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class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 France </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Personal life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Awards_and_honors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awards_and_honors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Awards and honors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Awards_and_honors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Publications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Publications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Publications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Collections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Collections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drama" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drama"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Drama </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drama-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Novels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Novels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Novels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Novels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Non-fiction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Essays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Essays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Essays </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Essays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Additional resources </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Additional_resources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Additional resources subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Additional_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Books </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journal_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journal_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Journal articles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journal_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archival_materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archival_materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Archival materials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archival_materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Richard Wright (author)</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" > 38 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%AA_(%D8%A3%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A8)" title="ريتشارد رايت (أديب) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ريتشارد رايت (أديب)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AA_(%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%86%DB%8C)" title="ریچارد رایت (یازیچی) – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ریچارد رایت (یازیچی)" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%82_(%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB)" title="Ричард Райт (писател) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ричард Райт (писател)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nathaniel_Wright" title="Richard Nathaniel Wright – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Richard Nathaniel Wright" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright" title="Richard Wright – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Richard Wright" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright_(Schriftsteller)" title="Richard Wright (Schriftsteller) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Richard Wright (Schriftsteller)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright_(escritor)" title="Richard Wright (escritor) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Richard Wright (escritor)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AA_(%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%87)" title="ریچارد رایت (نویسنده) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ریچارد رایت (نویسنده)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright_(%C3%A9crivain)" title="Richard Wright (écrivain) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Richard Wright (écrivain)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A6%AC%EC%B2%98%EB%93%9C_%EB%9D%BC%EC%9D%B4%ED%8A%B8_(%EC%9E%91%EA%B0%80)" title="리처드 라이트 (작가) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="리처드 라이트 (작가)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%AB%D5%B9%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4_%D5%8C%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A9_(%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B2)" title="Ռիչարդ Ռայթ (գրող) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռիչարդ Ռայթ (գրող)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright_(author)" title="Richard Wright (author) – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Richard Wright (author)" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright_(pengarang)" title="Richard Wright (pengarang) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Richard Wright (pengarang)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright_(scrittore)" title="Richard Wright (scrittore) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Richard Wright (scrittore)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A6%27%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%99%D7%98_(%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%A8)" title="ריצ'רד רייט (סופר) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ריצ'רד רייט (סופר)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A9%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98_(%E1%83%9B%E1%83%AC%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98)" title="რიჩარდ რაიტი (მწერალი) – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რიჩარდ რაიტი (მწერალი)" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright_(ekriven)" title="Richard Wright (ekriven) – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Richard Wright (ekriven)" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricardus_Wright_(auctor)" title="Ricardus Wright (auctor) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ricardus Wright (auctor)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright_(%C3%ADr%C3%B3)" title="Richard Wright (író) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Richard Wright (író)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9F" title="रिचर्ड राइट – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="रिचर्ड राइट" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A9%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98_(%E1%83%AD%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3)" title="რიჩარდ რაიტი (ჭარუ) – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="რიჩარდ რაიტი (ჭარუ)" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright_(auteur)" title="Richard Wright (auteur) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Richard Wright (auteur)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AA%E3%83%81%E3%83%A3%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89%E3%83%BB%E3%83%A9%E3%82%A4%E3%83%88_(%E5%B0%8F%E8%AA%AC%E5%AE%B6)" title="リチャード・ライト (小説家) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="リチャード・ライト (小説家)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nathaniel_Wright" title="Richard Nathaniel Wright – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Richard Nathaniel Wright" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright_(1908-1960)" title="Richard Wright (1908-1960) – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Richard Wright (1908-1960)" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright_(1908%E2%80%931960)" title="Richard Wright (1908–1960) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Richard Wright (1908–1960)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright_(escritor)" title="Richard Wright (escritor) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Richard Wright (escritor)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%82,_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_(%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C)" title="Райт, Ричард (писатель) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Райт, Ричард (писатель)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright_(author)" title="Richard Wright (author) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Richard Wright (author)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright_(pisac)" title="Richard Wright (pisac) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Richard Wright (pisac)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright_(kirjailija)" title="Richard Wright (kirjailija) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Richard Wright (kirjailija)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright_(f%C3%B6rfattare)" title="Richard Wright (författare) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Richard Wright (författare)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright" title="Richard Wright – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Richard Wright" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%82_(%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84)" title="Ричард Райт (муаллиф) – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ричард Райт (муаллиф)" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wright_(yazar)" title="Richard Wright (yazar) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Richard Wright (yazar)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American novelist and poet (1908–1960)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div style="display:inline;" class="fn">Richard Wright</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Richard_Wright.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wright in a 1939 photograph by Carl Van Vechten"><img alt="Wright in a 1939 photograph by Carl Van Vechten" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Richard_Wright.jpg/220px-Richard_Wright.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Richard_Wright.jpg/330px-Richard_Wright.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Richard_Wright.jpg/440px-Richard_Wright.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1216" data-file-height="1536" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:1.4em;">Wright in a 1939 photograph by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Van_Vechten" title="Carl Van Vechten">Carl Van Vechten</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Born</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">Richard Nathaniel Wright (1908-09-04)September 4, 1908 Plantation, <a href="/wiki/Roxie,_Mississippi" title="Roxie, Mississippi">Roxie, Mississippi</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Died</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">November 28, 1960(1960-11-28) (aged 52) <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, France</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Occupation</th><td class="infobox-data role" style="line-height:1.4em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"> <ul><li>Novelist</li> <li>poet</li> <li>essayist</li> <li>short story writer</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Period</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">1938–60</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Genre</th><td class="infobox-data category" style="line-height:1.4em;">Drama, fiction, non-fiction, autobiography</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Notable works</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Children" title="Uncle Tom's Children">Uncle Tom's Children</a>, <a href="/wiki/Native_Son" title="Native Son">Native Son</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_Boy" title="Black Boy">Black Boy</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Outsider_(Richard_Wright)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Outsider (Richard Wright)">The Outsider</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;">Dhimah Rose Meidman</div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1939; <abbr title="divorced">div.</abbr> 1940)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;">Ellen Poplar</div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1941)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Children</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">2</td></tr></tbody></table> Richard Nathaniel Wright (September 4, 1908 – November 28, 1960) was an American author of novels, short stories, poems, and non-fiction. Much of his literature concerns racial themes, especially related to the plight of <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> during the late 19th to mid 20th centuries suffering discrimination and violence. His best known works include the novella collection <a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Children" title="Uncle Tom's Children">Uncle Tom's Children</a> (1938), the novel <a href="/wiki/Native_Son" title="Native Son">Native Son</a> (1940), and the memoir <a href="/wiki/Black_Boy" title="Black Boy">Black Boy</a> (1945). Literary critics believe his work helped change <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">race relations in the United States</a> in the mid-20th century. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Richard_Wright_historical_marker,_Natchez,_MS_IMG_6941.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Richard_Wright_historical_marker%2C_Natchez%2C_MS_IMG_6941.JPG/220px-Richard_Wright_historical_marker%2C_Natchez%2C_MS_IMG_6941.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Richard_Wright_historical_marker%2C_Natchez%2C_MS_IMG_6941.JPG/330px-Richard_Wright_historical_marker%2C_Natchez%2C_MS_IMG_6941.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Richard_Wright_historical_marker%2C_Natchez%2C_MS_IMG_6941.JPG/440px-Richard_Wright_historical_marker%2C_Natchez%2C_MS_IMG_6941.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4072" data-file-height="2512" /></a><figcaption>A historic marker in <a href="/wiki/Natchez,_Mississippi" title="Natchez, Mississippi">Natchez, Mississippi</a>, commemorating Wright, who was born near the city</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Childhood_in_the_South">Childhood in the South</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Childhood in the South">edit</a>]</div> Richard Nathaniel Wright was born on September 4, 1908, at Rucker's Plantation, between the train town of <a href="/wiki/Roxie,_Mississippi" title="Roxie, Mississippi">Roxie</a> and the larger river city of <a href="/wiki/Natchez,_Mississippi" title="Natchez, Mississippi">Natchez, Mississippi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-life-1">[1]</a> He was the son of Nathan Wright, a <a href="/wiki/Sharecropper" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharecropper">sharecropper</a>,<a href="#cite_note-life-1">[1]</a> and Ella (Wilson),<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> a schoolteacher.<a href="#cite_note-life-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> His parents were born free after the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>; both sets of his grandparents had been born into <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> and freed as a result of the war. Each of his grandfathers had taken part in the U.S. Civil War and gained freedom through service: his paternal grandfather, Nathan Wright, had served in the 28th <a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">United States Colored Troops</a>; his maternal grandfather, Richard Wilson, escaped from slavery in the South to serve in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">U.S. Navy</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Landsman_(rank)" title="Landsman (rank)">Landsman</a> in April 1865.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Richard's father left the family when Richard was six years old, and he did not see Richard for 25 years. In 1911 or 1912, Ella moved to <a href="/wiki/Natchez,_Mississippi" title="Natchez, Mississippi">Natchez</a>, Mississippi, to be with her parents. While living in his grandparents' home, he accidentally set the house on fire. Wright's mother was so angry that she beat him until he was unconscious.<a href="#cite_note-childhood-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-fire-6">[6]</a> In 1915, Ella put her sons in Settlement House, a <a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a> <a href="/wiki/Orphanage" title="Orphanage">orphanage</a>, for a short time.<a href="#cite_note-childhood-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-abuse-7">[7]</a> He was enrolled at <a href="/wiki/Howe_Institute_(Tennessee)" title="Howe Institute (Tennessee)">Howe Institute</a> in <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Tennessee" title="Memphis, Tennessee">Memphis</a> from 1915 to 1916.<a href="#cite_note-life-1">[1]</a> In 1916, his mother moved with Richard and his younger brother to live with her sister Maggie (Wilson) and Maggie's husband Silas Hoskins (born 1882) in <a href="/wiki/Elaine,_Arkansas" title="Elaine, Arkansas">Elaine, Arkansas</a>. This part of Arkansas was in the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Delta" title="Mississippi Delta">Mississippi Delta</a>, where former cotton plantations had been. The Wrights were forced to flee after Silas Hoskins "disappeared", reportedly killed by a white man who coveted his successful saloon business.<a href="#cite_note-:0-8">[8]</a> After his mother became incapacitated by a stroke, Richard was separated from his younger brother and lived briefly with his uncle Clark Wilson and aunt Jodie in <a href="/wiki/Greenwood,_Mississippi" title="Greenwood, Mississippi">Greenwood</a>, Mississippi.<a href="#cite_note-life-1">[1]</a> At the age of 12, Richard had not yet had a single complete year of schooling. Soon Richard with his younger brother and mother returned to the home of his maternal grandmother, which was now in the state capital, <a href="/wiki/Jackson,_Mississippi" title="Jackson, Mississippi">Jackson</a>, Mississippi, where he lived from early 1920 until late 1925. His grandparents, still angry at him for destroying their house, repeatedly beat Wright and his brother.<a href="#cite_note-fire-6">[6]</a> But while he lived there, he was finally able to attend school regularly. He attended the local <a href="/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist" class="mw-redirect" title="Seventh-day Adventist">Seventh-day Adventist</a> school from 1920 to 1921, with his aunt Addie as his teacher.<a href="#cite_note-life-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-childhood-5">[5]</a> After a year, at the age of 13 he entered the Jim Hill public school in 1921, where he was promoted to sixth grade after only two weeks.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> In his grandparents' Seventh-day Adventist home, Richard was miserable, largely because his controlling aunt and grandmother tried to force him to pray so he might build a relationship with <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>. Wright later threatened to move out of his grandmother's home when she would not allow him to work on the <a href="/wiki/Sabbath_in_seventh-day_churches" title="Sabbath in seventh-day churches">Adventist Sabbath</a>, Saturday. His aunt's and grandparents' overbearing attempts to control him caused him to carry over hostility towards Biblical and Christian teachings to solve life's problems. This theme would weave through his writings throughout his life.<a href="#cite_note-abuse-7">[7]</a> At the age of 15, while in eighth grade, Wright published his first story, "The Voodoo of Hell's Half-Acre", in the local Black newspaper Southern Register. No copies survive.<a href="#cite_note-abuse-7">[7]</a> In Chapter 7 of Black Boy, he described the story as about a villain who sought a widow's home.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> In 1923, after excelling in grade school and junior high, Wright earned the position of class <a href="/wiki/Valedictorian" title="Valedictorian">valedictorian</a> of Smith Robertson Junior High School from which he graduated in May 1925.<a href="#cite_note-life-1">[1]</a> He was assigned to write a speech to be delivered at graduation in a public auditorium. Before graduation day, he was called to the principal's office, where the principal gave him a prepared speech to present in place of his own. Richard challenged the principal, saying: "[T]he people are coming to hear the students, and I won't make a speech that you've written."<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The principal threatened him, suggesting that Richard might not be allowed to graduate if he persisted, despite his having passed all the examinations. He also tried to entice Richard with an opportunity to become a teacher. Determined not to be called an <a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom" title="Uncle Tom">Uncle Tom</a>, Richard refused to deliver the principal's address, written to avoid offending the white school district officials. He was able to convince everyone to allow him to read the words he had written himself.<a href="#cite_note-abuse-7">[7]</a> In September that year, Wright registered for mathematics, English, and history courses at the new <a href="/wiki/Lanier_High_School_(Jackson,_Mississippi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lanier High School (Jackson, Mississippi)">Lanier High School</a>, constructed for black students in Jackson—the state's schools were segregated under its Jim Crow laws—but he had to stop attending classes after a few weeks of irregular attendance because he needed to earn money to support his family.<a href="#cite_note-abuse-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-12">[12]</a> In November 1925 at the age of 17, Wright moved on his own to <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Tennessee" title="Memphis, Tennessee">Memphis, Tennessee</a>. There he fed his appetite for reading. His hunger for books was so great that Wright devised a successful ploy to borrow books from the segregated white library. Using a library card lent by a white coworker, which he presented with forged notes that claimed he was picking up books for the white man, Wright was able to obtain and read books forbidden to black people in the Jim Crow South. This stratagem also allowed him access to publications such as <a href="/wiki/Harper%27s_Magazine" title="Harper's Magazine">Harper's</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Monthly" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic Monthly">Atlantic Monthly</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_American_Mercury" title="The American Mercury">The American Mercury</a>.<a href="#cite_note-abuse-7">[7]</a> He planned to have his mother come and live with him once he could support her, and in 1926, his mother and younger brother did rejoin him. Shortly thereafter, Richard resolved to leave the <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_economy" title="Jim Crow economy">Jim Crow South</a> and go to Chicago.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> His family joined the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a>, when tens of thousands of blacks left the South to seek opportunities in the more economically prosperous northern and mid-western industrial cities. Wright's childhood in Mississippi, Tennessee, and Arkansas shaped his lasting impressions of American racism.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coming_of_age_in_Chicago">Coming of age in Chicago</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Coming of age in Chicago">edit</a>]</div> Wright and his family moved to Chicago in 1927, where he secured employment as a United States postal clerk.<a href="#cite_note-:0-8">[8]</a> He used his time in between shifts to study other writers including <a href="/wiki/H._L._Mencken" title="H. L. Mencken">H.L. Mencken</a>, whose vision of the American South as a version of Hell made an impression. When he lost his job there during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, Wright was forced to go on <a href="/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Relief_Administration" title="Federal Emergency Relief Administration">relief</a> in 1931.<a href="#cite_note-abuse-7">[7]</a> In 1932, he began attending meetings of the <a href="/wiki/John_Reed_Club" class="mw-redirect" title="John Reed Club">John Reed Club</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a> literary organization.<a href="#cite_note-abuse-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Wright established relationships and networked with party members. Wright formally joined the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party</a> and the <a href="/wiki/John_Reed_Club" class="mw-redirect" title="John Reed Club">John Reed Club</a> in late 1933 at the urging of his friend Abraham Aaron.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] As a revolutionary poet, he wrote proletarian poems ("We of the Red Leaves of Red Books", for example), for <a href="/wiki/New_Masses" title="New Masses">New Masses</a> and other communist-leaning periodicals.<a href="#cite_note-abuse-7">[7]</a> A power struggle within the Chicago chapter of the John Reed Club had led to the dissolution of the club's leadership; Wright was told he had the support of the club's party members if he was willing to join the party.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> In 1933, Wright founded the <a href="/wiki/South_Side_Writers_Group" title="South Side Writers Group">South Side Writers Group</a>, whose members included <a href="/wiki/Arna_Bontemps" title="Arna Bontemps">Arna Bontemps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Walker" title="Margaret Walker">Margaret Walker</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Through the group and his membership in the John Reed Club, Wright founded and edited Left Front, a literary magazine. Wright began publishing his poetry ("A Red Love Note" and "Rest for the Weary", for example) there in 1934.<a href="#cite_note-:4-19">[19]</a> There is dispute about the demise in 1935 of Left Front Magazine as Wright blamed the Communist Party despite his protests.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> It is, however, likely due to the proposal at the 1934 Midwest Writers Congress that the John Reed Club be replaced by a Communist Party-sanctioned First American Party Congress.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Throughout this period, Wright continued to contribute to New Masses magazine, revealing the path his writings would ultimately take.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> By 1935, Wright had completed the manuscript of his first novel, Cesspool, which was rejected by eight publishers and published posthumously as Lawd Today (1963).<a href="#cite_note-:0-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-jbhe-22">[22]</a> This first work featured autobiographical anecdotes about working at a post office in Chicago during the Great Depression.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> In January 1936, his story "Big Boy Leaves Home" was accepted for publication in the anthology New Caravan and the anthology Uncle Tom's Children, focusing on black life in the rural American South.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> In February of that year, he began working with the <a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Congress" title="National Negro Congress">National Negro Congress</a> (NNC), speaking at the Chicago convention on "The Role of the Negro Artist and Writer in the Changing Social Order".<a href="#cite_note-:2-25">[25]</a> His ultimate goal (looking at other labor unions as inspiration) was the development of NNC-sponsored publications, exhibits, and conferences alongside the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Writers%27_Project" title="Federal Writers' Project">Federal Writers' Project</a> to get work for black artists.<a href="#cite_note-:2-25">[25]</a> In 1937, he became the Harlem editor of the <a href="/wiki/Daily_Worker" title="Daily Worker">Daily Worker</a>. This assignment compiled quotes from interviews preceded by an introductory paragraph, thus allowing him time for other pursuits like the publication of Uncle Tom's Children a year later.<a href="#cite_note-:4-19">[19]</a> Pleased by his positive relations with white Communists in Chicago, Wright was later humiliated in New York City by some white party members who rescinded an offer to find housing for him when they learned his race.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Some black Communists denounced Wright as a "<a href="/wiki/Bourgeois" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourgeois">bourgeois</a> intellectual". Wright was essentially <a href="/wiki/Autodidacticism" title="Autodidacticism">autodidactic</a>. He had been forced to end his public education to support his mother and brother after completing junior high school.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Throughout the Soviet pact with Nazi Germany in 1940, Wright continued to focus his attention on racism in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-:3-28">[28]</a> He would ultimately break from the Communist Party when they broke from a tradition against segregation and racism and joined Stalinists supporting the US entering World War II in 1941.<a href="#cite_note-:3-28">[28]</a> Wright insisted that young communist writers be given space to cultivate their talents. He later described this episode through his fictional character Buddy Nealson, <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA_and_African_Americans" title="Communist Party USA and African Americans">an African-American communist</a>, in his essay "I tried to be a Communist", published in the Atlantic Monthly in 1944. This text was an excerpt of his autobiography scheduled to be published as American Hunger but was removed from the actual publication of <a href="/wiki/Black_Boy" title="Black Boy">Black Boy</a> upon request by the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Month_Club" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of the Month Club">Book of the Month Club</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Indeed, his relations with the party turned violent; Wright was threatened at knifepoint by <a href="/wiki/Fellow_traveler" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow traveler">fellow-traveler</a> co-workers, denounced as a <a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyite</a> in the street by strikers, and physically assaulted by former comrades when he tried to join them during the 1936 <a href="/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day" title="International Workers' Day">Labour Day</a> march.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career">Career</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Career">edit</a>]</div> In Chicago in 1932, Wright began writing with the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Writers%27_Project" title="Federal Writers' Project">Federal Writer's Project</a> and became a member of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">American Communist Party</a>. In 1937, he relocated to New York and became the Bureau Chief of the communist publication, the <a href="/wiki/Daily_Worker" title="Daily Worker">Daily Worker</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> He would write over 200 articles for the publication from 1937 to 1938. This allowed him to cover stories and issues that interested him, revealing depression-era America into light with well-written prose.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> He worked on the Federal Writers' Project guidebook to the city, New York Panorama (1938), and wrote the book's essay on <a href="/wiki/Harlem" title="Harlem">Harlem</a>. Through the summer and fall he wrote more than 200 articles for the Daily Worker and helped edit a short-lived literary magazine, New Challenge. The year was also a landmark for Wright because he met and developed a friendship with writer <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Ellison" title="Ralph Ellison">Ralph Ellison</a> that would last for years. He was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Story_(magazine)" title="Story (magazine)">Story</a> magazine first prize of $500 for his short story "Fire and Cloud".<a href="#cite_note-story-33">[33]</a> After receiving the Story prize in early 1938, Wright shelved his manuscript of Lawd Today and dismissed his literary agent, John Troustine. He hired Paul Reynolds, the well-known agent of poet <a href="/wiki/Paul_Laurence_Dunbar" title="Paul Laurence Dunbar">Paul Laurence Dunbar</a>, to represent him. Meanwhile, the Story Press offered the publisher <a href="/wiki/Harper_%26_Row" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper & Row">Harper</a> all of Wright's prize-entry stories for a book, and Harper agreed to publish the collection. Wright gained national attention for the collection of four short stories entitled <a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Children" title="Uncle Tom's Children">Uncle Tom's Children</a> (1938). He based some stories on <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynching</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a>. The publication and favorable reception of Uncle Tom's Children improved Wright's status with the Communist party and enabled him to establish a reasonable degree of financial stability. He was appointed to the editorial board of New Masses. <a href="/wiki/Granville_Hicks" title="Granville Hicks">Granville Hicks</a>, a prominent literary critic and Communist sympathizer, introduced him at leftist teas in Boston. By May 6, 1938, excellent sales had provided Wright with enough money to move to Harlem, where he began writing the novel <a href="/wiki/Native_Son" title="Native Son">Native Son</a>, which was published in 1940. Based on his collected short stories, Wright applied for and was awarded a <a href="/wiki/Guggenheim_Fellowship" title="Guggenheim Fellowship">Guggenheim Fellowship</a>, which gave him a stipend allowing him to complete Native Son. During this period, he rented a room in the home of friends Herbert and Jane Newton, an interracial couple and prominent <a href="/wiki/Communists" class="mw-redirect" title="Communists">Communists</a> whom Wright had known in Chicago.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> They had moved to New York and lived at 109 Lefferts Place in <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn" title="Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Fort_Greene_Historic_District" title="Fort Greene Historic District">Fort Greene</a> neighborhood.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> After publication, Native Son was selected by the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Month_Club" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of the Month Club">Book of the Month Club</a> as its first book by an African-American author. It was a daring choice. The lead character, <a href="/wiki/Bigger_Thomas" title="Bigger Thomas">Bigger Thomas</a>, is bound by the limitations that society places on African Americans. Unlike most in this situation, he gains his own <a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">agency</a> and self-knowledge only by committing heinous acts. Wright's characterization of Bigger led to him being criticized for his concentration on violence in his works. In the case of Native Son, people complained that he portrayed a black man in ways that seemed to confirm whites' worst fears. The period following publication of Native Son was a busy time for Wright. In July 1940 he went to Chicago to do research for a folk history of blacks to accompany photographs selected by <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Rosskam" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Rosskam">Edwin Rosskam</a>. While in Chicago he visited the <a href="/wiki/American_Negro_Exposition" title="American Negro Exposition">American Negro Exposition</a> with <a href="/wiki/Langston_Hughes" title="Langston Hughes">Langston Hughes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arna_Bontemps" title="Arna Bontemps">Arna Bontemps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Claude_McKay" title="Claude McKay">Claude McKay</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Canada-Lee-Native-Son-1941.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Canada-Lee-Native-Son-1941.jpg/220px-Canada-Lee-Native-Son-1941.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Canada-Lee-Native-Son-1941.jpg/330px-Canada-Lee-Native-Son-1941.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Canada-Lee-Native-Son-1941.jpg/440px-Canada-Lee-Native-Son-1941.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7100" data-file-height="8590" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Canada_Lee" title="Canada Lee">Canada Lee</a> as <a href="/wiki/Bigger_Thomas" title="Bigger Thomas">Bigger Thomas</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Orson_Welles" title="Orson Welles">Orson Welles</a> production of <a href="/wiki/Native_Son_(play)" title="Native Son (play)">Native Son</a> (1941)</figcaption></figure> Wright traveled to <a href="/wiki/Chapel_Hill,_North_Carolina" title="Chapel Hill, North Carolina">Chapel Hill, North Carolina</a>, to collaborate with playwright <a href="/wiki/Paul_Green_(playwright)" title="Paul Green (playwright)">Paul Green</a> on a dramatic adaptation of Native Son. In January 1941 Wright received the prestigious <a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> for noteworthy achievement. His play <a href="/wiki/Native_Son_(play)" title="Native Son (play)">Native Son</a> opened on Broadway in March 1941, with <a href="/wiki/Orson_Welles" title="Orson Welles">Orson Welles</a> as director, to generally favorable reviews. Wright also wrote the text to accompany a volume of photographs chosen by Rosskam, which were almost completely drawn from the files of the <a href="/wiki/Farm_Security_Administration" title="Farm Security Administration">Farm Security Administration</a>. The FSA had employed top photographers to travel around the country and capture images of Americans. Their collaboration, <a href="/wiki/12_Million_Black_Voices" title="12 Million Black Voices">12 Million Black Voices: A Folk History of the Negro in the United States</a>, was published in October 1941 to wide critical acclaim. Wright's memoir <a href="/wiki/Black_Boy" title="Black Boy">Black Boy</a> (1945) describes his early life from <a href="/wiki/Roxie,_Mississippi" title="Roxie, Mississippi">Roxie</a> up until his move to Chicago at age 19. It includes his clashes with his <a href="/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist</a> family, his troubles with white employers, and social isolation. It also describes his intellectual journey through these struggles. American Hunger, which was published posthumously in 1977, was originally intended by Wright as the second volume of Black Boy. The <a href="/wiki/Library_of_America" title="Library of America">Library of America</a> edition of 1991 finally restored the book to its original two-volume form.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> American Hunger details Wright's participation in the John Reed Clubs and the Communist Party, which he left in 1942. The book implies he left earlier, but he did not announce his withdrawal until 1944.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> In the book's restored form, Wright used the <a href="/wiki/Diptych" title="Diptych">diptych</a> structure to compare the certainties and intolerance of organized communism, which condemned "bourgeois" books and certain members, with similar restrictive qualities of fundamentalist organized religion. Wright disapproved of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: France">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plaque_Richard_Wright,_14_rue_Monsieur-le-Prince,_Paris_6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Plaque_Richard_Wright%2C_14_rue_Monsieur-le-Prince%2C_Paris_6.jpg/220px-Plaque_Richard_Wright%2C_14_rue_Monsieur-le-Prince%2C_Paris_6.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Plaque_Richard_Wright%2C_14_rue_Monsieur-le-Prince%2C_Paris_6.jpg/330px-Plaque_Richard_Wright%2C_14_rue_Monsieur-le-Prince%2C_Paris_6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Plaque_Richard_Wright%2C_14_rue_Monsieur-le-Prince%2C_Paris_6.jpg/440px-Plaque_Richard_Wright%2C_14_rue_Monsieur-le-Prince%2C_Paris_6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2353" data-file-height="1700" /></a><figcaption>Plaque commemorating Wright's residence in Paris, at 14, <a href="/wiki/Rue_Monsieur-le-Prince" title="Rue Monsieur-le-Prince">rue Monsieur le Prince</a>.</figcaption></figure> Following a stay of a few months in <a href="/wiki/Qu%C3%A9bec" class="mw-redirect" title="Québec">Québec</a>, Canada, including a lengthy stay in the village of Sainte-Pétronille on the <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Île d'Orléans">Île d'Orléans</a>,<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Wright moved to Paris in 1946. He became a permanent American <a href="/wiki/Expatriate" title="Expatriate">expatriate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> In Paris, Wright became friends with French writers <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Albert Camus</a>, whom he had met while still in New York, and he and his wife became particularly good friends with <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a>, who stayed with them in 1947.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> However, as Michel Fabre argues, Wright's existentialist leanings were more influenced by <a href="/wiki/Soren_Kierkegaard" class="mw-redirect" title="Soren Kierkegaard">Soren Kierkegaard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>, and especially <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> In following Fabre's argument, with respect to Wright's existentialist proclivities during the period of 1946 to 1951, Hue Woodson suggests that Wright's exposure to Husserl and Heidegger "directly came as an intended consequence of the inadequacies of Sartre's synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> for Wright".<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> His <a href="/wiki/Existentialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Existentialist">Existentialist</a> phase was expressed in his second novel, <a href="/wiki/The_Outsider_(Richard_Wright)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Outsider (Richard Wright)">The Outsider</a> (1953), which described an African-American character's involvement with the Communist Party in New York. He also became friends with fellow expatriate writers <a href="/wiki/Chester_Himes" title="Chester Himes">Chester Himes</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a>. His relationship with the latter ended in acrimony after Baldwin published his essay "Everybody's Protest Novel"<a href="#cite_note-jbhe-22">[22]</a> (collected in <a href="/wiki/Notes_of_a_Native_Son" title="Notes of a Native Son">Notes of a Native Son</a>), in which he criticized Wright's portrayal of Bigger Thomas as stereotypical. In 1954 Wright published Savage Holiday. After becoming a French citizen in 1947, Wright continued to travel through Europe, Asia, and Africa. He drew material from these trips for numerous nonfiction works. In 1949, Wright contributed to the anti-communist anthology <a href="/wiki/The_God_That_Failed" class="mw-redirect" title="The God That Failed">The God That Failed</a>; his essay had been published in the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Monthly" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic Monthly">Atlantic Monthly</a> three years earlier and was derived from the unpublished portion of Black Boy. He was invited to join the <a href="/wiki/Congress_for_Cultural_Freedom" title="Congress for Cultural Freedom">Congress for Cultural Freedom</a>, which he rejected, correctly suspecting that it had connections with the <a href="/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a>. Fearful of links between African Americans and communists, the <a href="/wiki/FBI" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI">FBI</a> had Wright under surveillance starting in 1943. With the heightened communist fears of the 1950s, Wright was <a href="/wiki/Hollywood_blacklist" title="Hollywood blacklist">blacklisted</a> by Hollywood movie studio executives. But in 1950, he starred as the teenager Bigger Thomas (Wright was 42) in an <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentinian</a> film version of <a href="/wiki/Native_Son_(1951_film)" title="Native Son (1951 film)">Native Son</a>. In mid-1953, Wright traveled to the <a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(region)" title="Gold Coast (region)">Gold Coast</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Kwame Nkrumah</a> was leading the country to independence from British rule, to be established as <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>. Before Wright returned to Paris, he gave a confidential report to the United States consulate in <a href="/wiki/Accra" title="Accra">Accra</a> on what he had learned about Nkrumah and his political party. After Wright returned to Paris, he met twice with an officer from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">U.S. State Department</a>. The officer's report includes what Wright had learned from Nkrumah's adviser <a href="/wiki/George_Padmore" title="George Padmore">George Padmore</a> about Nkrumah's plans for the Gold Coast after independence. Padmore, a <a href="/wiki/Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidadian</a> living in London, believed Wright to be a good friend. His many letters in the Wright papers at Yale's Beinecke Library attest to this, and the two men continued their correspondence. Wright's book on his African journey, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Power_(Richard_Wright_book)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Black Power (Richard Wright book) (page does not exist)">Black Power</a>, was published in 1954; its London publisher was <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Dobson" title="Dennis Dobson">Dennis Dobson</a>, who also published Padmore's work.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Whatever political motivations Wright had for reporting to American officials, he was also an American who wanted to stay abroad and needed their approval to have his passport renewed. According to Wright biographer <a href="/wiki/Addison_Gayle" title="Addison Gayle">Addison Gayle</a>, a few months later Wright talked to officials at the American embassy in Paris about people he had met in the Communist Party; at the time these individuals were being prosecuted in the US under the <a href="/wiki/Smith_Act" title="Smith Act">Smith Act</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Historian Carol Polsgrove explored why Wright appeared to have little to say about the increasing activism of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a> during the 1950s in the United States. She found that he was under what his friend Chester Himes called "extraordinary pressure" to avoid writing about the US.<a href="#cite_note-polsgrove80-81-45">[45]</a> As <a href="/wiki/Ebony_(magazine)" title="Ebony (magazine)">Ebony</a> magazine delayed publishing his essay "I Choose Exile", Wright finally suggested publishing it in a white periodical. He believed that "a white periodical would be less vulnerable to accusations of disloyalty".<a href="#cite_note-polsgrove80-81-45">[45]</a> He thought the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Monthly" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic Monthly">Atlantic Monthly</a> was interested, but in the end, the piece went unpublished.<a href="#cite_note-polsgrove80-81-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> In 1955, Wright visited <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:Gao-47">[47]</a> He recorded his observations on the conference as well as on Indonesian cultural conditions in <a href="/wiki/The_Color_Curtain" title="The Color Curtain">The Color Curtain: A Report on the Bandung Conference</a>. Wright praised the conference extensively.<a href="#cite_note-:Gao-47">[47]</a> He gave at least two lectures to Indonesian cultural groups, including <a href="/wiki/PEN_Club" class="mw-redirect" title="PEN Club">PEN Club</a> Indonesia, and he interviewed Indonesian artists and intellectuals in preparation to write The Color Curtain.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Several Indonesian artists and intellectuals whom Wright met, later commented on how he had depicted Indonesian cultural conditions in his <a href="/wiki/Travel_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Travel writing">travel writing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Other works by Wright included White Man, Listen! (1957) and a novel The Long Dream (1958), which was adapted as a play and produced in New York in 1960 by <a href="/wiki/Ketti_Frings" title="Ketti Frings">Ketti Frings</a>. It explores the relationship between a man named Fish and his father.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> A collection of <a href="/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">short stories</a>, Eight Men, was published posthumously in 1961, shortly after Wright's death. These works dealt primarily with the poverty, anger, and protests of northern and southern urban black Americans. His agent, Paul Reynolds, sent strongly negative criticism of Wright's 400-page Island of Hallucinations manuscript in February 1959.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Despite that, in March Wright outlined a novel in which his character Fish was to be liberated from racial conditioning and become dominating. By May 1959, Wright wanted to leave Paris and live in London. He felt French politics had become increasingly submissive to United States pressure. The peaceful Parisian atmosphere he had enjoyed had been shattered by quarrels and attacks instigated by enemies of the expatriate black writers. On June 26, 1959, after a party marking the French publication of White Man, Listen!, Wright became ill. He suffered a virulent attack of <a href="/wiki/Amoebic_dysentery" class="mw-redirect" title="Amoebic dysentery">amoebic dysentery</a>, probably contracted during his 1953 stay on the Gold Coast. By November 1959, his wife had found a London apartment, but Wright's illness and "four hassles in twelve days" with British immigration officials ended his desire to live in England.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] On February 19, 1960, Wright learned from his agent Reynolds that the New York premiere of the stage adaptation of The Long Dream had received such bad reviews that the adapter, Ketti Frings, had decided to cancel further performances. Meanwhile, Wright was running into added problems trying to get The Long Dream published in France. These setbacks prevented his finishing revisions of Island of Hallucinations, for which he was trying to get a publication commitment from <a href="/wiki/Doubleday_(publisher)" title="Doubleday (publisher)">Doubleday and Company</a>. In June 1960, Wright recorded a series of discussions for French radio, dealing primarily with his books and literary career. He also addressed the racial situation in the United States and the world, and specifically denounced American policy in Africa. In late September, to cover extra expenses for his daughter Julia's move from London to Paris to attend the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">Sorbonne</a>, Wright wrote blurbs for record jackets for Nicole Barclay, director of the largest record company in Paris. In spite of his financial straits, Wright refused to compromise his principles. He declined to participate in a series of programs for Canadian radio because he suspected American control. For the same reason, he rejected an invitation from the Congress for Cultural Freedom to go to India to speak at a conference in memory of <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>. Still interested in literature, Wright helped <a href="/wiki/Kyle_Onstott" title="Kyle Onstott">Kyle Onstott</a> get his novel <a href="/wiki/Mandingo_(novel)" title="Mandingo (novel)">Mandingo</a> (1957) published in France. Wright's last display of explosive energy occurred on November 8, 1960, in his polemical lecture "The Situation of the Black Artist and Intellectual in the United States", delivered to students and members of the <a href="/wiki/American_Church_in_Paris" title="American Church in Paris">American Church in Paris</a>. He argued that American society reduced the most militant members of the black community to slaves whenever they wanted to question the racial status quo. He offered as proof the subversive attacks of the Communists against Native Son and the quarrels that <a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin_(writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Baldwin (writer)">James Baldwin</a> and other authors sought with him. On November 26, 1960, Wright talked enthusiastically with Langston Hughes about his work Daddy Goodness and gave him the manuscript. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P%C3%A8re-Lachaise_-_Division_87_-_Columbarium_-_Octobre_2015_-_11.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P%C3%A8re-Lachaise_-_Division_87_-_Columbarium_-_Octobre_2015_-_11.jpg/220px-P%C3%A8re-Lachaise_-_Division_87_-_Columbarium_-_Octobre_2015_-_11.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P%C3%A8re-Lachaise_-_Division_87_-_Columbarium_-_Octobre_2015_-_11.jpg/330px-P%C3%A8re-Lachaise_-_Division_87_-_Columbarium_-_Octobre_2015_-_11.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P%C3%A8re-Lachaise_-_Division_87_-_Columbarium_-_Octobre_2015_-_11.jpg/440px-P%C3%A8re-Lachaise_-_Division_87_-_Columbarium_-_Octobre_2015_-_11.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2896" data-file-height="2896" /></a><figcaption>Wright's grave</figcaption></figure> Wright died of a heart attack in Paris on November 28, 1960, at the age of 52. He was interred in <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A8re_Lachaise_Cemetery" title="Père Lachaise Cemetery">Père Lachaise Cemetery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Wright's daughter Julia has claimed that her father was murdered.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> A number of Wright's works have been published posthumously. In addition, some of Wright's more shocking passages dealing with race, sex, and politics were cut or omitted before original publication of works during his lifetime. In 1991, unexpurgated versions of Native Son, Black Boy, and his other works were published. In addition, in 1994, his novella Rite of Passage was published for the first time.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> In the last years of his life, Wright had become enamored of the Japanese poetic form <a href="/wiki/Haiku_in_English" title="Haiku in English">haiku</a> and wrote more than 4,000 such short poems. In 1998 a book was published (Haiku: This Other World) with 817 of his own favorite haiku. Many of these haiku have an uplifting quality even as they deal with coming to terms with loneliness, death, and the forces of nature. A collection of Wright's travel writings was published by the <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Mississippi" title="University Press of Mississippi">University Press of Mississippi</a> in 2001. At his death, Wright left an unfinished book, A Father's Law,<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> dealing with a black policeman and the son he suspects of murder. His daughter Julia Wright published A Father's Law in January 2008. An omnibus edition containing Wright's political works was published under the title Three Books from Exile: Black Power; The Color Curtain; and White Man, Listen! <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Personal life">edit</a>]</div> In August 1939, with <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Ellison" title="Ralph Ellison">Ralph Ellison</a> as best man,<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Wright married Dhimah Rose Meidman,<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> a modern dance teacher of Russian Jewish ancestry. The marriage ended a year later. On March 12, 1941, he married Ellen Poplar (née Poplowitz),<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-family-59">[59]</a> a Communist organizer from Brooklyn.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> They had two daughters: Julia, born in 1942, and Rachel, born in 1949.<a href="#cite_note-family-59">[59]</a> Ellen Wright, who died on April 6, 2004, aged 92, was the executor of Wright's estate. In this capacity, she unsuccessfully sued a biographer, the poet and writer <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Walker" title="Margaret Walker">Margaret Walker</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Wright_v._Warner_Books,_Inc." title="Wright v. Warner Books, Inc.">Wright v. Warner Books, Inc.</a> She was a literary agent, and her clients included <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Violette_Leduc" title="Violette Leduc">Violette Leduc</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Awards_and_honors">Awards and honors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Awards and honors">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal</a> in 1941 from the NAACP<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guggenheim_Fellowship" title="Guggenheim Fellowship">Guggenheim Fellowship</a> in <a href="/wiki/List_of_Guggenheim_Fellowships_awarded_in_1939" title="List of Guggenheim Fellowships awarded in 1939">1939</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Story_(magazine)" title="Story (magazine)">Story</a> Magazine Award in 1938.<a href="#cite_note-story-33">[33]</a></li> <li>In April 2009, Wright was featured on a <a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">U.S. postage stamp</a>. The 61-cent, two-ounce rate stamp is the 25th installment of the literary arts series, and features a portrait of Wright in front of snow-swept tenements on the South Side of Chicago, a scene that recalls the setting of Native Son.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></li> <li>In 2010, Wright was inducted into the Chicago Literary Hall of Fame.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></li> <li>In 2012, the <a href="/wiki/Historic_Districts_Council" title="Historic Districts Council">Historic Districts Council</a> and the <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_Landmarks_Preservation_Commission" title="New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission">New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission</a>, in collaboration with the Fort Greene Association and writer/musician <a href="/wiki/Carl_Hancock_Rux" title="Carl Hancock Rux">Carl Hancock Rux</a>, erected a cultural medallion at 175 Carlton Avenue, Brooklyn, where Wright lived in 1938 and completed <a href="/wiki/Native_Son" title="Native Son">Native Son</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> The group unveiled the plaque at a public ceremony with guest speakers, including playwright <a href="/wiki/Lynn_Nottage" title="Lynn Nottage">Lynn Nottage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Borough_President" class="mw-redirect" title="Brooklyn Borough President">Brooklyn Borough President</a> <a href="/wiki/Marty_Markowitz" title="Marty Markowitz">Marty Markowitz</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shimer_College_banned_books_2013.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Shimer_College_banned_books_2013.jpg/220px-Shimer_College_banned_books_2013.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Shimer_College_banned_books_2013.jpg/330px-Shimer_College_banned_books_2013.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Shimer_College_banned_books_2013.jpg/440px-Shimer_College_banned_books_2013.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Banned_Books_Week" title="Banned Books Week">Banned Books Week</a> reading of Black Boy at <a href="/wiki/Shimer_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Shimer College">Shimer College</a> in 2013</figcaption></figure> Black Boy became an instant best-seller upon its publication in 1945.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Wright's stories published during the 1950s disappointed some critics who said that his move to Europe had alienated him from African Americans and separated him from his emotional and psychological roots.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Many of Wright's works failed to satisfy the rigid standards of <a href="/wiki/New_Criticism" title="New Criticism">New Criticism</a> during a period when the works of younger black writers gained in popularity.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> During the 1950s Wright grew more internationalist in outlook. While he accomplished much as an important public literary and political figure with a worldwide reputation, his creative work did decline.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> While interest in Black Boy ebbed during the 1950s, this has remained one of his best selling books. Since the late 20th century, critics have had a resurgence of interest in it. Black Boy remains a vital work of historical, sociological, and literary significance whose seminal portrayal of one black man's search for self-actualization in a racist society strongly influenced the works of African-American writers who followed, such as <a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Ellison" title="Ralph Ellison">Ralph Ellison</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_A._Williams" title="John A. Williams">John A. Williams</a> included a fictionalized version of Wright's life and death in his 1967 novel <a href="/wiki/The_Man_Who_Cried_I_Am" title="The Man Who Cried I Am">The Man Who Cried I Am</a>. It is generally agreed that the influence of Wright's Native Son is not a matter of literary style or technique.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECorkery200717–28-71">[71]</a> Rather, this book affected ideas and attitudes, and Native Son has been a force in the social and intellectual history of the United States in the last half of the 20th century. "Wright was one of the people who made me conscious of the need to struggle," said writer <a href="/wiki/Amiri_Baraka" title="Amiri Baraka">Amiri Baraka</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> During the 1970s and 1980s, scholars published critical essays about Wright in prestigious journals. Richard Wright conferences were held on university campuses from Mississippi to New Jersey. A new film version of Native Son, with a screenplay by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wesley" title="Richard Wesley">Richard Wesley</a>, was released in December 1986. Certain Wright novels became required reading in a number of American high schools, universities and colleges.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Recent critics have called for a reassessment of Wright's later work in view of his philosophical project. Notably, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Gilroy" title="Paul Gilroy">Paul Gilroy</a> has argued that "the depth of his philosophical interests has been either overlooked or misconceived by the almost exclusively literary inquiries that have dominated analysis of his writing".<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Wright was featured in a 90-minute documentary about the WPA Writers' Project entitled Soul of a People: Writing America's Story (2009).<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> His life and work during the 1930s is highlighted in the companion book, Soul of a People: The WPA Writers' Project Uncovers Depression America.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publications">Publications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Publications">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collections">Collections</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Collections">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Children" title="Uncle Tom's Children">Uncle Tom's Children</a> (New York: Harper, 1938) (collection of <a href="/wiki/Novellas" class="mw-redirect" title="Novellas">novellas</a>)</li> <li>Eight Men (Cleveland and New York: World, 1961) <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Man_Who_Was_Almost_a_Man" title="The Man Who Was Almost a Man">The Man Who Was Almost a Man</a>"</li> <li>"The Man Who Lived Underground" (truncated version)</li> <li>"Big Black Man"</li> <li>"The Man Who Saw the Flood"</li> <li>"Man of All Work"</li> <li>"Man, God Ain't That..."</li> <li>"The Man Who Killed a Shadow"</li> <li>"The Man Who Went to Chicago"</li></ul></li> <li>Early Works (<a href="/wiki/Arnold_Rampersad" title="Arnold Rampersad">Arnold Rampersad</a>, ed.) (<a href="/wiki/Library_of_America" title="Library of America">Library of America</a>, 1989),</li> <li>Later Works (Arnold Rampersad, ed.) (Library of America, 1991).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drama">Drama</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Drama">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_Son_(play)" title="Native Son (play)">Native Son: The Biography of a Young American</a> with <a href="/wiki/Paul_Green_(playwright)" title="Paul Green (playwright)">Paul Green</a> (New York: Harper, 1941)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Novels">Novels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Novels">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_Son" title="Native Son">Native Son</a> (New York: Harper, 1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Outsider_(Wright_novel)" title="The Outsider (Wright novel)">The Outsider</a> (New York: Harper, 1953)</li> <li>Savage Holiday (New York: Avon, 1954)</li> <li>The Long Dream (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1958)</li> <li>Lawd Today (New York: Walker, 1963)</li> <li>Rite of Passage (New York: HarperCollins, 1994) (novella)</li> <li>A Father's Law (London: Harper Perennial, 2008) (unfinished novel)</li> <li>The Man Who Lived Underground (Library of America, 2021) (extended novel, as originally )</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-fiction">Non-fiction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Non-fiction">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>How "Bigger" Was Born; Notes of a Native Son (New York: Harper, 1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/12_Million_Black_Voices" title="12 Million Black Voices">12 Million Black Voices: A Folk History of the Negro in the United States</a> (New York: Viking, 1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Boy" title="Black Boy">Black Boy</a> (New York: Harper, 1945)</li> <li>Black Power (New York: Harper, 1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Color_Curtain" title="The Color Curtain">The Color Curtain</a> (Cleveland and New York: World, 1956)</li> <li>Pagan Spain (New York: Harper, 1957)</li> <li>Letters to Joe C. Brown (Kent State University Libraries, 1968)</li> <li>American Hunger (New York: Harper & Row, 1977)</li> <li>Conversations with Richard Wright (University Press of Mississippi, 1993).</li> <li>Black Power: Three Books from Exile: "Black Power"; "The Color Curtain"; and "White Man, Listen!" (Harper Perennial, 2008)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Essays">Essays</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Essays">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>The Ethics of Living Jim Crow: An Autobiographical Sketch (1937)</li> <li>Introduction to Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (1945)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=I_Choose_Exile_(Richard_Wright)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="I Choose Exile (Richard Wright) (page does not exist)">I Choose Exile</a> (1951)</li> <li>White Man, Listen! (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1957)</li> <li>Blueprint for Negro Literature (New York City, New York) (1937)<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_God_That_Failed" class="mw-redirect" title="The God That Failed">The God That Failed</a> (contributor) (1949)</li></ul> <dl><dt>Poetry</dt></dl> <ul><li>Haiku: This Other World (eds. Yoshinobu Hakutani and Robert L. Tener; Arcade, 1998, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0385720246" title="Special:BookSources/0385720246">0385720246</a>) <ul><li>re-issue (paperback): Haiku: The Last Poetry of Richard Wright (Arcade Publishing, 2012), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61145-349-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61145-349-2">978-1-61145-349-2</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin_in_France" title="James Baldwin in France">James Baldwin in France</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-life-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-life_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-life_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-life_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-life_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-life_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-life_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-life_1-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mississippiencyclopedia.org/entries/richard-wright/">"Richard Wright"</a>. Mississippi Encyclopedia. Retrieved October 29, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mississippi+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Richard+Wright&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmississippiencyclopedia.org%2Fentries%2Frichard-wright%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://familysearch.org/search/record/results?count=20&query=%2Bgivenname%3AElla%20%2Bsurname%3AWilson%20%2Bbirth_place%3AMississippi%20%2Bresidence_year%3A1880-1910~%20%2Bfather_surname%3AWilson&offset=20">US Census 1900</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://familysearch.org/search/record/results?count=20&query=%2Bsurname%3AWright%20%2Bfather_givenname%3ARichard%20%2Bfather_surname%3AWilson">LDS Family Search: Cook County Death record</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://civilwartalk.com/threads/richard-wilson-aka-richard-vincent.97026/#post-832592">Summary of Richard Wilson and Nathan Wrights Civil War services</a> at Civil War Talk Forum. Retrieved May 5,2019. </li> <li id="cite_note-childhood-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-childhood_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-childhood_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-childhood_5-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mswritersandmusicians.com/mississippi-writers/richard-wright">"Richard Wright"</a>. Mississippi Writers & Musicians. Retrieved October 30, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mississippi+Writers+%26+Musicians&rft.atitle=Richard+Wright&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mswritersandmusicians.com%2Fmississippi-writers%2Frichard-wright&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-fire-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fire_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fire_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200413105901/http://blackhistorynow.com/richard-wright/">"Richard Wright"</a>. BlackHistoryNow. August 7, 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blackhistorynow.com/richard-wright/">the original</a> on April 13, 2020. Retrieved October 30, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BlackHistoryNow&rft.atitle=Richard+Wright&rft.date=2011-08-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblackhistorynow.com%2Frichard-wright%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-abuse-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-abuse_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-abuse_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-abuse_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-abuse_7-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-abuse_7-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-abuse_7-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-abuse_7-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-abuse_7-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-abuse_7-8">i</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blackboy.pbworks.com/w/page/59555846/Say%20Hello%20To%20Richard%20Wright">"Say Hello To Richard Wright"</a>. blackboy. PBworks. Retrieved October 30, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=blackboy&rft.atitle=Say+Hello+To+Richard+Wright&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblackboy.pbworks.com%2Fw%2Fpage%2F59555846%2FSay%2520Hello%2520To%2520Richard%2520Wright&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=3755">"Richard Nathaniel Wright (1908–1960)"</a>. Encyclopedia of Arkansas. Retrieved September 30, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+of+Arkansas&rft.atitle=Richard+Nathaniel+Wright+%281908%E2%80%931960%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopediaofarkansas.net%2Fencyclopedia%2Fentry-detail.aspx%3FentryID%3D3755&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1966" class="citation book cs1">Wright (1966). Black Boy. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 135–138.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Boy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=135-138&rft.pub=Harper+and+Row&rft.date=1966&rft.au=Wright&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1966" class="citation book cs1">Wright (1966). Black Boy. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 182–186.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Boy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=182-186&rft.pub=Harper+and+Row&rft.date=1966&rft.au=Wright&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1966" class="citation book cs1">Wright (1966). Black Boy. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 193–197.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Boy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=193-197&rft.pub=Harper+and+Row&rft.date=1966&rft.au=Wright&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-12"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1966" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Richard (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackboyrecordof00wrig_0">Black Boy</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Harper_and_Row_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper and Row Publishers">Harper and Row Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0060830565" title="Special:BookSources/0060830565"><bdi>0060830565</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Boy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+and+Row+Publishers&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=0060830565&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackboyrecordof00wrig_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1966" class="citation book cs1">Wright (1966). Black Boy. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 276–278.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Boy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=276-278&rft.pub=Harper+and+Row&rft.date=1966&rft.au=Wright&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1993" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Richard (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackboyamerican00wrig">Black Boy</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackboyamerican00wrig/page/455">455</a>–459. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0060812508" title="Special:BookSources/0060812508"><bdi>0060812508</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Boy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=455-459&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0060812508&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackboyamerican00wrig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211128000501/http://mediawiki.feverous.co.uk/index.php/Left_Front_(magazine)">"Left Front (magazine) – Wikipedia for FEVERv2"</a>. mediawiki.feverous.co.uk. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mediawiki.feverous.co.uk/index.php/Left_Front_(magazine)">the original</a> on November 28, 2021. Retrieved April 5, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mediawiki.feverous.co.uk&rft.atitle=Left+Front+%28magazine%29+%E2%80%93+Wikipedia+for+FEVERv2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmediawiki.feverous.co.uk%2Findex.php%2FLeft_Front_%28magazine%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1965" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Richard (1965). "Richard Wright". In Crossman, Richard (ed.). The God That Failed. 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Journal of Black Studies. 2 (4): 439–460. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002193477200200403">10.1177/002193477200200403</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2783633">2783633</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141107480">141107480</a> – via JSTOR.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Black+Studies&rft.atitle=Richard+Wright%27s+Apprenticeship&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=439-460&rft.date=1972-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A141107480%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2783633%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002193477200200403&rft.aulast=Reilly&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2783633&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1965" class="citation book cs1">Wright (1965). 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Bryant, ed., Byline, Richard Wright: Articles from the Daily Worker and New Masses (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2015), 282 pp + i–xix"</a> (PDF). academic.oup.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://academic.oup.com/DocumentLibrary/ALH/Online%20Review%20Series%205/Barbara%20Foley%20Online%20Review%20V.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=academic.oup.com&rft.atitle=Barbara+Foley+Online+Review+%3A+Earle+V.+Bryant%2C+ed.%2C+Byline%2C+Richard+Wright%3A+Articles+from+the+Daily+Worker+and+New+Masses+%28Columbia%3A+University+of+Missouri+Press%2C+2015%29%2C+282+pp+%2B+i%E2%80%93xix&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Foley&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2FDocumentLibrary%2FALH%2FOnline%2520Review%2520Series%25205%2FBarbara%2520Foley%2520Online%2520Review%2520V.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jbhe-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jbhe_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jbhe_22-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoskowitz" class="citation journal cs1">Moskowitz, Milton. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jbhe.com/features/59_richardwright.html">"The Enduring Importance of Richard Wright"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Blacks_in_Higher_Education" title="The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education">The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education</a>. Retrieved April 8, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Blacks+in+Higher+Education&rft.atitle=The+Enduring+Importance+of+Richard+Wright&rft.aulast=Moskowitz&rft.aufirst=Milton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jbhe.com%2Ffeatures%2F59_richardwright.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimmons2019" class="citation web cs1">Simmons, Kristen Jere (May 21, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://southsideweekly.com/a-space-of-his-own-richard-wright/">"A Space of His Own"</a>. South Side Weekly. Retrieved April 8, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=South+Side+Weekly&rft.atitle=A+Space+of+His+Own&rft.date=2019-05-21&rft.aulast=Simmons&rft.aufirst=Kristen+Jere&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsouthsideweekly.com%2Fa-space-of-his-own-richard-wright%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/arts/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/big-boy-leaves-home-richard-wright-1938">"Big Boy Leaves Home by Richard Wright, 1938 | Encyclopedia.com"</a>. www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved December 17, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.encyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Big+Boy+Leaves+Home+by+Richard+Wright%2C+1938+%7C+Encyclopedia.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Farts%2Fencyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps%2Fbig-boy-leaves-home-richard-wright-1938&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGellman2012" class="citation book cs1">Gellman, Erik S. (2012). Death Blow to Jim Crow. 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Retrieved April 8, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.workersliberty.org&rft.atitle=Richard+Wright+and+Stalinism+%7C+Workers%27+Liberty&rft.date=2019-02-27&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.workersliberty.org%2Fstory%2F2019-02-28%2Frichard-wright-and-stalinism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1960" class="citation book cs1">Wright (1960). "Richard Wright". In Crossman (ed.). 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Columbia. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0826220202" title="Special:BookSources/978-0826220202"><bdi>978-0826220202</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/867020649">867020649</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byline%2C+Richard+Wright+%3A+articles+from+the+Daily+worker+and+New+masses&rft.place=Columbia&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F867020649&rft.isbn=978-0826220202&rft.au=Wright%2C+Richard%2C+1908%E2%80%931960&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F867020649&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-story-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-story_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-story_33-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1993" class="citation book cs1">Wright (1993). 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Retrieved September 30, 2016 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Literary+Brooklyn%3A+The+Writers+of+Brooklyn+and+the+Story+of+American+City+Life&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1429973069&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Evan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT6-lhNKL3ncC%26q%3DHerbert%2Band%2Bjane%2BNewton%26pg%3DPT147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOleksinski2017" class="citation news cs1">Oleksinski, Johnny (April 14, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nypost.com/2017/04/14/find-out-if-new-yorks-greatest-writers-lived-next-door/">"Find out if New York's greatest writers lived next door"</a>. The New York Post. Retrieved April 14, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Post&rft.atitle=Find+out+if+New+York%27s+greatest+writers+lived+next+door&rft.date=2017-04-14&rft.aulast=Oleksinski&rft.aufirst=Johnny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnypost.com%2F2017%2F04%2F14%2Ffind-out-if-new-yorks-greatest-writers-lived-next-door%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDamon_Root2021" class="citation web cs1">Damon Root (October 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reason.com/2021/09/25/when-the-native-son-became-the-man-who-lived-underground/">"When the 'Native Son' Became 'The Man Who Lived Underground'"</a>. Reason.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=When+the+%27Native+Son%27+Became+%27The+Man+Who+Lived+Underground%27&rft.pub=Reason&rft.date=2021-10&rft.au=Damon+Root&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freason.com%2F2021%2F09%2F25%2Fwhen-the-native-son-became-the-man-who-lived-underground%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1993" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Richard (1993). Kinnamon, Keneth; Fabre, Michel (eds.). Conversations with Richard Wright. Mississippi: University of Mississippi. p. xix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0878056327" title="Special:BookSources/0878056327"><bdi>0878056327</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conversations+with+Richard+Wright&rft.place=Mississippi&rft.pages=xix&rft.pub=University+of+Mississippi&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0878056327&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Jean-Christophe Cloutier, Introduction to Jack Kerouac, La vie est d'hommage (Boréal, 2016), pp. 31–32. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.math.buffalo.edu/~sww/wright/wright_bio.html">"Richard Wright Biography"</a>. 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Other Press. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1590514894" title="Special:BookSources/978-1590514894"><bdi>978-1590514894</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=At+the+Existentialist+Caf%C3%A9%3A+Freedom%2C+Being%2C+and+Apricot+Cocktails&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=Other+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1590514894&rft.aulast=Bakewell&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Fabre, Michel (1993). The Unfinished Quest of Richard Wright. Tr. Isabel Barzun. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press. pp. 374. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Woodson, Hue (2019). "Heidegger and The Outsider, Savage Holiday, and The Long Dream" in Critical Insights: Richard Wright, Ed. Kimberly Drake. Amenia, NY: Grey House, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Carol Polsgrove, Ending British Rule in Africa: Writers in a Common Cause (2009), pp. 125–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Carol Polsgrove, Divided Minds: Intellectuals and the Civil Rights Movement (2001), p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-polsgrove80-81-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-polsgrove80-81_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-polsgrove80-81_45-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-polsgrove80-81_45-2">c</a> Polsgrove, Divided Minds, pp. 80–81. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Wright, Richard (1951), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/5c54c9afc8a5790510b95009/5d58141d83100b29bb005da9_Richard%20Wright%20-%20I%20Choose%20Exile.pdfThe">essay "I Choose Exile"</a>. Retrieved November 25, 2024. </li> <li id="cite_note-:Gao-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:Gao_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Gao_47-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGao2021" class="citation book cs1">Gao, Yunxiang (2021). Arise, Africa! Roar, China! Black and Chinese Citizens of the World in the Twentieth Century. Chapel Hill, NC: <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781469664606" title="Special:BookSources/9781469664606"><bdi>9781469664606</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arise%2C+Africa%21+Roar%2C+China%21+Black+and+Chinese+Citizens+of+the+World+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.place=Chapel+Hill%2C+NC&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9781469664606&rft.aulast=Gao&rft.aufirst=Yunxiang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Brian. Artistic Ambassadors: Literary and International Representation of the New Negro Era. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. pp. 153–153, 161.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artistic+Ambassadors%3A+Literary+and+International+Representation+of+the+New+Negro+Era&rft.place=Charlottesville&rft.pages=153-153%2C+161&rft.pub=University+of+Virginia+Press&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVuyk2011" class="citation journal cs1">Vuyk, Beb (May 2011). "A Weekend with Richard Wright". 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Wright (1908–1960), Bio-Chronology"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190223061206/http://www.nathanielturner.com/richardwright3.htm">Archived</a> February 23, 2019, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Chicken Bones: A Journal for Literary & Artistic African-American Themes. </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> Henry Louis Gates, Jr., Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham (eds), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E_vRLcgEdGoC&dq=%22ellen+poplowitz%22+henry+louis+gates&pg=PA555">Harlem Renaissance Lives: From the African American National Biography</a>, Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 555. </li> <li id="cite_note-family-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-family_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-family_59-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dailyfreeman.com/news/remembering-richard-wright/article_ba77c755-186d-5c62-9b80-4ae29f4ce695.html">"Remembering Richard Wright"</a>. Daily Freeman. December 18, 2008. Retrieved October 30, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Daily+Freeman&rft.atitle=Remembering+Richard+Wright&rft.date=2008-12-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdailyfreeman.com%2Fnews%2Fremembering-richard-wright%2Farticle_ba77c755-186d-5c62-9b80-4ae29f4ce695.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170224082814/http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/s_z/r_wright/chronology.htm">"A Richard Wright Chronology"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/s_z/r_wright/chronology.htm">the original</a> on February 24, 2017. Retrieved September 30, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Richard+Wright+Chronology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.english.illinois.edu%2Fmaps%2Fpoets%2Fs_z%2Fr_wright%2Fchronology.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWald2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_M._Wald" title="Alan M. Wald">Wald, Alan M.</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hCDwvrfxD1sC&q=%22ellen+wright%22+literary+agent+Simone+de+Beauvoir+Cleaver&pg=PA162">American Night: The Literary Left in the Era of the Cold War</a>. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. p. 162. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0807835869" title="Special:BookSources/978-0807835869"><bdi>978-0807835869</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Night%3A+The+Literary+Left+in+the+Era+of+the+Cold+War&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pages=162&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0807835869&rft.aulast=Wald&rft.aufirst=Alan+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhCDwvrfxD1sC%26q%3D%2522ellen%2Bwright%2522%2Bliterary%2Bagent%2BSimone%2Bde%2BBeauvoir%2BCleaver%26pg%3DPA162&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2006" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Campbell_(author)" title="James Campbell (author)">Campbell, James</a> (January 7, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2006/jan/07/featuresreviews.guardianreview25">"The Island affair"</a>. The Guardian.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=The+Island+affair&rft.date=2006-01-07&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fbooks%2F2006%2Fjan%2F07%2Ffeaturesreviews.guardianreview25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"The Spingarn Medal, 1915–2007". World Almanac & Book of Facts. World Almanac Education Group, Inc. 2008. p. 256.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Spingarn+Medal%2C+1915%E2%80%932007&rft.btitle=World+Almanac+%26+Book+of+Facts&rft.pages=256&rft.pub=World+Almanac+Education+Group%2C+Inc&rft.date=2008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://about.usps.com/news/national-releases/2009/pr09_037.htm">"Richard Wright Immortalized on Postage"</a>. about.usps.com. Retrieved September 16, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=about.usps.com&rft.atitle=Richard+Wright+Immortalized+on+Postage&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabout.usps.com%2Fnews%2Fnational-releases%2F2009%2Fpr09_037.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chicagoliteraryhof.org/inductees/profile/richard-wright">"Richard Wright"</a>. Chicago Literary Hall of Fame. 2010. Retrieved October 15, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chicago+Literary+Hall+of+Fame&rft.atitle=Richard+Wright&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchicagoliteraryhof.org%2Finductees%2Fprofile%2Frichard-wright&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdc.org/blog/cultural-medallions-celebrate-the-lives-of-two-african-american-pioneers-of-literature-and-music">"Cultural Medallions Celebrate the Lives of Two African-American Pioneers of Literature and Music"</a>. July 3, 2012. Retrieved September 30, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cultural+Medallions+Celebrate+the+Lives+of+Two+African-American+Pioneers+of+Literature+and+Music&rft.date=2012-07-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdc.org%2Fblog%2Fcultural-medallions-celebrate-the-lives-of-two-african-american-pioneers-of-literature-and-music&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevy2007" class="citation book cs1">Levy, Debbie (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OvRc7mIiyQYC&pg=PA97">Richard Wright: A Biography</a>. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822567936" title="Special:BookSources/978-0822567936"><bdi>978-0822567936</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Richard+Wright%3A+A+Biography&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=Twenty-First+Century+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0822567936&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=Debbie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOvRc7mIiyQYC%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorkery2007" class="citation book cs1">Corkery, Caleb (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a4Nhxo-ECS8C&pg=PA16">"Richard Wright and His White Audience: How the Author's Persona Gave Native Son Historical Significance"</a>. In Fraile, Ana (ed.). Richard Wright's Native Son. Rodopi. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9042022973" title="Special:BookSources/978-9042022973"><bdi>978-9042022973</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Richard+Wright+and+His+White+Audience%3A+How+the+Author%27s+Persona+Gave+Native+Son+Historical+Significance&rft.btitle=Richard+Wright%27s+Native+Son&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-9042022973&rft.aulast=Corkery&rft.aufirst=Caleb&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da4Nhxo-ECS8C%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein2007" class="citation book cs1">Goldstein, Philip (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a4Nhxo-ECS8C&pg=PA26">"From Communism to Black Studies and Beyond: The Reception of Richard Wright's Native Son"</a>. In Fraile (ed.). Richard Wright's Native Son. Rodopi. pp. 26–27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9042022973" title="Special:BookSources/978-9042022973"><bdi>978-9042022973</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Communism+to+Black+Studies+and+Beyond%3A+The+Reception+of+Richard+Wright%27s+Native+Son&rft.btitle=Richard+Wright%27s+Native+Son&rft.pages=26-27&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-9042022973&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da4Nhxo-ECS8C%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMullen" class="citation web cs1">Mullen, Bill. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217062139/http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/s_z/r_wright/r_wright.htm">"Richard Wright (1908–1960)"</a>. Modern American Poetry. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois">University of Illinois</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/s_z/r_wright/r_wright.htm">the original</a> on December 17, 2008. Retrieved October 7, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Modern+American+Poetry&rft.atitle=Richard+Wright+%281908%E2%80%931960%29&rft.aulast=Mullen&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.english.uiuc.edu%2Fmaps%2Fpoets%2Fs_z%2Fr_wright%2Fr_wright.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECorkery200717–28-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECorkery200717–28_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCorkery2007">Corkery 2007</a>, pp. 17–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080715231354/http://www.itvs.org/RichardWright/more_info.html">"Richard Wright – Black Boy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Independent_Television_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent Television Service">Independent Television Service</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itvs.org/RichardWright/more_info.html">the original</a> on July 15, 2008. Retrieved October 7, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Richard+Wright+%E2%80%93+Black+Boy&rft.pub=Independent+Television+Service&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.itvs.org%2FRichardWright%2Fmore_info.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.harpercollins.com/authors/10748/Richard_Wright/index.aspx">"Richard Wright"</a>. <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. Retrieved October 7, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Richard+Wright&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.harpercollins.com%2Fauthors%2F10748%2FRichard_Wright%2Findex.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRelyea2006" class="citation book cs1">Relyea, Sarah (2006). Outsider Citizens. New York City: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415975278" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415975278"><bdi>978-0415975278</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Outsider+Citizens&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0415975278&rft.aulast=Relyea&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilroy1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Gilroy" title="Paul Gilroy">Gilroy, Paul</a> (1993). The Black Atlantic. Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674076068" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674076068"><bdi>978-0674076068</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Atlantic&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0674076068&rft.aulast=Gilroy&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20121220204643/http://www.smithsonianchannel.com/site/sn/show.do?show=135396">"Smithsonian Channel: Home"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smithsonianchannel.com/site/sn/show.do?show=135396">the original</a> on December 20, 2012. Retrieved September 30, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Smithsonian+Channel%3A+Home&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianchannel.com%2Fsite%2Fsn%2Fshow.do%3Fshow%3D135396&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0470403802.html">Soul of a People: The WPA Writers' Project Uncovers Depression America page at Wiley.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121007072915/http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0470403802.html">Archived</a> October 7, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nathanielturner.com/blueprintfornegroliterature.htm">"Blueprint for Negro Literature"</a>, ChickenBones: A Journal. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_resources">Additional resources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Additional resources">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Books">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Fabre, Michel. The World of Richard Wright (University Press of Mississippi, 1985).</li> <li>Fabre, Michel. The unfinished quest of Richard Wright (University of Illinois Press, 1993).</li> <li>Fishburn, Katherine. Richard Wright's Hero: The Faces of a Rebel-Victim (Scarecrow Press, 1977).</li> <li>Rampersad, Arnold, ed. Richard Wright: A Collection of Critical Essays (1994)</li> <li>Rowley, Hazel. Richard Wright: The Life and Times (University of Chicago Press, 2008).</li> <li>Smith, Virginia Whatley, ed. Richard Wright Writing America at Home and from Abroad (University Press of Mississippi, 2016).</li> <li>Ward, Jerry W., and Robert J. Butler, eds. The Richard Wright Encyclopedia (ABC-CLIO, 2008).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYarborough2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Yarborough" title="Richard Yarborough">Yarborough, Richard</a> (2008). "Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20080707033227/http://www.boonebridgebooks.com/Uncle_Toms_Children_Richard_Wright_Richard_Yarborough-i-0061450200">Uncle Tom's Children</a>. Harper Perennial Modern Classics. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boonebridgebooks.com/Uncle_Toms_Children_Richard_Wright_Richard_Yarborough-i-0061450200">the original</a> on July 7, 2008. Retrieved June 4, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Uncle+Tom%27s+Children&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial+Modern+Classics&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Yarborough&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.boonebridgebooks.com%2FUncle_Toms_Children_Richard_Wright_Richard_Yarborough-i-0061450200&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham_Barnfield_and_Joseph_G._Ramsey2008" class="citation book cs1">Graham Barnfield and Joseph G. Ramsey, ed. (Winter 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081224091440/http://reconstruction.eserver.org/084/intro2.shtml">Special Centenary Section on "Facing the Future After Richard Wright"</a>. Reconstruction 8.4. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://reconstruction.eserver.org/084/intro2.shtml">the original</a> on December 24, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Special+Centenary+Section+on+%22Facing+the+Future+After+Richard+Wright%22&rft.pub=Reconstruction+8.4&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freconstruction.eserver.org%2F084%2Fintro2.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Journal_articles">Journal articles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Journal articles">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Alsen, Eberhard. "'Toward The Living Sun': Richard Wright's Change Of Heart From 'The Outsider' To 'The Long Dream'", <a href="/wiki/CLA_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="CLA Journal">CLA Journal</a> 38.2 (1994): 211–227. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44322590">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaldwin1988" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">Baldwin, James</a> (1988). "Richard (Nathaniel) Wright". Contemporary Literary Criticism. 48. Detroit: Gale: 415–430.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contemporary+Literary+Criticism&rft.atitle=Richard+%28Nathaniel%29+Wright&rft.volume=48&rft.pages=415-430&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Baldwin&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Bone, Robert. "Richard Wright and the Chicago Renaissance", <a href="/wiki/Callaloo_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Callaloo (journal)">Callaloo</a> 28 (1986): 446–468. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/58310753/Bone_Wright.pdf">online</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍]</li> <li>Burgum, Edwin Berry. "The Promise of Democracy and the Fiction of Richard Wright", <a href="/wiki/Science_%26_Society" title="Science & Society">Science & Society</a>, vol. 7, no. 4 (Fall 1943), pp. 338–352. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40399551">In JSTOR</a>.</li> <li>Bradley, M. (2018). "Richard Wright, Bandung, and the Poetics of the Third World". Modern American History, 1(1), 147–150.</li> <li>Cauley, Anne O. "A Definition of Freedom in the Fiction of Richard Wright", CLA Journal 19.3 (1976): 327–346. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44321617">online</a></li> <li>Cobb, Nina Kressner. "Richard Wright: exile and existentialism", <a href="/wiki/Phylon" title="Phylon">Phylon</a> 40.4 (1979): 362–374. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/274533">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhasemi2018" class="citation journal cs1">Ghasemi, Mehdi (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/688064">"An Equation of Collectivity: We + You in Richard Wright's 12 Million Black Voices"</a>. Mosaic: An Interdisciplinary Critical Journal. 51 (1): 71–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fmos.2018.0005">10.1353/mos.2018.0005</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165378945">165378945</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mosaic%3A+An+Interdisciplinary+Critical+Journal&rft.atitle=An+Equation+of+Collectivity%3A+We+%2B+You+in+Richard+Wright%27s+12+Million+Black+Voices&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=71-86&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fmos.2018.0005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A165378945%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ghasemi&rft.aufirst=Mehdi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F688064&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Gines, Kathryn T. "'The Man Who Lived Underground': Jean-Paul Sartre And the Philosophical Legacy of Richard Wright", Sartre Studies International 17.2 (2011): 42–59.</li> <li>Knapp, Shoshana Milgram. "Recontextualizing Richard Wright's The Outsider: Hugo, Dostoevsky, Max Eastman, and Ayn Rand", in Richard Wright in a Post-Racial Imaginary (2014), pp. 99–112.</li> <li>Meyerson, Gregory. "Aunt Sue's Mistake: False Consciousness in Richard Wright's 'Bright and Morning Star'", in Reconstruction: Studies in Culture: 2008 8#4 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081224091515/http://reconstruction.eserver.org/084/meyerson.shtml">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynolds2000" class="citation journal cs1">Reynolds, Guy (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/englishfacpubs/3/">""Sketches of Spain": Richard Wright's Pagan Spain and African-American Representations of the Hispanic"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_American_Studies" title="Journal of American Studies">Journal of American Studies</a>: 34.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+Studies&rft.atitle=%22Sketches+of+Spain%22%3A+Richard+Wright%27s+Pagan+Spain+and+African-American+Representations+of+the+Hispanic&rft.pages=34&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=Guy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.unl.edu%2Fenglishfacpubs%2F3%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Wright+%28author%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Veninga, Jennifer Elisa. "Richard Wright: Kierkegaard's Influence as Existentialist Outsider", in Kierkegaard's Influence on Social-Political Thought (Routledge, 2016), pp. 281–298.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Widmer,_Kingsley" class="mw-redirect" title="Widmer, Kingsley">Widmer, Kingsley</a>, and Richard Wright. "The Existential Darkness: Richard Wright's 'The Outsider'", Wisconsin Studies in Contemporary Literature 1.3 (1960): 13–21. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1207231">online</a></li> <li>Woodson, Hue. "Heidegger and The Outsider, Savage Holiday, and The Long Dream", in Kimberly Drake (ed.), Critical Insights: Richard Wright (Amenia, NY: Grey House, 2019).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archival_materials">Archival materials</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Archival materials">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/10079/fa/beinecke.wright">Richard Wright Papers</a>. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://purl.oclc.org/umarchives/MUM00488/">Richard Wright Collection (MUM00488)</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] at the University of Mississippi.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chipublib.org/fa-horace-r-cayton-papers/">Richard Wright Book Project</a> materials in the papers of sociologist Horace R. Clayton Jr. at <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Public_Library" title="Chicago Public Library">Chicago Public Library</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wright_(author)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Distributed_Proofreaders_Canada" title="Distributed Proofreaders Canada">Faded Page</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/18197">Works by Richard Wright</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li> <li>The story of his life is retold in the 1949 radio drama "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/DestinationFreedom/DF_49-03-20_ep038-Black_Boy.mp3">Black Boy</a>", a presentation from <a href="/wiki/Destination_Freedom" title="Destination Freedom">Destination Freedom</a>, written by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Durham" title="Richard Durham">Richard Durham</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_Son" title="Template:Native Son"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_Son" title="Template talk:Native Son"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_Son" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native Son"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Richard_Wright&#039;s_Native_Son_(1940)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Richard Wright</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Native_Son" title="Native Son">Native Son</a> (1940)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Film</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_Son_(1951_film)" title="Native Son (1951 film)">Native Son</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Son_(1986_film)" title="Native Son (1986 film)">Native Son</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Son_(2019_film)" title="Native Son (2019 film)">Native Son</a> (2019)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Stage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_Son_(play)" title="Native Son (play)">Native Son</a> (1941 play)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Characters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bigger_Thomas" title="Bigger Thomas">Bigger Thomas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spingarn_Medal" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spingarn Medal"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spingarn_Medal_winners" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal</a> winners</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1915: <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Everett_Just" title="Ernest Everett Just">Ernest Everett Just</a></li> <li>1916: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Young_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Charles Young (United States Army officer)">Charles Young</a></li> <li>1917: <a href="/wiki/Harry_Burleigh" title="Harry Burleigh">Harry Burleigh</a></li> <li>1918: <a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_Braithwaite" title="William Stanley Braithwaite">William Stanley Braithwaite</a></li> <li>1919: <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Grimk%C3%A9" title="Archibald Grimké">Archibald Grimké</a></li> <li>1920: <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li>1921: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sidney_Gilpin" title="Charles Sidney Gilpin">Charles Sidney Gilpin</a></li> <li>1922: <a href="/wiki/Mary_Burnett_Talbert" title="Mary Burnett Talbert">Mary Burnett Talbert</a></li> <li>1923: <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li>1924: <a href="/wiki/Roland_Hayes" title="Roland Hayes">Roland Hayes</a></li> <li>1925: <a href="/wiki/James_Weldon_Johnson" title="James Weldon Johnson">James Weldon Johnson</a></li> <li>1926: <a href="/wiki/Carter_G._Woodson" title="Carter G. Woodson">Carter G. Woodson</a></li> <li>1927: <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Overton" title="Anthony Overton">Anthony Overton</a></li> <li>1928: <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Chesnutt" title="Charles W. Chesnutt">Charles W. Chesnutt</a></li> <li>1929: <a href="/wiki/Mordecai_Wyatt_Johnson" title="Mordecai Wyatt Johnson">Mordecai Wyatt Johnson</a></li> <li>1930: <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Hunt" title="Henry A. Hunt">Henry A. Hunt</a></li> <li>1931: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Berry_Harrison" title="Richard Berry Harrison">Richard Berry Harrison</a></li> <li>1932: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Russa_Moton" title="Robert Russa Moton">Robert Russa Moton</a></li> <li>1933: <a href="/wiki/Max_Yergan" title="Max Yergan">Max Yergan</a></li> <li>1934: <a href="/wiki/William_T._B._Williams" title="William T. B. Williams">William T. B. Williams</a></li> <li>1935: <a href="/wiki/Mary_McLeod_Bethune" title="Mary McLeod Bethune">Mary McLeod Bethune</a></li> <li>1936: <a href="/wiki/John_Hope_(educator)" title="John Hope (educator)">John Hope</a></li> <li>1937: <a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a></li> <li>1938: no award</li> <li>1939: <a href="/wiki/Marian_Anderson" title="Marian Anderson">Marian Anderson</a></li> <li>1940: <a href="/wiki/Louis_T._Wright" title="Louis T. Wright">Louis T. Wright</a></li> <li>1941: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Richard Wright</a></li> <li>1942: <a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li>1943: <a href="/wiki/William_H._Hastie" title="William H. Hastie">William H. Hastie</a></li> <li>1944: <a href="/wiki/Charles_R._Drew" title="Charles R. Drew">Charles R. Drew</a></li> <li>1945: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li>1946: <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li>1947: <a href="/wiki/Percy_Lavon_Julian" title="Percy Lavon Julian">Percy Lavon Julian</a></li> <li>1948: <a href="/wiki/Channing_Heggie_Tobias" title="Channing Heggie Tobias">Channing Heggie Tobias</a></li> <li>1949: <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li>1950: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hamilton_Houston" title="Charles Hamilton Houston">Charles Hamilton Houston</a></li> <li>1951: <a href="/wiki/Mabel_Keaton_Staupers" title="Mabel Keaton Staupers">Mabel Keaton Staupers</a></li> <li>1952: <a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry T. Moore</a></li> <li>1953: <a href="/wiki/Paul_R._Williams" title="Paul R. Williams">Paul R. Williams</a></li> <li>1954: <a href="/wiki/Theodore_K._Lawless" title="Theodore K. Lawless">Theodore K. Lawless</a></li> <li>1955: <a href="/wiki/Carl_J._Murphy" title="Carl J. Murphy">Carl J. Murphy</a></li> <li>1956: <a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li>1957: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li>1958: <a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(activist)" title="Daisy Bates (activist)">Daisy Bates</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a></li> <li>1959: <a href="/wiki/Duke_Ellington" title="Duke Ellington">Duke Ellington</a></li> <li>1960: <a href="/wiki/Langston_Hughes" title="Langston Hughes">Langston Hughes</a></li> <li>1961: <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_B._Clark" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth B. Clark">Kenneth B. Clark</a></li> <li>1962: <a href="/wiki/Robert_C._Weaver" title="Robert C. Weaver">Robert C. Weaver</a></li> <li>1963: <a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li>1964: <a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li>1965: <a href="/wiki/Leontyne_Price" title="Leontyne Price">Leontyne Price</a></li> <li>1966: <a href="/wiki/John_H._Johnson" title="John H. Johnson">John H. Johnson</a></li> <li>1967: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li>1968: <a href="/wiki/Sammy_Davis_Jr." title="Sammy Davis Jr.">Sammy Davis Jr.</a></li> <li>1969: <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Mitchell_Jr." title="Clarence Mitchell Jr.">Clarence Mitchell Jr.</a></li> <li>1970: <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Lawrence" title="Jacob Lawrence">Jacob Lawrence</a></li> <li>1971: <a href="/wiki/Leon_Sullivan" title="Leon Sullivan">Leon Sullivan</a></li> <li>1972: <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Parks" title="Gordon Parks">Gordon Parks</a></li> <li>1973: <a href="/wiki/Wilson_Riles" title="Wilson Riles">Wilson Riles</a></li> <li>1974: <a href="/wiki/Damon_Keith" title="Damon Keith">Damon Keith</a></li> <li>1975: no award</li> <li>1976: <a href="/wiki/Hank_Aaron" title="Hank Aaron">Hank Aaron</a></li> <li>1977: <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Ailey" title="Alvin Ailey">Alvin Ailey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alex_Haley" title="Alex Haley">Alex Haley</a></li> <li>1978: no award</li> <li>1979: <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li>1980: <a href="/wiki/Rayford_Logan" title="Rayford Logan">Rayford Logan</a></li> <li>1981: <a href="/wiki/Coleman_Young" title="Coleman Young">Coleman Young</a></li> <li>1982: <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Elijah Mays</a></li> <li>1983: <a href="/wiki/Lena_Horne" title="Lena Horne">Lena Horne</a></li> <li>1984: no award</li> <li>1985: <a href="/wiki/Tom_Bradley_(American_politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tom Bradley (American politician)">Tom Bradley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bill_Cosby" title="Bill Cosby">Bill Cosby</a></li> <li>1986: <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hooks" title="Benjamin Hooks">Benjamin Hooks</a></li> <li>1987: <a href="/wiki/Percy_Sutton" title="Percy Sutton">Percy Sutton</a></li> <li>1988: <a href="/wiki/Frederick_D._Patterson" title="Frederick D. Patterson">Frederick D. Patterson</a></li> <li>1989: <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li>1990: <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Wilder" title="Douglas Wilder">Douglas Wilder</a></li> <li>1991: <a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li>1992: <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li>1993: <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a></li> <li>1994: <a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li>1995: <a href="/wiki/John_Hope_Franklin" title="John Hope Franklin">John Hope Franklin</a></li> <li>1996: <a href="/wiki/A._Leon_Higginbotham_Jr." title="A. Leon Higginbotham Jr.">A. Leon Higginbotham Jr.</a></li> <li>1997: <a href="/wiki/Carl_Rowan" title="Carl Rowan">Carl Rowan</a></li> <li>1998: <a href="/wiki/Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a></li> <li>1999: <a href="/wiki/Earl_G._Graves_Sr." title="Earl G. Graves Sr.">Earl G. Graves Sr.</a></li> <li>2000: <a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li>2001: <a href="/wiki/Vernon_Jordan" title="Vernon Jordan">Vernon Jordan</a></li> <li>2002: <a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li>2003: <a href="/wiki/Constance_Baker_Motley" title="Constance Baker Motley">Constance Baker Motley</a></li> <li>2004: <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Carter" title="Robert L. Carter">Robert L. Carter</a></li> <li>2005: <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hill_(attorney)" title="Oliver Hill (attorney)">Oliver Hill</a></li> <li>2006: <a href="/wiki/Ben_Carson" title="Ben Carson">Ben Carson</a></li> <li>2007: <a href="/wiki/John_Conyers" title="John Conyers">John Conyers</a></li> <li>2008: <a href="/wiki/Ruby_Dee" title="Ruby Dee">Ruby Dee</a></li> <li>2009: <a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li>2010: <a href="/wiki/Cicely_Tyson" title="Cicely Tyson">Cicely Tyson</a></li> <li>2011: <a href="/wiki/Frankie_Muse_Freeman" title="Frankie Muse Freeman">Frankie Muse Freeman</a></li> <li>2012: <a href="/wiki/Harry_Belafonte" title="Harry Belafonte">Harry Belafonte</a></li> <li>2013: <a href="/wiki/Jessye_Norman" title="Jessye Norman">Jessye Norman</a></li> <li>2014: <a href="/wiki/Quincy_Jones" title="Quincy Jones">Quincy Jones</a></li> <li>2015: <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Poitier" title="Sidney Poitier">Sidney Poitier</a></li> <li>2016: <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_R._Jones" title="Nathaniel R. Jones">Nathaniel R. Jones</a></li> <li>2017: no award</li> <li>2018: <a href="/wiki/Willie_Brown_(politician)" title="Willie Brown (politician)">Willie Brown</a></li> <li>2019: <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Gaspard" title="Patrick Gaspard">Patrick Gaspard</a></li> <li>2020: no award</li> <li>2021: <a href="/wiki/Cato_T._Laurencin" title="Cato T. Laurencin">Cato T. Laurencin</a></li> <li>2022: <a href="/wiki/Jim_Clyburn" title="Jim Clyburn">Jim Clyburn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q319820#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q319820#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q319820#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121272660">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/34464524">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/52341/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJqk4Ry3dtrwmh4hGJYkjC">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118635344">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80036620">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119294236">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119294236">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00461492">Japan</a></li><li>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/CFIV005290">Italy</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35621722">Australia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20030210066&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX992767">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/49219">Portugal</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p06963209X">Netherlands</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90069888">Norway</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000073269&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=61926">Greece</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC199630651">Korea</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/xv8bds5g5b7x1gw">Sweden</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810702187705606">Poland</a></li><li><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/142319">Vatican</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007269958605171">Israel</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058515059706706">Catalonia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14342175">Belgium</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1017901">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118635344.html?language=en">Deutsche 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