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href="#Pulmonic_initiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Pulmonic initiation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pulmonic_initiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glottalic_initiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glottalic_initiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Glottalic initiation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glottalic_initiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lingual_(velaric)_initiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lingual_(velaric)_initiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Lingual (velaric) initiation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lingual_(velaric)_initiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Airstream_contours" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Airstream_contours"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Airstream contours</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Airstream_contours-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Percussive_consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Percussive_consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Percussive consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Percussive_consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown 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href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9canisme_de_flux_d%27air" title="Mécanisme de flux d'air – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mécanisme de flux d'air" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A8" title="מנגנון זרימת אוויר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מנגנון זרימת אוויר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%97%E6%B5%81%E6%A9%9F%E6%A7%8B" title="気流機構 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="気流機構" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7_%D8%AF_%D8%AC%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B7%D8%B1%D8%B2" title="د هوا د جریان طرز – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د هوا د جریان طرز" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanizm_przep%C5%82ywu_powietrza" title="Mechanizm przepływu powietrza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mechanizm przepływu powietrza" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecanismo_de_fluxo_de_ar" title="Mecanismo de fluxo de ar – Portuguese" 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For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ /</span> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> </span>⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetics</a>, the <b>airstream mechanism</b> is the method by which airflow is created in the <a href="/wiki/Vocal_tract" title="Vocal tract">vocal tract</a>. Along with <a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">phonation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Articulation_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Articulation (phonetics)">articulation</a>, it is one of three main components of speech production. The airstream mechanism is mandatory for most sound production and constitutes the first part of this process, which is called <b>initiation</b>. </p><p>The organ generating the airstream is called the <i>initiator</i> and there are three initiators used phonemically in non-disordered human oral languages: </p> <ul><li>the <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm" title="Thoracic diaphragm">diaphragm</a> together with the ribs and lungs <i>(pulmonic</i> mechanisms),</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Glottis" title="Glottis">glottis</a> <i>(glottalic</i> mechanisms), and</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">tongue</a> <i>(lingual</i> or <i>"velaric"</i> mechanisms).</li></ul> <p>There are also methods of making sounds that do not require the glottis. These mechanisms are collectively called <a href="/wiki/Alaryngeal_speech" title="Alaryngeal speech">alaryngeal speech mechanisms</a> (none of these speech mechanisms are used in non-disordered speech): </p> <ul><li>the <a href="/wiki/Cheek" title="Cheek">cheeks</a> <i>(buccal</i> mechanisms, notated {ↀ} in <a href="/wiki/VoQS" class="mw-redirect" title="VoQS">VoQS</a>). See <a href="/wiki/Buccal_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Buccal speech">buccal speech</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>after a <a href="/wiki/Laryngectomy" title="Laryngectomy">laryngectomy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">esophagus</a> may be used (notated {Œ} for simple esophageal speech, {Ю} for tracheo-esophageal <a href="/wiki/Speech_synthesis" title="Speech synthesis">speech</a> in VoQS, and notated {И} for electrolaryngeal speech). See <a href="/wiki/Esophageal_speech" title="Esophageal speech">esophageal speech</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">pharynx</a>, and replacing the glottis using the <a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">tongue</a> and the upper <a href="/wiki/Dental_alveolus" title="Dental alveolus">alveolus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Palate" title="Palate">palate</a>, or the pharyngeal wall. See <a href="/wiki/Alaryngeal_speech#Pharyngeal_speech" title="Alaryngeal speech">pharyngeal speech</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pharyngeal_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pharyngeal-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><i>Percussive</i> consonants are produced without any airstream mechanism.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_airstream_mechanism">Types of airstream mechanism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airstream_mechanism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types of airstream mechanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>Any of the three principal initiators − diaphragm, glottis or tongue − may act by either increasing or decreasing the pressure generating the airstream. These changes in pressure often correspond to outward and inward airflow, and are therefore termed <i><a href="/wiki/Egressive_sound" title="Egressive sound">egressive</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Ingressive_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingressive speech">ingressive</a></i> respectively. </p><p>Of these six resulting airstream mechanisms, four are found lexically around the world, alongside the percussive sounds produced without an airstream mechanism, for a total of five: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pulmonic_consonant" title="Pulmonic consonant">pulmonic</a> <a href="/wiki/Egressive_sound#Pulmonic_egressive" title="Egressive sound">egressive</a>,</i> where the air is pushed out of the lungs by the ribs and <a href="/wiki/Diaphragm_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Diaphragm (anatomy)">diaphragm</a>. All human languages employ such sounds (such as /b/), and nearly three out of four use them exclusively.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Glottalic_consonant" title="Glottalic consonant">glottalic</a> <a href="/wiki/Egressive_sound#Glottalic_egressive" title="Egressive sound">egressive</a>,</i> where the air column is compressed as the glottis moves upward. Such consonants are called <a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">ejectives</a>. Ejective and ejective-like consonants occur in 16% of the languages.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ingressive_speech#Glottalic_ingressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingressive speech">glottalic ingressive</a>,</i> where the air column is rarefied as the glottis moves downward. Such consonants are called <a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">implosives</a>. Implosive and implosive-like consonants occur in 13% of the world's languages. Despite the name, the airstream may not actually flow inward: While the glottis moves downward, pulmonic air passes outward through it, but the reduction in pressure makes an audible difference to the sound.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ingressive_speech#Lingual_ingressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingressive speech">lingual ingressive</a>,</i> <small>AKA</small> <i>velaric ingressive,</i> where the air in the mouth is rarefied by a downward and sometimes rearward movement of the tongue. These are the <a href="/wiki/Click_consonant" title="Click consonant">click consonants</a>. Clicks are regular sounds in ordinary (i.e. lexical) words in fewer than 2% of the world's languages, all in Africa.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Percussive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Percussive consonant">percussive</a></i>, where two organs are struck against each other. No standalone percussive occurs in any language, but alveolar clicks may have a sublingual <a href="/wiki/Percussive_click_release" class="mw-redirect" title="Percussive click release">percussive release</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sandawe_language" title="Sandawe language">Sandawe</a>, where after the click is pronounced, the tongue strikes the floor of the mouth.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>That leaves <a href="/wiki/Ingressive_sound#Pulmonic_ingressive" title="Ingressive sound">pulmonic ingressive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egressive_sound#Lingual_egressive" title="Egressive sound">lingual (velaric) egressive</a> as the only two airstream mechanisms produced by the three main initiators that are not found lexically in the world. </p><p>These mechanisms may be combined into airstream <a href="/wiki/Contour_(linguistics)" title="Contour (linguistics)">contours</a>, such as clicks which release into ejectives. </p><p>In normal vocabulary, the various <a href="/wiki/Khoisan_languages" title="Khoisan languages">Khoisan languages</a> have pulmonic, ejective, and click consonants; the <a href="/wiki/Chadic_languages" title="Chadic languages">Chadic languages</a>, some <a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan languages</a>, and scattered Nilo-Saharan languages such as <a href="/wiki/Gumuz_language" title="Gumuz language">Gumuz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uduk_language" title="Uduk language">Uduk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Me%CA%BCen_language" title="Meʼen language">Meʼen</a> have pulmonic, implosive, and ejective consonants, and the <a href="/wiki/Nguni_languages" title="Nguni languages">Nguni languages</a> of the Bantu family utilize all four, – pulmonic, click, implosive, and ejective, – as does the <a href="/wiki/Dahalo_language" title="Dahalo language">Dahalo language</a> of Kenya. Most other languages utilize at most two airstream mechanisms. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Interjection" title="Interjection">interjections</a>, the other two mechanisms may be employed. For example, in countries as diverse as Sweden, Turkey, and Togo, a pulmonic ingressive ("gasped" or "inhaled") vowel is used for <a href="/wiki/Backchannel_(linguistics)" title="Backchannel (linguistics)">back-channeling</a> or to express agreement, and in France a lingual egressive (a "spurt") is used to express dismissal. The only language where such sounds are known to be contrastive in normal vocabulary is the extinct ritual language <a href="/wiki/Damin" title="Damin">Damin</a> (also the only language outside Africa with clicks); however, Damin appears to have been intentionally designed to differ from normal speech. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pulmonic_initiation">Pulmonic initiation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airstream_mechanism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Pulmonic initiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Initiation by means of the <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a> (actually the diaphragm and ribs) is called <b>pulmonic</b> initiation. The vast majority of sounds used in human languages are <a href="/wiki/Pulmonic_egressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonic egressive">pulmonic egressives</a>. In most languages, including all the languages of Europe (excluding the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Caucasus" title="Languages of the Caucasus">Caucasus</a>), all <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> are pulmonic egressives. </p><p>The only attested use of a phonemic pulmonic ingressive is a lateral fricative in <a href="/wiki/Damin" title="Damin">Damin</a>, a ritual language formerly used by speakers of <a href="/wiki/Lardil_language" title="Lardil language">Lardil</a> in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>. This can be written with the extended version of the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɬ↓ʔ]</span>. <a href="/wiki/!X%C3%B3%C3%B5_language" class="mw-redirect" title="!Xóõ language">!Xóõ</a> has ingression as a phonetic detail in one series of its clicks, which are <i>ingressive voiceless nasals with delayed aspiration</i>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[↓ŋ̊ʘʰ<span class="wrap"> </span>↓ŋ̊ǀʰ<span class="wrap"> </span>↓ŋ̊ǁʰ<span class="wrap"> </span>↓ŋ̊!ʰ<span class="wrap"> </span>↓ŋ̊ǂʰ]</span>. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ladefoged" title="Peter Ladefoged">Peter Ladefoged</a> considers these to be among the most difficult sounds in the world. Other languages, for example in <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, have been claimed to have pulmonic ingressives, but these claims have either proven to be spurious or to be occasional phonetic detail. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Interjection" title="Interjection">interjections</a>, but not in normal words, pulmonic ingressive vowels or words occur on all continents.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is commonly done for <a href="/wiki/Backchannel_(linguistics)" title="Backchannel (linguistics)">back-channeling</a> (as with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ə↓]</span> in <a href="/wiki/Ewe_language" title="Ewe language">Ewe</a>) or affirmation (as with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɸʷ↓]</span> in <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>). In English, an audible intake of breath, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[hːː↓]</span>, or an indrawn consonant such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʰ↓]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[p͡t↓]</span> is used in a conversation to indicate that someone is about to speak or is preparing to continue speaking.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amharic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Amharic language">Amharic</a>, entire phrases may be uttered with an ingressive airstream. (See <a href="/wiki/Ingressive_sound" title="Ingressive sound">ingressive sound</a>.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Glottalic_initiation">Glottalic initiation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airstream_mechanism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Glottalic initiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is possible to initiate airflow in the upper vocal tract by means of the vocal cords or <a href="/wiki/Glottis" title="Glottis">glottis</a>. This is known as <b>glottalic</b> initiation. </p><p>For egressive glottalic initiation, one lowers the glottis (as if to sing a low note), closes it as for a <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>, and then raises it, building up pressure in the oral cavity and upper <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate_trachea" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrate trachea">trachea</a>. Glottalic egressives are called <b><a href="/wiki/Ejective" class="mw-redirect" title="Ejective">ejectives</a></b>. The glottis must be fully closed to form glottalic egressives, or the air column would flow backwards over it; it is therefore impossible to pronounce <a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">voiced</a> ejectives. Ejective allophones of voiceless stops occur in many varieties of English at the ends of <a href="/wiki/Intonation_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Intonation unit">intonation units</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For ingressive glottalic initiation, the sequence of actions performed in glottalic pressure initiation is reversed: one raises the glottis (as if to sing a high note), closes it, and then lowers it to create suction in the upper trachea and oral cavity. Glottalic ingressives are called <b><a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">implosives</a></b>, although they may involve zero airflow rather than actual inflow. Because the air column would flow forwards over the descending glottis, it is not necessary to fully close it, and implosives may be voiced; indeed, voiceless implosives are exceedingly rare. </p><p>It is usual for implosives to be voiced. Instead of keeping the glottis tightly closed, it is tensed but left slightly open to allow a thin stream of air through. Unlike pulmonic voiced sounds, in which a stream of air passes through a usually-fixed glottis, in voiced implosives a mobile glottis passes over a nearly motionless air column to cause vibration of the vocal cords. <a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">Phonations</a> that are more open than modal voice, such as breathy voice, are not conducive to glottalic sounds because in these the glottis is held relatively open, allowing air to readily flow through and preventing a significant pressure difference from building up behind the articulator. </p><p>Because the oral cavity is so much smaller than the lungs, <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">approximants</a> cannot be pronounced with glottalic initiation. So-called <a href="/wiki/Glottalization" title="Glottalization">glottalized</a> vowels and other sonorants use the more common pulmonic egressive airstream mechanism. </p><p>There is no clear divide between pulmonic and glottalic sounds. Some languages may have consonants which are intermediate. For example, glottalized consonants in London English, such as the <i>t</i> in <i>rat</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɹæʔt]</span>, may be weakly ejective. Similarly, fully voiced stops in languages such as <a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zulu_language" title="Zulu language">Zulu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maidu_language" title="Maidu language">Maidu</a> are weakly implosive. This ambiguity does not occur with the next airstream mechanism, lingual, which is clearly distinct from pulmonic sounds.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lingual_(velaric)_initiation"><span id="Lingual_.28velaric.29_initiation"></span>Lingual (velaric) initiation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airstream_mechanism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Lingual (velaric) initiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Airstream_mechanism" title="Special:EditPage/Airstream mechanism">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The third form of initiation in human language is <b>lingual</b> or <b>velaric</b> initiation, where a sound is produced by a closure at two places of articulation, and the airstream is formed by movement of the body of the tongue. Lingual stops are more commonly known as <b><a href="/wiki/Click_consonant" title="Click consonant">clicks</a></b>, and are almost universally ingressive. The word <i>lingual</i> is derived from Latin <i>lingua</i>, which means tongue. </p><p>To produce a <a href="/wiki/Lingual_ingressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Lingual ingressive">lingual ingressive</a> airstream, first close the vocal tract at two places: at the back of the tongue, as in a <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar</a> or <a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">uvular</a> stop, and simultaneously with the front of the tongue or the lips, as in a <a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">coronal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bilabial" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilabial">bilabial</a> stop. These holds may be voiceless, voiced, or nasalized. Then lower the body of the tongue to rarefy the air above it. The closure at the front of the tongue is opened first, as the click "release"; then the closure at the back is released for the pulmonic or glottalic click "accompaniment" or "efflux". This may be <a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a>, <a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">affricated</a>, or even <a href="/wiki/Ejective" class="mw-redirect" title="Ejective">ejective</a>. Even when not ejective, it is not uncommon for the glottis to be closed as well, for a triply articulated consonant, and this third closure is released last to produce a glottalized click. Clicks are found in very few languages, notably the <a href="/wiki/Khoisan_languages" title="Khoisan languages">Khoisan languages</a> of southern Africa and some nearby tongues such as <a href="/wiki/Zulu_language" title="Zulu language">Zulu</a>. They are more often found in extra-linguistic contexts, such as the "tsk tsk" sound many Westerners use to express regret or pity (a <a href="/wiki/Dental_click" title="Dental click">dental click</a>), or the clucking noise used by many <a href="/wiki/Equestrianism" title="Equestrianism">equestrians</a> to urge on their horses (a <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar lateral click">lateral click</a>). </p><p>Lingual egressive initiation is performed by reversing the sequence of a lingual ingressive: the front and back of the tongue (or lips and back of the tongue) seal off the vocal cavity, and the cheeks and middle of the tongue move inward and upward to increase oral pressure. The only attested use of a lingual egressive is a bilabial nasal egressive click in <a href="/wiki/Damin" title="Damin">Damin</a>. Transcribing this also requires the use of the Extended IPA, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋʘ↑]</span>. </p><p>Since the air pocket used to initiate lingual consonants is so small, it is not thought to be possible to produce lingual <a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">fricatives</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> vowels, or other sounds which require continuous airflow. </p><p>Clicks may be <a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a>, but they are more easily <a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">nasalized</a>. This may be because the vocal cavity behind the rearmost closure, behind which the air passing through the glottis for voicing must be contained, is so small that clicks cannot be voiced for long. Allowing the airstream to pass through the nose enables a longer production. </p><p>Nasal clicks involve a combination of lingual and pulmonic mechanisms. The velum is lowered so as to direct pulmonic airflow through the nasal cavity during the lingual initiation. This nasal airflow may itself be egressive or ingressive, independently of the lingual initiation of the click. Nasal clicks may be voiced, but are very commonly unvoiced and even aspirated, which is rare for purely pulmonic nasals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Airstream_contours">Airstream contours</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airstream_mechanism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Airstream contours"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Airstream_mechanism" title="Special:EditPage/Airstream mechanism">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In some treatments, complex clicks are posited to have airstream <a href="/wiki/Contour_(linguistics)" title="Contour (linguistics)">contours</a>, in which the airstream changes between the front (click) and rear (non-click) release. There are two attested types: <a href="/wiki/Linguo-pulmonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguo-pulmonic">Linguo-pulmonic</a> consonants, where the rear release is a uvular obstruent such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[q]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[χ]</span>; and <a href="/wiki/Linguo-glottalic" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguo-glottalic">linguo-glottalic</a> consonants, where the rear release is an ejective such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[qʼ]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[qχʼ]</span>. </p><p>Not only are simultaneous (rather than contour) implosive clicks possible, i.e. velar (e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɠ͡ǀ]</span>), uvular (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʛ͡ǀ]</span>), and <i>de facto</i> front-closed palatal (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʄ͡ǀ]</span>), but velar implosive clicks are easier to produce than modally voiced clicks. However, they are not attested in any language.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Percussive_consonants">Percussive consonants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airstream_mechanism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Percussive consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Airstream_mechanism" title="Special:EditPage/Airstream mechanism">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Consonants may be pronounced without any airstream mechanism. These are <i>percussive</i> consonants, where the sound is generated by one organ striking another. Percussive consonants are not phonemic in any known language, though the <a href="/wiki/Extensions_to_the_IPA" class="mw-redirect" title="Extensions to the IPA">extensions to the IPA</a> for disordered speech provide symbols for a <a href="/wiki/Bilabial_percussive" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilabial percussive">bilabial percussive</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʬ]</span> (smacking lips) and a <a href="/wiki/Bidental_percussive" class="mw-redirect" title="Bidental percussive">bidental percussive</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʭ]</span> (gnashing teeth). The only percussive known to be used in nondisordered speech is a <a href="/wiki/Sublingual_percussive" class="mw-redirect" title="Sublingual percussive">sublingual percussive</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[¡]</span> (a tongue slap) that appears allophonically in the release of <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_click" title="Alveolar click">alveolar clicks</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Sandawe_language" title="Sandawe language">Sandawe language</a> of Tanzania.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Percussive consonants </caption> <tbody><tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Bidental_consonant" title="Bidental consonant">Bidental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Sublingual_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Sublingual consonant">Sublingual</a> </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʬ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʭ</span> </td> <td><span class="nounderlines nowrap"><span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/c\/c4\/Percussive_alveolar_click.ogg\/Percussive_alveolar_click.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<span class=\"IPA nowrap\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">\u00a1<\/span>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Percussive alveolar click.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c4/Percussive_alveolar_click.ogg/Percussive_alveolar_click.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">¡</span></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Percussive_alveolar_click.ogg" title="File:Percussive alveolar click.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airstream_mechanism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_phonetics_articles" title="Index of phonetics articles">Index of phonetics articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">Manner of articulation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airstream_mechanism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van Gilse PHG. (1948). Another Method of Speech Without Larynx. Acta Oto-Laryngologica, 36, Supplement 78, 109 – 110. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F00016484809122642">10.3109/00016484809122642</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diedrich WM. Youngstrom KA. (1966). Alaryngeal Speech. Springfield, Ill.: Thomas <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/347249">347249</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pharyngeal-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pharyngeal_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Weinberg B, Westerhouse J. (1973). A study of pharyngeal speech. J Speech Hear Disord. 38(1):111-8. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4698378">4698378</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPike1943" class="citation book cs1">Pike, Kenneth (1943). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/phoneticscritica00pike"><i>Phonetics</i></a></span>. Michigan. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/phoneticscritica00pike/page/103">103</a>–5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonetics&rft.pages=103-5&rft.pub=Michigan&rft.date=1943&rft.aulast=Pike&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphoneticscritica00pike&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAirstream+mechanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ian Maddieson (2008) "Presence of Uncommon Consonants". In: Martin Haspelmath & Matthew S. Dryer & David Gil & Bernard Comrie (eds.) <i>The World Atlas of Language Structures Online.</i> Munich: Max Planck Digital Library, chapter 19. Available online at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://wals.info/feature/19">http://wals.info/feature/19</a>. Accessed on 18 January 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ingressivespeech.info/">Robert Eklund</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ogden (2009) <i>An Introduction to English Phonetics</i>, p. 9, 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ogden p. 164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLadefogedMaddieson1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Ladefoged" title="Peter Ladefoged">Ladefoged, Peter</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ian_Maddieson" title="Ian Maddieson">Maddieson, Ian</a> (1996). <a href="/wiki/The_Sounds_of_the_World%27s_Languages" title="The Sounds of the World's Languages"><i>The Sounds of the World's Languages</i></a>. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-19815-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-19815-6"><bdi>0-631-19815-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sounds+of+the+World%27s+Languages&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-631-19815-6&rft.aulast=Ladefoged&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Maddieson%2C+Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAirstream+mechanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth Pike, ed. Ruth Brend (1972) <i>Selected Writings: To Commemorate the 60th Birthday of Kenneth Lee Pike</i>. p. 226</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, Richard, Ian Maddieson, Peter Ladefoged, Bonny Sands (1995). "A phonetic study of Sandawe clicks", <i>UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics</i>, No. 91: Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages III.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Airstream_mechanism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://specgram.com/CLI.4/07.spp.wind.html">Eating the Wind</a>: a satirical, but illustrative example of <a href="/wiki/Sound_symbolism" title="Sound symbolism">sound symbolism</a> and iconicity of airstream mechanisms.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayIssue?jid=IPA&volumeId=38&seriesId=0&issueId=03">[1]</a>: Robert Eklund (2008). Pulmonic ingressive phonation: Diachronic and synchronic characteristics, distribution and function in animal and human sound production and in human speech. <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 235–324.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://ingressivespeech.info">[2]</a>: Robert Eklund's website devoted to ingressive speech. Maps, sound files, and spectrograms.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URgdIAz4QNg">[3]</a>: Samples of ingressive pulmonic interjections from Northern Sweden</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Articulation" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse 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id="Articulation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Articulation</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Articulatory_phonetics" title="Articulatory phonetics">Articulatory phonetics</a> – <a href="/wiki/Co-articulated_consonant" title="Co-articulated consonant">Co-articulation</a> – <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">Place</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_consonant" title="Labiodental consonant">Labiodental</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Coronal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linguolabial_consonant" title="Linguolabial consonant">Linguolabial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interdental_consonant" title="Interdental consonant">Interdental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denti-alveolar_consonant" title="Denti-alveolar consonant">Denti-alveolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Postalveolar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palato-alveolar_consonant" title="Palato-alveolar consonant">Palato-alveolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Active_place" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active place</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apical_consonant" title="Apical consonant">Apical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laminal_consonant" title="Laminal consonant">Laminal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subapical_consonant" title="Subapical consonant">Subapical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_consonant" title="Dorsal consonant">Dorsal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_consonant" title="Alveolo-palatal consonant">Alveolo-palatal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_consonant" title="Laryngeal consonant">Laryngeal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">Pharyngeal/epiglottal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Doubly_articulated_consonant" title="Doubly articulated consonant">Double articulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93coronal_consonant" title="Labial–coronal consonant">Labial–coronal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93alveolar_consonant" title="Labial–alveolar consonant">Labial–alveolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93retroflex_consonant" title="Labial–retroflex consonant">Labial–retroflex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93palatal_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Labial–palatal consonant">Labial–palatal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93velar_consonant" title="Labial–velar consonant">Labial–velar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93uvular_consonant" title="Labial–uvular consonant">Labial–uvular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal%E2%80%93velar_consonant" title="Coronal–velar consonant">Coronal–velar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvular%E2%80%93epiglottal_consonant" title="Uvular–epiglottal consonant">Uvular–epiglottal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speech_pathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech pathology">Pathological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Velopharyngeal_consonant" title="Velopharyngeal consonant">Velopharyngeal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bidental_consonant" title="Bidental consonant">Bidental</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">Manner</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">Obstruent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">Affricate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">Sibilant</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">Sonorant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">Vowel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">Semivowel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibrant_consonant" title="Vibrant consonant">Vibrant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tap_and_flap_consonants" title="Tap and flap consonants">Tap/flap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">Liquid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">Rhotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occlusive" title="Occlusive">Occlusive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuant" title="Continuant">Continuant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Airstream</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egressive_sound" title="Egressive sound">Egressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingressive_sound" title="Ingressive sound">Ingressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">Ejective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">Implosive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Click_consonant" title="Click consonant">Click</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonic-contour_clicks" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonic-contour clicks">Pulmonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejective-contour_clicks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ejective-contour clicks">Ejective</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percussive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Percussive consonant">Percussive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Secondary_articulation" title="Secondary articulation">Secondary <br />articulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">Labialization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">Rounding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">Palatalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labio-palatalization" title="Labio-palatalization">Labio-palatalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">Velarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvularization" title="Uvularization">Uvularization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">Pharyngealization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glottalization" title="Glottalization">Glottalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">Nasalization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tongue_shape" title="Tongue shape">Tongue shape</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulcalization" title="Sulcalization">Sulcal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domed_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Domed consonant">Domed</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voice</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">Voiceless</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">Aspirated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">Tenuis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_onset_time" title="Voice onset time">Voice onset time</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">Phonation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modal_voice" title="Modal voice">Modal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">Breathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_voice" title="Slack voice">Slack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">Creaky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stiff_voice" title="Stiff 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