bubbles accumulated in the white matter, surrounded by a protein layer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalder_1986246–254_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalder_1986246–254-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typical acute spinal decompression injury occurs in the columns of white matter. Infarcts are characterised by a region of <a href="/wiki/Oedema" class="mw-redirect" title="Oedema">oedema</a>, haemorrhage and early <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelin</a> degeneration, and are typically centred on small blood vessels. The lesions are generally discrete. Oedema usually extends to the adjacent grey matter. <a href="/wiki/Thrombus" title="Thrombus">Microthrombi</a> are found in the blood vessels associated with the infarcts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalder_1986246–254_74-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalder_1986246–254-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the acute changes there is an invasion of lipid <a href="/wiki/Phagocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phagocytes">phagocytes</a> and degeneration of adjacent neural fibres with vascular <a href="/wiki/Hyperplasia" title="Hyperplasia">hyperplasia</a> at the edges of the infarcts. The lipid phagocytes are later replaced by a cellular reaction of <a href="/wiki/Astrocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrocytes">astrocytes</a>. Vessels in surrounding areas remain patent but are <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagenised</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalder_1986246–254_74-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalder_1986246–254-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Distribution of spinal cord lesions may be related to vascular supply. There is still uncertainty regarding the <a href="/wiki/Aetiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Aetiology">aetiology</a> of decompression sickness damage to the spinal cord.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalder_1986246–254_74-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalder_1986246–254-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Dysbaric_osteonecrosis" title="Dysbaric osteonecrosis">Dysbaric osteonecrosis</a> lesions are typically bilateral and usually occur at both ends of the <a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">femur</a> and at the proximal end of the <a href="/wiki/Humerus" title="Humerus">humerus</a>. Symptoms are usually only present when a joint surface is involved, which typically does not occur until a long time after the causative exposure to a hyperbaric environment. The initial damage is attributed to the formation of bubbles, and one episode can be sufficient, however incidence is sporadic and generally associated with relatively long periods of hyperbaric exposure and aetiology is uncertain. Early identification of lesions by <a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">radiography</a> is not possible, but over time areas of radiographic opacity develop in association with the damaged bone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalder_1986254–258_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalder_1986254–258-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Diagnosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Diagnosis of decompression sickness relies almost entirely on clinical presentation, as there are no laboratory tests that can incontrovertibly confirm or reject the diagnosis. Various blood tests have been proposed, but they are not specific for decompression sickness, they are of uncertain utility and are not in general use.<sup id="cite_ref-Freiberger_et_al_2005_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freiberger_et_al_2005-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Decompression sickness should be suspected if any of the symptoms associated with the condition occurs following a drop in pressure, in particular, within 24 hours of diving.<sup id="cite_ref-ThalmannDAN_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ThalmannDAN-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1995, 95% of all cases reported to <a href="/wiki/Divers_Alert_Network" title="Divers Alert Network">Divers Alert Network</a> had shown symptoms within 24 hours.<sup id="cite_ref-DAN1995annual_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DAN1995annual-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This window can be extended to 36 hours for ascent to altitude and 48 hours for prolonged exposure to altitude following diving.<sup id="cite_ref-Cronje_2014_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronje_2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An alternative diagnosis should be suspected if severe symptoms begin more than six hours following decompression without an altitude exposure or if any symptom occurs more than 24 hours after surfacing.<sup id="cite_ref-MoonSPUMS98_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MoonSPUMS98-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The diagnosis is confirmed if the symptoms are relieved by recompression.<sup id="cite_ref-MoonSPUMS98_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MoonSPUMS98-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45UHMS_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45UHMS-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a> (MRI) or <a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computed tomography">computed tomography</a> (CT) can frequently identify bubbles in DCS, they are not as good at determining the diagnosis as a proper history of the event and description of the symptoms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarx1908_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx1908-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Test_of_pressure">Test of pressure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Test of pressure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is no <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard_(test)#In_medicine" title="Gold standard (test)">gold standard</a> for diagnosis, and DCI experts are rare. Most of the chambers open to treatment of recreational divers and reporting to Diver's Alert Network see fewer than 10 cases per year, making it difficult for the attending doctors to develop experience in diagnosis. A method used by commercial diving supervisors when considering whether to recompress as first aid when they have a chamber on site, is known as the <i>test of pressure</i>. The diver is checked for contraindications to recompression, and if none are present, recompressed. If the symptoms resolve or reduce during recompression, it is considered likely that a treatment schedule will be effective. The test is not entirely reliable, and both false positives and false negatives are possible, however in the commercial diving environment it is often considered worth treating when there is doubt,<sup id="cite_ref-Freiberger_et_al_2005_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freiberger_et_al_2005-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and very early recompression has a history of very high success rates and reduced number of treatments needed for complete resolution and minimal sequelae.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_et_al_2018_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_et_al_2018-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Differential_diagnosis">Differential diagnosis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Differential diagnosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Inner_ear_decompression_sickness#Diagnosis" title="Inner ear decompression sickness">Inner ear decompression sickness § Diagnosis</a></div> <p>Symptoms of DCS and arterial gas embolism can be virtually indistinguishable. The most reliable way to tell the difference is based on the dive profile followed, as the probability of DCS depends on duration of exposure and magnitude of pressure, whereas AGE depends entirely on the performance of the ascent. In many cases it is not possible to distinguish between the two, but as the treatment is the same in such cases it does not usually matter.<sup id="cite_ref-Cronje_2014_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronje_2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other conditions which may be confused include skin symptoms. <i><a href="/wiki/Cutis_marmorata" title="Cutis marmorata">Cutis marmorata</a></i> due to DCS may be confused with <a href="/wiki/Barotrauma#In_divers" title="Barotrauma">skin barotrauma</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Dry_suit#Suit_squeeze" title="Dry suit">dry suit squeeze</a>, for which no treatment is necessary. Dry suit squeeze produces lines of redness with possible bruising where the skin was pinched between folds of the suit, while the mottled effect of <i>cutis marmorata</i> is usually on skin where there is subcutaneous fat, and has no linear pattern.<sup id="cite_ref-Cronje_2014_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronje_2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Transient episodes of severe neurological incapacitation with rapid spontaneous recovery shortly after a dive may be attributed to <a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">hypothermia</a>, but may actually be symptomatic of short term CNS involvement due to bubbles which form a short term gas embolism, then resolve, but which may leave residual problems which may cause relapses. These cases are thought to be under-diagnosed.<sup id="cite_ref-Cronje_2014_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronje_2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Inner_ear_decompression_sickness" title="Inner ear decompression sickness">Inner ear decompression sickness</a> (IEDCS) can be confused with <a href="/wiki/Inner_ear_barotrauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Inner ear barotrauma">inner ear barotrauma</a> (IEBt), <a href="/wiki/Alternobaric_vertigo" title="Alternobaric vertigo">alternobaric vertigo</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Caloric_vertigo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caloric vertigo (page does not exist)">caloric vertigo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reverse_squeeze" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse squeeze">reverse squeeze</a>. A history of difficulty in equalising the ears during the dive makes ear barotrauma more likely, but does not always eliminate the possibility of inner ear DCS, which is usually associated with deep, mixed gas dives with decompression stops.<sup id="cite_ref-Cronje_2014_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronje_2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both conditions may exist concurrently, and it can be difficult to <a href="/wiki/Inner_ear_decompression_sickness#Differential_diagnosis" title="Inner ear decompression sickness">distinguish whether a person has IEDCS, IEBt</a>, or both. </p><p>Numbness and tingling are associated with spinal DCS, but can also be caused by pressure on nerves (compression <a href="/wiki/Neurapraxia" title="Neurapraxia">neurapraxia</a>). In DCS the numbness or tingling is generally confined to one or a series of <a href="/wiki/Dermatome_(anatomy)" title="Dermatome (anatomy)">dermatomes</a>, while pressure on a nerve tends to produce characteristic areas of numbness associated with the specific nerve on only one side of the body distal to the pressure point.<sup id="cite_ref-Cronje_2014_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronje_2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A loss of strength or function is likely to be a medical emergency. A loss of feeling that lasts more than a minute or two indicates a need for immediate medical attention. It is only partial sensory changes, or <a href="/wiki/Paraesthesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraesthesia">paraesthesias</a>, where this distinction between trivial and more serious injuries applies.<sup id="cite_ref-Cronje_2009_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronje_2009-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Large areas of numbness with associated weakness or paralysis, especially if a whole limb is affected, are indicative of probable brain involvement and require urgent medical attention. Paraesthesias or weakness involving a dermatome indicate probable spinal cord or spinal nerve root involvement. Although it is possible that this may have other causes, such as an injured intervertebral disk, these symptoms indicate an urgent need for medical assessment. In combination with weakness, paralysis or loss of bowel or bladder control, they indicate a medical emergency.<sup id="cite_ref-Cronje_2009_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronje_2009-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Prevention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Underwater_diving">Underwater diving</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Underwater diving"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aladin-pdc.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Close-up of the LCD display of an Aladin Pro" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Aladin-pdc.jpg/220px-Aladin-pdc.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Aladin-pdc.jpg/330px-Aladin-pdc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Aladin-pdc.jpg/440px-Aladin-pdc.jpg 2x" data-file-width="756" data-file-height="856" /></a><figcaption>The display of a basic personal dive computer shows depth, dive time, and decompression information.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Turning_the_bezel_on_a_diving_watch_to_mark_a_point_in_time.webm/220px--Turning_the_bezel_on_a_diving_watch_to_mark_a_point_in_time.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="134" data-durationhint="9" data-mwtitle="Turning_the_bezel_on_a_diving_watch_to_mark_a_point_in_time.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Turning_the_bezel_on_a_diving_watch_to_mark_a_point_in_time.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/78/Turning_the_bezel_on_a_diving_watch_to_mark_a_point_in_time.webm/Turning_the_bezel_on_a_diving_watch_to_mark_a_point_in_time.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="786" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Turning_the_bezel_on_a_diving_watch_to_mark_a_point_in_time.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="950" data-height="580" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/78/Turning_the_bezel_on_a_diving_watch_to_mark_a_point_in_time.webm/Turning_the_bezel_on_a_diving_watch_to_mark_a_point_in_time.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="394" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/78/Turning_the_bezel_on_a_diving_watch_to_mark_a_point_in_time.webm/Turning_the_bezel_on_a_diving_watch_to_mark_a_point_in_time.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="590" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/78/Turning_the_bezel_on_a_diving_watch_to_mark_a_point_in_time.webm/Turning_the_bezel_on_a_diving_watch_to_mark_a_point_in_time.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="590" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Video: Setting the <a href="/wiki/Bezel_(jewellery)" title="Bezel (jewellery)">bezel</a> of a diving watch to the start time of the dive at the beginning. Divers used this in conjunction with a depth gauge and a decompression table to calculate the remaining safe dive time during dives. Dive computers rendered this cumbersome procedure unnecessary.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Decompression_practice" title="Decompression practice">Decompression practice</a></div> <p>To prevent the excess formation of bubbles that can lead to decompression sickness, divers limit their ascent rate—the recommended ascent rate used by popular decompression models is about 10 metres (33 ft) per minute—and follow a decompression schedule as necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamilton_&_Thalmann471_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton_&_Thalmann471-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This schedule may require the diver to ascend to a particular depth, and remain at that depth until sufficient inert gas has been eliminated from the body to allow further ascent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamilton_&_Thalmann455_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton_&_Thalmann455-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each of these is termed a "<a href="/wiki/Decompression_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression stop">decompression stop</a>", and a schedule for a given bottom time and depth may contain one or more stops, or none at all. Dives that contain no decompression stops are called "no-stop dives", but divers usually schedule a short "<a href="/wiki/Safety_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Safety stop">safety stop</a>" at 3 to 6 m (10 to 20 ft), depending on the training agency or dive computer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamilton_&_Thalmann471_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton_&_Thalmann471-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-stops_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stops-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The decompression schedule may be derived from <a href="/wiki/Decompression_tables" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression tables">decompression tables</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dive_tables#Alternatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive tables">decompression software</a>, or from <a href="/wiki/Dive_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive computers">dive computers</a>, and these are generally based upon a mathematical model of the body's uptake and release of inert gas as pressure changes. These models, such as the Bühlmann decompression algorithm, are modified to fit empirical data and provide a decompression schedule for a given depth and dive duration using a specified breathing gas mixture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamilton_&_Thalmann456–457_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton_&_Thalmann456–457-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since divers on the surface after a dive may still have excess inert gas in their bodies, decompression from any subsequent dive before this excess is eliminated needs to modify the schedule to take account of the residual gas load from the previous dive. This will result in a shorter allowable time under water without obligatory decompression stops, or an increased decompression time during the subsequent dive. The total elimination of excess gas may take many hours, and tables will indicate the time at normal pressures that is required, which may be up to 18 hours.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamilton_&_Thalmann471–473_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton_&_Thalmann471–473-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Decompression time can be significantly shortened by breathing mixtures containing much less inert gas during the decompression phase of the dive (or pure <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> at stops in 6 metres (20 ft) of water or less). The reason is that the inert gas outgases at a rate proportional to the difference between the <a href="/wiki/Partial_pressure" title="Partial pressure">partial pressure</a> of inert gas in the diver's body and its partial pressure in the breathing gas; whereas the likelihood of bubble formation depends on the difference between the inert gas partial pressure in the diver's body and the ambient pressure. Reduction in decompression requirements can also be gained by breathing a <a href="/wiki/Nitrox" title="Nitrox">nitrox</a> mix during the dive, since less nitrogen will be taken into the body than during the same dive done on air.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamilton_&_Thalmann474–475_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton_&_Thalmann474–475-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following a decompression schedule does not completely protect against DCS. The algorithms used are designed to reduce the probability of DCS to a very low level, but do not reduce it to zero.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamilton_&_Thalmann456_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton_&_Thalmann456-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mathematical implications of all current decompression models are that provided that no tissue is ingassing, longer decompression stops will decrease decompression risk, or at worst not increase it. Efficient decompression requires the diver to ascend fast enough to establish as high a decompression gradient, in as many tissues, as safely possible, without provoking the development of symptomatic bubbles. This is facilitated by the highest acceptably safe oxygen partial pressure in the breathing gas, and avoiding gas changes that could cause counterdiffusion bubble formation or growth. The development of schedules that are both safe and efficient has been complicated by the large number of variables and uncertainties, including personal variation in response under varying environmental conditions and workload, attributed to variations of body type, fitness and other risk factors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exposure_to_altitude">Exposure to altitude</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Exposure to altitude"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the most significant breakthroughs in the prevention of altitude DCS is oxygen pre-breathing. Breathing pure oxygen significantly reduces the nitrogen loads in body tissues by reducing the partial pressure of nitrogen in the lungs, which induces diffusion of nitrogen from the blood into the breathing gas, and this effect eventually lowers the concentration of nitrogen in the other tissues of the body. If continued for long enough, and without interruption, this provides effective protection upon exposure to low-barometric pressure environments.<sup id="cite_ref-Dehart_24-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehart-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pilmanis_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pilmanis-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, breathing pure oxygen during flight alone (ascent, en route, descent) does not decrease the risk of altitude DCS as the time required for ascent is generally not sufficient to significantly desaturate the slower tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-Dehart_24-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehart-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pilmanis_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pilmanis-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pure aviator oxygen which has moisture removed to prevent freezing of valves at altitude is readily available and routinely used in general aviation mountain flying and at high altitudes. Most small general aviation aircraft are not pressurized, therefore oxygen use is an FAA requirement at higher altitudes. </p><p>Although pure oxygen pre-breathing is an effective method to protect against altitude DCS, it is logistically complicated and expensive for the protection of civil aviation flyers, either commercial or private. Therefore, it is currently used only by military flight crews and astronauts for protection during high-altitude and space operations. It is also used by flight test crews involved with certifying aircraft, and may also be used for high-altitude parachute jumps. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Astronauts" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronauts">Astronauts</a> aboard the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> preparing for <a href="/wiki/Extra-vehicular_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Extra-vehicular activity">extra-vehicular activity</a> (EVA) "camp out" at low atmospheric pressure, 10.2 psi (0.70 bar), spending eight sleeping hours in the <a href="/wiki/Quest_airlock" class="mw-redirect" title="Quest airlock">Quest airlock</a> chamber before their <a href="/wiki/Spacewalk" class="mw-redirect" title="Spacewalk">spacewalk</a>. During the EVA they breathe 100% oxygen in their <a href="/wiki/Spacesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Spacesuit">spacesuits</a>, which operate at 4.3 psi (0.30 bar),<sup id="cite_ref-tanner_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tanner-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although research has examined the possibility of using 100% O<sub>2</sub> at 9.5 psi (0.66 bar) in the suits to lessen the pressure reduction, and hence the risk of DCS.<sup id="cite_ref-webb1989_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-webb1989-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment">Treatment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nasa_decompression_chamber.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large horizontal cylinder with a bank of instruments and monitors" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Nasa_decompression_chamber.jpg/220px-Nasa_decompression_chamber.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Nasa_decompression_chamber.jpg/330px-Nasa_decompression_chamber.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Nasa_decompression_chamber.jpg/440px-Nasa_decompression_chamber.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>The recompression chamber at the <a href="/wiki/Neutral_Buoyancy_Lab" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutral Buoyancy Lab">Neutral Buoyancy Lab</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A5%D0%91%D0%9E%D0%A2_%D1%83_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%98_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="View of the side of a small cylindrical structure with several curved windows and an instrument panel, with a person visible inside" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/%D0%A5%D0%91%D0%9E%D0%A2_%D1%83_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%98_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8.jpg/220px-%D0%A5%D0%91%D0%9E%D0%A2_%D1%83_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%98_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/%D0%A5%D0%91%D0%9E%D0%A2_%D1%83_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%98_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8.jpg/330px-%D0%A5%D0%91%D0%9E%D0%A2_%D1%83_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%98_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/%D0%A5%D0%91%D0%9E%D0%A2_%D1%83_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%98_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8.jpg/440px-%D0%A5%D0%91%D0%9E%D0%A2_%D1%83_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%98_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Hyperbaric oxygen treatment in a monoplace chamber</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_medicine" title="Hyperbaric medicine">Hyperbaric medicine</a></div> <p>Recompression on air was shown to be an effective treatment for minor DCS symptoms by Keays in 1909.<sup id="cite_ref-Keays1909_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keays1909-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence of the effectiveness of recompression therapy utilizing oxygen was first shown by Yarbrough and <a href="/wiki/Albert_R._Behnke" title="Albert R. Behnke">Behnke</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Yarbrough1939_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yarbrough1939-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has since become the standard of care for treatment of DCS.<sup id="cite_ref-Berghage_1978_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berghage_1978-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recompression is normally carried out in a <a href="/wiki/Recompression_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Recompression chamber">recompression chamber</a>. At a dive site, a riskier alternative is <a href="/wiki/In-water_recompression" title="In-water recompression">in-water recompression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Edmonds1998_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edmonds1998-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pyle1995_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle1995-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kay108_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kay108-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_first_aid" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygen first aid">Oxygen first aid</a> has been used as an emergency treatment for diving injuries for years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoon_&_Gorman616_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoon_&_Gorman616-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Particularly if given within the first four hours of surfacing, it increases the success of recompression therapy as well as decreasing the number of recompression treatments required.<sup id="cite_ref-Longphre_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Longphre-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most fully closed-circuit <a href="/wiki/Diving_rebreather" title="Diving rebreather">diving rebreathers</a> can deliver sustained high concentrations of oxygen-rich <a href="/wiki/Breathing_gas" title="Breathing gas">breathing gas</a> and could be used as a means of supplying oxygen if dedicated equipment is not available.<sup id="cite_ref-Goble2003_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goble2003-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is beneficial to give fluids, as this helps reduce <a href="/wiki/Dehydration" title="Dehydration">dehydration</a>. It is no longer recommended to administer aspirin, unless advised to do so by medical personnel, as <a href="/wiki/Analgesics" class="mw-redirect" title="Analgesics">analgesics</a> may mask symptoms. People should be made comfortable and placed in the supine position (horizontal), or the <a href="/wiki/Recovery_position" title="Recovery position">recovery position</a> if vomiting occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-ThalmannDAN_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ThalmannDAN-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the past, both the <a href="/wiki/Trendelenburg_position" title="Trendelenburg position">Trendelenburg position</a> and the left lateral <a href="/wiki/Decubitus_position" class="mw-redirect" title="Decubitus position">decubitus position</a> (Durant's maneuver) have been suggested as beneficial where air emboli are suspected,<sup id="cite_ref-O'Dowd2000_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Dowd2000-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but are no longer recommended for extended periods, owing to concerns regarding <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_edema" title="Cerebral edema">cerebral edema</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoon_&_Gorman616_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoon_&_Gorman616-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bove2009_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bove2009-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_aid">First aid</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: First aid"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All cases of decompression sickness should be treated initially with the highest available concentration of oxygen until <a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_oxygen_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperbaric oxygen therapy">hyperbaric oxygen therapy</a> (100% oxygen delivered in a hyperbaric chamber) can be provided.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarx1912_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx1912-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mild cases of the "bends" and some skin symptoms may disappear during descent from high altitude; however, it is recommended that these cases still be evaluated. Neurological symptoms, pulmonary symptoms, and mottled or marbled skin lesions should be treated with hyperbaric oxygen therapy if seen within 10 to 14 days of development.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarx1813_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx1813-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early recompression has a history of better outcomes and less treatment being needed.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Normobaric oxygen administered at as close to 100% as practicable is known to be beneficial based on observed bubble reduction and symptom resolution. For this reason diver training in oxygen administration, and a system for administering a high percentage of inspired oxygen at quantities sufficient for plausible evacuation scenarios is desirable. Where oxygenation may be compromised the administration rate should be adjusted to ensure that the best practicable supplementation is maintained until supplies can be replenished.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A horizontal position is preferable during evacuation if possible, with the recovery position recommended for unconscious divers, as there is evidence that inert gas washout is improved in horizontal subjects, and that large arterial bubbles tend to distribute towards the head in upright positions. A head down position is thought to be harmful in DCS.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Oral hydration is recommended in fully conscious persons, and fluids should ideally be isotonic, without alcohol, carbonation or caffeine, as diving is known to cause dehydration, and rehydration is known to reduce post-dive venous gas emboli.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Intravascular rehydration is recommended if suitably competent responders are present. Glucose free <a href="/wiki/Tonicity#Isotonicity" title="Tonicity">isotonic</a> <a href="/wiki/Crystalloid_solution" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystalloid solution">crystalloid solutions</a> are preferred. Case evidence shows that aggressive rehydration can be life-saving in severe cases.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If there are no contraindications, a <a href="/wiki/Non-steroidal_anti-inflammatory_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug">non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug</a> along with hyperbatic oxygen is likely to improve rate of recovery. The most prominent NSAIDs are <a href="/wiki/Aspirin" title="Aspirin">aspirin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibuprofen" title="Ibuprofen">ibuprofen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Naproxen" title="Naproxen">naproxen</a>; all available <a href="/wiki/Over-the-counter_drug" title="Over-the-counter drug">over the counter</a> in most countries.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Physician_and_Sportsmedicine_20103_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Physician_and_Sportsmedicine_20103-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Paracetamol" title="Paracetamol">Paracetamol</a> (acetaminophen) is generally not considered an NSAID because it has only minor anti-inflammatory activity.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinz_20083_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinz_20083-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/Corticosteroid" title="Corticosteroid">Corticosteroids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pentoxyphylline" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentoxyphylline">pentoxyphylline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aspirin" title="Aspirin">aspirin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lidocaine" title="Lidocaine">lidocaine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicergoline" title="Nicergoline">nicergoline</a> have been used in early management of DCS, but there is insufficient evidence on their effectiveness.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Divers should be kept comfortably warm, as warm subjects are known to eliminate gas more quickly, but overheating aggravates neurological injury.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Delay_of_recompression">Delay of recompression</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Delay of recompression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Observational evidence shows that outcomes after recompression are likely to be better after immediate recompression, which is only possible when on-site recompression is possible, although the 2004 workshop on decompression came to the conclusion that for cases with mild symptoms, a delay before recompression is unlikely to cause any worsening of long-term outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In more serious cases recompression should be done as soon as safely possible. There is some evidence that delays longer than six hours result in slower or less complete recovery, and the number of treatments required may be increased.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transport_of_a_symptomatic_diver">Transport of a symptomatic diver</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Transport of a symptomatic diver"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Exposing a case of decompression sickness to reduced ambient pressure will cause the bubbles to expand if not constrained by a rigid local tissue environment. This can aggravate the symptoms, and should be avoided if reasonably practicable. If a diver with DCS is transported by air, cabin pressure should be kept as close to sea level atmospheric pressure as possible, preferably not more than 150 m, either by cabin pressurisation or by remaining at low altitude throughout the flight. The risk of deterioration at higher altitudes must be considered against the risk of deterioration if not transported. Some divers with symptoms or signs of mild decompression sickness may be evacuated by pressurised commercial airliner for further treatment after a surface interval of at least 24 hours. The 2004 workshop considered it unlikely for this to cause a worse outcome. Most experience has been for short flights of less than two hours. There is little known about the effects of longer flights. Where possible, pre-flight and in-flight oxygen breathing at the highest available percentage is considered best practice. Similar precautions apply to surface transport through higher altitudes.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In-water_recompression">In-water recompression</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: In-water recompression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/In-water_recompression" title="In-water recompression">In-water recompression</a></div> <p>Recompression and hyperbaric oxygen administered in a recompression chamber is recognised as the definitive treatment for DCI, but when there is no readily available access to a suitable hyperbaric chamber, and if symptoms are significant or progressing, in-water recompression (IWR) with oxygen is a medically recognised option where a group of divers including the symptomatic diver already have relevant training and equipment that provides a sufficient understanding of the associated risks and allows the involved parties to collectively accept responsibility for a decision to proceed with IWR.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_et_al_2018_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_et_al_2018-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Walker_and_Murphy-Lavoie_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker_and_Murphy-Lavoie-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In-water recompression (IWR) or underwater oxygen treatment is the emergency treatment of decompression sickness by returning the diver underwater to help the gas bubbles in the tissues, which are causing the symptoms, to resolve. It is a procedure that exposes the diver to significant risk which should be compared with the risk associated with the other available options. Some authorities recommend that it is only to be used when the time to <a href="/wiki/Medical_evacuation" title="Medical evacuation">travel</a> to the nearest <a href="/wiki/Recompression_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Recompression chamber">recompression chamber</a> is too long to save the victim's life, others take a more pragmatic approach, and accept that in some circumstances IWR is the best available option.<sup id="cite_ref-uhms_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uhms-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The risks may not be justified for case of mild symptoms likely to resolve spontaneously, or for cases where the diver is likely to be unsafe in the water, but in-water recompression may be justified in cases where severe outcomes are likely, if conducted by a competent and suitably equipped team.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carrying out in-water recompression when there is a nearby recompression chamber or without suitable equipment and training is never a desirable option.<sup id="cite_ref-uhms_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uhms-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pyle_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyle-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The risk of the procedure is due to the diver suffering from DCS being seriously ill and may become <a href="/wiki/Paralysed" class="mw-redirect" title="Paralysed">paralysed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unconsciousness" title="Unconsciousness">unconscious</a> or <a href="/wiki/Apnea" title="Apnea">stop breathing</a> while under water. Any one of these events is likely to result in the diver <a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">drowning</a> or asphyxiating or suffering further injury during a subsequent rescue to the surface. This risk can be reduced by improving airway security by using surface supplied gas and a helmet or full-face mask.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several schedules have been published for in-water recompression treatment, but little data on their efficacy is available.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The decision of whether or not to attempt IWR is dependent on identifying the diver whose condition is serious enough to justify the risk, but whose clinical condition does not indicate that the risk is unacceptable. The risk may not be justified for mild DCI, if spontaneous recovery is probable whether the diver is recompressed or not, and surface oxygen is indicated for these cases. However, in these cases the risk of the recompression is also low, and early abandonment is also unlikely to cause further harm.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Contraindications">Contraindications</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Contraindications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some signs of decompression illness which suggest a risk of permanent injury are nevertheless considered contraindications for IWR. Hearing loss and vertigo displayed in isolation with no other symptoms of DCI can have been caused by inner ear barotrauma rather than DCI, and inner ear barotrauma is generally considered a contraindication for recompression. Even when caused by DCI, vertigo can make in-water treatment hazardous if accompanied by nausea and vomiting. A diver with a deteriorating level of consciousness or with a persisting reduced level of consciousness should also not be recompressed in-water nor should a diver who does not want to go back down, or with a history of oxygen toxicity in the preceding dives, or any physical injury or incapacitation which may make the procedure unsafe.<sup id="cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definitive_treatment">Definitive treatment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Definitive treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_treatment_schedules" title="Hyperbaric treatment schedules">Hyperbaric treatment schedules</a></div> <p>The duration of recompression treatment depends on the severity of symptoms, the dive history, the type of recompression therapy used and the patient's response to the treatment. One of the more frequently used <a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_treatment_schedules" title="Hyperbaric treatment schedules">treatment schedules</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_treatment_schedules#US_Navy_Recompression_Treatment_Table_6" title="Hyperbaric treatment schedules">US Navy Table 6</a>, which provides hyperbaric oxygen therapy with a maximum pressure equivalent to 60 feet (18 m) of seawater (2.8 bar P<sub>O<sub>2</sub></sub>) for a total time under pressure of 288 minutes, of which 240 minutes are on oxygen and the balance are air breaks to minimise the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">oxygen toxicity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-USNDM_Table_6_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNDM_Table_6-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A multiplace chamber is the preferred facility for treatment of decompression sickness as it allows direct physical access to the patient by medical personnel, but monoplace chambers are more widely available and should be used for treatment if a multiplace chamber is not available or transportation would cause significant delay in treatment, as the interval between onset of symptoms and recompression is important to the quality of recovery.<sup id="cite_ref-Kindwall_1988_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kindwall_1988-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may be necessary to modify the optimum treatment schedule to allow use of a monoplace chamber, but this is usually better than delaying treatment. A US Navy treatment table 5 can be safely performed without air breaks if a built-in breathing system is not available.<sup id="cite_ref-Kindwall_1988_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kindwall_1988-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In most cases the patient can be adequately treated in a monoplace chamber at the receiving hospital.<sup id="cite_ref-Kindwall_1988_110-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kindwall_1988-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Altitude_decompression_sickness">Altitude decompression sickness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Altitude decompression sickness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Decompression_(altitude)" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression (altitude)">Decompression (altitude)</a></div> <p>Treatment and management may vary depending on the grade or form of decompression sickness and the treating facility or organization. First aid at altitude is oxygen at the highest practicable concentration and earliest and largest practicable reduction in cabin altitude. </p><p>Ground-level 100% oxygen therapy is suggested for 2 hours following type-1 decompression sickness that occurs at altitude, if it resolves upon descent. In more severe cases, hyperbaric oxygen therapy following standard recompression protocols is indicated. Decompression sickness in aviation most commonly follows flights in non-pressurized aircraft, flights with cabin pressure fluctuations, or in individuals who fly after diving. Cases have also been reported after the use of altitude chambers. These are relatively rare clinical events.<sup id="cite_ref-Statpearls_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Statpearls-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prognosis">Prognosis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Prognosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Immediate treatment with 100% oxygen, followed by recompression in a hyperbaric chamber, will in most cases result in no long-term effects. However, permanent long-term injury from DCS is possible. Three-month follow-ups on diving accidents reported to DAN in 1987 showed 14.3% of the 268 divers surveyed had ongoing symptoms of Type II DCS, and 7% from Type I DCS.<sup id="cite_ref-UHMS43_Bennett_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UHMS43_Bennett-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DAN88_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DAN88-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Long-term follow-ups showed similar results, with 16% having permanent neurological sequelae.<sup id="cite_ref-Desola1989_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Desola1989-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Long term effects are dependent on both initial injury, and treatment. While almost all cases will resolve more quickly with treatment, milder cases may resolve adequately over time without recompression, where the damage is minor and the damage is not significantly aggravated by lack of treatment. In some cases the cost, inconvenience, and risk to the patient may make it appropriate not to evacuate to a hyperbaric treatment facility. These cases should be assessed by a specialist in diving medicine, which can generally be done remotely by telephone or internet.<sup id="cite_ref-Cronje_2014_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronje_2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For joint pain, the likely tissues affected depend on the symptoms, and the urgency of hyperbaric treatment will depend largely on the tissues involved.<sup id="cite_ref-Cronje_2014_10-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronje_2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Sharp, localised pain that is affected by movement suggests tendon or muscle injury, both of which will usually fully resolve with oxygen and anti-inflammatory medication.</li> <li>Sharp, localised pain that is not affected by movement suggests local inflammation, which will also usually fully resolve with oxygen and anti-inflammatory medication.</li> <li>Deep, non-localised pain affected by movement suggests joint capsule tension, which is likely to fully resolve with oxygen and anti-inflammatory medication, though recompression will help it to resolve faster.</li> <li>Deep, non-localised pain not affected by movement suggests bone medulla involvement, with ischaemia due to blood vessel blockage and swelling inside the bone, which is mechanistically associated with osteonecrosis, and therefore it has been strongly recommended that these symptoms are treated with hyperbaric oxygen.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Epidemiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The incidence of decompression sickness is rare, estimated at 2.8 to 4 cases per 10,000 dives,<sup id="cite_ref-Freiberger_et_al_2005_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freiberger_et_al_2005-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the risk 2.6 times greater for males than females.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarx1908_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx1908-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DCS affects approximately 1,000 U.S. scuba divers per year.<sup id="cite_ref-ThalmannDAN_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ThalmannDAN-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1999, the <a href="/wiki/Divers_Alert_Network" title="Divers Alert Network">Divers Alert Network</a> (DAN) created "Project Dive Exploration" to collect data on dive profiles and incidents. From 1998 to 2002, they recorded 50,150 dives, from which 28 recompressions were required – although these will almost certainly contain incidents of <a href="/wiki/Arterial_gas_embolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Arterial gas embolism">arterial gas embolism</a> (AGE) – a rate of about 0.05%.<sup id="cite_ref-emed_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emed-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pde_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pde-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around 2013, Honduras had the highest number of decompression-related deaths and disabilities in the world, caused by unsafe practices in <a href="/wiki/Miskito_people#The_lobster_economy_and_controversy" title="Miskito people">lobster diving among the indigenous Miskito people</a>, who face great economic pressures.<sup id="cite_ref-Miskito_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miskito-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At that time it was estimated that in the country over 2000 divers had been injured and 300 others had died since the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-Miskito_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miskito-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Timeline">Timeline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Timeline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_decompression_research_and_development" title="History of decompression research and development">History of decompression research and development</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dive_computer#History" title="Dive computer">Dive computer § History</a></div> <ul><li>1670: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a> demonstrated that a reduction in ambient pressure could lead to bubble formation in living tissue. This description of a bubble forming in the eye of a <a href="/wiki/Viperidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Viperidae">viper</a> subjected to a near vacuum was the first recorded description of decompression sickness.<sup id="cite_ref-acott1999-law_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-acott1999-law-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1769: <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Morgagni" title="Giovanni Battista Morgagni">Giovanni Morgagni</a> described the <a href="/wiki/Post_mortem" class="mw-redirect" title="Post mortem">post mortem</a> findings of air in <a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">cerebral</a> <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulation</a> and surmised that this was the cause of death.<sup id="cite_ref-acott1999-hist_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-acott1999-hist-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1840: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pasley" title="Charles Pasley">Charles Pasley</a>, who was involved in the recovery of the sunken warship <a href="/wiki/HMS_Royal_George_(1756)" title="HMS Royal George (1756)">HMS <i>Royal George</i></a>, commented that, of those having made frequent dives, "not a man escaped the repeated attacks of <a href="/wiki/Rheumatism" title="Rheumatism">rheumatism</a> and cold".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarx1903_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx1903-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1841: First documented case of decompression sickness, reported by a mining engineer who observed pain and muscle cramps among <a href="/wiki/Coal_miner" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal miner">coal miners</a> working in <a href="/wiki/Shaft_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaft mining">mine shafts</a> air-pressurized to keep water out.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>1854: Decompression sickness reported and one resulting death of <a href="/wiki/Caisson_(engineering)" title="Caisson (engineering)">caisson</a> workers on the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Albert_Bridge" title="Royal Albert Bridge">Royal Albert Bridge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-albert_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-albert-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1867: Panamanian pearl divers using the revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Sub_Marine_Explorer" title="Sub Marine Explorer">Sub Marine Explorer</a> submersible repeatedly experienced "fever" due to rapid ascents. Continued sickness led to the vessel's abandonment in 1869.<sup id="cite_ref-Delgado_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Delgado-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1870: Bauer published outcomes of 25 paralyzed caisson workers. <dl><dd>From 1870 to 1910, all prominent features were established. Explanations at the time included: cold or exhaustion causing reflex spinal cord damage; electricity cause by <a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">friction</a> on compression; or organ <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/congestion" class="extiw" title="wikt:congestion">congestion</a>; and vascular stasis caused by decompression.<sup id="cite_ref-acott1999-hist_118-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-acott1999-hist-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eads_Bridge_panorama_20090119.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large arch bridge with several substantial support pillars sunk into a river" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Eads_Bridge_panorama_20090119.jpg/220px-Eads_Bridge_panorama_20090119.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="54" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Eads_Bridge_panorama_20090119.jpg/330px-Eads_Bridge_panorama_20090119.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Eads_Bridge_panorama_20090119.jpg/440px-Eads_Bridge_panorama_20090119.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5237" data-file-height="1289" /></a><figcaption>The Eads Bridge where 42 workers were injured by caisson disease</figcaption></figure></dd></dl></li> <li>1871: The <a href="/wiki/Eads_Bridge" title="Eads Bridge">Eads Bridge</a> in <a href="/wiki/St_Louis" class="mw-redirect" title="St Louis">St Louis</a> employed 352 compressed air workers including <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alphonse_Jaminet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alphonse Jaminet (page does not exist)">Alphonse Jaminet</a> as the physician in charge. There were 30 seriously injured and 12 fatalities. Jaminet himself developed decompression sickness and his personal description was the first such recorded.<sup id="cite_ref-Eads_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eads-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Divers Alert Network, in its Inert Gas Exchange, Bubbles and Decompression Theory course, this is where "bends" was first used to refer to DCS.<sup id="cite_ref-DAN_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DAN-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1872: The similarity between decompression sickness and <a href="/wiki/Iatrogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Iatrogenic">iatrogenic</a> air embolism as well as the relationship between inadequate decompression and decompression sickness was noted by Friedburg.<sup id="cite_ref-acott1999-hist_118-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-acott1999-hist-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He suggested that intravascular gas was released by rapid decompression and recommended: slow compression and decompression; four-hour working shifts; limit to maximum pressure of 44.1 <a href="/wiki/Pounds_per_square_inch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pounds per square inch">psig</a> (4 <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmosphere (unit)">atm</a>); using only healthy workers; and recompression treatment for severe cases.</li> <li>1873: Andrew Smith first used the term "caisson disease" describing 110 cases of decompression sickness as the physician in charge during construction of the <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Bridge" title="Brooklyn Bridge">Brooklyn Bridge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eads_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eads-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brooklyn_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brooklyn-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The project employed 600 compressed air workers. Recompression treatment was not used. The project chief engineer <a href="/wiki/Washington_Roebling" title="Washington Roebling">Washington Roebling</a> had caisson disease,<sup id="cite_ref-Eads_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eads-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and endured the after-effects of the disease for the rest of his life. During this project, decompression sickness became known as "The Grecian Bends" or simply "the bends" because affected individuals characteristically bent forward at the hips: this is possibly reminiscent of a then popular women's fashion and dance maneuver known as the <a href="/wiki/Grecian_bend" title="Grecian bend">Grecian Bend</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eads_27-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eads-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McCullogh_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCullogh-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1890: During construction of the <a href="/wiki/Downtown_Hudson_Tubes" title="Downtown Hudson Tubes">Hudson River Tunnel</a> contractor's agent <a href="/wiki/Ernest_William_Moir" title="Ernest William Moir">Ernest William Moir</a> pioneered the use of an <a href="/wiki/Airlock" title="Airlock">airlock</a> chamber for treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-Hudson_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hudson-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1900: <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Erskine_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonard Erskine Hill">Leonard Hill</a> used a frog model to prove that decompression causes bubbles and that recompression resolves them.<sup id="cite_ref-acott1999-hist_118-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-acott1999-hist-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hill1912_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill1912-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hill advocated linear or uniform <a href="/wiki/Dive_profile" title="Dive profile">decompression profiles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-acott1999-hist_118-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-acott1999-hist-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hill1912_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill1912-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of decompression is used today by <a href="/wiki/Saturation_diving" title="Saturation diving">saturation divers</a>. His work was financed by <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Siebe" title="Augustus Siebe">Augustus Siebe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman" title="Siebe Gorman">Siebe Gorman Company</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-acott1999-hist_118-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-acott1999-hist-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1904: Tunnel building to and from Manhattan Island caused over 3,000 injuries and over 30 deaths which led to laws requiring PSI limits and decompression rules for "sandhogs" in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Phillips1998_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillips1998-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1904: Siebe and Gorman in conjunction with Leonard Hill developed and produced a closed bell in which a diver can be decompressed at the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-Daily_News_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daily_News-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_diving_recompression_chamber_at_Broome,_Western_Australia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A horizontal cylinder, just large enough to contain one person, with an hinged door clamp at one end" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Early_diving_recompression_chamber_at_Broome%2C_Western_Australia.jpg/220px-Early_diving_recompression_chamber_at_Broome%2C_Western_Australia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Early_diving_recompression_chamber_at_Broome%2C_Western_Australia.jpg/330px-Early_diving_recompression_chamber_at_Broome%2C_Western_Australia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Early_diving_recompression_chamber_at_Broome%2C_Western_Australia.jpg/440px-Early_diving_recompression_chamber_at_Broome%2C_Western_Australia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2940" data-file-height="1945" /></a><figcaption>An early recompression chamber (door removed for public safety)</figcaption></figure></li> <li>1908: "The Prevention of Compressed Air Illness" was published by <a href="/wiki/John_Scott_Haldane" title="John Scott Haldane">JS Haldane</a>, Boycott and Damant recommending <a href="/wiki/Decompression_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression stop">staged decompression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Boycott_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boycott-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These tables were accepted for use by the Royal Navy.<sup id="cite_ref-acott1999-hist_118-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-acott1999-hist-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1914–16: Experimental decompression chambers were in use on land and aboard ship.<sup id="cite_ref-ABC_news_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ABC_news-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Scott_1931_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott_1931-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Scott_1932_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott_1932-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1924: The US Navy published the first standardized recompression procedure.<sup id="cite_ref-USNrecompression_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNrecompression-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1930s: <a href="/wiki/Albert_R_Behnke" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert R Behnke">Albert R Behnke</a> separated the symptoms of Arterial Gas Embolism (AGE) from those of DCS.<sup id="cite_ref-acott1999-hist_118-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-acott1999-hist-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1935: Behnke <i>et al.</i> experimented with oxygen for recompression therapy.<sup id="cite_ref-acott1999-hist_118-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-acott1999-hist-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USNrecompression_132-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNrecompression-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Behnke1935_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Behnke1935-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1937: Behnke introduced the "no-stop" decompression tables.<sup id="cite_ref-acott1999-hist_118-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-acott1999-hist-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1941: Altitude DCS is treated with hyperbaric oxygen for the first time.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid889546_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid889546-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1944: US Navy published hyperbaric treatment tables "Long Air Recompression Table with Oxygen" and "Short Oxygen Recompression Table", both using 100% oxygen below 60 fsw (18 msw)</li> <li>1945: Field results showed that the 1944 oxygen treatment table was not yet satisfactory, so a series of tests were conducted by staff from the Navy Medical Research Institute and the Navy Experimental Diving Unit using human subjects to verify and modify the treatment tables.<sup id="cite_ref-Berghage_1978_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berghage_1978-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Van_der_Aue_et_al_1945_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_der_Aue_et_al_1945-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tests were conducted using the 100-foot air-oxygen treatment table and the 100-foot air treatment table, which were found to be satisfactory. Other tables were extended until they produced satisfactory results. The resulting tables were used as the standard treatment for the next 20 years, and these tables and slight modifications were adopted by other navies and industry. Over time, evidence accumulated that the success of these table for severe decompression sickness was not very good.<sup id="cite_ref-Berghage_1978_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berghage_1978-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1957: Robert Workman established a new method for calculation of decompression requirements (M-values).<sup id="cite_ref-Workman57_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Workman57-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1959: The "SOS Decompression Meter", a submersible mechanical device that simulated nitrogen uptake and release, was introduced.<sup id="cite_ref-Carson_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carson-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1960: FC Golding <i>et al.</i> split the classification of DCS into Type 1 and 2.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid13850667_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid13850667-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1965: Low success rates of the existing US Navy treatment tables led to the development of the oxygen treatment table by Goodman and Workman in 1965, variations of which are still in general use as the definitive treatment for most cases of decompression sickness.<sup id="cite_ref-Berghage_1978_94-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berghage_1978-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1965: LeMessurier and Hills published a paper on <i>A thermodynamic approach arising from a study on Torres Strait diving techniques</i> which suggests that decompression by conventional models results in bubble formation which is then eliminated by re-dissolving at the decompression stops.<sup id="cite_ref-LeMessurier_and_Hills_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeMessurier_and_Hills-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1976 – <a href="/w/index.php?title=M.P._Spencer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="M.P. Spencer (page does not exist)">M.P. Spencer</a> showed that the sensitivity of decompression testing is increased by the use of ultrasonic methods which can detect mobile venous bubbles before symptoms of DCS emerge.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid1249001_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid1249001-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1982: Paul K Weathersby, Louis D Homer and Edward T Flynn introduce <a href="/wiki/Survival_analysis" title="Survival analysis">survival analysis</a> into the study of decompression sickness.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid6490468_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid6490468-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1983: Orca produced the "EDGE", a personal dive computer, using a <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a> to calculate nitrogen absorption for twelve tissue compartments.<sup id="cite_ref-Carson_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carson-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1984: <a href="/wiki/Albert_A_B%C3%BChlmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert A Bühlmann">Albert A Bühlmann</a> released his book "Decompression–Decompression Sickness", which detailed his <a href="/wiki/B%C3%BChlmann_decompression_algorithm" title="Bühlmann decompression algorithm">deterministic model</a> for calculation of decompression schedules.<sup id="cite_ref-buhlmann1984_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-buhlmann1984-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1989: The advent of dive computers had not been widely accepted,<sup id="cite_ref-aaus_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aaus-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but after the 1989 AAUS Dive computer workshop published a group consensus list of recommendations for the use of dive computers in scientific diving, most opposition to dive computers dissipated, numerous new models were introduced, the technology dramatically improved and dive computers became standard scuba diving equipment. Over time, some of the recommendations became irrelevant as the technology improved.</li> <li>2000: HydroSpace Engineering developed the HS Explorer, a Trimix computer with optional P<sub>O<sub>2</sub></sub> monitoring and twin decompression algorithms, Buhlmann, and the first full real time RGBM implementation.<sup id="cite_ref-HSE_Manual_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HSE_Manual-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2001: The US Navy approved the use of Cochran NAVY decompression computer with the VVAL 18 <a href="/wiki/Thalmann_algorithm" title="Thalmann algorithm">Thalmann algorithm</a> for Special Warfare operations.<sup id="cite_ref-Butler_and_Southerland_2001_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butler_and_Southerland_2001-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Butler_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butler-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>By 2010: The use of dive computers for decompression status tracking was virtually ubiquitous among recreational divers and widespread in scientific diving.<sup id="cite_ref-Azzopardi_and_Sayer_2010_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Azzopardi_and_Sayer_2010-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2018: A group of diving medical experts issued a consensus guideline on pre-hospital decompression sickness management and concluded that in-water recompression is a valid and effective emergency treatment where a chamber is not available, but is only appropriate in groups that have been trained and are competent in the skills required for IWR and have appropriate equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_et_al_2018_81-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_et_al_2018-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2023: The animal rights group, <a href="/wiki/People_for_the_Ethical_Treatment_of_Animals" title="People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals">PETA</a>, says that it has successfully lobbied the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a> to end a pair of studies that involved subjecting sheep to conditions that simulated surfacing quickly from a great depth, causing them pain and sometimes leaving the animals paralyzed or dead.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b> with: developments since 1984: Value of deep stops challenged, effect on decompression stress shown to be generally unhelpful.. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Society and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economics">Economics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the United States, it is common for <a href="/wiki/Medical_insurance" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical insurance">medical insurance</a> not to cover treatment for the bends that is the result of recreational diving. This is because scuba diving is considered an elective and "high-risk" activity and treatment for decompression sickness is expensive. A typical stay in a recompression chamber will easily cost several thousand dollars, even before emergency transportation is included.<sup id="cite_ref-DANinsurance_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DANinsurance-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United Kingdom, treatment of DCS is provided by the National Health Service. This may occur either at a specialised facility or at a hyperbaric centre based within a general hospital.<sup id="cite_ref-LondonHyp_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LondonHyp-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_2011_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson_2011-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_animals">Other animals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Other animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Animals may also contract DCS, especially those caught in nets and rapidly brought to the surface. It has been documented in loggerhead turtles and likely in prehistoric marine animals as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Gabbitiss_2017_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gabbitiss_2017-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Carlsen_2017_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlsen_2017-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern reptiles are susceptible to DCS, and there is some evidence that marine mammals such as cetaceans and seals may also be affected.<sup id="cite_ref-Piantadosi_and_Thalmann_2004_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piantadosi_and_Thalmann_2004-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sciencemag_2007_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sciencemag_2007-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Becker_2015_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Becker_2015-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> AW Carlsen has suggested that the presence of a <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_shunt" title="Cardiac shunt">right-left shunt</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Reptile#Circulation" title="Reptile">reptilian heart</a> may account for the predisposition in the same way as a <a href="/wiki/Patent_foramen_ovale" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent foramen ovale">patent foramen ovale</a> does in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Carlsen_2017_153-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlsen_2017-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-ICD-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ICD_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <a href="/wiki/Isobaric_counterdiffusion" title="Isobaric counterdiffusion">Inner ear counter diffusion</a> is a rare form of DCS sometimes experienced by divers engaged in <a href="/wiki/Deep_diving#Ultra-deep_diving" title="Deep diving">extreme deep diving</a>, caused by switching from a helium-rich gas to a nitrogen-rich gas at the start of a decompression stop. Although nitrogen diffuses more slowly than helium, nitrogen is much more soluble than helium and the total inert gas load in some tissues can temporarily exceed the critical supersaturation limit, resulting in bubble formation. The inner ear is particularly susceptible to this effect. Two of the best-recorded instances of it both occurred at <a href="/wiki/Boesmansgat" title="Boesmansgat">Boesmansgat</a>, South Africa – once to <a href="/wiki/Nuno_Gomes_(diver)" title="Nuno Gomes (diver)">Nuno Gomes</a> in an early world record attempt, and later to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Don_Shirley_(diver)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Don Shirley (diver) (page does not exist)">Don Shirley</a> when he tried to rescue <a href="/wiki/David_Shaw_(diver)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Shaw (diver)">David Shaw</a> on his fateful dive trying to recover the body of <a href="/wiki/Deon_Dreyer" title="Deon Dreyer">Deon Dreyer</a>, who had been one of Gomes's support divers.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stops-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stops_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Tables based on US Navy tables, such as the <a href="/wiki/NAUI" class="mw-redirect" title="NAUI">NAUI</a> tables have a safety stop at 15 feet (5 m);(<a href="#CITEREFLippmann_&_Mitchell">Lippmann & Mitchell</a>, p. 219) <a href="/wiki/British_Sub-Aqua_Club" title="British Sub-Aqua Club">BSAC</a> tables have a safety stop at 6 metres (20 ft); Bühlmann tables have a safety stop at 3 metres (10 ft).</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_(diving)" title="Decompression (diving)">Decompression (diving)</a> – Pressure reduction and its effects during ascent from depth</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_illness" title="Decompression illness">Decompression illness</a> – Disorders arising from ambient pressure reduction</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_theory" title="Decompression theory">Decompression theory</a> – Theoretical modelling of decompression physiology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_disorders" title="Diving disorders">Diving disorders</a> – Physiological disorders resulting from underwater diving</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_ear_decompression_sickness" title="Inner ear decompression sickness">Inner ear decompression sickness</a> – Medical condition caused by inert gas bubbles forming out of solution</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taravana" title="Taravana">Taravana</a> – Decompression sickness after breath-hold diving</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd>1. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_a"><b><a href="#ref_a">^a</a></b></span> autochthonous: formed or originating in the place where found.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doolette_and_Mitchell_2018_1-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDooletteMitchell2018" class="citation journal cs1">Doolette D, Mitchell S (June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6156824">"In-water recompression"</a>. <i>Diving Hyperb Med</i>. <b>48</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">84–</span>95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.28920%2Fdhm48.2.84-95">10.28920/dhm48.2.84-95</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6156824">6156824</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29888380">29888380</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diving+Hyperb+Med&rft.atitle=In-water+recompression&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E84-%3C%2Fspan%3E95&rft.date=2018-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6156824%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29888380&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.28920%2Fdhm48.2.84-95&rft.aulast=Doolette&rft.aufirst=D.J.&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+S.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6156824&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+sickness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walker_and_Murphy-Lavoie-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Walker_and_Murphy-Lavoie_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walker_and_Murphy-Lavoie_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalkerMurphy-Lavoie2022" class="citation book cs1">Walker JI, Murphy-Lavoie HM (10 May 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493220/"><i>Diving In Water Recompression</i></a>. StatPearls. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29630272">29630272</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diving+In+Water+Recompression&rft.pub=StatPearls&rft.date=2022-05-10&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29630272&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=J.R.+III&rft.au=Murphy-Lavoie%2C+Heather+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK493220%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+sickness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancis_&_Mitchell,_''Manifestations''578-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancis_&_Mitchell,_''Manifestations''578_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancis_&_Mitchell,_''Manifestations''578_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrancis_&_Mitchell,_Manifestations">Francis & Mitchell, <i>Manifestations</i></a>, p. 578.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-emed-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-emed_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-emed_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulley2007" class="citation web cs1">Pulley SA (27 November 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/769717-overview">"Decompression Sickness"</a>. <i>Medscape</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Pathology: whales, sonar and decompression sickness". <i>Nature</i>. <b>428</b> (6984): 716. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature02527a">10.1038/nature02527a</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15085881">15085881</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4391838">4391838</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Pathology%3A+whales%2C+sonar+and+decompression+sickness.&rft.volume=428&rft.issue=6984&rft.pages=716&rft.date=2004-04-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4391838%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15085881&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature02527a&rft.aulast=Piantadosi&rft.aufirst=CA&rft.au=Thalmann%2C+E.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+sickness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sciencemag_2007-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sciencemag_2007_155-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/why-do-whales-get-bends">"Why Do Whales Get the Bends?"</a>. <i>www.sciencemag.org</i>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/08/150819-whales-dolphins-bends-decompression-sickness/">the original</a> on 22 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=news.nationalgeographic.com&rft.atitle=Do+Whales+Get+the+Bends%3F&rft.date=2015-08-19&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Rachel+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.nationalgeographic.com%2F2015%2F08%2F150819-whales-dolphins-bends-decompression-sickness%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+sickness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalder_1986" class="citation journal cs1">Calder IM (1986). "Dysbarism. A Review". <i>Forensic Science International</i>. <b>30</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">237–</span>266. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0379-0738%2886%2990133-7">10.1016/0379-0738(86)90133-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3519392">3519392</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forensic+Science+International&rft.atitle=Dysbarism.+A+Review&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E237-%3C%2Fspan%3E266&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0379-0738%2886%2990133-7&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3519392&rft.aulast=Calder&rft.aufirst=Ian+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+sickness" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancis_&_Mitchell,_Pathophysiology" class="citation book cs1">Francis TJ, <a href="/wiki/Simon_Mitchell" title="Simon Mitchell">Mitchell SJ</a> (2003). "10.4: Pathophysiology of Decompression Sickness". In <a href="/wiki/Alf_O._Brubakk" title="Alf O. Brubakk">Brubakk AO</a>, Neuman TS (eds.). <i>Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving</i> (5th Revised ed.). United States: Saunders. pp. <span class="nowrap">530–</span>556. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-2571-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-2571-6"><bdi>978-0-7020-2571-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51607923">51607923</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=10.4%3A+Pathophysiology+of+Decompression+Sickness&rft.btitle=Bennett+and+Elliott%27s+physiology+and+medicine+of+diving&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E530-%3C%2Fspan%3E556&rft.edition=5th+Revised&rft.pub=Saunders&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51607923&rft.isbn=978-0-7020-2571-6&rft.aulast=Francis&rft.aufirst=T+James+R&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+Simon+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+sickness" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancis_&_Mitchell,_Manifestations" class="citation book cs1">Francis TJ, <a href="/wiki/Simon_Mitchell" title="Simon Mitchell">Mitchell SJ</a> (2003). 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Philadelphia, PA: Mosby/Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-323-05472-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-323-05472-0"><bdi>978-0-323-05472-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rosen%27s+emergency+medicine%3A+concepts+and+clinical+practice&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Mosby%2FElsevier&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-323-05472-0&rft.aulast=Marx&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+sickness" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoon_&_Gorman" class="citation book cs1">Moon RE, Gorman DF (2003). "10.7: Treatment of the Decompression Disorders". 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"10.3: Bubble Detection". In Brubakk AO, Neuman TS (eds.). <i>Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving</i> (5th Revised ed.). United States: Saunders. p. 501. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-2571-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-2571-6"><bdi>978-0-7020-2571-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51607923">51607923</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=10.3%3A+Bubble+Detection&rft.btitle=Bennett+and+Elliott%27s+physiology+and+medicine+of+diving&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=501&rft.edition=5th+Revised&rft.pub=Saunders&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51607923&rft.isbn=978-0-7020-2571-6&rft.aulast=Nishi&rft.aufirst=Ron+Y&rft.au=Brubakk%2C+Alf+O&rft.au=Eftedal%2C+Olav+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+sickness" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell" class="citation book cs1">Powell M (2008). <i>Deco for Divers</i>. Southend-on-Sea: Aquapress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-905492-07-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-905492-07-7"><bdi>978-1-905492-07-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deco+for+Divers&rft.place=Southend-on-Sea&rft.pub=Aquapress&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-905492-07-7&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecompression+sickness" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Decompression_sickness&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/decompression_sickness" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:decompression sickness">decompression sickness</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diversalertnetwork.org/medical/articles/index.asp">Divers Alert Network: diving medicine articles</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051208033010/http://www.diversalertnetwork.org/medical/articles/index.asp">Archived</a> 8 December 2005 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100815035430/http://www.ndc.noaa.gov/dp_forms.html">Dive Tables from the NOAA</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/decompression/">CDC – Decompression Sickness and Tunnel Workers – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.omao.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Pathophysiology%20of%20Decompression.pdf">Pathophysiology of decompression and acute dysbaric disorders</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/769717-overview#a1">"Decompression Sickness" on Medscape</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dykketabeller.no/onewebmedia/NDTT%20Ed%205.pdf">Norwegian Diving- and Treatment Tables. Tables and guidelines for surface orientated diving on air and nitrox. Tables and guidelines for treatment of decompression illness. Jan Risberg • Andreas Møllerløkken • Olav Sande Eftedal. 12.8.2019</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q460591" class="extiw" title="d:Q460591">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/T70.3">T70.3</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=993.3">993.3</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003665">D003665</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb3491.htm">3491</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">External resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/EMedicine" title="EMedicine">eMedicine</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/emerg/121-overview">emerg/121</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Consequences_of_external_causes765" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Consequences_of_external_causes" title="Template:Consequences of external causes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Consequences_of_external_causes" title="Template talk:Consequences of external causes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Consequences_of_external_causes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Consequences of external causes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Consequences_of_external_causes765" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Consequences of <a href="/wiki/External_cause" title="External cause">external causes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Temperature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elevated</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burn" title="Burn">Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperthermia" title="Hyperthermia">Hyperthermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_syncope" title="Heat syncope">Heat syncope</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reduced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">Hypothermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immersion_foot_syndromes" title="Immersion foot syndromes">Immersion foot syndromes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trench_foot" title="Trench foot">Trench foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_immersion_foot" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical immersion foot">Tropical immersion foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warm_water_immersion_foot" class="mw-redirect" title="Warm water immersion foot">Warm water immersion foot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-freezing_cold_injury" title="Non-freezing cold injury">Non-freezing cold injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilblains" title="Chilblains">Chilblains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frostbite" title="Frostbite">Frostbite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerosol_burn" title="Aerosol burn">Aerosol burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_intolerance" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold intolerance">Cold intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrocyanosis" title="Acrocyanosis">Acrocyanosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erythrocyanosis_crurum" title="Erythrocyanosis crurum">Erythrocyanosis crurum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_radiation_keratosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic radiation keratosis">Chronic radiation keratosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eosinophilic,_polymorphic,_and_pruritic_eruption_associated_with_radiotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Eosinophilic, polymorphic, and pruritic eruption associated with radiotherapy">Eosinophilic, polymorphic, and pruritic eruption associated with radiotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_acne" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation acne">Radiation acne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_burn" title="Radiation burn">Radiation burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_cancer" title="Radiation-induced cancer">Radiation-induced cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_erythema_multiforme" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation-induced erythema multiforme">Radiation-induced erythema multiforme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_hypertrophic_scar" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation-induced hypertrophic scar">Radiation-induced hypertrophic scar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_keloid" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation-induced keloid">Radiation-induced keloid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_morphea" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation-induced morphea">Radiation-induced morphea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation poisoning">Radiation poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_recall_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation recall reaction">Radiation recall reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunburn" title="Sunburn">Sunburn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oxygen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">Hypoxia</a>/<a href="/wiki/Asphyxia" title="Asphyxia">Asphyxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">Oxygen toxicity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pressure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">Barotrauma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arterial_gas_embolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Arterial gas embolism">Arterial gas embolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerosinusitis" title="Aerosinusitis">Aerosinusitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_ear_barotrauma" title="Middle ear barotrauma">Middle ear barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumothorax" title="Pneumothorax">Pneumothorax</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Decompression sickness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inner_ear_decompression_sickness" title="Inner ear decompression sickness">Inner ear decompression sickness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_high_altitude_on_humans" title="Effects of high altitude on humans">High altitude</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altitude_sickness" title="Altitude sickness">Altitude sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_mountain_sickness" title="Chronic mountain sickness">Chronic mountain sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_zone" title="Death zone">Death zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-altitude_pulmonary_edema" title="High-altitude pulmonary edema">High-altitude pulmonary edema</a> (HAPE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-altitude_cerebral_edema" title="High-altitude cerebral edema">High-altitude cerebral edema</a> (HACE)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">Starvation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maltreatment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_abuse" title="Physical abuse">Physical abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_abuse" title="Sexual abuse">Sexual abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_abuse" title="Psychological abuse">Psychological abuse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Travel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Motion_sickness" title="Motion sickness">Motion sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Seasickness">Seasickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airsickness" title="Airsickness">Airsickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_adaptation_syndrome" title="Space adaptation syndrome">Space adaptation syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Adverse effect</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypersensitivity" title="Hypersensitivity">Hypersensitivity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaphylaxis" title="Anaphylaxis">Anaphylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angioedema" title="Angioedema">Angioedema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthus_reaction" title="Arthus reaction">Arthus reaction</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adverse_drug_reaction" title="Adverse drug reaction">Adverse drug reaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_injury" title="Electrical injury">Electrical injury</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lightning_injuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Lightning injuries">Lightning injuries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">Drowning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ungrouped <br /> skin conditions <br /> resulting from <br /> physical factors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dermatosis_neglecta" title="Dermatosis neglecta">Dermatosis neglecta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinch_mark" title="Pinch mark">Pinch mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoverrucous_papules_and_nodules" title="Pseudoverrucous papules and nodules">Pseudoverrucous papules and nodules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sclerosing_lymphangitis" title="Sclerosing lymphangitis">Sclerosing lymphangitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_anhidrotic_asthenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical anhidrotic asthenia">Tropical anhidrotic asthenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UV-sensitive_syndrome" title="UV-sensitive syndrome">UV-sensitive syndrome</a></li> <li><i>environmental skin conditions</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_burn" title="Electrical burn">Electrical burn</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>frictional/traumatic/sports</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_heel_and_palm" title="Black heel and palm">Black heel and palm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equestrian_perniosis" title="Equestrian perniosis">Equestrian perniosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fissure_of_the_nipple" title="Fissure of the nipple">Fissure of the nipple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulling_boat_hands" title="Pulling boat hands">Pulling boat hands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runner%27s_rump" title="Runner's rump">Runner's rump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surfer%27s_knots" title="Surfer's knots">Surfer's knots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennis_toe" class="mw-redirect" title="Tennis toe">Tennis toe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibration_white_finger" class="mw-redirect" title="Vibration white finger">Vibration white finger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weathering_nodule_of_ear" title="Weathering nodule of ear">Weathering nodule of ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrestler%27s_ear" class="mw-redirect" title="Wrestler's ear">Wrestler's ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_cut" title="Coral cut">Coral cut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painful_fat_herniation" class="mw-redirect" title="Painful fat herniation">Painful fat herniation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_dermatosis" title="Uranium dermatosis">Uranium dermatosis</a></li> <li><i>iv use</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Skin_pop_scar" title="Skin pop scar">Skin pop scar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_track" title="Skin track">Skin track</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slap_mark" class="mw-redirect" title="Slap mark">Slap mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoacanthosis_nigricans" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudoacanthosis nigricans">Pseudoacanthosis nigricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcotic_dermopathy" title="Narcotic dermopathy">Narcotic dermopathy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Medicine" title="Category:Medicine">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Medicine" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Medicine">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" title="Glossary of medicine">Glossary</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_medicine" title="Outline of medicine">Outline</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Underwater_diving1383" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Underwater_diving" title="Template:Underwater diving"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Underwater_diving" title="Template talk:Underwater diving"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Underwater_diving" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Underwater diving"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Underwater_diving1383" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving" title="Underwater diving">Underwater diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_activities" title="Diving activities">Diving activities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving mode">Diving modes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric pressure diving">Atmospheric pressure diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_diving" title="Saturation diving">Saturation diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving" title="Scuba diving">Scuba diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorkeling" title="Snorkeling">Snorkeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_oriented_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface oriented diving">Surface oriented diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface-supplied_diving" title="Surface-supplied diving">Surface-supplied diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmanned_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmanned diving">Unmanned diving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Diving_equipment1383" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diving_equipment" title="Diving equipment">Diving equipment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleaning_and_disinfection_of_personal_diving_equipment" title="Cleaning and disinfection of personal diving equipment">Cleaning and disinfection of personal diving equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_in_diving_equipment_design" title="Human factors in diving equipment design">Human factors in diving equipment design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_equipment_manufacturers" title="List of diving equipment manufacturers">List of diving equipment manufacturers</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_mask" title="Diving mask">Diving mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorkel_(swimming)" title="Snorkel (swimming)">Snorkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimfin" title="Swimfin">Swimfin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Breathing_gas" title="Breathing gas">Breathing gas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bailout_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bailout gas">Bailout gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottom gas">Bottom gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breathing_air" class="mw-redirect" title="Breathing air">Breathing air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression gas">Decompression gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_gas_supply" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency gas supply">Emergency gas supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliox" title="Heliox">Heliox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydreliox" title="Hydreliox">Hydreliox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrox_(breathing_gas)" title="Hydrox (breathing gas)">Hydrox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrox" title="Nitrox">Nitrox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Travel gas">Travel gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimix_(breathing_gas)" title="Trimix (breathing gas)">Trimix</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Buoyancy and<br />trim equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avelo_diving_system" title="Avelo diving system">Avelo diving system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buoyancy_compensator_(diving)" title="Buoyancy compensator (diving)">Buoyancy compensator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_inflator" class="mw-redirect" title="Power inflator">Power inflator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dump_valve_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dump valve (diving)">Dump valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_buoyancy_pressure_vessel" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable buoyancy pressure vessel">Variable buoyancy pressure vessel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_weighting_system" title="Diving weighting system">Diving weighting system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ankle_weights_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ankle weights (diving)">Ankle weights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_weights" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated weights">Integrated weights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trim_weights_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trim weights (diving)">Trim weights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weight_belt" class="mw-redirect" title="Weight belt">Weight belt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Decompression_equipment" title="Decompression equipment">Decompression<br />equipment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_buoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression buoy">Decompression buoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression chamber">Decompression chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_cylinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression cylinder">Decompression cylinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_trapeze" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression trapeze">Decompression trapeze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_computer" title="Dive computer">Dive computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_shot" title="Diving shot">Diving shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving stage">Diving stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_upline" class="mw-redirect" title="Jersey upline">Jersey upline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonline" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonline">Jonline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_suit" title="Diving suit">Diving suit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_diving_suit" title="Atmospheric diving suit">Atmospheric diving suit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/JIM_suit" title="JIM suit">JIM suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtsuit" title="Newtsuit">Newtsuit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_suit" title="Dry suit">Dry suit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sladen_suit" class="mw-redirect" title="Sladen suit">Sladen suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_suit" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard diving suit">Standard diving suit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rash_vest" class="mw-redirect" title="Rash vest">Rash vest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetsuit" title="Wetsuit">Wetsuit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dive_skins" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive skins">Dive skins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot-water_suit" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot-water suit">Hot-water suit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Helmets<br />and masks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-fog" title="Anti-fog">Anti-fog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_helmet" title="Diving helmet">Diving helmet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free-flow_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-flow helmet">Free-flow helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightweight_demand_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Lightweight demand helmet">Lightweight demand helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orinasal_mask" title="Orinasal mask">Orinasal mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclaim_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Reclaim helmet">Reclaim helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Shallow water helmet">Shallow water helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard diving helmet">Standard diving helmet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_mask" title="Diving mask">Diving mask</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Band_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Band mask">Band mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-face_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Full-face mask">Full-face mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Half mask">Half mask</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Instrumentation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_timer" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottom timer">Bottom timer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_gauge" title="Depth gauge">Depth gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_computer" title="Dive computer">Dive computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_timer" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive timer">Dive timer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_watch" title="Diving watch">Diving watch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helium_release_valve" title="Helium release valve">Helium release valve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electro-galvanic_oxygen_sensor" title="Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor">Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumofathometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumofathometer">Pneumofathometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submersible_pressure_gauge" class="mw-redirect" title="Submersible pressure gauge">Submersible pressure gauge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mobility<br />equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diver_propulsion_vehicle" title="Diver propulsion vehicle">Diver propulsion vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closed_bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed bell">Closed bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Wet bell">Wet bell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving stage">Diving stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimfin" title="Swimfin">Swimfin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monofin" title="Monofin">Monofin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PowerSwim" title="PowerSwim">PowerSwim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towboard" title="Towboard">Towboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_sub" title="Wet sub">Wet sub</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Safety<br />equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_air_source" title="Alternative air source">Alternative air source</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Octopus_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Octopus regulator">Octopus regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pony_bottle" title="Pony bottle">Pony bottle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolt_snap" title="Bolt snap">Bolt snap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddy_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddy line">Buddy line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_light" title="Dive light">Dive light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_cutting_tool" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's cutting tool">Diver's cutting tool</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_knife" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's knife">Diver's knife</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_telephone" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's telephone">Diver's telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Through-water_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Through-water communications">Through-water communications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustic_communication" title="Underwater acoustic communication">Underwater acoustic communication</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_safety_harness" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving safety harness">Diving safety harness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_gas_supply" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency gas supply">Emergency gas supply</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bailout_block" class="mw-redirect" title="Bailout block">Bailout block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bailout_bottle" title="Bailout bottle">Bailout bottle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifeline_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifeline (diving)">Lifeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Screw_gate_carabiner" class="mw-redirect" title="Screw gate carabiner">Screw gate carabiner</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_locator_beacon" title="Emergency locator beacon">Emergency locator beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_tether" class="mw-redirect" title="Rescue tether">Rescue tether</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Safety helmet">Safety helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark-proof_cage" class="mw-redirect" title="Shark-proof cage">Shark-proof cage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snoopy_loop" class="mw-redirect" title="Snoopy loop">Snoopy loop</a></li> <li>Navigation equipment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distance_line" title="Distance line">Distance line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_compass" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving compass">Diving compass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_reel" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive reel">Dive reel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Line_marker" title="Line marker">Line marker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_marker_buoy" title="Surface marker buoy">Surface marker buoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt_screw" class="mw-redirect" title="Silt screw">Silt screw</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_breathing_apparatus" title="Underwater breathing apparatus">Underwater<br />breathing<br />apparatus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_diving_suit" title="Atmospheric diving suit">Atmospheric diving suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_cylinder" title="Diving cylinder">Diving cylinder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burst_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Burst disc">Burst disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_cylinder_valve" title="Scuba cylinder valve">Scuba cylinder valve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_helmet" title="Diving helmet">Diving helmet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reclaim_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Reclaim helmet">Reclaim helmet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_regulator" title="Diving regulator">Diving regulator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanism_of_diving_regulators" title="Mechanism of diving regulators">Mechanism of diving regulators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulator_malfunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulator malfunction">Regulator malfunction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regulator_freeze" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulator freeze">Regulator freeze</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-hose_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-hose regulator">Single-hose regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin-hose_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Twin-hose regulator">Twin-hose regulator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-face_diving_mask" title="Full-face diving mask">Full-face diving mask</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Open-circuit_scuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-circuit scuba">Open-circuit<br />scuba</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_set" title="Scuba set">Scuba set</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bailout_bottle" title="Bailout bottle">Bailout bottle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_cylinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression cylinder">Decompression cylinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_doubles" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent doubles">Independent doubles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifolded_twin_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Manifolded twin set">Manifolded twin set</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_manifold" title="Scuba manifold">Scuba manifold</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pony_bottle" title="Pony bottle">Pony bottle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_configuration" class="mw-redirect" title="Scuba configuration">Scuba configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidemount" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidemount">Sidemount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sling_cylinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Sling cylinder">Sling cylinder</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_rebreather" title="Diving rebreather">Diving rebreathers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_scrubber" title="Carbon dioxide scrubber">Carbon dioxide scrubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carleton_CDBA" class="mw-redirect" title="Carleton CDBA">Carleton CDBA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearance_Divers_Life_Support_Equipment" title="Clearance Divers Life Support Equipment">Clearance Divers Life Support Equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_rebreather" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic rebreather">Cryogenic rebreather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CUMA" title="CUMA">CUMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSEA" class="mw-redirect" title="DSEA">DSEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4ger_Dolphin" class="mw-redirect" title="Dräger Dolphin">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halcyon_PVR-BASC" title="Halcyon PVR-BASC">Halcyon PVR-BASC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halcyon_RB80" title="Halcyon RB80">Halcyon RB80</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IDA71" title="IDA71">IDA71</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspiro_DCSC" title="Interspiro DCSC">Interspiro DCSC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LAR-5" class="mw-redirect" title="LAR-5">LAR-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LAR-6" class="mw-redirect" title="LAR-6">LAR-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LAR-V" class="mw-redirect" title="LAR-V">LAR-V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambertsen_Amphibious_Respiratory_Unit" title="Lambertsen Amphibious Respiratory Unit">LARU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_IV_Amphibian" title="Mark IV Amphibian">Mark IV Amphibian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porpoise_(scuba_gear)" title="Porpoise (scuba gear)">Porpoise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4ger_Ray" class="mw-redirect" title="Dräger Ray">Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman_CDBA" title="Siebe Gorman CDBA">Siebe Gorman CDBA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman_Salvus" title="Siebe Gorman Salvus">Salvus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siva_(rebreather)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siva (rebreather)">Siva</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Surface-supplied_diving_equipment" title="Surface-supplied diving equipment">Surface-supplied<br />diving equipment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_line" title="Air line">Air line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_umbilical" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's umbilical">Diver's umbilical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_air_compressor" title="Diving air compressor">Diving air compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_panel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas panel">Gas panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hookah_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hookah (diving)">Hookah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_replacement" class="mw-redirect" title="Scuba replacement">Scuba replacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snuba" title="Snuba">Snuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_dress" title="Standard diving dress">Standard diving dress</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_equipment_manufacturers" title="List of diving equipment manufacturers"> Diving<br />equipment<br />manufacturers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AP_Diving" title="AP Diving">AP Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apeks" title="Apeks">Apeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Lung_America" title="Aqua Lung America">Aqua Lung America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Lung/La_Spirotechnique" title="Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique">Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beuchat" title="Beuchat">Beuchat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Cavalero" title="René Cavalero">René Cavalero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cis-Lunar" title="Cis-Lunar">Cis-Lunar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cressi-Sub" title="Cressi-Sub">Cressi-Sub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacor_(scuba_diving)" title="Dacor (scuba diving)">Dacor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DESCO" title="DESCO">DESCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_Xtras" title="Dive Xtras">Dive Xtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divex" title="Divex">Divex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Unlimited_International" title="Diving Unlimited International">Diving Unlimited International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4gerwerk" class="mw-redirect" title="Drägerwerk">Drägerwerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faber_Industrie_S.p.A." title="Faber Industrie S.p.A.">Faber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenzy" title="Fenzy">Fenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Fernez" title="Maurice Fernez">Maurice Fernez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Ferraro_(naval_officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Luigi Ferraro (naval officer)">Technisub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Gugen" title="Oscar Gugen">Oscar Gugen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinke_(diving_equipment_manufacturer)" title="Heinke (diving equipment manufacturer)">Heinke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HeinrichsWeikamp" title="HeinrichsWeikamp">HeinrichsWeikamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Outdoors" title="Johnson Outdoors">Johnson Outdoors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mares_(scuba_equipment)" title="Mares (scuba equipment)">Mares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morse_Diving" title="Morse Diving">Morse Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemrod" title="Nemrod">Nemrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_Worldwide" title="Oceanic Worldwide">Oceanic Worldwide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porpoise_(scuba_gear)" title="Porpoise (scuba gear)">Porpoise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shearwater_Research" title="Shearwater Research">Shearwater Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman" title="Siebe Gorman">Siebe Gorman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Products" title="Submarine Products">Submarine Products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suunto" title="Suunto">Suunto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Diving_support_equipment1383" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diving_support_equipment" title="Diving support equipment">Diving support equipment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Access equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boarding_stirrup" class="mw-redirect" title="Boarding stirrup">Boarding stirrup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_lift" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver lift">Diver lift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_ladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving ladder">Diving ladder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_platform_(scuba)" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving platform (scuba)">Diving platform (scuba)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving stage">Diving stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downline_(diving)" title="Downline (diving)">Downline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackstay" title="Jackstay">Jackstay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Launch_and_recovery_system_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Launch and recovery system (diving)">Launch and recovery system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messenger_line" title="Messenger line">Messenger line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_pool" title="Moon pool">Moon pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Breathing gas<br />handling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_air_compressor#Filtration" title="Diving air compressor">Air filtration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activated_carbon" title="Activated carbon">Activated carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopcalite" title="Hopcalite">Hopcalite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_sieve" title="Molecular sieve">Molecular sieve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silica_gel" title="Silica gel">Silica gel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booster_pump" title="Booster pump">Booster pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_scrubber" title="Carbon dioxide scrubber">Carbon dioxide scrubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_filling_system" title="Cascade filling system">Cascade filling system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_pump" title="Diver's pump">Diver's pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_air_compressor" title="Diving air compressor">Diving air compressor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_air_filter" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving air filter">Diving air filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_separator" class="mw-redirect" title="Water separator">Water separator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_pressure_breathing_air_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="High pressure breathing air compressor">High pressure breathing air compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_pressure_breathing_air_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Low pressure breathing air compressor">Low pressure breathing air compressor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_blending" title="Gas blending">Gas blending</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_blending_for_scuba_diving" title="Gas blending for scuba diving">Gas blending for scuba diving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_panel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas panel">Gas panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_reclaim_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas reclaim system">Gas reclaim system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_storage_bank" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas storage bank">Gas storage bank</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_storage_quad" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas storage quad">Gas storage quad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_storage_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas storage tube">Gas storage tube</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_analyzer" title="Helium analyzer">Helium analyzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrox_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrox production">Nitrox production</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Membrane_gas_separation" title="Membrane gas separation">Membrane gas separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_swing_adsorption" title="Pressure swing adsorption">Pressure swing adsorption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_analyser" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygen analyser">Oxygen analyser</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electro-galvanic_oxygen_sensor" title="Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor">Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_compatibility" title="Oxygen compatibility">Oxygen compatibility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Decompression_equipment" title="Decompression equipment">Decompression<br />equipment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air-lock" class="mw-redirect" title="Air-lock">Air-lock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Built-in_breathing_system" title="Built-in breathing system">Built-in breathing system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_tables" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression tables">Decompression tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bell_cursor" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell cursor">Bell cursor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed bell">Closed bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clump_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Clump weight">Clump weight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Launch_and_recovery_system_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Launch and recovery system (diving)">Launch and recovery system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Wet bell">Wet bell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_chamber" title="Diving chamber">Diving chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving stage">Diving stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_Dive_Planner" title="Recreational Dive Planner">Recreational Dive Planner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturation system">Saturation system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Platforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dive_boat" title="Dive boat">Dive boat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canoe_and_kayak_diving" title="Canoe and kayak diving">Canoe and kayak diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_rubber_raiding_craft" title="Combat rubber raiding craft">Combat rubber raiding craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liveaboard" title="Liveaboard">Liveaboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subskimmer" title="Subskimmer">Subskimmer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_support_vessel" title="Diving support vessel">Diving support vessel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Challenger_(K07)" title="HMS Challenger (K07)">HMS Challenger (K07)</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Underwaterhabitat46" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_habitat" title="Underwater habitat">Underwater<br />habitat</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquarius_Reef_Base" title="Aquarius Reef Base">Aquarius Reef Base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Shelf_Station_Two" title="Continental Shelf Station Two">Continental Shelf Station Two</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helgoland_Habitat" title="Helgoland Habitat">Helgoland Habitat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Carpenter_Space_Analog_Station" title="Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station">Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SEALAB" title="SEALAB">SEALAB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tektite_habitat" title="Tektite habitat">Tektite habitat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle" title="Remotely operated underwater vehicle">Remotely operated<br />underwater vehicles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/8A4-class_ROUV" title="8A4-class ROUV">8A4-class ROUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABISMO" title="ABISMO">ABISMO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantis_ROV_Team" title="Atlantis ROV Team">Atlantis ROV Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COTSBot" title="COTSBot">COTSBot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CURV" title="CURV">CURV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_Drone" title="Deep Drone">Deep Drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89paulard" title="Épaulard">Épaulard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Explorer_ROV" title="Global Explorer ROV">Global Explorer ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goldfish-class_ROUV" title="Goldfish-class ROUV">Goldfish-class ROUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaik%C5%8D_ROV" title="Kaikō ROV">Kaikō ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%C5%9Fif_ROUV" title="Kaşif ROUV">Kaşif ROUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-Term_Mine_Reconnaissance_System" title="Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System">Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mini_Rover_ROV" title="Mini Rover ROV">Mini Rover ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenROV" title="OpenROV">OpenROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROV_KIEL_6000" title="ROV KIEL 6000">ROV KIEL 6000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROV_PHOCA" title="ROV PHOCA">ROV PHOCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorpio_ROV" title="Scorpio ROV">Scorpio ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Dragon-class_ROV" title="Sea Dragon-class ROV">Sea Dragon-class ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed_tractor" title="Seabed tractor">Seabed tractor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafox_drone" title="Seafox drone">Seafox drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SeaPerch" title="SeaPerch">SeaPerch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SJT-class_ROUV" title="SJT-class ROUV">SJT-class ROUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T1200_Trenching_Unit" title="T1200 Trenching Unit">T1200 Trenching Unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VideoRay_UROVs" title="VideoRay UROVs">VideoRay UROVs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Safety equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diver_down_flag" title="Diver down flag">Diver down flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_shot" title="Diving shot">Diving shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ENOS_Rescue-System" title="ENOS Rescue-System">ENOS Rescue-System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_lifeboat" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperbaric lifeboat">Hyperbaric lifeboat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_stretcher" title="Hyperbaric stretcher">Hyperbaric stretcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackstay_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jackstay (diving)">Jackstay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonline" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonline">Jonline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_gas_supply_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reserve gas supply (diving)">Reserve gas supply</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_spread" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving spread">Diving spread</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_spread" class="mw-redirect" title="Air spread">Air spread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_spread" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturation spread">Saturation spread</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_water_system_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot water system (diving)">Hot water system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustic_positioning_system" title="Underwater acoustic positioning system">Underwater acoustic positioning system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustic_communication" title="Underwater acoustic communication">Underwater acoustic communication</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Freediving1383" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquathlon_(underwater_wrestling)" title="Aquathlon (underwater wrestling)">Aquathlon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apnoea_finswimming" class="mw-redirect" title="Apnoea finswimming">Apnoea finswimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haenyeo" title="Haenyeo">Haenyeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_hunting" title="Pearl hunting">Pearl hunting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ama_(diving)" title="Ama (diving)">Ama</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorkeling" title="Snorkeling">Snorkeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spearfishing" title="Spearfishing">Spearfishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_football" title="Underwater football">Underwater football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_hockey" title="Underwater hockey">Underwater hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_rugby" title="Underwater rugby">Underwater rugby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_target_shooting" title="Underwater target shooting">Underwater target shooting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Competitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Deep" title="Nordic Deep">Nordic Deep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_Blue" title="Vertical Blue">Vertical Blue</a></li> <li>Disciplines <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constant_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Constant weight">Constant weight</a> (CWT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant_weight_bi-fins" title="Constant weight bi-fins">Constant weight bi-fins</a> (CWTB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant_weight_without_fins" title="Constant weight without fins">Constant weight without fins</a> (CNF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_apnea" title="Dynamic apnea">Dynamic apnea</a> (DYN)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_apnea_without_fins" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic apnea without fins">Dynamic apnea without fins</a> (DNF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_immersion" class="mw-redirect" title="Free immersion">Free immersion</a> (FIM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-limits_apnea" title="No-limits apnea">No-limits apnea</a> (NLT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_apnea" title="Static apnea">Static apnea</a> (STA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandalopetra_diving" title="Skandalopetra diving">Skandalopetra diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_weight_apnea" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable weight apnea">Variable weight apnea</a> (VWT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_weight_apnea_without_fins" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable weight apnea without fins">Variable weight apnea without fins</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_mask" title="Diving mask">Diving mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_suit" title="Diving suit">Diving suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_sling" title="Hawaiian sling">Hawaiian sling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polespear" title="Polespear">Polespear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorkel_(swimming)" title="Snorkel (swimming)">Snorkel (swimming)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speargun" title="Speargun">Speargun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimfin" title="Swimfin">Swimfins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monofin" title="Monofin">Monofin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_polo_cap" title="Water polo cap">Water polo cap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Freedivers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Andollo" title="Deborah Andollo">Deborah Andollo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Arrigoni" title="Simone Arrigoni">Simone Arrigoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peppo_Biscarini" title="Peppo Biscarini">Peppo Biscarini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Board" title="Michael Board">Michael Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Campbell" title="Sara Campbell">Sara Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derya_Can_G%C3%B6%C3%A7en" class="mw-redirect" title="Derya Can Göçen">Derya Can Göçen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goran_%C4%8Colak" title="Goran Čolak">Goran Čolak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlos_Coste" title="Carlos Coste">Carlos Coste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Croft_(diver)" title="Robert Croft (diver)">Robert Croft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandy-Rae_Cruickshank" title="Mandy-Rae Cruickshank">Mandy-Rae Cruickshank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasemin_Dalk%C4%B1l%C4%B1%C3%A7" title="Yasemin Dalkılıç">Yasemin Dalkılıç</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_D%27Imporzano" title="Leonardo D'Imporzano">Leonardo D'Imporzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavia_Eberhard" title="Flavia Eberhard">Flavia Eberhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Eahika_Erc%C3%BCmen" title="Şahika Ercümen">Şahika Ercümen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Farrell_(freediver)" title="Emma Farrell (freediver)">Emma Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Ferreras" title="Francisco Ferreras">Francisco Ferreras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Frolla" title="Pierre Frolla">Pierre Frolla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavia_Eberhard" title="Flavia Eberhard">Flavia Eberhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehgan_Heaney-Grier" title="Mehgan Heaney-Grier">Mehgan Heaney-Grier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_Kristoffersen" title="Elisabeth Kristoffersen">Elisabeth Kristoffersen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andriy_Yevhenovych_Khvetkevych" class="mw-redirect" title="Andriy Yevhenovych Khvetkevych">Andriy Yevhenovych Khvetkevych</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo%C3%AFc_Leferme" title="Loïc Leferme">Loïc Leferme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzo_Maiorca" title="Enzo Maiorca">Enzo Maiorca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Mayol" title="Jacques Mayol">Jacques Mayol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Mestre" title="Audrey Mestre">Audrey Mestre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karol_Meyer" title="Karol Meyer">Karol Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kate_Middleton_(free-diver)" title="Kate Middleton (free-diver)">Kate Middleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Mifsud" title="Stéphane Mifsud">Stéphane Mifsud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexey_Molchanov" title="Alexey Molchanov">Alexey Molchanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Molchanova" title="Natalia Molchanova">Natalia Molchanova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Mullins_(freediver)" title="Dave Mullins (freediver)">Dave Mullins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Musimu" title="Patrick Musimu">Patrick Musimu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_N%C3%A9ry" title="Guillaume Néry">Guillaume Néry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Nitsch" title="Herbert Nitsch">Herbert Nitsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Pelizzari" title="Umberto Pelizzari">Umberto Pelizzari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liv_Philip" title="Liv Philip">Liv Philip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelie_Pompe" title="Annelie Pompe">Annelie Pompe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stig_Severinsen" title="Stig Severinsen">Stig Severinsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Sietas" title="Tom Sietas">Tom Sietas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_%C5%A0t%C4%9Bp%C3%A1nek_(free-diver)" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Štěpánek (free-diver)">Martin Štěpánek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Steyn" title="Walter Steyn">Walter Steyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanya_Streeter" title="Tanya Streeter">Tanya Streeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Trubridge" title="William Trubridge">William Trubridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devrim_Cenk_Ulusoy" title="Devrim Cenk Ulusoy">Devrim Cenk Ulusoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatma_Uruk" title="Fatma Uruk">Fatma Uruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danai_Varveri" title="Danai Varveri">Danai Varveri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessia_Zecchini" title="Alessia Zecchini">Alessia Zecchini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nataliia_Zharkova" title="Nataliia Zharkova">Nataliia Zharkova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hazards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">Barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">Drowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving_blackout" title="Freediving blackout">Freediving blackout</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_blackout" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep-water blackout">Deep-water blackout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving_blackout#Terminology" title="Freediving blackout">Shallow-water blackout</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercapnia" title="Hypercapnia">Hypercapnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">Hypothermia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ama_(diving)" title="Ama (diving)">Ama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octopus_wrestling" title="Octopus wrestling">Octopus wrestling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimming_at_the_1900_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_underwater_swimming" title="Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming">Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_International" title="AIDA International">AIDA International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Schools_International" title="Scuba Schools International">Scuba Schools International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Underwater_Federation" title="Australian Underwater Federation">Australian Underwater Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Freediving_Association" title="British Freediving Association">British Freediving Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Fran%C3%A7aise_d%27%C3%89tudes_et_de_Sports_Sous-Marins" title="Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins">Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_Freediving_International" title="Performance Freediving International">Performance Freediving International</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Professional_diving1383" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Professional_diving" title="Professional diving">Professional diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ama_(diving)" title="Ama (diving)">Ama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial diver">Commercial diver</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_offshore_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial offshore diver">Commercial offshore diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazmat_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazmat diver">Hazmat diver</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divemaster" title="Divemaster">Divemaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_instructor" title="Diving instructor">Diving instructor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_safety_officer" title="Diving safety officer">Diving safety officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_superintendent" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving superintendent">Diving superintendent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_supervisor" title="Diving supervisor">Diving supervisor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haenyeo" title="Haenyeo">Haenyeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Media diver">Media diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Police diver">Police diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_safety_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Public safety diver">Public safety diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific diver">Scientific diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwater archaeologist">Underwater archaeologist</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Militarydiving40" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_diving" title="Military diving">Military<br />diving</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Army_engineer_diver" title="Army engineer diver">Army engineer diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Armed_Forces_Divers" title="Canadian Armed Forces Divers">Canadian Armed Forces Divers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearance_diver" title="Clearance diver">Clearance diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogman" title="Frogman">Frogman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minentaucher" title="Minentaucher">Minentaucher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_ships_diver" title="Royal Navy ships diver">Royal Navy ships diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_divers" title="United States military divers">United States military divers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Navy_diver_(United_States_Navy)" title="Navy diver (United States Navy)">U.S. Navy diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_diver_(United_States_Navy)" title="Master diver (United States Navy)">U.S.Navy master diver</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Militarydivingunits65" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_diving_units" title="List of military diving units">Military<br />diving<br />units</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/7th_Marine_Brigade" class="mw-redirect" title="7th Marine Brigade">7th Marine Brigade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearance_Diving_Branch_(RAN)" title="Clearance Diving Branch (RAN)">Clearance Diving Branch (RAN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commando_Hubert" class="mw-redirect" title="Commando Hubert">Commando Hubert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Special_Operations_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Special Operations Force">Combat Divers Service (Lithuania)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comando_Raggruppamento_Subacquei_e_Incursori_Teseo_Tesei" title="Comando Raggruppamento Subacquei e Incursori Teseo Tesei">Comando Raggruppamento Subacquei e Incursori Teseo Tesei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decima_Flottiglia_MAS" title="Decima Flottiglia MAS">Decima Flottiglia MAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogman_Corps_(Denmark)" title="Frogman Corps (Denmark)">Frogman Corps (Denmark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuerzas_Especiales" title="Fuerzas Especiales">Fuerzas Especiales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fukuryu" title="Fukuryu">Fukuryu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GRUMEC" title="GRUMEC">GRUMEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grup_Gerak_Khas" class="mw-redirect" title="Grup Gerak Khas">Grup Gerak Khas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagdkommando" title="Jagdkommando">Jagdkommando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JW_Formoza" class="mw-redirect" title="JW Formoza">JW Formoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JW_GROM" class="mw-redirect" title="JW GROM">JW GROM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JW_Komandos%C3%B3w" class="mw-redirect" title="JW Komandosów">JW Komandosów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kommando_Spezialkr%C3%A4fte_Marine" title="Kommando Spezialkräfte Marine">Kommando Spezialkräfte Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KOPASKA" title="KOPASKA">KOPASKA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MARCOS" title="MARCOS">MARCOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Commandos" title="Marine Commandos">Marine Commandos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinejegerkommandoen" title="Marinejegerkommandoen">Marinejegerkommandoen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Raider_Regiment" title="Marine Raider Regiment">Marine Raider Regiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minedykkerkommandoen" title="Minedykkerkommandoen">Minedykkerkommandoen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_Marine_Corps#Operational_Diving_Unit" title="Namibian Marine Corps">Namibian Marine Corps Operational Diving Unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Diving_Unit_(Singapore)" title="Naval Diving Unit (Singapore)">Naval Diving Unit (Singapore)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Service_Diving_Section" title="Naval Service Diving Section">Naval Service Diving Section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Special_Operations_Command" title="Naval Special Operations Command">Naval Special Operations Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_Diving_Division_(SA_Navy)" title="Operational Diving Division (SA Navy)">Operational Diving Division (SA Navy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Engineers" title="Royal Engineers">Royal Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_commando_frogmen" title="Russian commando frogmen">Russian commando frogmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sappers_Divers_Group" title="Sappers Divers Group">Sappers Divers Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shayetet_13" title="Shayetet 13">Shayetet 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Air_Service" title="Special Air Service">Special Air Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Air_Service_Regiment" title="Special Air Service Regiment">Special Air Service Regiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Actions_Detachment" title="Special Actions Detachment">Special Actions Detachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Boat_Service" title="Special Boat Service">Special Boat Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Boat_Squadron_(Sri_Lanka)" title="Special Boat Squadron (Sri Lanka)">Special Boat Squadron (Sri Lanka)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Forces_Command_(Turkey)" title="Special Forces Command (Turkey)">Special Forces Command (Turkey)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Forces_Group_(Belgium)" title="Special Forces Group (Belgium)">Special Forces Group (Belgium)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Operations_Battalion_(Croatia)" title="Special Operations Battalion (Croatia)">Special Operations Battalion (Croatia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Service_Group_(Navy)" title="Special Service Group (Navy)">Special Service Group (Navy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Warfare_Diving_and_Salvage" title="Special Warfare Diving and Salvage">Special Warfare Diving and Salvage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_Divers_Group" title="Tactical Divers Group">Tactical Divers Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Force_Reconnaissance" title="United States Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance">US Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Reconnaissance_Battalions" title="United States Marine Corps Reconnaissance Battalions">US Marine Corps Reconnaissance Battalions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_SEALs" title="United States Navy SEALs">US Navy SEALs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Construction_Teams" title="Underwater Construction Teams">Underwater Construction Teams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Demolition_Command" title="Underwater Demolition Command">Underwater Demolition Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Demolition_Team" title="Underwater Demolition Team">Underwater Demolition Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Offence_(Turkish_Armed_Forces)" title="Underwater Offence (Turkish Armed Forces)">Underwater Offence (Turkish Armed Forces)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNGERIN" title="UNGERIN">UNGERIN</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_work" title="Underwater work">Underwater<br />work</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_offshore_diving" title="Commercial offshore diving">Commercial offshore diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_leader" title="Dive leader">Dive leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_training" title="Diver training">Diver training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_diver_training" title="Recreational diver training">Recreational diver training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazmat_diving" title="Hazmat diving">Hazmat diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_welding" title="Hyperbaric welding">Hyperbaric welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_construction" title="Marine construction">Marine construction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_construction" title="Offshore construction">Offshore construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_construction" title="Underwater construction">Underwater construction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_diving" title="Media diving">Media diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_hunting" title="Pearl hunting">Pearl hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_diving" title="Police diving">Police diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potable_water_diving" title="Potable water diving">Potable water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_safety_diving" title="Public safety diving">Public safety diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_diving" title="Scientific diving">Scientific diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_husbandry" title="Ships husbandry">Ships husbandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_diving" title="Sponge diving">Sponge diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_pipeline" title="Submarine pipeline">Submarine pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater archaeology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_shipwrecks" title="Archaeology of shipwrecks">Archaeology of shipwrecks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_cutting_and_welding" title="Underwater cutting and welding">Underwater cutting and welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_demolition" title="Underwater demolition">Underwater demolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_inspection" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwater inspection">Underwater inspection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nondestructive_testing" title="Nondestructive testing">Nondestructive testing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_logging" title="Underwater logging">Underwater logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography" title="Underwater photography">Underwater photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_search_and_recovery" title="Underwater search and recovery">Underwater search and recovery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_searches" title="Underwater searches">Underwater searches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_videography" title="Underwater videography">Underwater videography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_survey" title="Underwater survey">Underwater survey</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Salvage_diving18" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Salvage_diving" title="Salvage diving">Salvage diving</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS_Egypt" title="SS Egypt">SS <i>Egypt</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kronan_(ship)" title="Kronan (ship)"><i>Kronan</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Belle_(ship)" title="La Belle (ship)"><i>La Belle</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_Laurentic_(1908)" title="SS Laurentic (1908)">SS <i>Laurentic</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RMS_Lusitania" title="RMS Lusitania">RMS <i>Lusitania</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_warship_Mars" title="Swedish warship Mars"><i>Mars</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Rose" title="Mary Rose"><i>Mary Rose</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Monitor" title="USS Monitor">USS <i>Monitor</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Royal_George_(1756)" title="HMS Royal George (1756)">HMS <i>Royal George</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasa_(ship)" title="Vasa (ship)"><i>Vasa</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_contractor" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving contractor">Diving<br />contractors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compagnie_maritime_d%27expertises" title="Compagnie maritime d'expertises">COMEX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helix_Energy_Solutions_Group" title="Helix Energy Solutions Group">Helix Energy Solutions Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Marine_Contractors_Association" title="International Marine Contractors Association">International Marine Contractors Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tools and<br />equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrasive_waterjet" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrasive waterjet">Abrasive waterjet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airlift_(dredging_device)" title="Airlift (dredging device)">Airlift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baited_remote_underwater_video" title="Baited remote underwater video">Baited remote underwater video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-water_surface_cleaning" title="In-water surface cleaning">In-water surface cleaning</a> <ul><li>Brush cart</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavitation_cleaning&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cavitation cleaning (page does not exist)">Cavitation cleaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_washing" title="Pressure washing">Pressure washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigging" title="Pigging">Pigging</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_stab" title="Hot stab">Hot stab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifting_bag" title="Lifting bag">Lifting bag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle" title="Remotely operated underwater vehicle">Remotely operated underwater vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_lance" title="Thermal lance">Thermal lance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tremie" title="Tremie">Tremie</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_jetting&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water jetting (page does not exist)">Water jetting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limpet_mine" title="Limpet mine">Limpet mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speargun" title="Speargun">Speargun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_sling" title="Hawaiian sling">Hawaiian sling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polespear" title="Polespear">Polespear</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Underwaterfirearm46" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_firearm" title="Underwater firearm">Underwater<br />firearm</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gyrojet" title="Gyrojet">Gyrojet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mk_1_Underwater_Defense_Gun" title="Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun">Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powerhead_(firearm)" title="Powerhead (firearm)">Powerhead</a></li> <li>Underwater pistols <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_P11" title="Heckler & Koch P11">Heckler & Koch P11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPP-1_underwater_pistol" title="SPP-1 underwater pistol">SPP-1 underwater pistol</a></li></ul></li> <li>Underwater revolvers <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AAI_underwater_revolver" title="AAI underwater revolver">AAI underwater revolver</a></li></ul></li> <li>Underwater rifles <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ADS_amphibious_rifle" title="ADS amphibious rifle">ADS amphibious rifle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APS_underwater_rifle" title="APS underwater rifle">APS underwater rifle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASM-DT_amphibious_rifle" title="ASM-DT amphibious rifle">ASM-DT amphibious rifle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QBS-06" title="QBS-06">QBS-06</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Recreational_diving1383" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Recreational_diving" title="Recreational diving">Recreational diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_dive_sites" title="Recreational dive sites">Recreational dive sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_recreational_dive_sites" title="Index of recreational dive sites">Index of recreational dive sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wreck_diving_sites" title="List of wreck diving sites">List of wreck diving sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_recreational_dive_sites" title="Outline of recreational dive sites">Outline of recreational dive sites</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specialties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altitude_diving" title="Altitude diving">Altitude diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_diving" title="Cave diving">Cave diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_diving" title="Deep diving">Deep diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_diving" title="Ice diving">Ice diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muck_diving" title="Muck diving">Muck diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-water_diving" title="Open-water diving">Open-water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather_diving" title="Rebreather diving">Rebreather diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidemount_diving" title="Sidemount diving">Sidemount diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solo_diving" title="Solo diving">Solo diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_diving" title="Technical diving">Technical diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography" title="Underwater photography">Underwater photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_diving" title="Wreck diving">Wreck diving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diver_organisations" title="Diver organisations">Diver<br />organisations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Sub-Aqua_Club" title="British Sub-Aqua Club">British Sub-Aqua Club</a> (BSAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Divers_Association_of_Australia" title="Cave Divers Association of Australia">Cave Divers Association of Australia</a> (CDAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Diving_Group" title="Cave Diving Group">Cave Diving Group</a> (CDG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comhairle_Fo-Thuinn" title="Comhairle Fo-Thuinn">Comhairle Fo-Thuinn</a> (CFT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a> (CMAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Espa%C3%B1ola_de_Actividades_Subacu%C3%A1ticas" title="Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas">Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas</a> (FEDAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Fran%C3%A7aise_d%27%C3%89tudes_et_de_Sports_Sous-Marins" title="Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins">Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins</a> (FFESSM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Handicapped_Divers" title="International Association for Handicapped Divers">International Association for Handicapped Divers</a> (IAHD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintana_Roo_Speleological_Survey" title="Quintana Roo Speleological Survey">Quintana Roo Speleological Survey</a> (QRSS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodville_Karst_Plain_Project" title="Woodville Karst Plain Project">Woodville Karst Plain Project</a> (WKPP)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diving tourism<br />industry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dive_center" title="Dive center">Dive center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_in_East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving in East Timor">Diving in East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_in_the_Maldives" title="Diving in the Maldives">Diving in the Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_recreational_diving" title="Environmental impact of recreational diving">Environmental impact of recreational diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_tourism" title="Scuba diving tourism">Scuba diving tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Scuba diving in the Cayman Islands">Scuba diving in the Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark_tourism" title="Shark tourism">Shark tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_ships_for_wreck_diving_sites" title="Sinking ships for wreck diving sites">Sinking ships for wreck diving sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving_on_Guam" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwater diving on Guam">Underwater diving on Guam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diving events<br />and festivals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversnight" title="Diversnight">Diversnight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Bike_Race" title="Underwater Bike Race">Underwater Bike Race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Diving_safety1383" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diving_safety" title="Diving safety">Diving safety</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_in_diving_equipment_design" title="Human factors in diving equipment design">Human factors in diving equipment design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_in_diving_safety" title="Human factors in diving safety">Human factors in diving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life-support_system" title="Life-support system">Life-support system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety-critical_system" title="Safety-critical system">Safety-critical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_fatalities" title="Scuba diving fatalities">Scuba diving fatalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving_emergency" title="Underwater diving emergency">Underwater diving emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_safety" title="Water safety">Water safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_surface_searches" title="Water surface searches">Water surface searches</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_hazards" title="Diving hazards">Diving<br />hazards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_hazards_and_precautions" title="List of diving hazards and precautions">List of diving hazards and precautions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazards_of_the_diving_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazards of the diving environment">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta-P_(hazard)" class="mw-redirect" title="Delta-P (hazard)">Delta-P</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entanglement_(hazard)" class="mw-redirect" title="Entanglement (hazard)">Entanglement hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penetration_diving" title="Penetration diving">Overhead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt_out" title="Silt out">Silt out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave action">Wave action</a></li></ul></li> <li>Equipment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freeflow" title="Freeflow">Freeflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_hazards_and_precautions#Use_of_breathing_equipment_in_an_underwater_environment" title="List of diving hazards and precautions">Use of breathing equipment in an underwater environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_hazards_and_precautions#Failure_of_diving_equipment_other_than_breathing_apparatus" title="List of diving hazards and precautions">Failure of diving equipment other than breathing apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_point_of_failure" title="Single point of failure">Single point of failure</a></li></ul></li> <li>Physiological <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_shock_response" title="Cold shock response">Cold shock response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_(diving)" title="Decompression (diving)">Decompression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_narcosis" title="Nitrogen narcosis">Nitrogen narcosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">Oxygen toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Seasickness">Seasickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncontrolled_decompression" title="Uncontrolled decompression">Uncontrolled decompression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_hazards_and_precautions#Diver_behaviour_and_competence" title="List of diving hazards and precautions">Diver behaviour and competence</a> <ul><li>Lack of <a href="/wiki/Competence_(human_resources)" title="Competence (human resources)">competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconfidence_effect" title="Overconfidence effect">Overconfidence effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic" title="Panic">Panic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_loading" title="Task loading">Task loading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anxiety#Trait" title="Anxiety">Trait anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willful_violation" title="Willful violation">Willful violation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Consequences12" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Consequences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">Barotrauma</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Decompression sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">Drowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">Hypothermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercapnia" title="Hypercapnia">Hypercapnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperthermia" title="Hyperthermia">Hyperthermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-freezing_cold_injury" title="Non-freezing cold injury">Non-freezing cold injury</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_procedures" title="Diving procedures">Diving<br />procedures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascending_and_descending_(diving)" title="Ascending and descending (diving)">Ascending and descending</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_ascent" title="Emergency ascent">Emergency ascent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boat_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Boat diving">Boat diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canoe_and_kayak_diving" title="Canoe and kayak diving">Canoe and kayak diving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddy_diving" title="Buddy diving">Buddy diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddy_check" title="Buddy check">buddy check</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_(diving)" title="Decompression (diving)">Decompression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_practice" title="Decompression practice">Decompression practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyle_stop" title="Pyle stop">Pyle stop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratio_decompression" title="Ratio decompression">Ratio decompression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_briefing" title="Dive briefing">Dive briefing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_log" title="Dive log">Dive log</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_planning" title="Dive planning">Dive planning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_thirds_(diving)" title="Rule of thirds (diving)">Rule of thirds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_gas_planning" title="Scuba gas planning">Scuba gas planning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_communications" title="Diver communications">Diver communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_rescue" title="Diver rescue">Diver rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_training" title="Diver training">Diver training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doing_It_Right_(scuba_diving)" title="Doing It Right (scuba diving)">Doing It Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drift_diving" title="Drift diving">Drift diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_blending_for_scuba_diving" title="Gas blending for scuba diving">Gas blending for scuba diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_diving" title="Night diving">Night diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather_diving" title="Rebreather diving">Rebreather diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_gas_management" title="Scuba gas management">Scuba gas management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solo_diving" title="Solo diving">Solo diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_diving" title="Wall diving">Wall diving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk<br />management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Checklist" title="Checklist">Checklist</a></li> <li>Hazard identification and risk assessment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hazard_analysis" title="Hazard analysis">Hazard analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_safety_analysis" title="Job safety analysis">Job safety analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_assessment" title="Risk assessment">Risk assessment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_evacuation_and_rescue" title="Hyperbaric evacuation and rescue">Hyperbaric evacuation and rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_control" title="Risk control">Risk control</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_hazard_controls" title="Hierarchy of hazard controls">Hierarchy of hazard controls</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incident_pit" title="Incident pit">Incident pit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lockout%E2%80%93tagout" title="Lockout–tagout">Lockout–tagout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permit_To_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="Permit To Work">Permit To Work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redundancy_(engineering)" title="Redundancy (engineering)">Redundancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_data_sheet" title="Safety data sheet">Safety data sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_awareness" title="Situation awareness">Situation awareness</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_team" title="Diving team">Diving team</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bellman_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bellman (diving)">Bellman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_operator" class="mw-redirect" title="Chamber operator">Chamber operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_medical_technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver medical technician">Diver medical technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_attendant" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's attendant">Diver's attendant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_supervisor" title="Diving supervisor">Diving supervisor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_systems_technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving systems technician">Diving systems technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_man" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas man">Gas man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_support_technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Life support technician">Life support technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stand-by_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Stand-by diver">Stand-by diver</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment<br />safety</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing_gas_quality" class="mw-redirect" title="Breathing gas quality">Breathing gas quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testing_and_inspection_of_diving_cylinders" title="Testing and inspection of diving cylinders">Testing and inspection of diving cylinders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_test" title="Hydrostatic test">Hydrostatic test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustained_load_cracking" title="Sustained load cracking">Sustained load cracking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_regulator" title="Diving regulator">Diving regulator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing_performance_of_regulators" title="Breathing performance of regulators">Breathing performance of regulators</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational<br />safety and<br />health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Diving_Contractors_International" title="Association of Diving Contractors International">Association of Diving Contractors International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Marine_Contractors_Association" title="International Marine Contractors Association">International Marine Contractors Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_practice" title="Code of practice">Code of practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_plan" title="Contingency plan">Contingency plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_regulations" title="Diving regulations">Diving regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_response_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency response plan">Emergency response plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_safety_officer" title="Diving safety officer">Diving safety officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_superintendent" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving superintendent">Diving superintendent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_supervisor" title="Diving supervisor">Diving supervisor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_manual" title="Operations manual">Operations manual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_operating_procedure" title="Standard operating procedure">Standard operating procedure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Diving_medicine1383" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diving_medicine" title="Diving medicine">Diving medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_disorders" title="Diving disorders">Diving<br />disorders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_signs_and_symptoms_of_diving_disorders" title="List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders">List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cramp" title="Cramp">Cramp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion_sickness" title="Motion sickness">Motion sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surfer%27s_ear" title="Surfer's ear">Surfer's ear</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pressure<br />related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternobaric_vertigo" title="Alternobaric vertigo">Alternobaric vertigo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barostriction" class="mw-redirect" title="Barostriction">Barostriction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">Barotrauma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_embolism" title="Air embolism">Air embolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerosinusitis" title="Aerosinusitis">Aerosinusitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barodontalgia" title="Barodontalgia">Barodontalgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_barotrauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental barotrauma">Dental barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_ear_barotrauma" title="Middle ear barotrauma">Middle ear barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_barotrauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary barotrauma">Pulmonary barotrauma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compression_arthralgia" title="Compression arthralgia">Compression arthralgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_illness" title="Decompression illness">Decompression illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysbarism" title="Dysbarism">Dysbarism</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oxygen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freediving_blackout" title="Freediving blackout">Freediving blackout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperoxia" title="Hyperoxia">Hyperoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">Oxygen toxicity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inert gases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avascular_necrosis" title="Avascular necrosis">Avascular necrosis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Decompression sickness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dysbaric_osteonecrosis" title="Dysbaric osteonecrosis">Dysbaric osteonecrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_ear_decompression_sickness" title="Inner ear decompression sickness">Inner ear decompression sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isobaric_counterdiffusion" title="Isobaric counterdiffusion">Isobaric counterdiffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taravana" title="Taravana">Taravana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-pressure_nervous_syndrome" title="High-pressure nervous syndrome">High-pressure nervous syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_narcosis" title="Hydrogen narcosis">Hydrogen narcosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_narcosis" title="Nitrogen narcosis">Nitrogen narcosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Carbon dioxide</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypercapnia" title="Hypercapnia">Hypercapnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypocapnia" title="Hypocapnia">Hypocapnia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Breathing gas<br />contaminants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide_poisoning" title="Carbon monoxide poisoning">Carbon monoxide poisoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immersion<br />related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asphyxia" title="Asphyxia">Asphyxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">Drowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">Hypothermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immersion_diuresis" class="mw-redirect" title="Immersion diuresis">Immersion diuresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instinctive_drowning_response" title="Instinctive drowning response">Instinctive drowning response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laryngospasm" title="Laryngospasm">Laryngospasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_water_aspiration_syndrome" title="Salt water aspiration syndrome">Salt water aspiration syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimming-induced_pulmonary_edema" title="Swimming-induced pulmonary edema">Swimming-induced pulmonary edema</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treatment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand_valve_oxygen_therapy" title="Demand valve oxygen therapy">Demand valve oxygen therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_aid" title="First aid">First aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_medicine" title="Hyperbaric medicine">Hyperbaric medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_treatment_schedules" title="Hyperbaric treatment schedules">Hyperbaric treatment schedules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-water_recompression" title="In-water recompression">In-water recompression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_therapy" title="Oxygen therapy">Oxygen therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_recompression" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapeutic recompression">Therapeutic recompression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Personnel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Medical_Examiner" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving Medical Examiner">Diving Medical Examiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Medical_Practitioner" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving Medical Practitioner">Diving Medical Practitioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Medical_Technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving Medical Technician">Diving Medical Technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_nursing" title="Hyperbaric nursing">Hyperbaric nursing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Screening</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atrial_septal_defect" title="Atrial septal defect">Atrial septal defect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_drugs_on_fitness_to_dive" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of drugs on fitness to dive">Effects of drugs on fitness to dive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_to_dive" title="Fitness to dive">Fitness to dive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_fitness_to_dive" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological fitness to dive">Psychological fitness to dive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_researchers_in_diving_physiology_and_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="List of researchers in diving physiology and medicine">Researchers in<br />diving physiology<br />and medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_J._Bachrach" title="Arthur J. Bachrach">Arthur J. Bachrach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_R._Behnke" title="Albert R. Behnke">Albert R. Behnke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_B._Bennett" title="Peter B. Bennett">Peter B. Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bert" title="Paul Bert">Paul Bert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_F._Bond" title="George F. Bond">George F. Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alf_O._Brubakk" title="Alf O. Brubakk">Alf O. Brubakk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_A._B%C3%BChlmann" title="Albert A. Bühlmann">Albert A. Bühlmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Clarke_(scientist)" title="John R. Clarke (scientist)">John R. Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guybon_Chesney_Castell_Damant" title="Guybon Chesney Castell Damant">Guybon Chesney Castell Damant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_William_Donald" title="Kenneth William Donald">Kenneth William Donald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paul_Fife" title="William Paul Fife">William Paul Fife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Scott_Haldane" title="John Scott Haldane">John Scott Haldane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_William_Hamilton_Jr." title="Robert William Hamilton Jr.">Robert William Hamilton Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Valence_Hempleman" title="Henry Valence Hempleman">Henry Valence Hempleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Erskine_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonard Erskine Hill">Leonard Erskine Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Andrew_Hills" title="Brian Andrew Hills">Brian Andrew Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Hoppe-Seyler" title="Felix Hoppe-Seyler">Felix Hoppe-Seyler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_J._Lambertsen" title="Christian J. Lambertsen">Christian J. Lambertsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Mitchell" title="Simon Mitchell">Simon Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Momsen" title="Charles Momsen">Charles Momsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neal_W._Pollock" title="Neal W. Pollock">Neal W. Pollock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawlins_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="John Rawlins (Royal Navy officer)">John Rawlins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wesley_Shilling" title="Charles Wesley Shilling">Charles Wesley Shilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_D._Thalmann" title="Edward D. Thalmann">Edward D. Thalmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Triger" title="Jacques Triger">Jacques Triger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diving medical<br />research<br />organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Medical_Association" title="Aerospace Medical Association">Aerospace Medical Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divers_Alert_Network" title="Divers Alert Network">Divers Alert Network</a> (DAN)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Diseases_Research_Centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving Diseases Research Centre">Diving Diseases Research Centre</a> (DDRC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Medical_Advisory_Council" title="Diving Medical Advisory Council">Diving Medical Advisory Council</a> (DMAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Diving_Technology_Committee" title="European Diving Technology Committee">European Diving Technology Committee</a> (EDTC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Underwater_and_Baromedical_Society" title="European Underwater and Baromedical Society">European Underwater and Baromedical Society</a> (EUBS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Board_of_Diving_and_Hyperbaric_Medical_Technology" title="National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology">National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Submarine_Medical_Research_Laboratory" title="Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory">Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Australian_Navy_School_of_Underwater_Medicine" title="Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine">Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubicon_Foundation" title="Rubicon Foundation">Rubicon Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_Underwater_Medicine_Society" title="South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society">South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society</a> (SPUMS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_African_Underwater_and_Hyperbaric_Medical_Association" title="Southern African Underwater and Hyperbaric Medical Association">Southern African Underwater and Hyperbaric Medical Association</a> (SAUHMA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undersea_and_Hyperbaric_Medical_Society" title="Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society">Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society</a> (UHMS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_Experimental_Diving_Unit" title="United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit">United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit</a> (NEDU)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Law1383" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Law</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liability_in_recreational_diving" title="Civil liability in recreational diving">Civil liability in recreational diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_regulations" title="Diving regulations">Diving regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty_of_care" title="Duty of care">Duty of care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_legislation_regulating_underwater_diving" title="List of legislation regulating underwater diving">List of legislation regulating underwater diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investigation_of_diving_accidents" title="Investigation of diving accidents">Investigation of diving accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Protection_of_the_Underwater_Cultural_Heritage" title="Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage">Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History_of_underwater_diving1383" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_underwater_diving" title="History of underwater diving">History of underwater diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_decompression_research_and_development" title="History of decompression research and development">History of decompression research and development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_dive_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="History of dive computers">History of dive computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Diving_Museum" title="History of Diving Museum">History of Diving Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_scuba_diving" title="History of scuba diving">History of scuba diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_researchers_in_underwater_diving" title="List of researchers in underwater diving">List of researchers in underwater diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyons_Maritime_Museum" title="Lyons Maritime Museum">Lyons Maritime Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_in_the_Sea_Museum" title="Man in the Sea Museum">Man in the Sea Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_atmospheric_diving_suits" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of atmospheric diving suits">Timeline of atmospheric diving suits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_diving_technology" title="Timeline of diving technology">Timeline of diving technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearling_in_Western_Australia" title="Pearling in Western Australia">Pearling in Western Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US_Navy_decompression_models_and_tables" title="US Navy decompression models and tables">US Navy decompression models and tables</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archeological<br />sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS_Commodore" title="SS Commodore">SS <i>Commodore</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Monitor" title="USS Monitor">USS <i>Monitor</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_Revenge" title="Queen Anne's Revenge">Queen Anne's Revenge</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Whydah_Gally" title="Whydah Gally">Whydah Gally</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater art<br />and artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Diver" title="The Diver">The Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_deCaires_Taylor" title="Jason deCaires Taylor">Jason deCaires Taylor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Engineers<br />and inventors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimo_de_Ayanz_y_Beaumont" title="Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont">Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Beebe" title="William Beebe">William Beebe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Beuchat" title="Georges Beuchat">Georges Beuchat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli" title="Giovanni Alfonso Borelli">Giovanni Alfonso Borelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph-Martin_Cabirol" title="Joseph-Martin Cabirol">Joseph-Martin Cabirol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Clarke_(scientist)" title="John R. Clarke (scientist)">John R. Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cousteau" title="Jacques Cousteau">Jacques Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Anthony_Deane" title="Charles Anthony Deane">Charles Anthony Deane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Deane_(inventor)" title="John Deane (inventor)">John Deane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Corlieu" title="Louis de Corlieu">Louis de Corlieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Denayrouze" title="Auguste Denayrouze">Auguste Denayrouze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Eldred" title="Ted Eldred">Ted Eldred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Fleuss" title="Henry Fleuss">Henry Fleuss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Gagnan" title="Émile Gagnan">Émile Gagnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Heinrich_Klingert" title="Karl Heinrich Klingert">Karl Heinrich Klingert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kreeft_(diver)" title="Peter Kreeft (diver)">Peter Kreeft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_J._Lambertsen" title="Christian J. Lambertsen">Christian J. Lambertsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yves_Le_Prieur" title="Yves Le Prieur">Yves Le Prieur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lethbridge" title="John Lethbridge">John Lethbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_William_Moir" title="Ernest William Moir">Ernest William Moir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Salim_Peress" title="Joseph Salim Peress">Joseph Salim Peress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Piccard" title="Auguste Piccard">Auguste Piccard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Savoie" title="Joe Savoie">Joe Savoie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Franklyn_Searle" title="Willard Franklyn Searle">Willard Franklyn Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Smith_(inventor)" title="Gordon Smith (inventor)">Gordon Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_Siebe" title="Augustus Siebe">Augustus Siebe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Marie_Touboulic" title="Pierre-Marie Touboulic">Pierre-Marie Touboulic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Triger" title="Jacques Triger">Jacques Triger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical<br />equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqua-Lung" title="Aqua-Lung">Aqua-Lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RV_Calypso" title="RV Calypso">RV <i>Calypso</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SP-350_Denise" title="SP-350 Denise">SP-350 <i>Denise</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_torch" title="Magnesium torch">Magnesium torch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikonos" title="Nikonos">Nikonos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porpoise_(scuba_gear)" title="Porpoise (scuba gear)">Porpoise regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_dress" title="Standard diving dress">Standard diving dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub_Marine_Explorer" title="Sub Marine Explorer">Sub Marine Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vintage_scuba" title="Vintage scuba">Vintage scuba</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Diverpropulsionvehicles64" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diver_propulsion_vehicle" title="Diver propulsion vehicle">Diver<br />propulsion<br />vehicles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_SEAL_Delivery_System" title="Advanced SEAL Delivery System">Advanced SEAL Delivery System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmos_CE2F_series" title="Cosmos CE2F series">Cosmos CE2F series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_Combat_Submersible" title="Dry Combat Submersible">Dry Combat Submersible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_torpedo" title="Human torpedo">Human torpedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motorised_Submersible_Canoe" title="Motorised Submersible Canoe">Motorised Submersible Canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necker_Nymph" title="Necker Nymph">Necker Nymph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-2_Mala-class_swimmer_delivery_vehicle" title="R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle">R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SEAL_Delivery_Vehicle" title="SEAL Delivery Vehicle">SEAL Delivery Vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_Water_Combat_Submersible" title="Shallow Water Combat Submersible">Shallow Water Combat Submersible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siluro_San_Bartolomeo" title="Siluro San Bartolomeo">Siluro San Bartolomeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfreighter" title="Welfreighter">Welfreighter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_Nellie" title="Wet Nellie">Wet Nellie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military and<br />covert operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Alexandria_(1941)" title="Raid on Alexandria (1941)">Raid on Alexandria (1941)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_the_Rainbow_Warrior" title="Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior">Sinking of the <i>Rainbow Warrior</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1992_cageless_shark-diving_expedition" title="1992 cageless shark-diving expedition">1992 cageless shark-diving expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_31" title="Mission 31">Mission 31</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Awards and events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hass_Award" title="Hans Hass Award">Hans Hass Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Scuba_Diving_Hall_of_Fame" title="International Scuba Diving Hall of Fame">International Scuba Diving Hall of Fame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Diving_Chamber_Dive_Lectures" title="London Diving Chamber Dive Lectures">London Diving Chamber Dive Lectures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOGI_Awards" title="NOGI Awards">NOGI Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_Divers_Hall_of_Fame" title="Women Divers Hall of Fame">Women Divers Hall of Fame</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dive_boat" title="Dive boat">Dive boat</a> incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_MV_Conception" title="Sinking of MV Conception">Sinking of MV <i>Conception</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diver rescues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpazat_cave_rescue" title="Alpazat cave rescue">Alpazat cave rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tham_Luang_cave_rescue" title="Tham Luang cave rescue">Tham Luang cave rescue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early diving</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Day_(carpenter)" title="John Day (carpenter)">John Day (carpenter)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Spalding" title="Charles Spalding">Charles Spalding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebenezer_Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebenezer Watson">Ebenezer Watson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a> fatalities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Keenan" title="Stephen Keenan">Stephen Keenan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo%C3%AFc_Leferme" title="Loïc Leferme">Loïc Leferme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Mestre" title="Audrey Mestre">Audrey Mestre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Mevoli" title="Nicholas Mevoli">Nicholas Mevoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Molchanova" title="Natalia Molchanova">Natalia Molchanova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Offshore_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore diving">Offshore<br />diving</a> incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byford_Dolphin#Diving_bell_accident" title="Byford Dolphin"><i>Byford Dolphin</i> diving bell accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drill_Master_diving_accident" title="Drill Master diving accident"><i>Drill Master</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_Canopus_diving_accident" title="Star Canopus diving accident"><i>Star Canopus</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stena_Seaspread_diving_accident" title="Stena Seaspread diving accident"><i>Stena Seaspread</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_One_diving_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Venture One diving accident"><i>Venture One</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waage_Drill_II_diving_accident" title="Waage Drill II diving accident"><i>Waage Drill II</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildrake_diving_accident" title="Wildrake diving accident"><i>Wildrake</i> diving accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Professional_diving" title="Professional diving">Professional<br />diving</a> fatalities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Baldwin_(diver)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger Baldwin (diver)">Roger Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bennett_(diver)" title="John Bennett (diver)">John Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_F._Guiel_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Victor F. Guiel Jr.">Victor F. Guiel Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_P._Hammerberg" title="Francis P. Hammerberg">Francis P. Hammerberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craig_M._Hoffman" class="mw-redirect" title="Craig M. Hoffman">Craig M. Hoffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Henry_Michael_Holmes" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Henry Michael Holmes">Peter Henry Michael Holmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Sea_Link_accident" title="Johnson Sea Link accident">Johnson Sea Link accident</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Clayton_Link" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Clayton Link">Edwin Clayton Link</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_Anthony_Prangley" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerard Anthony Prangley">Gerard Anthony Prangley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Per_Skipnes" class="mw-redirect" title="Per Skipnes">Per Skipnes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_John_Smyth" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert John Smyth">Robert John Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_D._Stover" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert D. Stover">Albert D. Stover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Walker" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard A. Walker">Richard A. Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothar_Michael_Ward" class="mw-redirect" title="Lothar Michael Ward">Lothar Michael Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Wendler" title="Joachim Wendler">Joachim Wendler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Bradley_Westell" title="Death of Bradley Westell">Bradley Westell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arne_Zetterstr%C3%B6m" title="Arne Zetterström">Arne Zetterström</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_fatalities" title="Scuba diving fatalities">Scuba diving<br />fatalities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1973_Mount_Gambier_cave_diving_accident" title="1973 Mount Gambier cave diving accident">1973 Mount Gambier cave diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricardo_Armbruster" title="Ricardo Armbruster">Ricardo Armbruster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Bridge" title="Allan Bridge">Allan Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Bright_(diver)" title="David Bright (diver)">David Bright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_L._Cannon" title="Berry L. Cannon">Berry L. Cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_Coulson" title="Cotton Coulson">Cotton Coulson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cl%C3%A1udio_Coutinho" title="Cláudio Coutinho">Cláudio Coutinho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Yale_Dawson" title="E. Yale Dawson">E. Yale Dawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deon_Dreyer" title="Deon Dreyer">Deon Dreyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milan_Dufek" title="Milan Dufek">Milan Dufek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheck_Exley" title="Sheck Exley">Sheck Exley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Fargues" title="Maurice Fargues">Maurice Fargues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Garfella_Palmer" title="Fernando Garfella Palmer">Fernando Garfella Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Garman" title="Guy Garman">Guy Garman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Irwin" title="Steve Irwin">Steve Irwin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Steve_Irwin" title="Death of Steve Irwin">death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Jones_(American_football,_born_1935)" title="Jim Jones (American football, born 1935)">Jim Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Way_Kendall" title="Henry Way Kendall">Henry Way Kendall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artur_Koz%C5%82owski_(speleologist)" title="Artur Kozłowski (speleologist)">Artur Kozłowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Lipski" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuri Lipski">Yuri Lipski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirsty_MacColl" title="Kirsty MacColl">Kirsty MacColl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Linnea_Mills" title="Death of Linnea Mills">Linnea Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Milowka" title="Agnes Milowka">Agnes Milowka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Roubaix" title="François de Roubaix">François de Roubaix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Dive" title="The Last Dive">Chris and Chrissy Rouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Shaw" title="Dave Shaw">Dave Shaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_C._Skiles" title="Wesley C. Skiles">Wesley C. Skiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewey_Smith" title="Dewey Smith">Dewey Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rob_Stewart_(filmmaker)" title="Rob Stewart (filmmaker)">Rob Stewart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esbj%C3%B6rn_Svensson" title="Esbjörn Svensson">Esbjörn Svensson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Velek" title="Josef Velek">Josef Velek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Publications1383" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Publications</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manuals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/NOAA_Diving_Manual" title="NOAA Diving Manual">NOAA Diving Manual</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy_Diving_Manual" title="U.S. Navy Diving Manual">U.S. Navy Diving Manual</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Basic_Cave_Diving:_A_Blueprint_for_Survival" title="Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival">Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Underwater_Handbook&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Underwater Handbook (page does not exist)">Underwater Handbook</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bennett_and_Elliott%27s_physiology_and_medicine_of_diving&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving (page does not exist)">Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Encyclopedia_of_Recreational_Diving&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving (page does not exist)">Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_new_science_of_skin_and_scuba_diving&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The new science of skin and scuba diving (page does not exist)">The new science of skin and scuba diving</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professional_Diver%27s_Handbook&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Professional Diver's Handbook (page does not exist)">Professional Diver's Handbook</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Basic_Scuba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Basic Scuba (page does not exist)">Basic Scuba</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Standards and<br />Codes of Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Practice_for_Scientific_Diving_(UNESCO)" class="mw-redirect" title="Code of Practice for Scientific Diving (UNESCO)">Code of Practice for Scientific Diving (UNESCO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIN_7876" title="DIN 7876">DIN 7876</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IMCA_Code_of_Practice_for_Offshore_Diving" class="mw-redirect" title="IMCA Code of Practice for Offshore Diving">IMCA Code of Practice for Offshore Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_24801_Recreational_diving_services_%E2%80%94_Requirements_for_the_training_of_recreational_scuba_divers" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 24801 Recreational diving services — Requirements for the training of recreational scuba divers">ISO 24801 Recreational diving services — Requirements for the training of recreational scuba divers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General non-fiction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Darkness_Beckons" title="The Darkness Beckons">The Darkness Beckons</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Goldfinder" title="Goldfinder">Goldfinder</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Dive" title="The Last Dive">The Last Dive</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shadow_Divers" title="Shadow Divers">Shadow Divers</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Silent_World:_A_Story_of_Undersea_Discovery_and_Adventure" title="The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure">The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Divers_Alert_Network_publications" title="List of Divers Alert Network publications">List of Divers Alert Network publications</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dive_guide_(publication)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive guide (publication)">Dive guides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Training_and_registration1383" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Training and registration</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diver_training" title="Diver training">Diver<br />training</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Competence and assessment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Competency-based_learning" title="Competency-based learning">Competency-based learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refresher_training_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Refresher training (diving)">Refresher training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skill_assessment" title="Skill assessment">Skill assessment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_training_standard" title="Diver training standard">Diver training standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_instructor" title="Diving instructor">Diving instructor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving school">Diving school</a></li> <li>Occupational diver training <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_diver_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial diver training">Commercial diver training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_diver_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Military diver training">Military diver training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_safety_diver_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Public safety diver training">Public safety diver training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_diver_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific diver training">Scientific diver training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_diver_training" title="Recreational diver training">Recreational diver training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introductory_diving" title="Introductory diving">Introductory diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_recreational_diving_training_standards" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO recreational diving training standards">ISO training standards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_method" title="Teaching method">Teaching method</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_memory" title="Muscle memory">Muscle memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overlearning" title="Overlearning">Overlearning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_exposure_training" title="Stress exposure training">Stress exposure training</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Skills6" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Skills</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Combat_sidestroke" title="Combat sidestroke">Combat sidestroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_navigation" title="Diver navigation">Diver navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_trim" title="Diver trim">Diver trim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear_clearing" title="Ear clearing">Ear clearing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frenzel_maneuver" title="Frenzel maneuver">Frenzel maneuver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valsalva_maneuver" title="Valsalva maneuver">Valsalva maneuver</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finning_techniques" title="Finning techniques">Finning techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_skills" title="Scuba skills">Scuba skills</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddy_breathing" title="Buddy breathing">Buddy breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_impact_diving" title="Low impact diving">Low impact diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_Reef_System" title="Diamond Reef System">Diamond Reef System</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface-supplied_diving_skills" title="Surface-supplied diving skills">Surface-supplied diving skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_searches" title="Underwater searches">Underwater searches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Recreational_scuba_certification_levels" title="Recreational scuba certification levels">Recreational<br />scuba<br />certification<br />levels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Core diving skills</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Open_Water_Diver" title="Advanced Open Water Diver">Advanced Open Water Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_diver" title="Autonomous diver">Autonomous diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMAS*_scuba_diver" title="CMAS* scuba diver">CMAS* scuba diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMAS**_scuba_diver" title="CMAS** scuba diver">CMAS** scuba diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introductory_diving" title="Introductory diving">Introductory diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Impact_Diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Low Impact Diver">Low Impact Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_Scuba_Diver" title="Master Scuba Diver">Master Scuba Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Water_Diver" title="Open Water Diver">Open Water Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_diver" title="Supervised diver">Supervised diver</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leadership skills</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dive_leader" title="Dive leader">Dive leader</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divemaster" title="Divemaster">Divemaster</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_instructor" title="Diving instructor">Diving instructor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Master_Instructor" class="mw-redirect" title="Master Instructor">Master Instructor</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specialist skills</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_Diver" title="Rescue Diver">Rescue Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solo_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Solo diver">Solo diver</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diver_training_organization" title="Diver training organization">Diver training<br />certification<br />and registration<br />organisations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Underwater_Federation" title="European Underwater Federation">European Underwater Federation</a> (EUF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Diving_Regulators_and_Certifiers_Forum" title="International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum">International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum</a> (IDRCF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Diving_Schools_Association" title="International Diving Schools Association">International Diving Schools Association</a> (IDSA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Marine_Contractors_Association" title="International Marine Contractors Association">International Marine Contractors Association</a> (IMCA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diver_certification_organizations" title="List of diver certification organizations">List of diver certification organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_diver_course_referral" title="Recreational diver course referral">Recreational diver course referral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Recreational_Scuba_Training_Council" title="World Recreational Scuba Training Council">World Recreational Scuba Training Council</a> (WRSTC)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commercial diver<br />certification<br />authorities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Diver_Accreditation_Scheme" title="Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme">Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme</a> (ADAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_diver_registration_in_South_Africa" title="Commercial diver registration in South Africa">Commercial diver registration in South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divers_Institute_of_Technology" title="Divers Institute of Technology">Divers Institute of Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_Safety_Executive" title="Health and Safety Executive">Health and Safety Executive</a> (HSE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Employment_and_Labour" title="Department of Employment and Labour">Department of Employment and Labour</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commercial diving<br />schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divers_Academy_International" title="Divers Academy International">Divers Academy International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Norway_University_of_Applied_Sciences#Norwegian_diver_school" title="Western Norway University of Applied Sciences">Norwegian diver school</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Free-diving<br />certification<br />agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_International" title="AIDA International">AIDA International</a> (AIDA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a> (CMAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_Freediving_International" title="Performance Freediving International">Performance Freediving International</a> (PI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Schools_International" title="Scuba Schools International">Scuba Schools International</a> (SSI)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Recreational<br />scuba<br />certification<br />agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Canadian_Underwater_Certifications" title="American Canadian Underwater Certifications">American Canadian Underwater Certifications</a> (ACUC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Nitrox_Divers_International" title="American Nitrox Divers International">American Nitrox Divers International</a> (ANDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_nationale_des_moniteurs_de_plong%C3%A9e" title="Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée">Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée</a> (ANMP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Sub-Aqua_Club" title="British Sub-Aqua Club">British Sub-Aqua Club</a> (BSAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comhairle_Fo-Thuinn" title="Comhairle Fo-Thuinn">Comhairle Fo-Thuinn</a> (CFT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a> (CMAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Espa%C3%B1ola_de_Actividades_Subacu%C3%A1ticas" title="Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas">Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas</a> (FEDAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Fran%C3%A7aise_d%27%C3%89tudes_et_de_Sports_Sous-Marins" title="Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins">Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins</a> (FFESSM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federazione_Italiana_Attivit%C3%A0_Subacquee" title="Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee">Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee</a> (FIAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Underwater_Explorers" title="Global Underwater Explorers">Global Underwater Explorers</a> (GUE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Handicapped_Divers" title="International Association for Handicapped Divers">International Association for Handicapped Divers</a> (IAHD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Nitrox_and_Technical_Divers" title="International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers">International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers</a> (IANTD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Life_Saving_Federation" title="International Life Saving Federation">International Life Saving Federation</a> (ILS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Diving_Federation" title="Israeli Diving Federation">Israeli Diving Federation</a> (TIDF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Scuba_Educators" title="National Academy of Scuba Educators">National Academy of Scuba Educators</a> (NASE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Underwater_Instructors" title="National Association of Underwater Instructors">National Association of Underwater Instructors</a> (NAUI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nederlandse_Onderwatersport_Bond" title="Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond">Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond</a> (NOB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Association_of_Diving_Instructors" title="Professional Association of Diving Instructors">Professional Association of Diving Instructors</a> (PADI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Diving_Instructors_Corporation" title="Professional Diving Instructors Corporation">Professional Diving Instructors Corporation</a> (PDIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Technical_and_Recreational_Diving" title="Professional Technical and Recreational Diving">Professional Technical and Recreational Diving</a> (ProTec)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather_Association_of_International_Divers" title="Rebreather Association of International Divers">Rebreather Association of International Divers</a> (RAID)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Aqua_Association" title="Sub-Aqua Association">Sub-Aqua Association</a> (SAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Diving_International" title="Scuba Diving International">Scuba Diving International</a> (SDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Educators_International" title="Scuba Educators International">Scuba Educators International</a> (SEI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Schools_International" title="Scuba Schools International">Scuba Schools International</a> (SSI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Underwater_Sports_Federation" title="Turkish Underwater Sports Federation">Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu</a> (TSSF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Diving_Instructors" title="United Diving Instructors">United Diving Instructors</a> (UDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/YMCA_SCUBA_Program" title="YMCA SCUBA Program">YMCA SCUBA Program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific diver<br />certification<br />authorities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Underwater_Sciences" title="American Academy of Underwater Sciences">American Academy of Underwater Sciences</a> (AAUS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques#Scientific_committee" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">CMAS Scientific Committee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical diver<br />certification<br />agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Nitrox_Divers_International" title="American Nitrox Divers International">American Nitrox Divers International</a> (ANDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Sub-Aqua_Club" title="British Sub-Aqua Club">British Sub-Aqua Club</a> (BSAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a> (CMAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Science_and_Technology" title="Diving Science and Technology">Diving Science and Technology</a> (DSAT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federazione_Italiana_Attivit%C3%A0_Subacquee" title="Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee">Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee</a> (FIAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Nitrox_and_Technical_Divers" title="International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers">International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers</a> (IANTD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Association_of_Diving_Instructors" title="Professional Association of Diving Instructors">Professional Association of Diving Instructors</a> (PADI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Diving_Instructors_Corporation" title="Professional Diving Instructors Corporation">Professional Diving Instructors Corporation</a> (PDIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Technical_and_Recreational_Diving" title="Professional Technical and Recreational Diving">Professional Technical and Recreational Diving</a> (ProTec)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather_Association_of_International_Divers" title="Rebreather Association of International Divers">Rebreather Association of International Divers</a> (RAID)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimix_Scuba_Association" title="Trimix Scuba Association">Trimix Scuba Association</a> (TSA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Schools_International" title="Scuba Schools International">Technical Extended Range</a> (TXR)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Cavediving16" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cave<br />diving</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Divers_Association_of_Australia" title="Cave Divers Association of Australia">Cave Divers Association of Australia</a> (CDAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Diving_Group" title="Cave Diving Group">Cave Diving Group</a> (CDG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Underwater_Explorers" title="Global Underwater Explorers">Global Underwater Explorers</a> (GUE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Speleological_Society#Cave_Diving_Group" title="National Speleological Society">National Speleological Society#Cave Diving Group</a> (CDG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Underwater_Instructors" title="National Association of Underwater Instructors">National Association of Underwater Instructors</a> (NAUI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_Diving_International" title="Technical Diving International">Technical Diving International</a> (TDI)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military diver<br />training centres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defence_Diving_School" title="Defence Diving School">Defence Diving School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Support_Activity_Panama_City#Tenant_commands" title="Naval Support Activity Panama City">Navy Diving Salvage and Training Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Escape_Training_Unit" title="Underwater Escape Training Unit">Underwater Escape Training Unit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military diver<br />training courses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Combatant_Diver_Course" title="United States Marine Corps Combatant Diver Course">United States Marine Corps Combatant Diver Course</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Underwater_sports1383" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_sports" title="Underwater sports">Underwater sports</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface snorkeling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finswimming" title="Finswimming">Finswimming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Snorkeling/breath-hold</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spearfishing" title="Spearfishing">Spearfishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_football" title="Underwater football">Underwater football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_hockey" title="Underwater hockey">Underwater hockey</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_hockey_in_Australia" title="Underwater hockey in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_hockey_in_Turkey" title="Underwater hockey in Turkey">Turkey</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_rugby" title="Underwater rugby">Underwater rugby</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_rugby_in_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwater rugby in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_rugby_in_the_United_States" title="Underwater rugby in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_target_shooting" title="Underwater target shooting">Underwater target shooting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Breath-hold</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquathlon_(underwater_wrestling)" title="Aquathlon (underwater wrestling)">Aquathlon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apnoea_finswimming" class="mw-redirect" title="Apnoea finswimming">Apnoea finswimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Open Circuit Scuba</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immersion_finswimming" class="mw-redirect" title="Immersion finswimming">Immersion finswimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_diving_(sport)" title="Sport diving (sport)">Sport diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_cycling" title="Underwater cycling">Underwater cycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_orienteering" title="Underwater orienteering">Underwater orienteering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography_(sport)" title="Underwater photography (sport)">Underwater photography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rebreather</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography_(sport)" title="Underwater photography (sport)">Underwater photography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sports governing<br />organisations<br /> and federations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>International <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_International" title="AIDA International">AIDA International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>National <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_Hellas" title="AIDA Hellas">AIDA Hellas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Underwater_Federation" title="Australian Underwater Federation">Australian Underwater Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Freediving_Association" title="British Freediving Association">British Freediving Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Octopush_Association" title="British Octopush Association">British Octopush Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Underwater_Sports_Association" title="British Underwater Sports Association">British Underwater Sports Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comhairle_Fo-Thuinn" title="Comhairle Fo-Thuinn">Comhairle Fo-Thuinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Espa%C3%B1ola_de_Actividades_Subacu%C3%A1ticas" title="Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas">Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_federation_of_underwater_studies_and_sports" class="mw-redirect" title="French federation of underwater studies and sports">Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Underwater_Sports_Federation" title="South African Underwater Sports Federation">South African Underwater Sports Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Underwater_Sports_Federation" title="Turkish Underwater Sports Federation">Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Society_of_America" title="Underwater Society of America">Underwater Society of America</a>)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Competitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/14th_CMAS_Underwater_Photography_World_Championship" title="14th CMAS Underwater Photography World Championship">14th CMAS Underwater Photography World Championship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Hockey_World_Championships" title="Underwater Hockey World Championships">Underwater Hockey World Championships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Orienteering_World_Championships" title="Underwater Orienteering World Championships">Underwater Orienteering World Championships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Rugby_World_Championships" title="Underwater Rugby World Championships">Underwater Rugby World Championships</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Underwater_divers1383" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_underwater_divers" title="Outline of underwater divers">Underwater divers</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers<br />of diving</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Admetlla_i_L%C3%A1zaro" title="Eduard Admetlla i Lázaro">Eduard Admetlla i Lázaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquanaut" title="Aquanaut">Aquanaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Bonnin" title="Mary Bonnin">Mary Bonnin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Behrens-Furniss" title="Amelia Behrens-Furniss">Amelia Behrens-Furniss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Cahill" title="James F. Cahill">James F. Cahill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cousteau" title="Jacques Cousteau">Jacques Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billy_Deans_(diver)" title="Billy Deans (diver)">Billy Deans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dottie_Frazier" title="Dottie Frazier">Dottie Frazier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trevor_Hampton" title="Trevor Hampton">Trevor Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hass" title="Hans Hass">Hans Hass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannes_Keller" title="Hannes Keller">Hannes Keller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Rutkowski" title="Dick Rutkowski">Dick Rutkowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teseo_Tesei" title="Teseo Tesei">Teseo Tesei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arne_Zetterstr%C3%B6m" title="Arne Zetterström">Arne Zetterström</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />scientists<br />archaeologists and<br />environmentalists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Arbuthnot" title="Michael Arbuthnot">Michael Arbuthnot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Ballard" title="Robert Ballard">Robert Ballard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mensun_Bound" title="Mensun Bound">Mensun Bound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Boutan" title="Louis Boutan">Louis Boutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Bozanic" title="Jeffrey Bozanic">Jeffrey Bozanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Bradner" title="Hugh Bradner">Hugh Bradner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathy_Church" title="Cathy Church">Cathy Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenie_Clark" title="Eugenie Clark">Eugenie Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_P._Delgado" title="James P. Delgado">James P. Delgado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Earle" title="Sylvia Earle">Sylvia Earle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Christopher_Fine" title="John Christopher Fine">John Christopher Fine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_R._Fischer" title="George R. Fischer">George R. Fischer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anders_Franz%C3%A9n" title="Anders Franzén">Anders Franzén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor_Frost" title="Honor Frost">Honor Frost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Garfella_Palmer" title="Fernando Garfella Palmer">Fernando Garfella Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Gibbins" title="David Gibbins">David Gibbins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Jessop" title="Graham Jessop">Graham Jessop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swietenia_Puspa_Lestari" title="Swietenia Puspa Lestari">Swietenia Puspa Lestari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilar_Luna" title="Pilar Luna">Pilar Luna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Marx" title="Robert F. Marx">Robert F. Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Marguerite_McCann" title="Anna Marguerite McCann">Anna Marguerite McCann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innes_McCartney" title="Innes McCartney">Innes McCartney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_T._Meide" title="Charles T. Meide">Charles T. Meide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_M._Newell" title="Mark M. Newell">Mark M. Newell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyuba_Ognenova-Marinova" title="Lyuba Ognenova-Marinova">Lyuba Ognenova-Marinova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Peter_Oleson" title="John Peter Oleson">John Peter Oleson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendel_L._Peterson" title="Mendel L. Peterson">Mendel L. Peterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Pyle" title="Richard Pyle">Richard Pyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Rechnitzer" title="Andreas Rechnitzer">Andreas Rechnitzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Royal" title="William R. Royal">William R. Royal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Rule" title="Margaret Rule">Margaret Rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunter_Sch%C3%B6bel" title="Gunter Schöbel">Gunter Schöbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Schwabe" title="Stephanie Schwabe">Stephanie Schwabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myriam_Seco" title="Myriam Seco">Myriam Seco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Lee_Spence" title="E. Lee Spence">E. Lee Spence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_St%C3%A9nuit" title="Robert Sténuit">Robert Sténuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Throckmorton" title="Peter Throckmorton">Peter Throckmorton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cristina_Zenato" title="Cristina Zenato">Cristina Zenato</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scuba record<br />holders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pascal_Bernab%C3%A9" title="Pascal Bernabé">Pascal Bernabé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Bowden_(diver)" title="Jim Bowden (diver)">Jim Bowden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Ellyatt" title="Mark Ellyatt">Mark Ellyatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheck_Exley" title="Sheck Exley">Sheck Exley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuno_Gomes_(diver)" title="Nuno Gomes (diver)">Nuno Gomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudia_Serpieri" title="Claudia Serpieri">Claudia Serpieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krzysztof_Starnawski" title="Krzysztof Starnawski">Krzysztof Starnawski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />filmmakers<br />and presenters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Alhafith" title="Samir Alhafith">Samir Alhafith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Attenborough" title="David Attenborough">David Attenborough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_Bravo" title="Ramón Bravo">Ramón Bravo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Michel_Cousteau" title="Jean-Michel Cousteau">Jean-Michel Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richie_Kohler" title="Richie Kohler">Richie Kohler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Rose_(TV_presenter)" title="Paul Rose (TV presenter)">Paul Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Torbet" title="Andy Torbet">Andy Torbet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Tors" title="Ivan Tors">Ivan Tors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wight" title="Andrew Wight">Andrew Wight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Cameron" title="James Cameron">James Cameron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />photographers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doug_Allan" title="Doug Allan">Doug Allan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamara_Benitez" title="Tamara Benitez">Tamara Benitez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Beuchat" title="Georges Beuchat">Georges Beuchat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Biddle" title="Adrian Biddle">Adrian Biddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bird" title="Jonathan Bird">Jonathan Bird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Cheng" title="Eric Cheng">Eric Cheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neville_Coleman" title="Neville Coleman">Neville Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cousteau" title="Jacques Cousteau">Jacques Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_D._Craig" title="John D. Craig">John D. Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Cropp" title="Ben Cropp">Ben Cropp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Delemotte" title="Bernard Delemotte">Bernard Delemotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Doubilet" title="David Doubilet">David Doubilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candice_Farmer" title="Candice Farmer">Candice Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Christopher_Fine" title="John Christopher Fine">John Christopher Fine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Fox" title="Rodney Fox">Rodney Fox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ric_Frazier" title="Ric Frazier">Ric Frazier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Frink" title="Stephen Frink">Stephen Frink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gimbel" title="Peter Gimbel">Peter Gimbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monty_Halls" title="Monty Halls">Monty Halls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hass" title="Hans Hass">Hans Hass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Way_Kendall" title="Henry Way Kendall">Henry Way Kendall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudie_Kuiter" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudie Kuiter">Rudie Kuiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._MacInnis" title="Joseph B. MacInnis">Joseph B. MacInnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Marden" title="Luis Marden">Luis Marden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Milowka" title="Agnes Milowka">Agnes Milowka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noel_Monkman" title="Noel Monkman">Noel Monkman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Oxford" title="Pete Oxford">Pete Oxford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Parish" class="mw-redirect" title="Steve Parish">Steve Parish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zale_Parry" title="Zale Parry">Zale Parry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Petit_(photographer)" title="Pierre Petit (photographer)">Pierre Petit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leni_Riefenstahl" title="Leni Riefenstahl">Leni Riefenstahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Scoones" title="Peter Scoones">Peter Scoones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Skerry" title="Brian Skerry">Brian Skerry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_C._Skiles" title="Wesley C. Skiles">Wesley C. Skiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Lee_Spence" title="E. Lee Spence">E. Lee Spence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Tailliez" title="Philippe Tailliez">Philippe Tailliez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_Taylor_(diver)" title="Ron Taylor (diver)">Ron Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerie_Taylor_(diver)" title="Valerie Taylor (diver)">Valerie Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Tillman" title="Albert Tillman">Albert Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Veltri" title="John Veltri">John Veltri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stan_Waterman" title="Stan Waterman">Stan Waterman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michele_Westmorland" title="Michele Westmorland">Michele Westmorland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ernest_Williamson" title="John Ernest Williamson">John Ernest Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Lamar_Worzel" title="J. Lamar Worzel">J. Lamar Worzel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Caves <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Balcombe" title="Graham Balcombe">Graham Balcombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheck_Exley" title="Sheck Exley">Sheck Exley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyn_Farr" title="Martyn Farr">Martyn Farr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jochen_Hasenmayer" title="Jochen Hasenmayer">Jochen Hasenmayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jill_Heinerth" title="Jill Heinerth">Jill Heinerth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarrod_Jablonski" title="Jarrod Jablonski">Jarrod Jablonski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hogarth_Main" title="William Hogarth Main">William Hogarth Main</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Mount" title="Tom Mount">Tom Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Sheppard_(cave_diver)" title="Jack Sheppard (cave diver)">Jack Sheppard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stone_(caver)" title="William Stone (caver)">Bill Stone</a></li></ul></li> <li>Reefs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke" title="Arthur C. Clarke">Arthur C. Clarke</a></li></ul></li> <li>Wrecks <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leigh_Bishop" title="Leigh Bishop">Leigh Bishop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chatterton" title="John Chatterton">John Chatterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Cussler" title="Clive Cussler">Clive Cussler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Nagle" title="Bill Nagle">Bill Nagle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerie_van_Heest" title="Valerie van Heest">Valerie van Heest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelis_Zervoudis" title="Aristotelis Zervoudis">Aristotelis Zervoudis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aquanaut" title="Aquanaut">Aquanauts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Abercromby" title="Andrew Abercromby">Andrew Abercromby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_M._Acaba" title="Joseph M. Acaba">Joseph M. Acaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayton_Anderson" title="Clayton Anderson">Clayton Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_R._Arnold" title="Richard R. Arnold">Richard R. Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Au%C3%B1%C3%B3n-Chancellor" title="Serena Auñón-Chancellor">Serena Auñón-Chancellor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Barratt_(astronaut)" title="Michael Barratt (astronaut)">Michael Barratt (astronaut)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Barth" title="Robert A. Barth">Robert A. Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Behnken" title="Bob Behnken">Robert L. Behnken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Bresnik" title="Randolph Bresnik">Randolph Bresnik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_J._Broderick" title="Timothy J. Broderick">Timothy J. Broderick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Brown_(aquanaut)" title="Justin Brown (aquanaut)">Justin Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_L._Cannon" title="Berry L. Cannon">Berry L. Cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Carpenter" title="Scott Carpenter">Scott Carpenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Chamitoff" title="Gregory Chamitoff">Gregory Chamitoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Chappell" title="Steve Chappell">Steve Chappell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Coleman" title="Catherine Coleman">Catherine Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Cook_(American_novelist)" title="Robin Cook (American novelist)">Robin Cook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craig_B._Cooper" title="Craig B. Cooper">Craig B. Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabien_Cousteau" title="Fabien Cousteau">Fabien Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Cousteau" title="Philippe Cousteau">Philippe Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Creamer" title="Timothy Creamer">Timothy Creamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dory" title="Jonathan Dory">Jonathan Dory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Duque" title="Pedro Duque">Pedro Duque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Earle" title="Sylvia Earle">Sylvia Earle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeanette_Epps" title="Jeanette Epps">Jeanette Epps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheck_Exley" title="Sheck Exley">Sheck Exley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Falco" title="Albert Falco">Albert Falco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_J._Feustel" title="Andrew J. Feustel">Andrew J. Feustel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Fincke" title="Michael Fincke">Michael Fincke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satoshi_Furukawa" title="Satoshi Furukawa">Satoshi Furukawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_J._Garan_Jr." title="Ronald J. Garan Jr.">Ronald J. Garan Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_L._Gernhardt" title="Michael L. Gernhardt">Michael L. Gernhardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_E._Gerty" title="Christopher E. Gerty">Christopher E. Gerty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Gruber" title="David Gruber">David Gruber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Hadfield" title="Chris Hadfield">Chris Hadfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Hansen" title="Jeremy Hansen">Jeremy Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_M._Hern%C3%A1ndez" title="José M. Hernández">José M. Hernández</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Herrington" title="John Herrington">John Herrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Hill_(flight_director)" title="Paul Hill (flight director)">Paul Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akihiko_Hoshide" title="Akihiko Hoshide">Akihiko Hoshide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Hulsbeck" title="Mark Hulsbeck">Mark Hulsbeck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Hwang" title="Emma Hwang">Emma Hwang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norishige_Kanai" title="Norishige Kanai">Norishige Kanai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Les_Kaufman" title="Les Kaufman">Les Kaufman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Kelly_(astronaut)" title="Scott Kelly (astronaut)">Scott Kelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Kohanowich" title="Karen Kohanowich">Karen Kohanowich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Kopra" title="Timothy Kopra">Timothy Kopra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominic_Landucci" title="Dominic Landucci">Dominic Landucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Lindbergh" title="Jon Lindbergh">Jon Lindbergh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kjell_N._Lindgren" title="Kjell N. Lindgren">Kjell N. Lindgren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_L%C3%B3pez-Alegr%C3%ADa" title="Michael López-Alegría">Michael López-Alegría</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._MacInnis" title="Joseph B. MacInnis">Joseph B. MacInnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Magnus" title="Sandra Magnus">Sandra Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Marshburn" title="Thomas Marshburn">Thomas Marshburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthias_Maurer" title="Matthias Maurer">Matthias Maurer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K._Megan_McArthur" title="K. Megan McArthur">K. Megan McArthur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craig_McKinley_(physician)" title="Craig McKinley (physician)">Craig McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessica_Meir" title="Jessica Meir">Jessica Meir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Melchior" title="Simone Melchior">Simone Melchior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Metcalf-Lindenburger" title="Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger">Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Mogensen" title="Andreas Mogensen">Andreas Mogensen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Nyberg" title="Karen Nyberg">Karen Nyberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_D._Olivas" title="John D. Olivas">John D. Olivas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takuya_Onishi" title="Takuya Onishi">Takuya Onishi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luca_Parmitano" title="Luca Parmitano">Luca Parmitano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Patrick" title="Nicholas Patrick">Nicholas Patrick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Peake" title="Tim Peake">Tim Peake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pesquet" title="Thomas Pesquet">Thomas Pesquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Reagan" title="Marc Reagan">Marc Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garrett_Reisman" title="Garrett Reisman">Garrett Reisman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Rubins" title="Kathleen Rubins">Kathleen Rubins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Rutkowski" title="Dick Rutkowski">Dick Rutkowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_Ruttley" title="Tara Ruttley">Tara Ruttley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Saint-Jacques" title="David Saint-Jacques">David Saint-Jacques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Schmid_(flight_surgeon)" title="Josef Schmid (flight surgeon)">Josef Schmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sheats" title="Robert Sheats">Robert Sheats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewey_Smith" title="Dewey Smith">Dewey Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Squyres" title="Steve Squyres">Steve Squyres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heidemarie_Stefanyshyn-Piper" title="Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper">Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_St%C3%A9nuit" title="Robert Sténuit">Robert Sténuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herv%C3%A9_Stevenin" title="Hervé Stevenin">Hervé Stevenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicole_Stott" title="Nicole Stott">Nicole Stott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Talacek" title="James Talacek">James Talacek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_M._Tani" title="Daniel M. Tani">Daniel M. Tani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Thirsk" title="Robert Thirsk">Robert Thirsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Todd" title="Bill Todd">Bill Todd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_T._Vande_Hei" title="Mark T. Vande Hei">Mark T. Vande Hei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koichi_Wakata" title="Koichi Wakata">Koichi Wakata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rex_J._Walheim" title="Rex J. Walheim">Rex J. Walheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shannon_Walker" title="Shannon Walker">Shannon Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Morgan_Wells" title="John Morgan Wells">John Morgan Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Wendler" title="Joachim Wendler">Joachim Wendler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_H._Wheelock" title="Douglas H. Wheelock">Douglas H. Wheelock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peggy_Whitson" title="Peggy Whitson">Peggy Whitson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dafydd_Williams" title="Dafydd Williams">Dafydd Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Williams_(astronaut)" title="Jeffrey Williams (astronaut)">Jeffrey Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunita_Williams" title="Sunita Williams">Sunita Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reid_Wiseman" title="Reid Wiseman">Reid Wiseman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimiya_Yui" title="Kimiya Yui">Kimiya Yui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers and journalists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_C._Barnette" title="Michael C. Barnette">Michael C. Barnette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Berge" title="Victor Berge">Victor Berge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Diol%C3%A9" title="Philippe Diolé">Philippe Diolé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Gentile" title="Gary Gentile">Gary Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bret_Gilliam" title="Bret Gilliam">Bret Gilliam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Halstead" title="Bob Halstead">Bob Halstead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillary_Hauser" title="Hillary Hauser">Hillary Hauser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trevor_Jackson_(diver)" title="Trevor Jackson (diver)">Trevor Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Lewis_(diver)" title="Steve Lewis (diver)">Steve Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mattera" title="John Mattera">John Mattera</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rescuers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Craig_Challen" title="Craig Challen">Craig Challen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Harris_(anaesthetist)" title="Richard Harris (anaesthetist)">Richard Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rick_Stanton" title="Rick Stanton">Rick Stanton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Volanthen" title="John Volanthen">John Volanthen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Frogmen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Crabb" title="Lionel Crabb">Lionel Crabb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Edward_Fraser" title="Ian Edward Fraser">Ian Edward Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Knowles" title="Sydney Knowles">Sydney Knowles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Joseph_Magennis" title="James Joseph Magennis">James Joseph Magennis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commercial salvors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Jessop" title="Keith Jessop">Keith Jessop</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Science_of_underwater_diving1383" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Science_of_underwater_diving" title="Science of underwater diving">Science of underwater diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_researchers_in_underwater_diving" title="List of researchers in underwater diving">List of researchers in underwater diving</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_physics" title="Diving physics">Diving<br />physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metre_sea_water" title="Metre sea water">Metre sea water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_buoyancy" title="Neutral buoyancy">Neutral buoyancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modulated_ultrasound" title="Modulated ultrasound">Modulated ultrasound</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_vision" title="Underwater vision">Underwater vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_computer_vision" title="Underwater computer vision">Underwater computer vision</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving physiology">Diving<br />physiology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_reflex#Blood_shift" title="Diving reflex">Blood shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_shock_response" title="Cold shock response">Cold shock response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_reflex" title="Diving reflex">Diving reflex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_narcotic_depth" title="Equivalent narcotic depth">Equivalent narcotic depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_operating_depth" title="Maximum operating depth">Maximum operating depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiological_response_to_water_immersion" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiological response to water immersion">Physiological response to water immersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_balance_of_the_underwater_diver" title="Thermal balance of the underwater diver">Thermal balance of the underwater diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_vision" title="Underwater vision">Underwater vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_breathing" title="Work of breathing">Work of breathing</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Decompressiontheory50" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Decompression_theory" title="Decompression theory">Decompression<br />theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Decompression models: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%BChlmann_decompression_algorithm" title="Bühlmann decompression algorithm">Bühlmann decompression algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haldane%27s_decompression_model" title="Haldane's decompression model">Haldane's decompression model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_gradient_bubble_model" title="Reduced gradient bubble model">Reduced gradient bubble model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalmann_algorithm" title="Thalmann algorithm">Thalmann algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_model_of_decompression" title="Thermodynamic model of decompression">Thermodynamic model of decompression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varying_Permeability_Model" title="Varying Permeability Model">Varying Permeability Model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_air_depth" title="Equivalent air depth">Equivalent air depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_window" title="Oxygen window">Oxygen window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology_of_decompression" title="Physiology of decompression">Physiology of decompression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving_environment" title="Underwater diving environment">Diving<br />environments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_exploration" title="Underwater exploration">Underwater exploration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_exploration" title="Deep-sea exploration">Deep-sea exploration</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_environments_by_type" title="List of diving environments by type">List of diving environments by type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altitude_diving" title="Altitude diving">Altitude diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benign_water_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Benign water diving">Benign water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confined_water_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Confined water diving">Confined water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_diving" title="Deep diving">Deep diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inland_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Inland diving">Inland diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inshore_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Inshore diving">Inshore diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muck_diving" title="Muck diving">Muck diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_diving" title="Night diving">Night diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-water_diving" title="Open-water diving">Open-water diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black-water_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Black-water diving">Black-water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue-water_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue-water diving">Blue-water diving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penetration_diving" title="Penetration diving">Penetration diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_diving" title="Cave diving">Cave diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torricellian_chamber" title="Torricellian chamber">Torricellian chamber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_diving" title="Ice diving">Ice diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_diving" title="Wreck diving">Wreck diving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_dive_sites" title="Recreational dive sites">Recreational dive sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_environment" title="Underwater environment">Underwater environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving_environment" title="Underwater diving environment">Underwater diving environment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Impact</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_recreational_diving" title="Environmental impact of recreational diving">Environmental impact of recreational diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_impact_diving" title="Low impact diving">Low impact diving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other1383" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bathysphere" title="Bathysphere">Bathysphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_against_swimmer_incursions" title="Defense against swimmer incursions">Defense against swimmer incursions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diver_detection_sonar" title="Diver detection sonar">Diver detection sonar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore survey">Offshore survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugged_compact_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Rugged compact camera">Rugged compact camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_domain_awareness" title="Underwater domain awareness">Underwater domain awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_vehicle" title="Underwater vehicle">Underwater vehicle</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deep-submergence_vehicle" title="Deep-submergence vehicle">Deep-submergence<br />vehicle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aluminaut" title="Aluminaut"><i>Aluminaut</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV <i>Alvin</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_submarine_NR-1" title="American submarine NR-1">American submarine NR-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathyscaphe" title="Bathyscaphe">Bathyscaphe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archim%C3%A8de" title="Archimède"><i>Archimède</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FNRS-2" title="FNRS-2">FNRS-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FNRS-3" title="FNRS-3">FNRS-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Pole-class_bathyscaphe#Harmony_class_bathyscaphe" title="Sea Pole-class bathyscaphe"><i>Harmony</i> class bathyscaphe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Pole-class_bathyscaphe" title="Sea Pole-class bathyscaphe"><i>Sea Pole</i>-class bathyscaphe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathyscaphe_Trieste_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bathyscaphe Trieste II"><i>Trieste II</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deepsea_Challenger" title="Deepsea Challenger"><i>Deepsea Challenger</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ictineu_3" title="Ictineu 3"><i>Ictineu 3</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JAGO_(German_research_submersible)" title="JAGO (German research submersible)"><i>JAGO</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaolong_(submersible)" title="Jiaolong (submersible)"><i>Jiaolong</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konsul-class_submersible" title="Konsul-class submersible"><i>Konsul</i>-class submersible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Limiting_Factor" title="DSV Limiting Factor"><i>Limiting Factor</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_submarine_Losharik" title="Russian submarine Losharik">Russian submarine <i>Losharik</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mir_(submersible)" title="Mir (submersible)"><i>Mir</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautile" title="Nautile"><i>Nautile</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisces-class_deep_submergence_vehicle" title="Pisces-class deep submergence vehicle"><i>Pisces</i>-class deep submergence vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Sea_Cliff" title="DSV Sea Cliff">DSV <i>Sea Cliff</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Shinkai" title="DSV Shinkai">DSV <i>Shinkai</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Shinkai_2000" title="DSV Shinkai 2000">DSV <i>Shinkai 2000</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Shinkai_6500" title="DSV Shinkai 6500">DSV <i>Shinkai 6500</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Turtle" title="DSV Turtle">DSV <i>Turtle</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV-5_Nemo" title="DSV-5 Nemo">DSV-5 <i>Nemo</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Submarine_rescue" title="Submarine rescue">Submarine rescue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Submarine_Escape_and_Rescue_Liaison_Office" title="International Submarine Escape and Rescue Liaison Office">International Submarine Escape and Rescue Liaison Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Escape_and_Rescue_system_(Royal_Swedish_Navy)" title="Submarine Escape and Rescue system (Royal Swedish Navy)">Submarine Escape and Rescue system (Royal Swedish Navy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCann_Rescue_Chamber" title="McCann Rescue Chamber">McCann Rescue Chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_rescue_ship" title="Submarine rescue ship">Submarine rescue ship</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Deep-submergencerescue_vehicle72" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deep-submergence_rescue_vehicle" title="Deep-submergence rescue vehicle">Deep-submergence<br />rescue vehicle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LR5" title="LR5">LR5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LR7" title="LR7">LR7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MSM-1" title="MSM-1">MSM-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mystic-class_deep-submergence_rescue_vehicle" title="Mystic-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle"><i>Mystic</i>-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DSRV-1_Mystic" title="DSRV-1 Mystic">DSRV-1 <i>Mystic</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSRV-2_Avalon" title="DSRV-2 Avalon">DSRV-2 <i>Avalon</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO_Submarine_Rescue_System" title="NATO Submarine Rescue System">NATO Submarine Rescue System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priz-class_deep-submergence_rescue_vehicle" title="Priz-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle"><i>Priz</i>-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_deep_submergence_rescue_vehicle_AS-28" title="Russian deep submergence rescue vehicle AS-28">Russian deep submergence rescue vehicle AS-28</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_submarine_AS-34" title="Russian submarine AS-34">Russian submarine AS-34</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASRV_Remora" class="mw-redirect" title="ASRV Remora">ASRV <i>Remora</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SRV-300" title="SRV-300">SRV-300</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Rescue_Diving_Recompression_System" title="Submarine Rescue Diving Recompression System">Submarine Rescue Diving Recompression System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_7103_DSRV" class="mw-redirect" title="Type 7103 DSRV">Type 7103 DSRV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/URF_(Swedish_Navy)" title="URF (Swedish Navy)">URF (Swedish Navy)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_escape&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Submarine escape (page does not exist)">Submarine escape</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Escape_trunk" title="Escape trunk">Escape trunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_escape_training_facility" title="Submarine escape training facility">Submarine escape training facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Escape_Training_Facility_(Australia)" title="Submarine Escape Training Facility (Australia)">Submarine Escape Training Facility (Australia)</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Escape_set14" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Escape_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Escape set">Escape set</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Davis_Submerged_Escape_Apparatus" title="Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus">Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Momsen_lung" title="Momsen lung">Momsen lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steinke_hood" title="Steinke hood">Steinke hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Escape_Immersion_Equipment" title="Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment">Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Special<br />interest<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_Reef_Society_of_British_Columbia" title="Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia">Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMAS_Europe" title="CMAS Europe">CMAS Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_Reef_Alliance" title="Coral Reef Alliance">Coral Reef Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divers_Alert_Network" title="Divers Alert Network">Divers Alert Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Fins" title="Green Fins">Green Fins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finger_Lakes_Underwater_Preserve_Association" title="Finger Lakes Underwater Preserve Association">Finger Lakes Underwater Preserve Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karst_Underwater_Research" title="Karst Underwater Research">Karst Underwater Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Program" title="Nautical Archaeology Program">Nautical Archaeology Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Air_Command_Sub_Aqua_Club" title="Naval Air Command Sub Aqua Club">Naval Air Command Sub Aqua Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PADI_AWARE" title="PADI AWARE">PADI AWARE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reef_Check" title="Reef Check">Reef Check</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reef_Life_Survey" title="Reef Life Survey">Reef Life Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubicon_Foundation" title="Rubicon Foundation">Rubicon Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Save_Ontario_Shipwrecks" title="Save Ontario Shipwrecks">Save Ontario Shipwrecks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SeaKeys" title="SeaKeys">SeaKeys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Research_Society" title="Sea Research Society">Sea Research Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Underwater_Historical_Research" title="Society for Underwater Historical Research">Society for Underwater Historical Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Underwater_Technology" title="Society for Underwater Technology">Society for Underwater Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Archaeology_Branch,_Naval_History_%26_Heritage_Command" title="Underwater Archaeology Branch, Naval History & Heritage Command">Underwater Archaeology Branch, Naval History & Heritage Command</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Neutral buoyancy<br />facilities for<br />Astronaut training</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_Buoyancy_Laboratory" title="Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory">Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_buoyancy_pool" title="Neutral buoyancy pool">Neutral buoyancy pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_buoyancy_simulation_as_a_training_aid" title="Neutral buoyancy simulation as a training aid">Neutral buoyancy simulation as a training aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_Buoyancy_Simulator" title="Neutral Buoyancy Simulator">Neutral Buoyancy Simulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Systems_Laboratory_(Maryland)" title="Space Systems Laboratory (Maryland)">Space Systems Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin_Cosmonaut_Training_Center" title="Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center">Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nautilus_Productions" title="Nautilus Productions">Nautilus Productions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helicopter_Aircrew_Breathing_Device" title="Helicopter Aircrew Breathing Device">Helicopter Aircrew Breathing Device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_therapy" title="Scuba diving therapy">Scuba diving therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed_mining" title="Seabed mining">Seabed mining</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Underwater_diving" title="Category:Underwater diving">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Underwater_diving" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Underwater diving">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_underwater_diving_terminology" title="Glossary of underwater diving terminology">Glossary</a></b></li> <li><b>Indexes: <a href="/wiki/Index_of_recreational_dive_sites" title="Index of recreational dive sites">Dive sites</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_underwater_divers" title="Index of underwater divers">Divers</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_underwater_diving" title="Index of underwater diving">Diving</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_underwater_diving" title="Outline of underwater diving">Outline</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Underwater_diving" title="Portal:Underwater diving">Portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox888" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" 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href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4150725-3">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85036225">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb124302380">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb124302380">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000333728&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007545763405171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p>    </div><noscript><img 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[\"CITEREFCarlsen2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCronje2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavisSheffieldSchuknechtHeimbach1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeNobleVannPollockUguccioni2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDehartDavis2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDelgado2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDesola1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDivers_Alert_Network1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDooletteMitchell2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDooletteMitchell2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDovenbarger1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdmonds1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEgiBrubakk1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElliott1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFife1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrancisSmith1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrancis_\u0026amp;_Mitchell,_Manifestations\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrancis_\u0026amp;_Mitchell,_Pathophysiology\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreibergerLymanDenoblePieper2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFryer1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGabbitiss2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerthRuterbuschLong2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerthVann1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoble2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldingGriffithsHemplemanPaton1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamilton_\u0026amp;_Thalmann\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHill1912\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHinzChereminaBrune2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarlssonLinnarsonGennserBlogg2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaySpencer1999\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKeays1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKindwall1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKindwallBazLightfootLanphier1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKindwallGoldmannThombs1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitano1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLandis2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLangHamilton1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeMessurierHills1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeighDunford2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLippmann_\u0026amp;_Mitchell\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLongphreDeNobleMoonVann2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarx\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCullough2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchellBennettBrysonButler2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoon1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoonKisslo1998\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMoonSheffield1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoon_\u0026amp;_Gorman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNevills2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNishi_Brubakk_\u0026amp;_Eftedal\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;DowdKelley2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOhtaMatsunaga1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPapadopoulouEckersleyBalestraKarapantsios2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiantadosiThalmann2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPilmanis1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPollock2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPollockNatoliGerthThalmann2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowell\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowell2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPulley2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPyleYoungblood1995\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRobinsonDervayConkin\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScott1931\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScott1932\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSheffieldVann2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1886\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpencer1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpira1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaff1904\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaff2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephenson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThalmann1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThalmann2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToropin2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFU.S._Navy_Supervisor_of_Diving2008\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFVan_der_AueWhiteHayterBrinton1945\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVann1989\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFVannGerthDeNoblePieper2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVannPollockFreibergerNatoli2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVannTorre-Bueno1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalder1945\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalkerMurphy-Lavoie2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWarden2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeathersbyHomerFlynn1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWebbOlsonKrutzDixon1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWienkeO\u0026#039;Leary2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilsonSayer2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWong1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorkman1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYarbroughBehnke1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_la_CruzClemente_FuentesWonnumCooper2022\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 6,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite AV media\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 26,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 71,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite periodical\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 27,\n [\"Consequences of external causes\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 28,\n [\"Cs1 config\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Decompression Sickness\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Diving term\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 4,\n [\"Expand section\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 5,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Harv\"] = 1,\n [\"ICD10\"] = 1,\n [\"ICD9\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox medical condition (new)\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"Medical resources\"] = 1,\n [\"Note\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"R\"] = 126,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Ref label\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 6,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 42,\n [\"SfnRef\"] = 9,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 4,\n [\"Underwater diving\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"Wiktionary\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","340","24.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","220","15.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","100","7.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","100","7.1"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","100","7.1"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","60","4.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::len","60","4.3"],["(for generator)","60","4.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","60","4.3"],["date","40","2.9"],["[others]","260","18.6"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-679bf888dd-p8djx","timestamp":"20250225123646","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Decompression 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