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aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Ancient Greece</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Great Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tariffs_and_the_Great_Depression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tariffs_and_the_Great_Depression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Tariffs and the Great Depression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tariffs_and_the_Great_Depression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arguments_favouring_tariffs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arguments_favouring_tariffs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Arguments favouring tariffs</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Arguments_favouring_tariffs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Arguments favouring tariffs subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Arguments_favouring_tariffs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Protection_against_dumping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protection_against_dumping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Protection against dumping</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protection_against_dumping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protection_of_infant_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protection_of_infant_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Protection of infant industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protection_of_infant_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Free_trade_and_poverty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free_trade_and_poverty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Free trade and poverty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free_trade_and_poverty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Keynesian_analysis_in_favor_of_protectionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Keynesian_analysis_in_favor_of_protectionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Keynesian analysis in favor of protectionism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Keynesian_analysis_in_favor_of_protectionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arguments_against_tariffs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arguments_against_tariffs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Arguments against tariffs</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Arguments_against_tariffs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Arguments against tariffs subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Arguments_against_tariffs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Neoclassical_analysis_in_favor_of_free_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neoclassical_analysis_in_favor_of_free_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Neoclassical analysis in favor of free trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neoclassical_analysis_in_favor_of_free_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Optimal_tariff" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optimal_tariff"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Optimal tariff</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optimal_tariff-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_tariff_practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_tariff_practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Modern tariff practices</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_tariff_practices-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern tariff practices subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_tariff_practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armenia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armenia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Armenia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armenia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Switzerland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Switzerland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Switzerland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Switzerland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Political analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_information_on_tariffs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_information_on_tariffs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Additional information on tariffs</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Additional_information_on_tariffs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Additional information on tariffs subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Additional_information_on_tariffs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Calculation_of_customs_duty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calculation_of_customs_duty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Calculation of customs duty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calculation_of_customs_duty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Harmonized_System_of_Nomenclature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Harmonized_System_of_Nomenclature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Harmonized System of Nomenclature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Harmonized_System_of_Nomenclature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Customs_authority" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Customs_authority"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Customs authority</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Customs_authority-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evasion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evasion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Evasion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evasion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Duty-free_goods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Duty-free_goods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Duty-free goods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Duty-free_goods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deferment_of_tariffs_and_duties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deferment_of_tariffs_and_duties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Deferment of tariffs and duties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deferment_of_tariffs_and_duties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_dynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_dynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Trade dynamics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_dynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_liberalisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_liberalisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Trade liberalisation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_liberalisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Tariff: Difference between revisions</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 59 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-59" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">59 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="رسوم جمركية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رسوم جمركية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arancel" title="Arancel – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Arancel" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6mr%C3%BCk_r%C3%BCsumu" title="Gömrük rüsumu – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Gömrük rüsumu" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koan-s%C3%B2e" title="Koan-sòe – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Koan-sòe" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Мито – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Мито" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carina" title="Carina – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Carina" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aranzel" title="Aranzel – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Aranzel" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clo" title="Clo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Clo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoll_(Abgabe)" title="Zoll (Abgabe) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zoll (Abgabe)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tollimaks" title="Tollimaks – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tollimaks" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Δασμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δασμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasi" title="Dasi – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Dasi" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arancel" title="Arancel – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Arancel" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogano" title="Dogano – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Dogano" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muga-zerga" title="Muga-zerga – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Muga-zerga" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%81%D9%87" title="تعرفه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تعرفه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_de_douane" title="Droit de douane – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Droit de douane" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taraif" title="Taraif – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Taraif" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxa_alfandegueira" title="Taxa alfandegueira – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Taxa alfandegueira" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B4%80%EC%84%B8" title="관세 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="관세" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%B6" title="Սակագին – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սակագին" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95" title="प्रशुल्क – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रशुल्क" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carina" title="Carina – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Carina" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bea" title="Bea – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bea" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tollur" title="Tollur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Tollur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dazio" title="Dazio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dazio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9B%D7%A1" title="מכס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מכס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BA_%D1%82%D3%A9%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Кедендік төлемдер мен салықтар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Кедендік төлемдер мен салықтар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ievedmuitas_nodoklis" title="Ievedmuitas nodoklis – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ievedmuitas nodoklis" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muitas" title="Muitas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Muitas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dazzi" title="Dazzi – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Dazzi" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douanerechten" title="Douanerechten – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Douanerechten" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%96%A2%E7%A8%8E" title="関税 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="関税" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toll" title="Toll – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Toll" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toll" title="Toll – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Toll" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%B9%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%81" title="ٹیرف – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ٹیرف" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derechi_di_Importashon" title="Derechi di Importashon – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Derechi di Importashon" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C5%82o" title="Cło – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Cło" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxa_alfandeg%C3%A1ria" title="Taxa alfandegária – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Taxa alfandegária" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Таможенные пошлины – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Таможенные пошлины" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detyrimet_doganore" title="Detyrimet doganore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Detyrimet doganore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Tariff" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BD%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%81" title="ٽيرف – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ٽيرف" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clo" title="Clo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Clo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carina_(dajatev)" title="Carina (dajatev) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Carina (dajatev)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Царина – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Царина" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carina" title="Carina – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Carina" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tullavgift" title="Tullavgift – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tullavgift" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taripa" title="Taripa – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Taripa" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%88" title="தீர்வை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தீர்வை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamojnya_sal%C4%B1mnar%C4%B1" title="Tamojnya salımnarı – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Tamojnya salımnarı" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B7%D2%B3%D0%BE%D0%B8_%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D3%A3" title="Андозҳои гумрукӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Андозҳои гумрукӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCmr%C3%BCk_vergisi" title="Gümrük vergisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Gümrük vergisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%96%D0%B6" title="Митний платіж – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Митний платіж" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%B9%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%81" title="ٹیرف – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ٹیرف" 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data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>A '''tariff''' is a [[tax]] imposed by the [[government]] of a country or by a [[supranational union]] on [[imports]] or [[exports]] of goods. Besides being a source of [[revenue]] for the government, import duties can also be a form of regulation of [[International trade|foreign trade]] and policy that taxes foreign products to encourage or safeguard domestic industry.{{cn|date=November 2024}} <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</del>[[Protective tariff]]s<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</del> are among the most widely used instruments of [[protectionism]], along with [[import quota]]s and [[export quota]]s and other [[non-tariff barriers to trade]].</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>A '''tariff''' is a [[tax]] imposed by the [[government]] of a country or by a [[supranational union]] on [[imports]] or [[exports]] of goods. Besides being a source of [[revenue]] for the government, import duties can also be a form of regulation of [[International trade|foreign trade]] and policy that taxes foreign products to encourage or safeguard domestic industry.{{cn|date=November 2024}} [[Protective tariff]]s are among the most widely used instruments of [[protectionism]], along with [[import quota]]s and [[export quota]]s and other [[non-tariff barriers to trade]].</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>Tariffs can be fixed (a constant sum per unit of imported goods or a percentage of the price) or variable (the amount varies according to the price). Tariffs on imports are designed to raise the price of imported goods and services to discourage consumption. The intention is for citizens to buy local products instead, thereby stimulating their country's economy. Tariffs therefore provide an incentive to develop production and replace imports with domestic products. Tariffs are meant to reduce pressure from foreign competition and reduce the trade deficit. They have historically been justified as a means to protect [[Infant industry argument|infant industries]] and to allow [[import substitution industrialisation]] (industrializing a nation by replacing imported goods with domestic production). Tariffs may also be used to rectify artificially low prices for certain imported goods, due to 'dumping', export subsidies or currency manipulation.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>Tariffs can be fixed (a constant sum per unit of imported goods or a percentage of the price) or variable (the amount varies according to the price). Tariffs on imports are designed to raise the price of imported goods and services to discourage consumption. The intention is for citizens to buy local products instead, thereby stimulating their country's economy. Tariffs therefore provide an incentive to develop production and replace imports with domestic products. Tariffs are meant to reduce pressure from foreign competition and reduce the trade deficit. They have historically been justified as a means to protect [[Infant industry argument|infant industries]] and to allow [[import substitution industrialisation]] (industrializing a nation by replacing imported goods with domestic production). Tariffs may also be used to rectify artificially low prices for certain imported goods, due to 'dumping', export subsidies or currency manipulation.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">There is near unanimous consensus among economists that tariffs are self-defeating and have a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare, while </del>[[<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">free</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">trade]]</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">reduction</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">of</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</del>trade<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> barrier</del>]]<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">s</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">has</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">a</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">positive</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">effect</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">on</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[economic</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">growth]].<ref>{{cite</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">journal</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|first=Paul R. |last=Krugman |title=The Narrow</del> and <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Broad Arguments for Free Trade |journal=American Economic Review: Papers</del> and <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Proceedings</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">volume=83</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|number=3</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|date=May 1993|pages=362–366 |jstor=2117691}}</ref><ref>[[N. Gregory Mankiw]], [https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/26/upshot/economists-actually-agree-on-this-point-the-wisdom-</del>of<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-free-trade.html</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Economists</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Actually</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Agree on This: The Wisdom of Free Trade] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190716060449/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/26/upshot/economists</del>-<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">actually-agree-on-this-point-the-wisdom-of-free-trade.html</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|date=2019-07-16 }}, ''The New York Times'' (April 24, 2015): "Economists are famous for disagreeing with one another</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">... But economists reach near unanimity on some topics, including international trade."</ref></del><ref name="Poole <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">p1</del>">{{cite journal |author-link=William Poole (economist) |first=William |last=Poole |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6958854.pdf |title=Free Trade: Why Are Economists and Noneconomists So Far Apart |journal=Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review |volume=86 |number=5 |page=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">1</del> |doi=10.20955/r.86.1-6 |year=2004 |doi-access=free |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">quote</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">most</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">observers</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">agree</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">that</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'[t]he</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">consensus</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">among</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">mainstream</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">economists</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">on</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">desirability</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">of</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">free</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">trade</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">remains</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">almost</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">universal</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'</del> |access-date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2023-06-14</del> |archive-date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2017-</del>12<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-07</del> |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">20171207055442</del>/https://<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">core</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">ac</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">uk</del>/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">download</del>/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">pdf</del>/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">6958854</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">pdf</del> |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=December 7, 2016 |title=Trade Within Europe {{!}} IGM Forum |url=http://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/trade-within-europe |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113054534/http://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/trade-within-europe |archive-date=2017-01-13 |access-date=2017-06-24 |website=igmchicago.org |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wiseman |first=Paul |date=2024-09-27 |title=Trump favors huge new tariffs. How do they work? |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/trump-favors-huge-new-tariffs-how-do-they-work |access-date=2024-10-12 |website=Associated Press |language=en-us |via=PBS News}}</ref> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Although</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[trade</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">liberalisation]]</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">can</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">sometimes</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">result</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">in</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">large</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and unequally distributed losses</del> and<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> gains, and can, in</del> the <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[short run]], cause significant economic dislocation of workers in import-competing sectors,</del><ref<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> name="Poole p2"</del>>{{<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">cite</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">journal</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">author-link</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">William Poole (economist)</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">first</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">William</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|last=Poole</del> |url=https://<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">core</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">ac</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">uk</del>/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">download</del>/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">pdf</del>/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">6958854.pdf</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">title</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Free</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Trade: Why Are Economists and Noneconomists So Far Apart</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">journal</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Federal</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Reserve Bank of St</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> Louis Review</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">volume</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">86</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">number</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">5</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|page=2</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|quote=One</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">set</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">of</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">reservations</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">concerns</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">distributional</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">effects</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">of</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">trade.</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Workers are not seen as benefiting from trade. Strong evidence exists indicating a perception that the benefits of trade flow to businesses</del> and <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the wealthy, rather than to workers, and to those abroad rather than to those in the United States.</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">doi=10.20955/r.86.1-6</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|year</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2004</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">doi-access</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">free</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">access-</del>date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2023-06-14</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">archive-date</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2017-12-07</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">archive-url</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">https://web.archive.org/web/20171207055442/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6958854.pdf |url-status=live </del>}}</ref><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> free trade has advantages of lowering costs of goods and services for both producers and consumers.</del><ref><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{cite</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">news</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|last=Rosenfeld</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|first=Everett |date=11 March 2016 |title=Here's why everyone is arguing about free trade |url=</del>https://www.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">cnbc</del>.com/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2016</del>/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">03</del>/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">11</del>/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">heres</del>-<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">why</del>-<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">everyone</del>-<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">is</del>-<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">arguing</del>-<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">about</del>-free-trade.html <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|access-date=10</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">August</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2021</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|agency=CNBC</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|archive-date=12</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">March</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2016</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">archive-</del>url=https://web.archive.org/web/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">20160312033958</del>/https://www.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">cnbc</del>.com/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2016</del>/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">03</del>/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">11</del>/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">heres</del>-<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">why</del>-<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">everyone</del>-<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">is</del>-<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">arguing</del>-<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">about</del>-free-trade.html |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">url-status</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">live</del> }}<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"></ref></del> The <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">economic</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">burden</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">of</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">tariffs</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">falls on the importer</del>, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the exporter, and the consumer.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024 |title=Trump's tariffs</del>: <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">How</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">they</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">work,</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">who</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">would</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">pay</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|url=https://www</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">axios</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">com/2024/09/28/how-tariffs-work-trump-china</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|work=Axios}}</ref></del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Often</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">intended</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">to</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">protect</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">specific</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">industries</del>, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">tariffs</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">can</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">end up backfiring and harming the industries they were intended to protect through rising input costs and retaliatory tariffs</del>.<ref>{{<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Cite</del> journal |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last1</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Flaaen</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|first1=Aaron</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last2</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Pierce</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">first2</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Justin</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2024</del> |title=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Disentangling</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Effects</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">of</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2018-2019</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Tariffs</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">on</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">a</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Globally Connected U.S. Manufacturing Sector |url=https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_01498</del> |journal=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">The</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Review</del> of <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Economics</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Statistics</del> |volume=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2024</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">issue</del>= |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">pages</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">1–45</del> |doi=10.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">1162</del>/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">rest_a_01498}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last1</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Amiti</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">first1</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Mary</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last2</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Redding</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|first2=Stephen</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">J.</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|last3=Weinstein</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|first3=David</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">E.</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|date=2020</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|title=Who's</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Paying</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">for</del> the <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">US</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Tariffs?</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">A</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Longer</del>-<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Term</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Perspective</del> |url=https://<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">www</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">aeaweb</del>.org/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">articles?id=10.1257</del>/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">pandp</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">20201018 |journal=AEA Papers and Proceedings |language=en |volume=110 |pages=541–546 |doi=10</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">1257</del>/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">pandp</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">20201018</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">issn</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2574-0768</del>}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>[[<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Trade</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">liberalisation|Trade</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">liberalisation</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">such</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">as</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">free</ins> trade]] <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">can</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">sometimes</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">result</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">in</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">large</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">unequally</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">distributed</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">losses</ins> and <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">gains</ins> and <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">cause</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">significant</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">economic</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">dislocation</ins> of <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">workers</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">through</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">off</ins>-<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">shoring</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">industries</ins>.<ref name="Poole <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">p2</ins>">{{cite journal |author-link=William Poole (economist) |first=William |last=Poole |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6958854.pdf |title=Free Trade: Why Are Economists and Noneconomists So Far Apart |journal=Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review |volume=86 |number=5 |page=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2 |quote=One set of reservations concerns distributional effects of trade. Workers are not seen as benefiting from trade. Strong evidence exists indicating a perception that the benefits of trade flow to businesses and the wealthy, rather than to workers, and to those abroad rather than to those in the United States.</ins> |doi=10.20955/r.86.1-6 |year=2004 |doi-access=free |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">access-date</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2023-06-14</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|archive-date=2017-12-07</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207055442/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6958854.pdf</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|url-status=live</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}}</ref><ref>{{cite</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">news</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|last=Rosenfeld</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|first=Everett</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|date=11</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">March</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2016</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|title=Here's</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">why</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">everyone</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">is</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">arguing</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">about</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">free trade |url=https://www</ins>.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">cnbc.com/2016/03/11/heres-why-everyone-is-arguing-about-free-trade.html</ins> |access-date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">10 August 2021 |agency=CNBC</ins> |archive-date=12<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> March 2016</ins> |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">20160312033958</ins>/https://<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">www</ins>.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">cnbc</ins>.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">com</ins>/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2016</ins>/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">03</ins>/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">11/heres-why-everyone-is-arguing-about-free-trade</ins>.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">html</ins> |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=December 7, 2016 |title=Trade Within Europe {{!}} IGM Forum |url=http://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/trade-within-europe |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113054534/http://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/trade-within-europe |archive-date=2017-01-13 |access-date=2017-06-24 |website=igmchicago.org |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wiseman |first=Paul |date=2024-09-27 |title=Trump favors huge new tariffs. How do they work? |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/trump-favors-huge-new-tariffs-how-do-they-work |access-date=2024-10-12 |website=Associated Press |language=en-us |via=PBS News}}</ref> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">The</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">economic</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">burden</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">of</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">tariffs</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">falls</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">on</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">importer</ins> and the <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">exporter.</ins><ref>{{<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Cite</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">news</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2024</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">title</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Trump's</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">tariffs: How they work, and who would pay</ins> |url=https://<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">www</ins>.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">axios</ins>.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">com</ins>/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2024</ins>/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">09</ins>/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">28/how-tariffs-work-trump-china</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">work</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Axios}}</ref><ref>{{cite</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">journal</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">first</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Paul</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">R</ins>. |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Krugman</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">title</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">The</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Narrow</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Broad</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Arguments</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">for</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Free</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Trade</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|journal=American</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Economic</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Review:</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Papers</ins> and <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Proceedings</ins> | <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">volume</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">83</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">number</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">3</ins> |date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">May</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">1993</ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">pages</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">362–366</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">jstor</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2117691</ins>}}</ref><ref><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[N.</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Gregory</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Mankiw]],</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[</ins>https://www.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">nytimes</ins>.com/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2015</ins>/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">04</ins>/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">26</ins>/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">upshot/economists</ins>-<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">actually</ins>-<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">agree</ins>-<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">on</ins>-<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">this</ins>-<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">point-the-wisdom-of</ins>-free-trade.html <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Economists</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Actually</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Agree</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">on</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">This:</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">The</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Wisdom of Free</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Trade] {{Webarchive</ins>|url=https://web.archive.org/web/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">20190716060449</ins>/https://www.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">nytimes</ins>.com/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2015</ins>/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">04</ins>/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">26</ins>/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">upshot/economists</ins>-<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">actually</ins>-<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">agree</ins>-<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">on</ins>-<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">this</ins>-<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">point-the-wisdom-of</ins>-free-trade.html |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2019-07-16</ins> }}<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</ins>The <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">New</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">York</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Times''</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">(April</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">24</ins>, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2015)</ins>: <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"Economists</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">are</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">famous</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">for</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">disagreeing</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">with</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">one</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">another..</ins>.. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">But</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">economists</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">reach</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">near</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">unanimity</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">on</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">some topics</ins>, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">including</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">international</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">trade</ins>.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins><<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">/</ins>ref<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">><ref name="Poole p1"</ins>>{{<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">cite</ins> journal |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">author-link</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">William</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Poole (economist)</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">first</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">William</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Poole</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">url</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6958854.pdf</ins> |title=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Free</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Trade:</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Why</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Are</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Economists</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Noneconomists</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">So</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Far</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Apart</ins> |journal=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Federal</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Reserve Bank</ins> of <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">St.</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Louis</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Review</ins> |volume=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">86</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">number</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">5</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">page</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">1</ins> |doi=10.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">20955</ins>/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">r.86.1-6</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2004</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">doi-access</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">free</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">quote</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">most</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">observers</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">agree</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">that</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'[t]he</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">consensus</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">among</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">mainstream</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">economists</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">on</ins> the <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">desirability</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">of</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">free</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">trade remains almost universal.' |access</ins>-<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date=2023-06-14</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|archive-date=2017-12-07</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">archive-</ins>url=https://<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">web</ins>.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">archive</ins>.org/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">web</ins>/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">20171207055442/https://core</ins>.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">ac</ins>.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">uk</ins>/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">download/pdf/6958854</ins>.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">pdf</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">url-status</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">live </ins>}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>Classical and neoclassical economists, who support free trade, believe that trade deficits are not a disadvantage because trade is mutually beneficial.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mercatus.org/publications/trade-and-immigration/benefits-free-trade-addressing-key-myths|title=The Benefits of Free Trade: Addressing Key Myths &#124; Mercatus Center}}</ref> Protectionist economists, on the other hand, argue that trade deficits are harmful and lead to offshoring and deindustrialization. For example, [[John Maynard Keynes]], who opposed free trade, noted that countries with trade deficits weakened their economies, while countries with trade surpluses grew richer at the expense of others. Keynes believed that imports from surplus countries should be taxed to avoid trade imbalances.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/ae/2010-v86-n1-ae3990/045556ar/|title=J.M. Keynes, le libre-échange et le protectionnisme|first=Max|last=Maurin|date=November 7, 2010|journal=L'Actualité économique|volume=86|issue=1|pages=109–129|via=www.erudit.org|doi=10.7202/045556ar}}</ref> Ultimately, he advocated a certain degree of economic self-sufficiency for each nation.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20191002224223/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/interwar/keynes.htm</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>Classical and neoclassical economists, who support free trade, believe that trade deficits are not a disadvantage because trade is mutually beneficial.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mercatus.org/publications/trade-and-immigration/benefits-free-trade-addressing-key-myths|title=The Benefits of Free Trade: Addressing Key Myths &#124; Mercatus Center}}</ref> Protectionist economists, on the other hand, argue that trade deficits are harmful and lead to offshoring and deindustrialization. For example, [[John Maynard Keynes]], who opposed free trade, noted that countries with trade deficits weakened their economies, while countries with trade surpluses grew richer at the expense of others. Keynes believed that imports from surplus countries should be taxed to avoid trade imbalances.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/ae/2010-v86-n1-ae3990/045556ar/|title=J.M. Keynes, le libre-échange et le protectionnisme|first=Max|last=Maurin|date=November 7, 2010|journal=L'Actualité économique|volume=86|issue=1|pages=109–129|via=www.erudit.org|doi=10.7202/045556ar}}</ref> Ultimately, he advocated a certain degree of economic self-sufficiency for each nation.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20191002224223/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/interwar/keynes.htm</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 60:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 60:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>Many American intellectuals and politicians during the country's catching-up period felt that the free trade theory advocated by British classical economists was not suited to their country. They argued that the country should develop manufacturing industries and use government protection and subsidies for this purpose, as Britain had done before them. Many of the great American economists of the time, until the last quarter of the 19th century, were strong advocates of industrial protection: [[Daniel Raymond]] who influenced [[Friedrich List]], [[Mathew Carey]] and his son Henry, who was one of Lincoln's economic advisers. The intellectual leader of this movement was [[Alexander Hamilton]], the first Secretary of the Treasury of the United States (1789–95). The United States rejected [[David Ricardo]]'s [[theory of comparative advantage]] and protected its industry. The country pursued a protectionist policy from the beginning of the 19th century until the middle of the 20th century, after the Second World War.<ref name=Chang1/><ref name="Chang2b">{{cite book |url=https://www.cepal.org/prensa/noticias/comunicados/8/7598/chang.pdf |title=Infant Industry Promotion in Historical Perspective – A Rope to Hang Oneself or a Ladder to Climb With? |access-date=11 March 2021 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308192131/https://www.cepal.org/prensa/noticias/comunicados/8/7598/chang.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>Many American intellectuals and politicians during the country's catching-up period felt that the free trade theory advocated by British classical economists was not suited to their country. They argued that the country should develop manufacturing industries and use government protection and subsidies for this purpose, as Britain had done before them. Many of the great American economists of the time, until the last quarter of the 19th century, were strong advocates of industrial protection: [[Daniel Raymond]] who influenced [[Friedrich List]], [[Mathew Carey]] and his son Henry, who was one of Lincoln's economic advisers. The intellectual leader of this movement was [[Alexander Hamilton]], the first Secretary of the Treasury of the United States (1789–95). The United States rejected [[David Ricardo]]'s [[theory of comparative advantage]] and protected its industry. The country pursued a protectionist policy from the beginning of the 19th century until the middle of the 20th century, after the Second World War.<ref name=Chang1/><ref name="Chang2b">{{cite book |url=https://www.cepal.org/prensa/noticias/comunicados/8/7598/chang.pdf |title=Infant Industry Promotion in Historical Perspective – A Rope to Hang Oneself or a Ladder to Climb With? |access-date=11 March 2021 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308192131/https://www.cepal.org/prensa/noticias/comunicados/8/7598/chang.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>In [[Report on Manufactures]], considered the first text to express modern protectionist theory, Alexander Hamilton argued that if a country wished to develop a new activity on its soil, it would have to temporarily protect it. According to him, this protection against foreign producers could take the form of import duties or, in rare cases, prohibition of imports. He called for customs barriers to allow American industrial development and to help protect infant industries, including bounties (subsidies) derived in part from those tariffs. He also believed that duties on raw materials should be generally low.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dorfman & Tugwell |title=Early American Policy |date=1960}}</ref> Hamilton argued that despite an initial "increase of price" caused by regulations that control foreign competition, once a "domestic manufacture has attained to perfection… it invariably becomes cheaper.<ref name=Chang2/> In this report, Hamilton also proposed export bans on major raw materials, tariff reductions on industrial inputs, pricing and patenting of inventions, regulation of product standards and development of financial and transportation infrastructure. The U.S. Congress adopted the tariffs but refused to grant subsidies to manufactures. Hamilton's arguments shaped the pattern of American economic policy until the end of World War II, and his program created the conditions for rapid industrial development.<ref name=Chang2/><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>In [[Report on Manufactures]], considered the first text to express modern protectionist theory, Alexander Hamilton argued that if a country wished to develop a new activity on its soil, it would have to temporarily protect it. According to him, this protection against foreign producers could take the form of import duties or, in rare cases, prohibition of imports. He called for customs barriers to allow American industrial development and to help protect infant industries, including bounties (subsidies) derived in part from those tariffs. He also believed that duties on raw materials should be generally low.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dorfman & Tugwell |title=Early American Policy |date=1960}}</ref> Hamilton argued that despite an initial "increase of price" caused by regulations that control foreign competition, once a "domestic manufacture has attained to perfection… it invariably becomes cheaper.<ref name=Chang2/> In this report, Hamilton also proposed export bans on major raw materials, tariff reductions on industrial inputs, pricing and patenting of inventions, regulation of product standards and development of financial and transportation infrastructure. The U.S. Congress adopted the tariffs but refused to grant subsidies to manufactures. Hamilton's arguments shaped the pattern of American economic policy until the end of World War II, and his program created the conditions for rapid industrial development.<ref name=Chang2/></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[Alexander Hamilton]] and [[Daniel Raymond]] were among the first theorists to present the [[infant industry argument]]. Hamilton was the first to use the term "infant industries" and to introduce it to the forefront of economic thinking. Hamilton believed that political independence was predicated upon economic independence. Increasing the domestic supply of manufactured goods, particularly war materials, was seen as an issue of national security. And he feared that Britain's policy towards the colonies would condemn the United States to be only producers of agricultural products and raw materials.<ref name=Chang1/><ref name=Chang2/></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[Alexander Hamilton]] and [[Daniel Raymond]] were among the first theorists to present the [[infant industry argument]]. Hamilton was the first to use the term "infant industries" and to introduce it to the forefront of economic thinking. Hamilton believed that political independence was predicated upon economic independence. Increasing the domestic supply of manufactured goods, particularly war materials, was seen as an issue of national security. And he feared that Britain's policy towards the colonies would condemn the United States to be only producers of agricultural products and raw materials.<ref name=Chang1/><ref name=Chang2/></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 92:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 92:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Tariffs and the Great Depression===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Tariffs and the Great Depression===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{Excessive quotation|section=subsection|date=November 2024}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{Excessive quotation|section=subsection|date=November 2024}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>[[Paul Krugman]] writes that protectionism does not lead to recessions. According to him, the decrease in imports (which can be obtained by introducing tariffs) has an expansive effect, that is, it is favourable to growth. Thus, in a trade war, since exports and imports will decrease equally, for everyone, the negative effect of a decrease in exports will be offset by the expansionary effect of a decrease in imports. Therefore, a trade war does not cause a recession. Furthermore, he points out that the Smoot-Hawley tariff did not cause the Great Depression. The decline in trade between 1929 and 1933 "was almost entirely a consequence of the Depression, not a cause. Trade barriers were a response to the Depression, partly as a consequence of deflation."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Krugman |first=Paul |date=2016-03-04 |title=The Mitt-Hawley Fallacy |url=https://archive.nytimes.com/krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/03/04/the-mitt-hawley-fallacy/ |access-date=2024-11-01 |website=Paul Krugman Blog |language=en}}</ref><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>[[Paul Krugman]] writes that protectionism does not lead to recessions. According to him, the decrease in imports (which can be obtained by introducing tariffs) has an expansive effect, that is, it is favourable to growth. Thus, in a trade war, since exports and imports will decrease equally, for everyone, the negative effect of a decrease in exports will be offset by the expansionary effect of a decrease in imports. Therefore, a trade war does not cause a recession. Furthermore, he points out that the Smoot-Hawley tariff did not cause the Great Depression. The decline in trade between 1929 and 1933 "was almost entirely a consequence of the Depression, not a cause. Trade barriers were a response to the Depression, partly as a consequence of deflation."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Krugman |first=Paul |date=2016-03-04 |title=The Mitt-Hawley Fallacy |url=https://archive.nytimes.com/krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/03/04/the-mitt-hawley-fallacy/ |access-date=2024-11-01 |website=Paul Krugman Blog |language=en}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>According the historian [[Paul Bairoch]], the years 1920 to 1929 are generally misdescribed as years in which protectionism increased in Europe. In fact, from a general point of view, the crisis was preceded in Europe by trade liberalisation. The weighted average of tariffs remained tendentially the same as in the years preceding the First World War: 24.6% in 1913, as against 24.9% in 1927. In 1928 and 1929, tariffs were lowered in almost all developed countries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bairoch|title=Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes|year=1993 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0226034621 |url=https://archive.org/details/economicsworldhi00bair|url-access=registration}}</ref><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>According the historian [[Paul Bairoch]], the years 1920 to 1929 are generally misdescribed as years in which protectionism increased in Europe. In fact, from a general point of view, the crisis was preceded in Europe by trade liberalisation. The weighted average of tariffs remained tendentially the same as in the years preceding the First World War: 24.6% in 1913, as against 24.9% in 1927. In 1928 and 1929, tariffs were lowered in almost all developed countries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bairoch|title=Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes|year=1993 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0226034621 |url=https://archive.org/details/economicsworldhi00bair|url-access=registration}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[Douglas A. Irwin]] says most economists "doubt that Smoot–Hawley played much of a role in the subsequent contraction."<ref>{{cite book |last=Irwin |first=Douglas A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oz_BDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA116 |title=Peddling Protectionism: Smoot-Hawley and the Great Depression |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=9781400888429 |page=116}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[Douglas A. Irwin]] says most economists "doubt that Smoot–Hawley played much of a role in the subsequent contraction."<ref>{{cite book |last=Irwin |first=Douglas A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oz_BDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA116 |title=Peddling Protectionism: Smoot-Hawley and the Great Depression |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=9781400888429 |page=116}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 108:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 108:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div> Any material about modern tariffs goes in that section (below), not here in the history section.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div> Any material about modern tariffs goes in that section (below), not here in the history section.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>--></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>--></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>==Arguments favouring tariffs==</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>==Arguments favouring tariffs==</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 130:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 131:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>The 'dumping' policies of some countries have also largely affected developing countries. Studies on the effects of free trade show that the gains induced by WTO rules for developing countries are very small.<ref name=Gains>{{cite journal |last1=Ackerman |first1=Frank |title=The Shrinking Gains from Trade: A Critical Assessment of Doha Round Projections |journal=Research in Agricultural and Applied Economics |series=Working Paper No. 05-01 |date=2005 |doi=10.22004/AG.ECON.15580 |s2cid=17272950 }}</ref> This has reduced the gain for these countries from an estimated {{US$|long=no|539 billion}} in the 2003 LINKAGE model{{Further explanation needed|date=November 2024}} to {{US$|long=no|22 billion}} in the 2005 GTAP model. The 2005 LINKAGE version also reduced gains to 90 billion.<ref name=Gains/> As for the "[[Doha Round]]", it would have brought in only {{US$|long=no|4 billion}} to developing countries (including China...) according to the GTAP model.<ref name=Gains/> However, it has been argued that the models used are actually designed to maximise the positive effects of trade liberalisation, that they are characterised by the absence of taking into account the loss of income caused by the end of tariff barriers.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://fordschool.umich.edu/rsie/workingpapers/Papers476-500/r489.pdf |title = Computational Analysis of Multilateral Trade Liberalization in the Uruguay Round and Doha Development Round |date = December 8, 2002 |author = [[Drusilla K. Brown]], [[Alan V. Deardorff]] and [[Robert M. Stern]] |access-date = November 18, 2018 |archive-date = September 22, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170922013707/http://fordschool.umich.edu/rsie/workingpapers/Papers476-500/r489.pdf |url-status = live }}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>The 'dumping' policies of some countries have also largely affected developing countries. Studies on the effects of free trade show that the gains induced by WTO rules for developing countries are very small.<ref name=Gains>{{cite journal |last1=Ackerman |first1=Frank |title=The Shrinking Gains from Trade: A Critical Assessment of Doha Round Projections |journal=Research in Agricultural and Applied Economics |series=Working Paper No. 05-01 |date=2005 |doi=10.22004/AG.ECON.15580 |s2cid=17272950 }}</ref> This has reduced the gain for these countries from an estimated {{US$|long=no|539 billion}} in the 2003 LINKAGE model{{Further explanation needed|date=November 2024}} to {{US$|long=no|22 billion}} in the 2005 GTAP model. The 2005 LINKAGE version also reduced gains to 90 billion.<ref name=Gains/> As for the "[[Doha Round]]", it would have brought in only {{US$|long=no|4 billion}} to developing countries (including China...) according to the GTAP model.<ref name=Gains/> However, it has been argued that the models used are actually designed to maximise the positive effects of trade liberalisation, that they are characterised by the absence of taking into account the loss of income caused by the end of tariff barriers.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://fordschool.umich.edu/rsie/workingpapers/Papers476-500/r489.pdf |title = Computational Analysis of Multilateral Trade Liberalization in the Uruguay Round and Doha Development Round |date = December 8, 2002 |author = [[Drusilla K. Brown]], [[Alan V. Deardorff]] and [[Robert M. Stern]] |access-date = November 18, 2018 |archive-date = September 22, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170922013707/http://fordschool.umich.edu/rsie/workingpapers/Papers476-500/r489.pdf |url-status = live }}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>===Keynesian analysis in favor of protectionism===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>{{Undue weight|date=November 2024|section}}{{Primary sources|section|date=November 2024}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>According to Keynesian theory, [[trade deficits]] are harmful. Countries that import more than they export weaken their economies. When trade deficits rise, [[unemployment]] rises and GDP growth slows. And countries with trade surpluses exert a “negative externality” on their trading partners. They enrich themselves at the expense of others, and destroy the production of their trading partners. John Maynard Keynes believed that products from surplus countries should be taxed to avoid trade imbalances.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/may/05/reform-euro-or-bin-it-greece-germany |title=Reform the euro or bin it |publisher=The Guardian |date=2010-05-05 |access-date=2017-11-08}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Opinion pieces are insufficiently reliable ([[WP:NOTRS]]).|date=November 2024}}<ref name="J.M. Keynes">{{Cite journal |last=Maurin |first=Max |date=2010 |title=J.M. Keynes, le libre-échange et le protectionnisme |url=https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/ae/2010-v86-n1-ae3990/045556ar/ |journal=L'Actualité économique |language=fr |volume=86 |issue=1 |pages=109–129 |doi=10.7202/045556ar |issn=0001-771X}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Keynes points out that the reduction in wages advocated by [[Neoclassical economics|neoclassical]] or orthodox economists, leads to a reduction in domestic demand, fewer outlets and therefore weak economic growth. He indicates that the introduction of customs duties on imports would help eliminate the trade deficit and improve [[production]] and employment.<ref name="J.M. Keynes" /> Thus, for Keynes, an economic recovery policy is only fully effective if the trade deficit is eliminated through protectionist policies. Moreover, for Keynes, currency depreciation was no longer sufficient, and protectionist measures were becoming necessary to avoid trade deficits. To avoid the return of crises caused by a self-regulating economic system, it seemed essential to him to regulate trade and stop free trade (deregulation of foreign trade).<ref name="J.M. Keynes" /></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The theory of [[comparative advantage]] (the foundation of free trade) states that trade deficits are irrelevant because [[trade]] is mutually beneficial. In the post-crisis situation of 1929, Keynes judged the assumptions of the theory of comparative advantage to be unrealistic. He criticized, for example, the neoclassical assumption of wage adjustment, as well as the static dimension of the theory of comparative advantage, which in his view, by definitively fixing comparative advantages, led in practice to a waste of national resources. Generally speaking, for Keynes, the assumptions of full employment and automatic return to equilibrium discredited the theory.<ref name="J.M. Keynes" /></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>In the article “ National Self-Sufficiency”, he criticizes the argument of economic specialization, which is the basis of [[free trade]]. He proposes the search for a certain degree of self-sufficiency. Instead of the specialization of economies advocated by Ricardian theory of comparative advantage, he prefers the maintenance of a diversity of activities for each nation.<ref name="“National" self-sufficiency”="">{{Cite web |date=2011-05-15 |title=John Maynard Keynes, "National Self-Sufficiency," The Yale Review, Vol. 22, no. 4 (June 1933), pp. 755-769. |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515044928/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/interwar/keynes.htm |access-date=2024-11-14 |website=web.archive.org}}</ref>{{Update needed|date=November 2024}}<ref name="“De" l'autosuffisance="" nationale”="">{{Cite journal |last=Keynes |first=John Maynard |date=2006-12-01 |title=De l'autosuffisance nationale |url=https://shs.cairn.info/revue-l-economie-politique-2006-3-page-7?lang=fr&ref=doi |journal=L'Économie politique |language=fr |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=7–18 |doi=10.3917/leco.031.0007 |issn=1293-6146}}</ref>{{Secondary source needed|date=November 2024}} He refutes the principle that trade brings peace between nations, defends the idea of producing on national soil whenever possible and reasonable, and expresses his sympathy for [[protectionism]].<ref name=“National Self-Sufficiency” />{{Update needed|date=November 2024}}{{Secondary source needed|date=November 2024}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>==Arguments against tariffs==</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>==Arguments against tariffs==</div></td> </tr>  </table><hr class='diff-hr' id='mw-oldid' /> <h2 class='diff-currentversion-title'>Revision as of 18:09, 22 November 2024</h2> <div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Goods and services import/export tax</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Tariff_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Tariff (disambiguation)">Tariff (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Tarif" title="Tarif">Tarif</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">Taxation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:10_Percent_Legacy_and_Succession_Duty_Impressed_Duty_Stamp.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/10_Percent_Legacy_and_Succession_Duty_Impressed_Duty_Stamp.svg/100px-10_Percent_Legacy_and_Succession_Duty_Impressed_Duty_Stamp.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/10_Percent_Legacy_and_Succession_Duty_Impressed_Duty_Stamp.svg/150px-10_Percent_Legacy_and_Succession_Duty_Impressed_Duty_Stamp.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/10_Percent_Legacy_and_Succession_Duty_Impressed_Duty_Stamp.svg/200px-10_Percent_Legacy_and_Succession_Duty_Impressed_Duty_Stamp.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="496" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> An aspect of <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_policy" title="Fiscal policy">fiscal policy</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color: #efefef;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Tax_policy" title="Tax policy">Policies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color: #ffffff;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Government_revenue" title="Government revenue">Government revenue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_tax_equalization" title="Property tax equalization">Property tax equalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_revenue" title="Tax revenue">Tax revenue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-tax_revenue" title="Non-tax revenue">Non-tax revenue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_bracket" title="Tax bracket">Tax bracket</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flat_tax" title="Flat tax">Flat tax</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_tax_threshold" title="Income tax threshold">Tax threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_exemption" title="Tax exemption">Exemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_credit" title="Tax credit">Credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_deduction" title="Tax deduction">Deduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_shift" title="Tax shift">Tax shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_cut" title="Tax cut">Tax cut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_holiday" title="Tax holiday">Tax holiday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_amnesty" title="Tax amnesty">Tax amnesty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_advantage" title="Tax advantage">Tax advantage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_incentive" title="Tax incentive">Tax incentive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_reform" title="Tax reform">Tax reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_harmonization" title="Tax harmonization">Tax harmonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_competition" title="Tax competition">Tax competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_withholding" title="Tax withholding">Tax withholding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_taxation" title="Double taxation">Double taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_taxation_without_representation" title="No taxation without representation">Representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxpayer_groups" title="Taxpayer groups">Unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_savings_account" title="Medical savings account">Medical savings account</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color: #efefef;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Tax#Economic_effects" title="Tax">Economics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color: #ffffff;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> General Theory</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effect_of_taxes_and_subsidies_on_price" title="Effect of taxes and subsidies on price">Price effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excess_burden_of_taxation" title="Excess burden of taxation">Excess burden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_incidence" title="Tax incidence">Tax incidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laffer_curve" title="Laffer curve">Laffer curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_tax" title="Optimal tax">Optimal tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_taxation" title="Theories of taxation">Theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_capital_income_taxation" title="Optimal capital income taxation">Optimal capital income taxation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Distribution of Tax</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tax_rate" title="Tax rate">Tax rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_tax" title="Flat tax">Flat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">Progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regressive_tax" title="Regressive tax">Regressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proportional_tax" title="Proportional tax">Proportional</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color: #efefef;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Tax_collection" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax collection">Collection</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color: #ffffff;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_service" title="Revenue service">Revenue service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_stamp" title="Revenue stamp">Revenue stamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_assessment" title="Tax assessment">Tax assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxable_income" title="Taxable income">Taxable income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_lien" title="Tax lien">Tax lien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_refund" title="Tax refund">Tax refund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_shield" title="Tax shield">Tax shield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_residence" title="Tax residence">Tax residence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_preparation" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax preparation">Tax preparation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_investigation" title="Tax investigation">Tax investigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_shelter" title="Tax shelter">Tax shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_collector" title="Tax collector">Tax collector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatized_tax_collection" title="Privatized tax collection">Private tax collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm_(revenue_leasing)" title="Farm (revenue leasing)">Tax farming</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color: #efefef;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Tax_noncompliance" title="Tax noncompliance">Noncompliance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color: #ffffff;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> General</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tax_avoidance" title="Tax avoidance">Tax avoidance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Repatriation_tax_avoidance" title="Repatriation tax avoidance">Repatriation tax avoidance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_evasion" title="Tax evasion">Tax evasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_resistance" title="Tax resistance">Tax resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_shelter" title="Tax shelter">Tax shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debtors%27_prison" title="Debtors' prison">Debtors' prison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smuggling" title="Smuggling">Smuggling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_market" title="Black market">Black market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unreported_employment" title="Unreported employment">Unreported employment</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Corporate</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tax_inversion" title="Tax inversion">Tax inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer_mispricing" title="Transfer mispricing">Transfer mispricing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Base_erosion_and_profit_shifting" title="Base erosion and profit shifting">Base erosion and profit shifting</a> (BEPS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Irish_arrangement" title="Double Irish arrangement">Double Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Sandwich" title="Dutch Sandwich">Dutch Sandwich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Irish_arrangement#Replacement_by_single_malt" title="Double Irish arrangement">Single Malt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Irish_arrangement#Backstop_of_capital_allowances" title="Double Irish arrangement">CAIA</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Locations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tax_haven" title="Tax haven">Tax havens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_haven" title="Corporate haven">Corporate havens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_financial_centre" title="Offshore financial centre">Offshore financial centres</a> (OFCs)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_magic_circle" title="Offshore magic circle">Offshore magic circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conduit_and_sink_OFCs" title="Conduit and sink OFCs">Conduit and sink OFCs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_centre" title="Financial centre">Financial centres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_Secrecy_Index" title="Financial Secrecy Index">Financial Secrecy Index</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Major examples</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ireland_as_a_tax_haven" title="Ireland as a tax haven">Ireland as a tax haven</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Apple%27s_EU_tax_dispute" title="Apple's EU tax dispute">Ireland v. Commission</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprechaun_economics" title="Leprechaun economics">Leprechaun economics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Liechtenstein_tax_affair" title="2008 Liechtenstein tax affair">Liechtenstein tax affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LuxLeaks" title="LuxLeaks">Luxembourg Leaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_Leaks" title="Offshore Leaks">Offshore Leaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradise_Papers" title="Paradise Papers">Paradise Papers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panama_Papers" title="Panama Papers">Panama Papers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Leaks" title="Swiss Leaks">Swiss Leaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_as_a_tax_haven" title="United States as a tax haven">United States as a tax haven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panama_as_a_tax_haven" title="Panama as a tax haven">Panama as a tax haven</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color: #efefef;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_taxes" title="List of taxes">Types</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color: #ffffff;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Direct_tax" title="Direct tax">Direct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_tax" title="Indirect tax">Indirect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Per_unit_tax" title="Per unit tax">Per unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_valorem_tax" title="Ad valorem tax">Ad valorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_taxation_and_subsidies" title="Aviation taxation and subsidies">Aviation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airport_improvement_fee" title="Airport improvement fee">Airport improvement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_fee" title="Landing fee">Landing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_tax_on_airplane_tickets" title="Solidarity tax on airplane tickets">Solidarity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_gains_tax" title="Capital gains tax">Capital gains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expatriation_tax" title="Expatriation tax">Expatriation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumption_tax" title="Consumption tax">Consumption</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Departure_tax" title="Departure tax">Departure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotel_tax" class="mw-redirect" title="Hotel tax">Hotel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sales_tax" title="Sales tax">Sales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_duty" title="Stamp duty">Stamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_licence" title="Television licence">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourist_tax" title="Tourist tax">Tourist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value-added_tax" title="Value-added tax">Value-added</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dividend_tax" title="Dividend tax">Dividend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_tax" title="Environmental tax">Environmental tax</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-tariff" title="Eco-tariff">Eco-tariff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landfill_tax" title="Landfill tax">Landfill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resources_consumption_tax" title="Natural resources consumption tax">Natural resources consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severance_tax" title="Severance tax">Severance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steering_tax" title="Steering tax">Steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stumpage" title="Stumpage">Stumpage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excise" title="Excise">Excise</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_law" title="Alcohol law">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cigarette_taxes_in_the_United_States" title="Cigarette taxes in the United States">Cigarette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_tax" title="Fat tax">Fat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meat_tax" title="Meat tax">Meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sin_tax" title="Sin tax">Sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugary_drink_tax" title="Sugary drink tax">Sugary drink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">Tobacco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_Fund" title="Consolidated Fund">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_tax" title="Gift tax">Gift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gross_receipts_tax" title="Gross receipts tax">Gross receipts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothecated_tax" title="Hypothecated tax">Hypothecated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_tax" title="Income tax">Income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance_tax" title="Inheritance tax">Inheritance (estate)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_value_tax" title="Land value tax">Land value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxury_tax" title="Luxury tax">Luxury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payroll_tax" title="Payroll tax">Payroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigouvian_tax" title="Pigouvian tax">Pigouvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_tax" title="Property tax">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_rent_tax" title="Resource rent tax">Resource rent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_tax" title="Single tax">Single</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surtax" title="Surtax">Surtax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turnover_tax" title="Turnover tax">Turnover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use_tax" title="Use tax">Use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_charge" title="User charge">User charge</a>/<a href="/wiki/User_fee" title="User fee">fee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congestion_pricing" title="Congestion pricing">Congestion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_tax" title="Fuel tax">Fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_pricing" title="Road pricing">Road</a>/<a href="/wiki/GNSS_road_pricing" title="GNSS road pricing">GNSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toll_(fee)" title="Toll (fee)">Toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle_miles_traveled_tax" title="Vehicle miles traveled tax">Vehicle miles traveled</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_tax" title="Corporate tax">Corporate profit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excess_profits_tax" title="Excess profits tax">Excess profits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windfall_tax" title="Windfall tax">Windfall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_income_tax" title="Negative income tax">Negative (income)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth_tax" title="Wealth tax">Wealth</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color: #efefef;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/International_taxation" title="International taxation">International</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color: #ffffff;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Financial_transaction_tax" title="Financial transaction tax">Financial transaction tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Taxation_of_Financial_Transactions_and_for_Citizens%27_Action" title="Association for the Taxation of Financial Transactions and for Citizens' Action">ATTAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Currency_transaction_tax" title="Currency transaction tax">Currency transaction tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Consolidated_Corporate_Tax_Base" title="Common Consolidated Corporate Tax Base"><span class="wrap">European Union Common Consolidated Corporate Tax Base</span></a> (CCCTB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_minimum_corporate_tax_rate" title="Global minimum corporate tax rate">Global minimum corporate tax rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Hood_tax" title="Robin Hood tax">Robin Hood tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobin_tax" title="Tobin tax">Tobin tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spahn_tax" title="Spahn tax">Spahn tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_equalization" title="Tax equalization">Tax equalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_treaty" title="Tax treaty">Tax treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exchange_of_Information" class="mw-redirect" title="Exchange of Information">Exchange of Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_establishment" title="Permanent establishment">Permanent establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer_pricing" title="Transfer pricing">Transfer pricing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_financial_transaction_tax" title="European Union financial transaction tax">European Union FTT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_against_foreign_revenue_enforcement" title="Rule against foreign revenue enforcement">Foreign revenue rule</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color: #efefef;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">Trade</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color: #ffffff;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customs" title="Customs">Custom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Duty (economics)">Duty</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tariff</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Import" title="Import">Import</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Export" title="Export">Export</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_war" title="Trade war">Tariff war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">Free trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-trade_zone" title="Free-trade zone">Free-trade zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_agreement" title="Trade agreement">Trade agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ATA_Carnet" title="ATA Carnet">ATA Carnet</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color: #efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">Research</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color: #ffffff;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Academic</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mihir_A._Desai" title="Mihir A. Desai">Mihir A. Desai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhammika_Dharmapala" title="Dhammika Dharmapala">Dhammika Dharmapala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_R._Hines_Jr." title="James R. Hines Jr.">James R. Hines Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronen_Palan" title="Ronen Palan">Ronen Palan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joel_Slemrod" title="Joel Slemrod">Joel Slemrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Zucman" title="Gabriel Zucman">Gabriel Zucman</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Advocacy groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institute_on_Taxation_and_Economic_Policy" title="Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy">Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy</a> (ITEP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxfam" title="Oxfam">Oxfam</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Foundation" title="Tax Foundation">Tax Foundation</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Justice_Network" title="Tax Justice Network">Tax Justice Network</a> (TJN)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Policy_Center" title="Tax Policy Center">Tax Policy Center</a> (US)</li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color: #efefef;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religious</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color: #ffffff;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_tax" title="Church tax">Church tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_per_thousand" title="Eight per thousand">Eight per thousand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teind" title="Teind">Teind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tithe" title="Tithe">Tithe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscus_Judaicus" title="Fiscus Judaicus">Fiscus Judaicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leibzoll" title="Leibzoll">Leibzoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_tax" title="Temple tax">Temple tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolerance_tax" title="Tolerance tax">Tolerance tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharaj" title="Kharaj">Kharaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khums" title="Khums">Khums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisab" title="Nisab">Nisab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color: #efefef;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Taxation_by_country" title="Category:Taxation by country">By country</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color: #ffffff;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> All Countries</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_tax_rates" title="List of countries by tax rates">List of countries by tax rates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_tax_revenue_to_GDP_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by tax revenue to GDP ratio">Tax revenue to GDP ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_rates_in_Europe" title="Tax rates in Europe">Tax rates in Europe</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Individual Countries</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Albania" title="Taxation in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Algeria" title="Taxation in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Argentina" title="Taxation in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Armenia" title="Taxation in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Australia" title="Taxation in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Azerbaijan" title="Taxation in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Bangladesh" title="Taxation in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Bhutan" title="Taxation in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Brazil" title="Taxation in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Bulgaria" title="Taxation in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Taxation in the British Virgin Islands">BVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Canada" title="Taxation in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_China" title="Taxation in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Colombia" title="Taxation in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Croatia" title="Taxation in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Denmark" title="Taxation in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Finland" title="Taxation in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_France" title="Taxation in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Germany" title="Taxation in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Greece" title="Taxation in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Hong_Kong" title="Taxation in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Iceland" title="Taxation in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_India" title="Taxation in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Indonesia" title="Taxation in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Iran" title="Taxation in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Taxation in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Israel" title="Taxation in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Italy" title="Taxation in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Japan" title="Taxation in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Kazakhstan" title="Taxation in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Lithuania" title="Taxation in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Malta" title="Taxation in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Morocco" title="Taxation in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Namibia" title="Taxation in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_Netherlands" title="Taxation in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_New_Zealand" title="Taxation in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Norway" title="Taxation in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Pakistan" title="Taxation in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Taxation in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Peru" title="Taxation in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_Philippines" title="Taxation in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Poland" title="Taxation in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Portugal" title="Taxation in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Russia" title="Taxation in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_South_Africa" title="Taxation in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Taxation in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Sweden" title="Taxation in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Switzerland" title="Taxation in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Taiwan" title="Taxation in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Tanzania" title="Taxation in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Taxation in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Taxation in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Uruguay" title="Taxation in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background-color: #efefef;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" 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abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxation" title="Template:Taxation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Taxation" title="Template talk:Taxation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Taxation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Taxation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>tariff</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">tax</a> imposed by the <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a> of a country or by a <a href="/wiki/Supranational_union" title="Supranational union">supranational union</a> on <a href="/wiki/Imports" class="mw-redirect" title="Imports">imports</a> or <a href="/wiki/Exports" class="mw-redirect" title="Exports">exports</a> of goods. Besides being a source of <a href="/wiki/Revenue" title="Revenue">revenue</a> for the government, import duties can also be a form of regulation of <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">foreign trade</a> and policy that taxes foreign products to encourage or safeguard domestic industry.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Protective_tariff" title="Protective tariff">Protective tariffs</a> are among the most widely used instruments of <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protectionism</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/Import_quota" title="Import quota">import quotas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Export_quota" class="mw-redirect" title="Export quota">export quotas</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Non-tariff_barriers_to_trade" title="Non-tariff barriers to trade">non-tariff barriers to trade</a>. </p><p>Tariffs can be fixed (a constant sum per unit of imported goods or a percentage of the price) or variable (the amount varies according to the price). Tariffs on imports are designed to raise the price of imported goods and services to discourage consumption. The intention is for citizens to buy local products instead, thereby stimulating their country's economy. Tariffs therefore provide an incentive to develop production and replace imports with domestic products. Tariffs are meant to reduce pressure from foreign competition and reduce the trade deficit. They have historically been justified as a means to protect <a href="/wiki/Infant_industry_argument" title="Infant industry argument">infant industries</a> and to allow <a href="/wiki/Import_substitution_industrialisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Import substitution industrialisation">import substitution industrialisation</a> (industrializing a nation by replacing imported goods with domestic production). Tariffs may also be used to rectify artificially low prices for certain imported goods, due to 'dumping', export subsidies or currency manipulation. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Trade_liberalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade liberalisation">Trade liberalisation such as free trade</a> can sometimes result in large and unequally distributed losses and gains and cause significant economic dislocation of workers through off-shoring industries.<sup id="cite_ref-Poole_p2_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poole_p2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The economic burden of tariffs falls on the importer and the exporter.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Poole_p1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poole_p1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Classical and neoclassical economists, who support free trade, believe that trade deficits are not a disadvantage because trade is mutually beneficial.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Protectionist economists, on the other hand, argue that trade deficits are harmful and lead to offshoring and deindustrialization. For example, <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a>, who opposed free trade, noted that countries with trade deficits weakened their economies, while countries with trade surpluses grew richer at the expense of others. Keynes believed that imports from surplus countries should be taxed to avoid trade imbalances.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ultimately, he advocated a certain degree of economic self-sufficiency for each nation.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <p>The English term <i>tariff</i> derives from the <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">tarif</i>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'set price' which is itself a descendant of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: <i lang="it">tariffa</i>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'mandated price; schedule of taxes and customs' which derives from <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Latin language">Medieval Latin</a>: <i lang="la">tariffe</i>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'set price'. This term was introduced to the Latin-speaking world through contact with the Turks and derives from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Turkish language">Ottoman Turkish</a>: <span lang="ota" dir="rtl">تعرفه</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ottoman_Turkish" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Ottoman Turkish">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Ottoman Turkish-language romanization"><i lang="ota-Latn">taʿrife</i></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'list of prices; table of the rates of customs'. This Turkish term is a <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanword</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: <span lang="fa" dir="rtl">تعرفه</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Persian" title="Romanization of Persian">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">taʿrefe</i></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'set price, receipt'. The Persian term derives from <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">تعريف</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">taʿrīf</i></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'notification; description; definition; announcement; assertion; inventory of fees to be paid' which is the verbal noun of <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">عرف</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿarafa</i></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'to know; to be able; to recognise; to find out'.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Greece">Ancient Greece</h3></div> <p>In the city state of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a>, the port of <a href="/wiki/Piraeus" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a> enforced a system of levies to raise taxes for the Athenian government. Grain was a key commodity that was imported through the port, and Piraeus was one of the main ports in the <a href="/wiki/East_Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="East Mediterranean">east Mediterranean</a>. A levy of two percent was placed on goods arriving in the market through the docks of Piraeus.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Athenian government also placed restrictions on the lending of money and transport of grain to only be allowed through the port of Piraeus.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Britain">Great Britain</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Protectionism#In_the_United_Kingdom" title="Protectionism">Protectionism § In the United Kingdom</a></div> <p>In the 14th century, <a href="/wiki/Edward_III_of_England" title="Edward III of England">Edward III</a> took interventionist measures, such as banning the import of woollen cloth in an attempt to develop local manufacturing. Beginning in 1489, <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a> took actions such as increasing export duties on raw wool. The Tudor monarchs, especially <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a>, used protectionism, subsidies, distribution of monopoly rights, government-sponsored industrial espionage and other means of government intervention to develop the wool industry, leading to England became the largest wool-producing nation in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> A protectionist turning point in British economic policy came in 1721, when policies to promote manufacturing industries were introduced by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Walpole" title="Robert Walpole">Robert Walpole</a>. These included, for example, increased tariffs on imported foreign manufactured goods, export subsidies, reduced tariffs on imported raw materials used for manufactured goods and the abolition of export duties on most manufactured goods. Thus, the UK was the first country to pursue a strategy of large-scale infant-industry development. These policies were similar to those used by countries such as Japan, Korea and Taiwan after the Second World War.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Outlining his policy, Walpole declared:</p><blockquote><p>Nothing contributes as much to the promotion of public welfare as the export of manufactured goods and the import of foreign raw materials.</p></blockquote> <p>Walpole's protectionist policies continued over the next century, helping British manufacturing catch up with and then leapfrog its continental counterparts. Britain remained a highly protectionist country until the mid-19th century. By 1820, the UK's average tariff rate on manufactured imports was 45-55%.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, in its colonies, the UK imposed a total ban on advanced manufacturing activities that the country did not want to see developed. Walpole forced Americans to specialize in low-value-added products. The UK also banned exports from its colonies that competed with its own products at home and abroad. The country banned imports of cotton textiles from India, which at the time were superior to British products. It banned the export of woollen fabrics from its colonies to other countries (Wool Act). Finally, Britain wanted to ensure that the colonists stuck to the production of raw materials and never became a competitor to British manufacturers. Policies were established to encourage the production of raw materials in the colonies. Walpole granted export subsidies (on the American side) and abolished import taxes (on the British side) on raw materials produced in the American colonies. The colonies were thus forced to leave the most profitable industries in the hands of the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1800, Britain, with about 10% of Europe's population, supplied 29% of all <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a> produced in Europe, a proportion that had risen to 45% by 1830. Per capita industrial production was even higher: in 1830 it was 250% higher than in the rest of Europe, up from 110% in 1800.<sup id="cite_ref-Bairoch_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bairoch-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Protectionist policies of industrial promotion continued until the mid-19th century. At the beginning of that century, the average tariff on British manufactured goods was about 50%, the highest of all major European countries. Despite its growing technological lead over other nations, the UK continued its policy of industrial promotion until the mid-19th century, maintaining very high tariffs on manufactured goods until the 1820s, two generations after the start of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. Thus, according to economic historian <a href="/wiki/Paul_Bairoch" title="Paul Bairoch">Paul Bairoch</a>, the UK's technological advance was achieved “behind high and durable tariff barriers”. In 1846, the rate of industrialization per capita was more than double that of its closest competitors.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even after adopting <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> for most goods, Britain continued to closely regulate trade in strategic capital goods, such as machinery for the mass production of textiles.<sup id="cite_ref-Bairoch_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bairoch-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Free trade in Britain began in earnest with the <a href="/wiki/Repeal_of_the_Corn_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Repeal of the Corn Laws">repeal of the Corn Laws</a> in 1846, which was equivalent to free trade in grain. The Corn Acts had been passed in 1815 to restrict wheat imports and to guarantee the incomes of British farmers; their repeal devastated Britain's old rural economy, but began to mitigate the effects of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine</a> in Ireland. Tariffs on many manufactured goods were also abolished. But while free-trade was progressing in Britain, protectionism continued on the European mainland and in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Customs duties on many manufactured goods were also abolished. The Navigation Acts were abolished in 1849 when free traders won the public debate in the UK. But while free trade progressed in the UK, protectionism continued on the Continent. The UK practiced free trade unilaterally in the vain hope that other countries would follow, but the USA emerged from the Civil War even more explicitly protectionist than before, Germany under <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Bismarck</a> rejected free trade, and the rest of Europe followed suit.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang_20-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the 1870s, the British economy continued to grow, but inexorably lagged behind the protectionist United States and Germany: from 1870 to 1913, industrial production grew at an average annual rate of 4.7% in the USA, 4.1% in Germany and only 2.1% in Great Britain. Thus, Britain was finally overtaken economically by the United States around 1880. British leadership in fields such as steel and textiles was eroded, and the country fell behind as new, more technologically advanced industries emerged after 1870 in other countries still practicing protectionism.<sup id="cite_ref-Bairoch_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bairoch-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On June 15, 1903, the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Petty-Fitzmaurice,_5th_Marquess_of_Lansdowne" title="Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne">Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne</a>, made a speech in the House of Lords in which he defended fiscal retaliation against countries that applied high tariffs and whose governments subsidised products sold in Britain (known as "premium products", later called "<a href="/wiki/Dumping_(pricing_policy)" title="Dumping (pricing policy)">dumping</a>"). The retaliation was to take the form of threats to impose duties in response to goods from that country. <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Unionists" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal Unionists">Liberal unionists</a> had split from the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">liberals</a>, who advocated free trade, and this speech marked a turning point in the group's slide toward <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protectionism</a>. Lansdowne argued that the threat of retaliatory tariffs was similar to gaining respect in a room of gunmen by pointing a big gun (his exact words were "a gun a little bigger than everyone else's"). The "Big Revolver" became a slogan of the time, often used in speeches and cartoons.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In response to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, Britain abandoned free trade in 1932, recognizing that it had lost production capacity to the United States and Germany, which remained protectionist. The country reintroduced large-scale tariffs, but it was too late to re-establish the nation's position as a dominant economic power. In 1932, the level of industrialization in the United States was 50% higher than in the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang_20-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_tariffs_in_the_United_States" title="History of tariffs in the United States">History of tariffs in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protectionism_in_the_United_States" title="Protectionism in the United States">Protectionism in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Average_tariff_rates_(France,_UK,_US).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Average_tariff_rates_%28France%2C_UK%2C_US%29.png/220px-Average_tariff_rates_%28France%2C_UK%2C_US%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Average_tariff_rates_%28France%2C_UK%2C_US%29.png/330px-Average_tariff_rates_%28France%2C_UK%2C_US%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Average_tariff_rates_%28France%2C_UK%2C_US%29.png/440px-Average_tariff_rates_%28France%2C_UK%2C_US%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1059" data-file-height="615" /></a><figcaption>Average tariff rates (France, UK, US)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The date of the event predicted near this tag has passed. (November 2024)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Average_Tariff_Rates_in_USA_(1821-2016).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Average_Tariff_Rates_in_USA_%281821-2016%29.png/220px-Average_Tariff_Rates_in_USA_%281821-2016%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Average_Tariff_Rates_in_USA_%281821-2016%29.png/330px-Average_Tariff_Rates_in_USA_%281821-2016%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Average_Tariff_Rates_in_USA_%281821-2016%29.png/440px-Average_Tariff_Rates_in_USA_%281821-2016%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1291" data-file-height="653" /></a><figcaption>Average tariff rates in US (1821–2016)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The date of the event predicted near this tag has passed. (November 2024)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:U.S._Trade_Balance_(1895%E2%80%932015)_and_Trade_Policies.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/U.S._Trade_Balance_%281895%E2%80%932015%29_and_Trade_Policies.png/220px-U.S._Trade_Balance_%281895%E2%80%932015%29_and_Trade_Policies.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/U.S._Trade_Balance_%281895%E2%80%932015%29_and_Trade_Policies.png/330px-U.S._Trade_Balance_%281895%E2%80%932015%29_and_Trade_Policies.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/U.S._Trade_Balance_%281895%E2%80%932015%29_and_Trade_Policies.png/440px-U.S._Trade_Balance_%281895%E2%80%932015%29_and_Trade_Policies.png 2x" data-file-width="1139" data-file-height="602" /></a><figcaption>US Trade Balance and Trade Policy (1895–2015)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The date of the event predicted near this tag has passed. (November 2024)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Before the new Constitution took effect in 1788, the Congress could not levy taxes – it sold land or begged money from the states. The new national government needed revenue and decided to depend upon a tax on imports with the <a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1789" title="Tariff of 1789">Tariff of 1789</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The policy of the U.S. before 1860 was low tariffs "for revenue only" (since duties continued to fund the national government).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Embargo_Act_of_1807" title="Embargo Act of 1807">Embargo Act of 1807</a> was passed by the U.S. Congress in that year in response to British aggression. While not a tariff per se, the Act prohibited the import of all kinds of manufactured imports, resulting in a huge drop in US trade and protests from all regions of the country. However, the embargo also had the effect of launching new, emerging US domestic industries across the board, particularly the textile industry, and marked the beginning of the manufacturing system in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An attempt at imposing a high tariff occurred in 1828, but the South denounced it as a "<a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_Abominations" title="Tariff of Abominations">Tariff of Abominations</a>" and it almost caused a rebellion in South Carolina until it was lowered.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 1816 and the end of the Second World War, the United States had one of the highest average tariff rates on manufactured imports in the world. According to Paul Bairoch, the United States was "the homeland and bastion of modern protectionism" during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang1_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many American intellectuals and politicians during the country's catching-up period felt that the free trade theory advocated by British classical economists was not suited to their country. They argued that the country should develop manufacturing industries and use government protection and subsidies for this purpose, as Britain had done before them. Many of the great American economists of the time, until the last quarter of the 19th century, were strong advocates of industrial protection: <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Raymond" title="Daniel Raymond">Daniel Raymond</a> who influenced <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">Friedrich List</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathew_Carey" title="Mathew Carey">Mathew Carey</a> and his son Henry, who was one of Lincoln's economic advisers. The intellectual leader of this movement was <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>, the first Secretary of the Treasury of the United States (1789–95). The United States rejected <a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_comparative_advantage" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of comparative advantage">theory of comparative advantage</a> and protected its industry. The country pursued a protectionist policy from the beginning of the 19th century until the middle of the 20th century, after the Second World War.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang1_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chang2b_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang2b-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Report_on_Manufactures" title="Report on Manufactures">Report on Manufactures</a>, considered the first text to express modern protectionist theory, Alexander Hamilton argued that if a country wished to develop a new activity on its soil, it would have to temporarily protect it. According to him, this protection against foreign producers could take the form of import duties or, in rare cases, prohibition of imports. He called for customs barriers to allow American industrial development and to help protect infant industries, including bounties (subsidies) derived in part from those tariffs. He also believed that duties on raw materials should be generally low.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hamilton argued that despite an initial "increase of price" caused by regulations that control foreign competition, once a "domestic manufacture has attained to perfection… it invariably becomes cheaper.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang2_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this report, Hamilton also proposed export bans on major raw materials, tariff reductions on industrial inputs, pricing and patenting of inventions, regulation of product standards and development of financial and transportation infrastructure. The U.S. Congress adopted the tariffs but refused to grant subsidies to manufactures. Hamilton's arguments shaped the pattern of American economic policy until the end of World War II, and his program created the conditions for rapid industrial development.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang2_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Raymond" title="Daniel Raymond">Daniel Raymond</a> were among the first theorists to present the <a href="/wiki/Infant_industry_argument" title="Infant industry argument">infant industry argument</a>. Hamilton was the first to use the term "infant industries" and to introduce it to the forefront of economic thinking. Hamilton believed that political independence was predicated upon economic independence. Increasing the domestic supply of manufactured goods, particularly war materials, was seen as an issue of national security. And he feared that Britain's policy towards the colonies would condemn the United States to be only producers of agricultural products and raw materials.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang1_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chang2_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Britain initially did not want to industrialise the American colonies, and implemented policies to that effect (for example, banning high value-added manufacturing activities). Under British rule, America was denied the use of tariffs to protect its new industries. This explains why, after independence, the Tariff Act of 1789 was the second bill of the Republic signed by President Washington allowing Congress to impose a fixed tariff of 5% on all imports, with a few exceptions.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang2_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Congress passed a tariff act (1789), imposing a 5% flat rate tariff on all imports.<sup id="cite_ref-Bairoch_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bairoch-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1792 and the war with Britain in 1812, the average tariff level remained around 12.5%, which was too low to encourage consumers to buy domestic products and thus support emerging American industries. When the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-American_War_of_1812" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-American War of 1812">Anglo-American War of 1812</a> broke out, all rates doubled to an average of 25% to account for increased government spending. The war paved the way for new industries by disrupting manufacturing imports from the UK and the rest of Europe. A major policy shift occurred in 1816, when American manufacturers who had benefited from the tariffs lobbied to retain them. New legislation was introduced to keep tariffs at the same levels —especially protected were cotton, woolen, and iron goods.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The American industrial interests that had blossomed because of the tariff lobbied to keep it, and had it raised to 35 percent in 1816. The public approved, and by 1820, America's average tariff was up to 40 percent. </p><p>In the 19th century, statesmen such as Senator <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a> continued Hamilton's themes within the <a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whig Party</a> under the name "<a href="/wiki/American_System_(economic_plan)" title="American System (economic plan)">American System</a>" which consisted of protecting industries and developing infrastructure in explicit opposition to the "British system" of free trade.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before 1860 they were always defeated by the low-tariff Democrats.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1846 to 1861, American tariffs were lowered but this was followed by a series of recessions and the 1857 panic, which eventually led to higher demands for tariffs than President James Buchanan signed in 1861 (Morrill Tariff).<sup id="cite_ref-Chang1_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chang2_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the American Civil War (1861–65), agrarian interests in the South were opposed to any protection, while manufacturing interests in the North wanted to maintain it. The war marked the triumph of the protectionists of the industrial states of the North over the free traders of the South. Abraham Lincoln was a protectionist like Henry Clay of the Whig Party, who advocated the "American system" based on infrastructure development and protectionism. In 1847, he declared: <i>"Give us a protective tariff, and we will have the greatest nation on earth"</i>. Once elected, Lincoln implemented a 44-percent tariff during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>—in part to pay for railroad subsidies and for the war effort, and to protect favored industries. After the war, tariffs remained at or above wartime levels. High tariffs were a policy designed to encourage rapid industrialisation and protect the high American wage rates.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang2_30-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The policy from 1860 to 1933 was usually high protective tariffs (apart from 1913 to 1921). After 1890, the tariff on wool did affect an important industry, but otherwise the tariffs were designed to keep American wages high. The conservative Republican tradition, typified by <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a> was a high tariff, while the Democrats typically called for a lower tariff to help consumers but they always failed until 1913.<sup id="cite_ref-Taussig1931_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taussig1931-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early 1860s, Europe and the United States pursued completely different trade policies. The 1860s were a period of growing protectionism in the United States, while the European free trade phase lasted from 1860 to 1892. The tariff average rate on imports of manufactured goods in 1875 was from 40% to 50% in the United States, against 9% to 12% in continental Europe at the height of free trade.<sup id="cite_ref-Bairoch_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bairoch-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1871 to 1913, "the average U.S. tariff on dutiable imports never fell below 38 percent [and] gross national product (GNP) grew 4.3 percent annually, twice the pace in free trade Britain and well above the U.S. average in the 20th century," notes Alfred Eckes Jr, chairman of the U.S. International Trade Commission under President Reagan.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the United States caught up with European industries in the 1890s, the <a href="/wiki/Mckinley_Tariff" class="mw-redirect" title="Mckinley Tariff">Mckinley Tariff</a>'s argument was no longer to protect “infant industries”, but to maintain workers' wages, support agricultural protection and the principle of reciprocity.<sup id="cite_ref-Bairoch_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bairoch-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1896, the Republican Party platform pledged to "renew and emphasize our allegiance to the policy of protection, as the bulwark of American industrial independence, and the foundation of development and prosperity. This true American policy taxes foreign products and encourages home industry. It puts the burden of revenue on foreign goods; it secures the American market for the American producer. It upholds the American standard of wages for the American workingman".<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1913, following the electoral victory of the Democrats in 1912, there was a significant reduction in the average tariff on manufactured goods from 44% to 25%. However, the First World War rendered this bill ineffective, and new "emergency" tariff legislation was introduced in 1922 after the Republicans returned to power in 1921.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang2_30-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> According to economic historian Douglas Irwin, a common myth about United States trade policy is that low tariffs harmed American manufacturers in the early 19th century and then that high tariffs made the United States into a great industrial power in the late 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A review by the <i>Economist</i> of Irwin's 2017 book <i>Clashing over Commerce: A History of US Trade Policy</i> notes:<sup id="cite_ref-:5_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>Political dynamics would lead people to see a link between tariffs and the economic cycle that was not there. A boom would generate enough revenue for tariffs to fall, and when the bust came pressure would build to raise them again. By the time that happened, the economy would be recovering, giving the impression that tariff cuts caused the crash and the reverse generated the recovery. Mr Irwin also methodically debunks the idea that protectionism made America a great industrial power, a notion believed by some to offer lessons for developing countries today. As its share of global manufacturing powered from 23% in 1870 to 36% in 1913, the admittedly high tariffs of the time came with a cost, estimated at around 0.5% of GDP in the mid-1870s. In some industries, they might have sped up development by a few years. But American growth during its protectionist period was more to do with its abundant resources and openness to people and ideas.</p></blockquote> <p>The Economist <a href="/wiki/Ha-Joon_Chang" title="Ha-Joon Chang">Ha-Joon Chang</a> argues, on the contrary, that the United States developed and rose to the top of the global economic hierarchy by adopting protectionism. In his view, the protectionist period corresponded to the golden age of American industry, when US economic performance outstripped that of the rest of the world. The U.S. adopted an interventionist policy to promote and protect their industries through tariffs. It was this protectionist policy that enabled the United States to achieve the fastest economic growth in the world throughout the 19th century and into the 1920s.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang_20-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tariffs_and_the_Great_Depression">Tariffs and the Great Depression</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Over-quotation plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#Quotations" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">too many or overly lengthy quotations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tariff&action=edit">summarize the quotations</a>. Consider transferring direct quotations to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Tariff" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Tariff">Wikiquote</a> or excerpts to <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Tariff" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Tariff">Wikisource</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a> writes that protectionism does not lead to recessions. According to him, the decrease in imports (which can be obtained by introducing tariffs) has an expansive effect, that is, it is favourable to growth. Thus, in a trade war, since exports and imports will decrease equally, for everyone, the negative effect of a decrease in exports will be offset by the expansionary effect of a decrease in imports. Therefore, a trade war does not cause a recession. Furthermore, he points out that the Smoot-Hawley tariff did not cause the Great Depression. The decline in trade between 1929 and 1933 "was almost entirely a consequence of the Depression, not a cause. Trade barriers were a response to the Depression, partly as a consequence of deflation."<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According the historian <a href="/wiki/Paul_Bairoch" title="Paul Bairoch">Paul Bairoch</a>, the years 1920 to 1929 are generally misdescribed as years in which protectionism increased in Europe. In fact, from a general point of view, the crisis was preceded in Europe by trade liberalisation. The weighted average of tariffs remained tendentially the same as in the years preceding the First World War: 24.6% in 1913, as against 24.9% in 1927. In 1928 and 1929, tariffs were lowered in almost all developed countries.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Douglas_A._Irwin" class="mw-redirect" title="Douglas A. Irwin">Douglas A. Irwin</a> says most economists "doubt that Smoot–Hawley played much of a role in the subsequent contraction."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2011, <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> held the opinion that the tariffs of 1930 caused harm but were not responsible by themselves for the Great Depression, which instead he blamed the lack of sufficient action on the part of the Federal Reserve. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Temin" title="Peter Temin">Peter Temin</a>, an economist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, agrees that the contractionary effect of the tariff was small.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/William_J._Bernstein" title="William J. Bernstein">William J. Bernstein</a>, most economic historians now believe that only a fraction of the GDP loss worldwide and in the U.S. resulted from tariff wars. Bernstein argued that the decline "could not have exceeded 1 or 2% of world GDP, a far cry from the 17% recorded during the Great Depression."<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Sapir" title="Jacques Sapir">Jacques Sapir</a> argues that the crisis has other causes than protectionism.<sup id="cite_ref-diplo11_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diplo11-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He points out that "domestic production in major industrialized countries is declining...faster than international trade is declining." If this decrease (in international trade) had been the cause of the depression that the countries have experienced, we would have seen the opposite". "Finally, the chronology of events does not correspond to the thesis of the free traders... The bulk of the contraction of trade occurred between January 1930 and July 1932, that is, before the introduction of protectionist measures, even self-sufficient, in some countries, with the exception of those applied in the United States in the summer of 1930, but with very limited negative effects. He noted that "the credit crunch is one of the main causes of the trade crunch." "In fact, international liquidity is the cause of the trade contraction. This liquidity collapsed in 1930 (-35.7%) and 1931 (-26.7%). A study by the <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Economic_Research" title="National Bureau of Economic Research">National Bureau of Economic Research</a> highlights the predominant influence of currency instability (which led to the international liquidity crisis<sup id="cite_ref-diplo11_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diplo11-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and the sudden rise in transportation costs in the decline of trade during the 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other economists believe that the record tariffs of the 1920s and early 1930s adopted by the Republicans exacerbated the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">Great Depresssion</a> in the U.S., in part because of retaliatory tariffs imposed by other countries on the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:14_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arguments_favouring_tariffs">Arguments favouring tariffs</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protection_against_dumping">Protection against dumping</h3></div> <p>States resorting to protectionism invoke unfair competition or dumping practices: </p> <ul><li>Monetary manipulation: a currency undergoes a <a href="/wiki/Devaluation" title="Devaluation">devaluation</a> when monetary authorities decide to intervene in the foreign exchange market to lower the value of the currency against other currencies. This makes local products more competitive and imported products more expensive (Marshall Lerner Condition), increasing exports and decreasing imports, and thus improving the trade balance. Countries with a weak currency cause trade imbalances: they have large external surpluses while their competitors have large deficits.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> For example, in 2010, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a> wrote that China pursues a mercantilist and predatory policy, i.e., it keeps its currency undervalued to accumulate trade surpluses by using capital flow controls. The Chinese government sells <a href="/wiki/Renminbi" title="Renminbi">renminbi</a> and buys foreign currency to keep the renminbi low, giving the Chinese manufacturing sector a cost advantage over its competitors. China's surpluses drain US demand and slow economic recovery in other countries with which China trades. Krugman writes: “This is the most distorted exchange rate policy any great nation has ever followed”. He notes that an undervalued renminbi is tantamount to imposing high tariffs or providing export subsidies. A cheaper currency improves employment and competitiveness because it makes imports more expensive while making domestic products more attractive.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Tax dumping: some <a href="/wiki/Tax_haven" title="Tax haven">tax haven</a> states have lower corporate and personal tax rates.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_dumping" title="Social dumping">Social dumping</a>: when a state reduces social contributions or maintains very low social standards (for example, in China, labour regulations are less restrictive for employers than elsewhere).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_dumping" title="Environmental dumping">Environmental dumping</a>: when environmental regulations are less stringent than elsewhere. For example, the <a href="/wiki/EU_Carbon_Border_Adjustment_Mechanism" title="EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism">European Union starts its carbon border-adjustment mechanism</a> in 2026 to even the playing field with firms not subject to European carbon pricing.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protection_of_infant_industry">Protection of infant industry</h3></div> <p>According to the economists in favour of protecting industries, free trade would condemn developing countries to being nothing more than exporters of raw materials and importers of manufactured goods. The application of the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_comparative_advantage" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of comparative advantage">theory of comparative advantage</a> would lead them to specialise in the production of raw materials and extractive products and prevent them from acquiring an industrial base. Protection of <a href="/wiki/Infant_industries" class="mw-redirect" title="Infant industries">infant industries</a> (e.g., through tariffs on imported products) may be needed for some developing countries to industrialise and escape their dependence on the production of raw materials.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang_20-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Economist <a href="/wiki/Ha-Joon_Chang" title="Ha-Joon Chang">Ha-Joon Chang</a> argued in 2001 that most of today's developed countries have developed through policies that are the opposite of <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a> such as interventionist trade and industrial policies to promote and protect infant industries. In his view, Britain and the United States have not reached the top of the global economic hierarchy by adopting free trade. As for the East Asian countries, he argues that the longest periods of rapid growth in these countries do not coincide with extended phases of free trade, but rather with phases of industrial protection and promotion. He believes infant industry protection policy has generated much better growth performance in the developing world than free trade policies since the 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang_20-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view#Due_and_undue_weight" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view"><span title="The material near this tag may be giving undue weight to a viewpoint or idea. (November 2024)">undue weight?</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Tariff#undue" title="Talk:Tariff">discuss</a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the second half of the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Kaldor" title="Nicholas Kaldor">Nicholas Kaldor</a> takes up similar arguments to allow the conversion of ageing industries.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this case, the aim was to save an activity threatened with extinction by external competition and to safeguard jobs. Protectionism must enable ageing companies to regain their competitiveness in the medium term and, for activities that are due to disappear, it allows the conversion of these activities and jobs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Free_trade_and_poverty">Free trade and poverty</h3></div> <p>In an <a href="/wiki/Op-ed" title="Op-ed">op-ed</a> article for <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i> (UK), <a href="/wiki/Ha-Joon_Chang" title="Ha-Joon Chang">Ha-Joon Chang</a> argues that economic downturns in Africa are the result of free trade policies,<sup id="cite_ref-theguardian.com_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theguardian.com-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-newtimes.co.rw_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newtimes.co.rw-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and elsewhere attributes successes in some African countries such as <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a> to their abandonment of free trade and adoption of a "developmental state model".<sup id="cite_ref-newtimes.co.rw_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newtimes.co.rw-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some commentators argue that poor countries that have succeeded in achieving strong and <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable growth">sustainable growth</a> are those that have become <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilists</a>, not free traders: China, South Korea, Japan, Taiwan.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 'dumping' policies of some countries have also largely affected developing countries. Studies on the effects of free trade show that the gains induced by WTO rules for developing countries are very small.<sup id="cite_ref-Gains_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gains-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has reduced the gain for these countries from an estimated <span style="white-space: nowrap">$539 billion</span> in the 2003 LINKAGE model<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag needs further explanation. (November 2024)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> to <span style="white-space: nowrap">$22 billion</span> in the 2005 GTAP model. The 2005 LINKAGE version also reduced gains to 90 billion.<sup id="cite_ref-Gains_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gains-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As for the "<a href="/wiki/Doha_Round" class="mw-redirect" title="Doha Round">Doha Round</a>", it would have brought in only <span style="white-space: nowrap">$4 billion</span> to developing countries (including China...) according to the GTAP model.<sup id="cite_ref-Gains_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gains-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it has been argued that the models used are actually designed to maximise the positive effects of trade liberalisation, that they are characterised by the absence of taking into account the loss of income caused by the end of tariff barriers.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Keynesian_analysis_in_favor_of_protectionism">Keynesian analysis in favor of protectionism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Undue_weight plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-undue-weight" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may <b>lend <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view#Due_and_undue_weight" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">undue weight</a> to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tariff&action=edit">help improve it</a> by rewriting it in a <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view#Balance" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">balanced fashion</a></b> that contextualizes different points of view.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Primary_sources plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Primary_sources" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>relies excessively on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">references</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">primary sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please improve this section by adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">secondary or tertiary sources</a>. <br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Tariff%22">"Tariff"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Tariff%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Tariff%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Tariff%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Tariff%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Tariff%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>According to Keynesian theory, <a href="/wiki/Trade_deficits" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade deficits">trade deficits</a> are harmful. Countries that import more than they export weaken their economies. When trade deficits rise, <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">unemployment</a> rises and GDP growth slows. And countries with trade surpluses exert a “negative externality” on their trading partners. They enrich themselves at the expense of others, and destroy the production of their trading partners. John Maynard Keynes believed that products from surplus countries should be taxed to avoid trade imbalances.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="Opinion pieces are insufficiently reliable (WP:NOTRS). (November 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-J.M._Keynes_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J.M._Keynes-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Keynes points out that the reduction in wages advocated by <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">neoclassical</a> or orthodox economists, leads to a reduction in domestic demand, fewer outlets and therefore weak economic growth. He indicates that the introduction of customs duties on imports would help eliminate the trade deficit and improve <a href="/wiki/Production" class="mw-disambig" title="Production">production</a> and employment.<sup id="cite_ref-J.M._Keynes_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J.M._Keynes-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, for Keynes, an economic recovery policy is only fully effective if the trade deficit is eliminated through protectionist policies. Moreover, for Keynes, currency depreciation was no longer sufficient, and protectionist measures were becoming necessary to avoid trade deficits. To avoid the return of crises caused by a self-regulating economic system, it seemed essential to him to regulate trade and stop free trade (deregulation of foreign trade).<sup id="cite_ref-J.M._Keynes_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J.M._Keynes-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The theory of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_advantage" title="Comparative advantage">comparative advantage</a> (the foundation of free trade) states that trade deficits are irrelevant because <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a> is mutually beneficial. In the post-crisis situation of 1929, Keynes judged the assumptions of the theory of comparative advantage to be unrealistic. He criticized, for example, the neoclassical assumption of wage adjustment, as well as the static dimension of the theory of comparative advantage, which in his view, by definitively fixing comparative advantages, led in practice to a waste of national resources. Generally speaking, for Keynes, the assumptions of full employment and automatic return to equilibrium discredited the theory.<sup id="cite_ref-J.M._Keynes_61-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J.M._Keynes-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the article “ National Self-Sufficiency”, he criticizes the argument of economic specialization, which is the basis of <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a>. He proposes the search for a certain degree of self-sufficiency. Instead of the specialization of economies advocated by Ricardian theory of comparative advantage, he prefers the maintenance of a diversity of activities for each nation.<sup id="cite_ref-“National_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“National-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The date of the event predicted near this tag has passed. (November 2024)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-“De_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“De-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (November 2024)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> He refutes the principle that trade brings peace between nations, defends the idea of producing on national soil whenever possible and reasonable, and expresses his sympathy for <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protectionism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-“National_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“National-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The date of the event predicted near this tag has passed. (November 2024)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (November 2024)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arguments_against_tariffs">Arguments against tariffs</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neoclassical_analysis_in_favor_of_free_trade">Neoclassical analysis in favor of free trade</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Effect_of_Import_Tariff_-_v1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Effect_of_Import_Tariff_-_v1.png/280px-Effect_of_Import_Tariff_-_v1.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Effect_of_Import_Tariff_-_v1.png/420px-Effect_of_Import_Tariff_-_v1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Effect_of_Import_Tariff_-_v1.png/560px-Effect_of_Import_Tariff_-_v1.png 2x" data-file-width="1101" data-file-height="733" /></a><figcaption>Effects of import tariff, which hurts domestic consumers more than domestic producers are helped. Higher prices and lower quantities reduce <a href="/wiki/Consumer_surplus" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer surplus">consumer surplus</a> by areas A+B+C+D, while expanding <a href="/wiki/Producer_surplus" class="mw-redirect" title="Producer surplus">producer surplus</a> by A and government revenue by C. Areas B and D are <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_loss" title="Deadweight loss">dead-weight losses</a>, surplus lost by consumers and overall.<sup id="cite_ref-Krugman_and_Wells2005_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krugman_and_Wells2005-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a more detailed analysis of this diagram, see <a href="/wiki/Free_trade#Economics" title="Free trade">Free trade#Economics</a>. </figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical economic</a> theorists tend to view tariffs as distortions to the <a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">free market</a>. Typical analyses find that tariffs tend to benefit domestic producers and government at the expense of consumers, and that the net welfare effects of a tariff on the importing country are negative due to domestic firms not producing more efficiently since there is a lack of external competition.<sup id="cite_ref-Radcliffe_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radcliffe-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, domestic consumers are affected since the price is higher due to high costs caused due to inefficient production<sup id="cite_ref-Radcliffe_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radcliffe-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or if firms aren't able to source cheaper material externally thus reducing the affordability of the products. Normative judgments often follow from these findings, namely that it may be disadvantageous for a country to artificially shield an industry from world markets and that it might be better to allow a collapse to take place. Opposition to all tariff aims to reduce tariffs and to avoid countries discriminating between differing countries when applying tariffs. The diagrams at right show the costs and benefits of imposing a tariff on a good in the domestic economy.<sup id="cite_ref-Krugman_and_Wells2005_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krugman_and_Wells2005-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Imposing an import tariff has the following effects, shown in the first diagram in a hypothetical domestic market for televisions: </p> <ul><li>Price rises from world price Pw to higher tariff price Pt.</li> <li>Quantity demanded by domestic consumers falls from C1 to C2, a movement along the demand curve due to higher price.</li> <li>Domestic suppliers are willing to supply Q2 rather than Q1, a movement along the supply curve due to the higher price, so the quantity imported falls from C1−Q1 to C2−Q2.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_surplus" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer surplus">Consumer surplus</a> (the area under the demand curve but above price) shrinks by areas A+B+C+D, as domestic consumers face higher prices and consume lower quantities.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Producer_surplus" class="mw-redirect" title="Producer surplus">Producer surplus</a> (the area above the supply curve but below price) increases by area A, as domestic producers shielded from international competition can sell more of their product at a higher price.</li> <li>Government tax revenue is the import quantity (C2 − Q2) times the tariff price (Pw − Pt), shown as area C.</li> <li>Areas B and D are <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_loss" title="Deadweight loss">deadweight losses</a>, surplus formerly captured by consumers that now is lost to all parties.</li></ul> <p>The overall change in welfare = Change in Consumer Surplus + Change in Producer Surplus + Change in Government Revenue = (−A−B−C−D) + A + C = −B−D. The final state after imposition of the tariff is indicated in the second diagram, with overall welfare reduced by the areas labeled "societal losses", which correspond to areas B and D in the first diagram. The losses to domestic consumers are greater than the combined benefits to domestic producers and government.<sup id="cite_ref-Krugman_and_Wells2005_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krugman_and_Wells2005-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>That tariffs overall reduce welfare is not a controversial topic among economists. For example, the University of Chicago surveyed about 40 leading economists in March 2018 asking whether "Imposing new U.S. tariffs on steel and aluminum will improve Americans' welfare." About two-thirds strongly disagreed with the statement, while one third disagreed. None agreed or strongly agreed. Several commented that such tariffs would help a few Americans at the expense of many.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is consistent with the explanation provided above, which is that losses to domestic consumers outweigh gains to domestic producers and government, by the amount of deadweight losses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrugmanWells2005_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrugmanWells2005-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tariffs are more inefficient than consumption taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2021 study found that across 151 countries over the period 1963–2014, "tariff increases are associated with persistent, economically and statistically significant declines in domestic output and productivity, as well as higher unemployment and inequality, real exchange rate appreciation, and insignificant changes to the trade balance."<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tariffs do not determine the size of trade deficits: trade balances are driven by consumption. Rather, it is that a strong economy creates rich consumers who in turn create the demand for imports.<sup id="cite_ref-Economist_041123_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Economist_041123-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Industries protected by tariffs expand their domestic market share but an additional effect is that their need to be efficient and cost-effective is reduced. This cost is imposed on (domestic) purchasers of the products of those industries,<sup id="cite_ref-Economist_041123_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Economist_041123-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a cost that is eventually passed on to the end consumer. Finally, other countries must be expected to retaliate by imposing countervailing tariffs, a <a href="/wiki/Lose-lose_situation" class="mw-redirect" title="Lose-lose situation">lose-lose situation</a> that would lead to increased world-wide inflation.<sup id="cite_ref-Economist_041123_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Economist_041123-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optimal_tariff">Optimal tariff</h3></div> <p>For <a href="/wiki/Economic_efficiency" title="Economic efficiency">economic efficiency</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a></i> is often the best policy, however levying a tariff is sometimes <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_the_second_best" title="Theory of the second best"><i>second best</i></a>. </p><p>A tariff is called an <b>optimal tariff</b> if it is set to maximise the welfare of the country imposing the tariff.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Agraa198426_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Agraa198426-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a tariff derived by the <a href="/wiki/Tangent" title="Tangent">intersection</a> between the <i>trade <a href="/wiki/Indifference_curve" title="Indifference curve">indifference curve</a></i> of that country and the <b><a href="/wiki/Offer_curve" title="Offer curve">offer curve</a></b> of another country. In this case, the welfare of the other country grows worse simultaneously, thus the policy is a kind of <i><a href="/wiki/Beggar_thy_neighbor" class="mw-redirect" title="Beggar thy neighbor">beggar thy neighbor</a> policy</i>. If the offer curve of the other country is a <a href="/wiki/Line_(geometry)" title="Line (geometry)">line</a> through the origin point, the original country is in the <i>condition of a small country</i>, so any tariff worsens the welfare of the original country.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Agraa19848–35_(in_8–45_by_the_Japanese_ed.)Chap.2_保護：全般的な背景_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Agraa19848–35_(in_8–45_by_the_Japanese_ed.)Chap.2_保護：全般的な背景-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is possible to levy a tariff as a political <a href="/wiki/Public_choice" title="Public choice">policy choice</a>, and to consider a theoretical optimum tariff rate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Agraa198476_(by_the_Japanese_ed.)Chap._5_｢雇用&minus;関税｣命題の政治経済学的評価_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Agraa198476_(by_the_Japanese_ed.)Chap._5_｢雇用&minus;関税｣命題の政治経済学的評価-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, imposing an optimal tariff will often lead to the foreign country increasing their tariffs as well, leading to a loss of welfare in both countries. When countries impose tariffs on each other, they will reach a position off the <a href="/wiki/Contract_curve" title="Contract curve">contract curve</a>, meaning that both countries' welfare could be increased by reducing tariffs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Agraa198493_(in_83–94_by_the_Japanese_ed.)Chap._6_最適関税、報復および国際協力_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Agraa198493_(in_83–94_by_the_Japanese_ed.)Chap._6_最適関税、報復および国際協力-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_tariff_practices">Modern tariff practices</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3></div> <p>The Russian Federation adopted more protectionist trade measures in 2013 than any other country, making it the world leader in protectionism. It alone introduced 20% of protectionist measures worldwide and one-third of measures in the G20 countries. Russia's protectionist policies include tariff measures, import restrictions, sanitary measures, and direct subsidies to local companies. For example, the government supported several economic sectors such as agriculture, space, automotive, electronics, chemistry, and energy.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3></div> <p>From 2017, as part of the promotion of its "<a href="/wiki/Make_in_India" title="Make in India">Make in India</a>" programme<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to stimulate and protect domestic manufacturing industry and to combat current account deficits, India has introduced tariffs on several electronic products and "non-essential items". This concerns items imported from countries such as China and South Korea. For example, India's national solar energy programme favours domestic producers by requiring the use of Indian-made solar cells.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Armenia">Armenia</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, a country located in <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">Western Asia</a>, established its custom service in 1992 after the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a>. When Armenia became a member of the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Union" title="Eurasian Economic Union">EAEU</a>, it was given access to the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Customs_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurasian Customs Union">Eurasian Customs Union</a> in 2015; this resulted in mostly tariff-free trade with other members and an increased number of import tariffs from outside of the customs union. Armenia does not currently have export taxes. In addition, it does not declare temporary imports duties and credit on government imports or pursuant to other international assistance imports.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon joining Eurasian Economic Union in 2015, led by Russians, <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> applied tariffs on its imports at a rate 0–10 percent. This rate has increased over the years, since in 2009 it was around three percent. Moreover, the tariffs increased significantly on agricultural products rather than on non-agricultural products.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Armenia has committed to ultimately adopting the EAEU's uniform tariff schedule as part of its EAEU admission. Until 2022, Armenia was authorised to apply non-EAEU tariff rates, according to Decision No. 113. Some beef, pork, poultry, and dairy products; seed potatoes and peas; olives; fresh and dried fruits; some tea items; cereals, especially wheat and rice; starches, vegetable oils, margarine; some prepared food items, such as infant food; pet food; tobacco; glycerol; and gelatin are included in the list.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Membership in the EAEU is forcing Armenia to apply stricter standardisation, sanitary, and phytosanitary requirements in line with EAEU – and, by extension, Russian – standards, regulations, and practices. Armenia has had to surrender control over many aspects of its foreign trade regime in the context of EAEU membership. Tariffs have also increased, granting protection to several domestic industries. Armenia is increasingly beholden to comply with EAEU standards and regulations as post-accession transition periods have, or will soon, end. All Armenian goods circulating in the territory of the EAEU must meet EAEU requirements following the end of relevant transition periods.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Armenia became a WTO member in 2003, which resulted in the Most Favored Country (MFC) benefits from the organisation. Currently, the tariffs of 2.7% implemented in Armenia are the lowest in the entire framework. The country is also a member of the World Customs Organization (WCO), resulting in a harmonised system for tariff classification.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Switzerland">Switzerland</h3></div> <p>In 2024, Switzerland abolished tariffs on industrial products imported into the country.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Swiss government estimates the move will have economic benefits of 860 million CHF per year.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_analysis">Political analysis</h2></div> <p>The tariff has been used as a political tool to establish an independent nation; for example, the United States <a href="/wiki/Tariff_Act_of_1789" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariff Act of 1789">Tariff Act of 1789</a>, signed specifically on July 4, was called the "Second Declaration of Independence" by newspapers because it was intended to be the economic means to achieve the political goal of a sovereign and independent United States.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The political impact of tariffs is judged depending on the political perspective; for example, the <a href="/wiki/2002_United_States_steel_tariff" title="2002 United States steel tariff">2002 United States steel tariff</a> imposed a 30% tariff on a variety of imported steel products for a period of three years and American steel producers supported the tariff.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tariffs can emerge as a political issue prior to an <a href="/wiki/Election" title="Election">election</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Nullification_Crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nullification Crisis">Nullification Crisis</a> of 1832 arose from the passage of a new tariff by the United States Congress, a few months before that year's <a href="/wiki/1832_United_States_elections" title="1832 United States elections">federal elections</a>; the state of South Carolina was outraged by the new tariff, and civil war nearly resulted.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the leadup to the <a href="/wiki/2007_Australian_federal_election" title="2007 Australian federal election">2007 Australian Federal election</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Labor_Party" title="Australian Labor Party">Australian Labor Party</a> announced it would undertake a review of Australian car tariffs if elected.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Australia" title="Liberal Party of Australia">Liberal Party</a> made a similar commitment, while independent candidate <a href="/wiki/Nick_Xenophon" title="Nick Xenophon">Nick Xenophon</a> announced his intention to introduce tariff-based legislation as "a matter of urgency".<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unpopular tariffs are known to have ignited social unrest, for example the 1905 <a href="/wiki/Meat_riots" title="Meat riots">meat riots</a> in Chile that developed in protest against tariffs applied to the <a href="/wiki/Argentine_beef" title="Argentine beef">cattle imports from Argentina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mem_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mem-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-benjamin_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-benjamin-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_information_on_tariffs">Additional information on tariffs</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Calculation_of_customs_duty">Calculation of customs duty</h3></div> <p>Customs duty is calculated on the determination of the 'assess-able value' in case of those items for which the duty is levied <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Ad_valorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Ad valorem">ad valorem</a></i></span>. This is often the <a href="/wiki/Customs_valuation#Transaction_value" title="Customs valuation">transaction value</a> unless a customs officer determines assess-able value in accordance with the <a href="/wiki/Harmonized_System" title="Harmonized System">Harmonized System</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Harmonized_System_of_Nomenclature">Harmonized System of Nomenclature</h3></div> <p>For the purpose of assessment of customs duty, products are given an identification code that has come to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Harmonized_System" title="Harmonized System">Harmonized System</a> code. This code was developed by the <a href="/wiki/World_Customs_Organization" title="World Customs Organization">World Customs Organization</a> based in Brussels. A 'Harmonized System' code may be from four to ten digits. For example, 17.03 is the HS code for <i>molasses from the extraction or refining of sugar</i>. However, within 17.03, the number 17.03.90 stands for "Molasses (Excluding Cane Molasses)".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Customs_authority">Customs authority</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Customs" title="Customs">national customs authority</a> in each country is responsible for collecting taxes on the import into or export of goods out of the country.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evasion">Evasion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tax_evasion" title="Tax evasion">Tax evasion</a></div> <p>Evasion of customs duties takes place mainly in two ways. In one, the trader under-declares the value so that the assessable value is lower than actual. In a similar vein, a trader can evade customs duty by understatement of quantity or volume of the product of trade. A trader may also evade duty by misrepresenting traded goods, categorizing goods as items which attract lower customs duties. The evasion of customs duty may take place with or without the collaboration of customs officials.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Duty-free_goods">Duty-free goods</h3></div> <p>Many countries allow a traveller to bring goods into the country <a href="/wiki/Duty-free" class="mw-redirect" title="Duty-free">duty-free</a>. These goods may be bought at <a href="/wiki/Port" title="Port">ports</a> and <a href="/wiki/Airport" title="Airport">airports</a> or sometimes within one country without attracting the usual government taxes and then brought into another country duty-free. Some countries specify 'duty-free allowances' which limit the number or value of duty-free items that one person can bring into the country. These restrictions often apply to <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Distilled_beverage" class="mw-redirect" title="Distilled beverage">spirits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmetics" title="Cosmetics">cosmetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gifts" class="mw-redirect" title="Gifts">gifts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Souvenir" title="Souvenir">souvenirs</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deferment_of_tariffs_and_duties">Deferment of tariffs and duties</h3></div> <p>Products may sometimes be imported into a <a href="/wiki/Free_economic_zone" title="Free economic zone">free economic zone</a> (or 'free port'), processed there, then re-exported without being subject to tariffs or duties. According to the 1999 Revised Kyoto Convention, a "'free zone' means a part of the territory of a contracting party where any goods introduced are generally regarded, insofar as import duties and taxes are concerned, as being outside the customs territory".<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sanctions" title="Economic sanctions">Economic sanctions</a> – Financial penalties applied by nations</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">Protectionism</a> – Economic policy of regulating trade between states through government regulations</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_barrier" title="Trade barrier">Trade barrier</a> – Restrictions limiting international trade</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-tariff_barriers_to_trade" title="Non-tariff barriers to trade">Non-tariff barriers to trade</a> – Other types of trade barriers</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_tariff_rate" title="List of countries by tariff rate">List of countries by tariff rate</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types">Types</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ad_valorem_tax" title="Ad valorem tax">Ad valorem tax</a> – Tax based on value of transaction</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bound_tariff_rate" title="Bound tariff rate">Bound tariff rate</a> – Most-favored-nation reference rate</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-tariff" title="Eco-tariff">Eco-tariff</a> – Tariff to equalise externality costs</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Import_quota" title="Import quota">Import quota</a> – Trade barrier</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Import_surtaxes" title="Import surtaxes">Import surtaxes</a> – Taxes on top of the tax of imported goods</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tariffs" title="List of tariffs">List of tariffs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff-rate_quota" title="Tariff-rate quota">Tariff-rate quota</a> – Combined trade barrier</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_tariff" title="Telecommunications tariff">Telecommunications tariff</a> – Controlled pricing</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_dynamics">Trade dynamics</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effective_rate_of_protection" title="Effective rate of protection">Effective rate of protection</a> – Total effect of entire tariff structure</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariffication" title="Tariffication">Tariffication</a> – Proposal on agricultural import controls</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_liberalisation">Trade liberalisation</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Agreement_on_Tariffs_and_Trade" title="General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade">General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade</a> – 1947–95 multilateral trade agreement; predecessor to WTO (GATT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-trade_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-trade area">Free-trade area</a> – Regional trade agreement<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Formula" title="Swiss Formula">Swiss Formula</a> – Method to cut and harmonize tariff rates</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_International_Trade_Commission" title="United States International Trade Commission">United States International Trade Commission</a> – Government agency</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Poole_p2-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Poole_p2_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPoole2004" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Poole_(economist)" title="William Poole (economist)">Poole, William</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6958854.pdf">"Free Trade: Why Are Economists and Noneconomists So Far Apart"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review</i>. <b>86</b> (5): 2. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.20955%2Fr.86.1-6">10.20955/r.86.1-6</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171207055442/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6958854.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2017-12-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-14</span></span>. <q>One set of reservations concerns distributional effects of trade. Workers are not seen as benefiting from trade. Strong evidence exists indicating a perception that the benefits of trade flow to businesses and the wealthy, rather than to workers, and to those abroad rather than to those in the United States.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Federal+Reserve+Bank+of+St.+Louis+Review&rft.atitle=Free+Trade%3A+Why+Are+Economists+and+Noneconomists+So+Far+Apart&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=2&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.20955%2Fr.86.1-6&rft.aulast=Poole&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F6958854.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenfeld2016" class="citation news cs1">Rosenfeld, Everett (11 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnbc.com/2016/03/11/heres-why-everyone-is-arguing-about-free-trade.html">"Here's why everyone is arguing about free trade"</a>. CNBC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160312033958/https://www.cnbc.com/2016/03/11/heres-why-everyone-is-arguing-about-free-trade.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-10-12</span></span> – via PBS News.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Associated+Press&rft.atitle=Trump+favors+huge+new+tariffs.+How+do+they+work%3F&rft.date=2024-09-27&rft.aulast=Wiseman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fnewshour%2Feconomy%2Ftrump-favors-huge-new-tariffs-how-do-they-work&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.axios.com/2024/09/28/how-tariffs-work-trump-china">"Trump's tariffs: How they work, and who would pay"</a>. <i>Axios</i>. 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Axios&rft.atitle=Trump%27s+tariffs%3A+How+they+work%2C+and+who+would+pay&rft.date=2024&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.axios.com%2F2024%2F09%2F28%2Fhow-tariffs-work-trump-china&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrugman1993" class="citation journal cs1">Krugman, Paul R. 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Gregory Mankiw">N. Gregory Mankiw</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/26/upshot/economists-actually-agree-on-this-point-the-wisdom-of-free-trade.html">Economists Actually Agree on This: The Wisdom of Free Trade</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190716060449/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/26/upshot/economists-actually-agree-on-this-point-the-wisdom-of-free-trade.html">Archived</a> 2019-07-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>The New York Times</i> (April 24, 2015): "Economists are famous for disagreeing with one another.... But economists reach near unanimity on some topics, including international trade."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Poole_p1-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Poole_p1_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoole2004" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Poole_(economist)" title="William Poole (economist)">Poole, William</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6958854.pdf">"Free Trade: Why Are Economists and Noneconomists So Far Apart"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review</i>. <b>86</b> (5): 1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.20955%2Fr.86.1-6">10.20955/r.86.1-6</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171207055442/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6958854.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2017-12-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-14</span></span>. <q>most observers agree that '[t]he consensus among mainstream economists on the desirability of free trade remains almost universal.'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Federal+Reserve+Bank+of+St.+Louis+Review&rft.atitle=Free+Trade%3A+Why+Are+Economists+and+Noneconomists+So+Far+Apart&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.20955%2Fr.86.1-6&rft.aulast=Poole&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F6958854.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mercatus.org/publications/trade-and-immigration/benefits-free-trade-addressing-key-myths">"The Benefits of Free Trade: Addressing Key Myths | Mercatus Center"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Benefits+of+Free+Trade%3A+Addressing+Key+Myths+%26%23124%3B+Mercatus+Center&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mercatus.org%2Fpublications%2Ftrade-and-immigration%2Fbenefits-free-trade-addressing-key-myths&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaurin2010" class="citation journal cs1">Maurin, Max (November 7, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/ae/2010-v86-n1-ae3990/045556ar/">"J.M. Keynes, le libre-échange et le protectionnisme"</a>. <i>L'Actualité économique</i>. <b>86</b> (1): 109–129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7202%2F045556ar">10.7202/045556ar</a> – via www.erudit.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=L%27Actualit%C3%A9+%C3%A9conomique&rft.atitle=J.M.+Keynes%2C+le+libre-%C3%A9change+et+le+protectionnisme&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=109-129&rft.date=2010-11-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7202%2F045556ar&rft.aulast=Maurin&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.erudit.org%2Ffr%2Frevues%2Fae%2F2010-v86-n1-ae3990%2F045556ar%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191002224223/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/interwar/keynes.htm">https://web.archive.org/web/20191002224223/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/interwar/keynes.htm</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=tariff">The Online Etymology Dictionary: tariff.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121004133019/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=tariff">Archived</a> 2012-10-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> The 2nd edition of the Oxford English Dictionary gives the same etymology, with a reference dating to 1591.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteingass1884" class="citation book cs1">Steingass, Francis Joseph (1884). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/cu31924026873194"><i>The student's Arabic-English dictionary</i></a>. Cornell University Library. London : W.H. Allen. p. 178.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+student%27s+Arabic-English+dictionary.&rft.pages=178&rft.pub=London+%3A+W.H.+Allen&rft.date=1884&rft.aulast=Steingass&rft.aufirst=Francis+Joseph&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924026873194&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLokotsch1927" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lokotsch, Karl (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/etymologische00lokoguat"><i>Etymologisches Wörterbuch der Europäischen (Germanischen, Romanischen und Slavischen) Wörter Orientalischen Ursprungs</i></a> (in German). Universidad Francisco Marroquín Biblioteca Ludwig von Mises. Carl Winter's Universitätsbuchhandlung C. F. Wintersche Buchdruckerei. p. 160.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etymologisches+W%C3%B6rterbuch+der+Europ%C3%A4ischen+%28Germanischen%2C+Romanischen+und+Slavischen%29+W%C3%B6rter+Orientalischen+Ursprungs&rft.pages=160&rft.pub=Carl+Winter%27s+Universit%C3%A4tsbuchhandlung+C.+F.+Wintersche+Buchdruckerei&rft.date=1927&rft.aulast=Lokotsch&rft.aufirst=Karl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fetymologische00lokoguat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etimo.it/?term=tariffa&find=Cerca">"Etimologia : tariffa;"</a>. <i>etimo.it</i> (in Italian). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210910235445/http://www.etimo.it/?term=tariffa&find=Cerca">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-09-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-09-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=etimo.it&rft.atitle=Etimologia+%3A+tariffa%3B&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etimo.it%2F%3Fterm%3Dtariffa%26find%3DCerca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/vocabolario/tariffa">"tariffa in Vocabolario - Treccani"</a>. <i>treccani.it</i> (in Italian). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210910235443/https://www.treccani.it/vocabolario/tariffa">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-09-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-09-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=treccani.it&rft.atitle=tariffa+in+Vocabolario+-+Treccani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fvocabolario%2Ftariffa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKluge1989" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kluge, Friedrich (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/20959587"><i>Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache</i></a> (in German). Max Bürgisser, Bernd Gregor, Elmar Seebold (22. Aufl. ed.). Berlin: De Gruyter. p. 721. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-006800-1" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-006800-1"><bdi>3-11-006800-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/20959587">20959587</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220507213326/http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/20959587">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-78799-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-78799-7"><bdi>978-1-136-78799-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Ancient+Greece&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-78799-7&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_TzjAQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dpiraeus%2Bancient%2Bgreece%26pg%3DPA573&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichell2014" class="citation book cs1">Michell, H. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=njIDBAAAQBAJ&q=piraeus"><i>The Economics of Ancient Greece</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 253. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-41911-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-41911-7"><bdi>978-1-107-41911-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economics+of+Ancient+Greece&rft.pages=253&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-107-41911-7&rft.aulast=Michell&rft.aufirst=H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnjIDBAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dpiraeus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chang-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chang_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang_20-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang_20-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang_20-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang_20-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang_20-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang_20-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang_20-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHa-Joon_Chang_(Faculty_of_Economics_and_Politics,_University_of_Cambridge)2001" class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ha-Joon_Chang" title="Ha-Joon Chang">Ha-Joon Chang</a> (Faculty of Economics and Politics, University of Cambridge) (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308192131/https://www.cepal.org/prensa/noticias/comunicados/8/7598/chang.pdf"><i>Infant Industry Promotion in Historical Perspective –  A Rope to Hang Oneself or a Ladder to Climb With?</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Development Theory at the Threshold of the Twenty-first Century. Santiago, Chile: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Economic_Commission_for_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean">United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cepal.org/prensa/noticias/comunicados/8/7598/chang.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2021-03-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Remini, "Martin Van Buren and the Tariff of Abominations." <i>American Historical Review</i> 63.4 (1958): 903–917.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chang1-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chang1_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang1_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang1_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang1_27-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChangGershman2003" class="citation web cs1">Chang, Ha-Joon; Gershman, John (2003-12-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ips-dc.org/kicking_away_the_ladder_the_real_history_of_free_trade/">"Kicking Away the Ladder: The 'Real' History of Free Trade"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kicking+Away+the+Ladder%3A+The+%27Real%27+History+of+Free+Trade&rft.pub=Institute+for+Policy+Studies&rft.date=2003-12-30&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Ha-Joon&rft.au=Gershman%2C+John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ips-dc.org%2Fkicking_away_the_ladder_the_real_history_of_free_trade%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chang2b-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chang2b_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308192131/https://www.cepal.org/prensa/noticias/comunicados/8/7598/chang.pdf"><i>Infant Industry Promotion in Historical Perspective – A Rope to Hang Oneself or a Ladder to Climb With?</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cepal.org/prensa/noticias/comunicados/8/7598/chang.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 8 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Infant+Industry+Promotion+in+Historical+Perspective+%E2%80%93+A+Rope+to+Hang+Oneself+or+a+Ladder+to+Climb+With%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cepal.org%2Fprensa%2Fnoticias%2Fcomunicados%2F8%2F7598%2Fchang.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorfman_&_Tugwell1960" class="citation book cs1">Dorfman & Tugwell (1960). <i>Early American Policy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+American+Policy&rft.date=1960&rft.au=Dorfman+%26+Tugwell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chang2-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chang2_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang2_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang2_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang2_30-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang2_30-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang2_30-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chang2_30-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHa-Joon_Chang" class="citation book cs1">Ha-Joon Chang. <i>Kicking Away the Ladder: Development Strategy in Historical Perspective</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kicking+Away+the+Ladder%3A+Development+Strategy+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.au=Ha-Joon+Chang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_C._Cochran,_William_Miller1942" class="citation book cs1">Thomas C. Cochran, William Miller (1942). <i>The Age of Enterprise: A Social History of Industrial America</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Enterprise%3A+A+Social+History+of+Industrial+America&rft.date=1942&rft.au=Thomas+C.+Cochran%2C+William+Miller&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuthin1944" class="citation journal cs1">Luthin, Reinhard H. (1944). "Abraham Lincoln and the Tariff". <i>The American Historical Review</i>. <b>49</b> (4): 609–629. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1850218">10.2307/1850218</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1850218">1850218</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Abraham+Lincoln+and+the+Tariff&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=609-629&rft.date=1944&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1850218&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1850218%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Luthin&rft.aufirst=Reinhard+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William K. Bolt, <i>Tariff Wars and the Politics of Jacksonian America</i> (2017) covers 1816 to 1861.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taussig1931-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Taussig1931_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">F.W. Taussig,. <i>The Tariff History of the United States</i>. 8th ed. (1931); <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MyqgiptJzfwC">5th ed. 1910 is online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230107190506/https://books.google.com/books?id=MyqgiptJzfwC">Archived</a> 2023-01-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert W. Merry, <i>President McKinley: Architect of the American Century</i> (2017) pp. 70–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEckes1995" class="citation book cs1">Eckes, Alfred E. (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/openingamericasm00alfr"><i>Opening America's Market: U.S. Foreign Trade Policy Since 1776</i></a></span>. Univ of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0807848115" title="Special:BookSources/0807848115"><bdi>0807848115</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Opening+America%27s+Market%3A+U.S.+Foreign+Trade+Policy+Since+1776&rft.pub=Univ+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0807848115&rft.aulast=Eckes&rft.aufirst=Alfred+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fopeningamericasm00alfr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29629">"Republican Party Platform of 1896 | the American Presidency Project"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171114172851/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29629">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-11-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Republican+Party+Platform+of+1896+%26%23124%3B+the+American+Presidency+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fws%2Findex.php%3Fpid%3D29629&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21731616-douglas-irwin-agrees-trade-policy-important-all-manner-powers-are-wrongly">"A historian on the myths of American trade"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171126044721/https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21731616-douglas-irwin-agrees-trade-policy-important-all-manner-powers-are-wrongly">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-11-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-11-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=A+historian+on+the+myths+of+American+trade&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Fbooks-and-arts%2F21731616-douglas-irwin-agrees-trade-policy-important-all-manner-powers-are-wrongly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrugman2016" class="citation web cs1">Krugman, Paul (2016-03-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.nytimes.com/krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/03/04/the-mitt-hawley-fallacy/">"The Mitt-Hawley Fallacy"</a>. <i>Paul Krugman Blog</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-11-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Paul+Krugman+Blog&rft.atitle=The+Mitt-Hawley+Fallacy&rft.date=2016-03-04&rft.aulast=Krugman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.nytimes.com%2Fkrugman.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F03%2F04%2Fthe-mitt-hawley-fallacy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBairoch1993" class="citation book cs1">Bairoch (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/economicsworldhi00bair"><i>Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes</i></a></span>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226034621" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226034621"><bdi>978-0226034621</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economics+and+World+History%3A+Myths+and+Paradoxes&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0226034621&rft.au=Bairoch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feconomicsworldhi00bair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrwin2011" class="citation book cs1">Irwin, Douglas A. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oz_BDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA116"><i>Peddling Protectionism: Smoot-Hawley and the Great Depression</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 116. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400888429" title="Special:BookSources/9781400888429"><bdi>9781400888429</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peddling+Protectionism%3A+Smoot-Hawley+and+the+Great+Depression&rft.pages=116&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781400888429&rft.aulast=Irwin&rft.aufirst=Douglas+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Doz_BDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTemin1989" class="citation book cs1">Temin, P. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=squLnSDrJ4EC&q=peter+temin+smoot+hawley+Lessons+from+the+Great+Depression&pg=PA46"><i>Lessons from the Great Depression</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262261197" title="Special:BookSources/9780262261197"><bdi>9780262261197</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lessons+from+the+Great+Depression&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780262261197&rft.aulast=Temin&rft.aufirst=P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsquLnSDrJ4EC%26q%3Dpeter%2Btemin%2Bsmoot%2Bhawley%2BLessons%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2BGreat%2BDepression%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Bernstein2008" class="citation book cs1">William Bernstein (2008). <i>A Splendid Exchange: How trade shaped the world</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Splendid+Exchange%3A+How+trade+shaped+the+world&rft.date=2008&rft.au=William+Bernstein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-diplo11-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-diplo11_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-diplo11_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2009/03/SAPIR/16883">"Ignorants ou faussaires ?"</a>. March 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221101181014/https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2009/03/SAPIR/16883">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-11-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-11-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ignorants+ou+faussaires+%3F&rft.date=2009-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.monde-diplomatique.fr%2F2009%2F03%2FSAPIR%2F16883&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(in English) Antoni Estevadeordal, Brian Frantz and Alan M. Taylor, "The rise and fall of world trade, 1970–1939", National Bureau of Economic Research, <i>Working Paper</i>, <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific volume in which the source appears. (November 2022)">volume & issue needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Cambridge, November 2002</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:12_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuzik2024" class="citation web cs1">Guzik, Erik (2024-10-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/tariffs-are-back-in-the-spotlight-but-skepticism-of-free-trade-has-deep-roots-in-american-history-241311">"Tariffs are back in the spotlight, but skepticism of free trade has deep roots in American history"</a>. <i>The Conversation</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(2024-10-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://time.com/7095746/trump-tariffs-politics-rhetoric/">"Tariffs Don't Have to Make Economic Sense to Appeal to Trump Voters"</a>. <i>TIME</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFurceriHannanOstryRose2021" class="citation journal cs1">Furceri, Davide; Hannan, Swarnali A; Ostry, Jonathan D; Rose, Andrew K (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhab016">"The Macroeconomy After Tariffs"</a>. <i>The World Bank Economic Review</i>. <b>36</b> (2): 361–381. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fwber%2Flhab016">10.1093/wber/lhab016</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10986%2F36630">10986/36630</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0258-6770">0258-6770</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+World+Bank+Economic+Review&rft.atitle=The+Macroeconomy+After+Tariffs&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=361-381&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10986%2F36630&rft.issn=0258-6770&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fwber%2Flhab016&rft.aulast=Furceri&rft.aufirst=Davide&rft.au=Hannan%2C+Swarnali+A&rft.au=Ostry%2C+Jonathan+D&rft.au=Rose%2C+Andrew+K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%2Fwber%2Flhab016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Economist_041123-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Economist_041123_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Economist_041123_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Economist_041123_70-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=makeinindia.com&rft.atitle=Home+%E2%80%93+Make+In+India&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.makeinindia.com%2Fhome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.indiainfoline.com/article/news-top-story/import-duty-hike-on-consumer-durables-%E2%80%98make-in-india%E2%80%99-drive-to-get-a-boost-117121900244_1.html">"Import duty hike on consumer durables, 'Make in India' drive to get a boost"</a>. <i>indiainfoline.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190414073743/https://www.indiainfoline.com/article/news-top-story/import-duty-hike-on-consumer-durables-%25E2%2580%2598make-in-india%25E2%2580%2599-drive-to-get-a-boost-117121900244_1.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=indiainfoline.com&rft.atitle=Import+duty+hike+on+consumer+durables%2C+%27Make+in+India%27+drive+to+get+a+boost&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.indiainfoline.com%2Farticle%2Fnews-top-story%2Fimport-duty-hike-on-consumer-durables-%25E2%2580%2598make-in-india%25E2%2580%2599-drive-to-get-a-boost-117121900244_1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-textiles-idUSKBN1KS17F">"India doubles import tax on textile products, may hit China"</a>. Reuters. 7 August 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190418094249/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-textiles-idUSKBN1KS17F">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=India+doubles+import+tax+on+textile+products%2C+may+hit+China&rft.date=2018-08-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-india-textiles-idUSKBN1KS17F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-import-tax-idUSKCN1ML2QB">"India to raise import tariffs on electronic and communication items"</a>. Reuters. 11 October 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190418112100/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-import-tax-idUSKCN1ML2QB">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=India+to+raise+import+tariffs+on+electronic+and+communication+items&rft.date=2018-10-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-india-import-tax-idUSKCN1ML2QB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.export.gov/article?id=Armenia-import-tariffs">"Armenia – Import Tariffs"</a>. export.gov. 2015-01-02. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190913033813/https://www.export.gov/article?id=Armenia-import-tariffs">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-09-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-10-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Armenia+%E2%80%93+Import+Tariffs&rft.pub=export.gov&rft.date=2015-01-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.export.gov%2Farticle%3Fid%3DArmenia-import-tariffs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/armenia-import-tariffs">"Armenia – Country Commercial Guide – Import Tariffs"</a>. trade.gov. 2022-07-31. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211228060939/https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/armenia-import-tariffs">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-12-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-12-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Armenia+%E2%80%93+Country+Commercial+Guide+%E2%80%93+Import+Tariffs&rft.pub=trade.gov&rft.date=2022-07-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.trade.gov%2Fcountry-commercial-guides%2Farmenia-import-tariffs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230107190510/https://www-alta-ru.translate.goog/tamdoc/14bn0084/?_x_tr_sl=ru&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en">"Договор от 10.10.2014. Таможенные документы"</a> [Contract dated 10.10.2014. Customs documents]. <i>Альта-Софт</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-12-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Armenia+%E2%80%93+Trade+Barriers&rft.date=2022-07-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.trade.gov%2Fcountry-commercial-guides%2Farmenia-trade-barriers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://investinarmenia.am/en/import-and-export-regime">"Import and Export Regime"</a>. <i>investinarmenia.am</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230107190513/https://investinarmenia.am/en/import-and-export-regime">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-01-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=investinarmenia.am&rft.atitle=Import+and+Export+Regime&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finvestinarmenia.am%2Fen%2Fimport-and-export-regime&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreater_Geneva_Bern_area2024" class="citation web cs1">Greater Geneva Bern area (2024-01-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ggba.swiss/en/switzerland-to-abolish-industrial-tariffs-from-2024/">"Switzerland to abolish industrial tariffs from 2024"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-07-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Switzerland+to+abolish+industrial+tariffs+from+2024&rft.date=2024-01-15&rft.au=Greater+Geneva+Bern+area&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fggba.swiss%2Fen%2Fswitzerland-to-abolish-industrial-tariffs-from-2024%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/markets/europe/switzerland-scraps-tariffs-industrial-product-imports-2024-01-02/">"Switzerland scraps tariffs on industrial product imports"</a>. Reuters. 2024-01-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-07-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Switzerland+scraps+tariffs+on+industrial+product+imports&rft.pub=Reuters&rft.date=2024-01-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fmarkets%2Feurope%2Fswitzerland-scraps-tariffs-industrial-product-imports-2024-01-02%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederal_Council_(Switzerland)2024" class="citation web cs1">Federal Council (Switzerland) (2024-01-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.admin.ch/gov/en/start/documentation/media-releases.msg-id-99580.html">"Swiss industrial tariffs abolished"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-07-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Swiss+industrial+tariffs+abolished&rft.date=2024-01-02&rft.au=Federal+Council+%28Switzerland%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.admin.ch%2Fgov%2Fen%2Fstart%2Fdocumentation%2Fmedia-releases.msg-id-99580.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120708082900/http://americashistory.org/detail.aspx?cat=12&man=452">"Thomas Jefferson – under George Washington by America's History"</a>. americashistory.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americashistory.org/detail.aspx?cat=12&man=452">the original</a> on 2012-07-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Thomas+Jefferson+%E2%80%93+under+George+Washington+by+America%27s+History&rft.pub=americashistory.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famericashistory.org%2Fdetail.aspx%3Fcat%3D12%26man%3D452&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020605041815/http://www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/dnflash/mar2002/nf2002038_1478.htm">"Behind the Steel-Tariff Curtain"</a>. <i>Business Week Online</i>. March 8, 2002. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/dnflash/mar2002/nf2002038_1478.htm">the original</a> on June 5, 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+Week+Online&rft.atitle=Behind+the+Steel-Tariff+Curtain&rft.date=2002-03-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessweek.com%2Fbwdaily%2Fdnflash%2Fmar2002%2Fnf2002038_1478.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thehermitage.com/learn/andrew-jackson-nullification">Andrew Jackson & the Nullification Crisis</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230808024520/https://thehermitage.com/learn/andrew-jackson-nullification/">Archived</a> 2023-08-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <a href="/wiki/The_Hermitage_(Nashville,_Tennessee)" title="The Hermitage (Nashville, Tennessee)">The Hermitage</a>, 2023. Accessed 2023-08-08.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSid_Marris_and_Dennis_Shanahan2007" class="citation news cs1">Sid Marris and Dennis Shanahan (November 9, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071109183702/http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,22729573-5013871,00.html">"PM rulses out more help for car firms"</a>. <i>The Australian</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,22729573-5013871,00.html">the original</a> on 2007-11-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-11-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Australian&rft.atitle=PM+rulses+out+more+help+for+car+firms&rft.date=2007-11-09&rft.au=Sid+Marris+and+Dennis+Shanahan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theaustralian.news.com.au%2Fstory%2F0%2C25197%2C22729573-5013871%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theage.com.au/news/National/Candidate-wants-car-tariff-cuts-halted/2007/10/29/1193618771259.html">"Candidate wants car tariff cuts halted"</a>. <i>The Age</i>. Melbourne. October 29, 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101113142838/http://www.theage.com.au/news/National/Candidate-wants-car-tariff-cuts-halted/2007/10/29/1193618771259.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 13, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 11,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Age&rft.atitle=Candidate+wants+car+tariff+cuts+halted&rft.date=2007-10-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theage.com.au%2Fnews%2FNational%2FCandidate-wants-car-tariff-cuts-halted%2F2007%2F10%2F29%2F1193618771259.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mem-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mem_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Spanish)</span> <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/dest.asp?id=movimientoshuelgadelacarne">Primeros movimientos sociales chileno (1890–1920)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120308040535/http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/dest.asp?id=movimientoshuelgadelacarne">Archived</a> 2012-03-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Memoria Chilena.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-benjamin-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-benjamin_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benjamin S. 1997. Meat and Strength: The Moral Economy of a Chilean Food Riot. <i><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Anthropology">Cultural Anthropology</a></i>, 12, pp. 234–268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wcoomd.org/en/topics/facilitation/instrument-and-tools/conventions/pf_revised_kyoto_conv/~/link.aspx?_id=9415CF3F04D44BB1A62B44853A63AAC1&_z=z">"Specific Annex D: Customs Warehouses and Free Zones"</a>, <i>International Convention on the Simplication and Harmonization of Customs Procedures (Revised Kyoto Convention)</i>, <a href="/wiki/World_Customs_Organization" title="World Customs Organization">World Customs Organization</a>, 1999, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210901172203/http://www.wcoomd.org/en/topics/facilitation/instrument-and-tools/conventions/pf_revised_kyoto_conv/~/link.aspx?_id=9415CF3F04D44BB1A62B44853A63AAC1&_z=z">archived</a> from the original on 2021-09-01<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-09-01</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Specific+Annex+D%3A+Customs+Warehouses+and+Free+Zones&rft.btitle=International+Convention+on+the+Simplication+and+Harmonization+of+Customs+Procedures+%28Revised+Kyoto+Convention%29&rft.pub=World+Customs+Organization&rft.date=1999&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wcoomd.org%2Fen%2Ftopics%2Ffacilitation%2Finstrument-and-tools%2Fconventions%2Fpf_revised_kyoto_conv%2F~%2Flink.aspx%3F_id%3D9415CF3F04D44BB1A62B44853A63AAC1%26_z%3Dz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEl-Agraa1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ali_M._El-Agraa" title="Ali M. El-Agraa">El-Agraa, Ali M.</a> (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tradetheorypolic0000elag"><i>Trade Theory and Policy</i></a></span>. Macmillan Press Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0333360200" title="Special:BookSources/978-0333360200"><bdi>978-0333360200</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trade+Theory+and+Policy&rft.pub=Macmillan+Press+Ltd.&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0333360200&rft.aulast=El-Agraa&rft.aufirst=Ali+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftradetheorypolic0000elag&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrugmanWells2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman, Paul</a>; Wells, Robin (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/microeconomics00krug"><i>Macroeconomics</i></a>. Worth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0716752295" title="Special:BookSources/978-0716752295"><bdi>978-0716752295</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Macroeconomics&rft.pub=Worth&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0716752295&rft.aulast=Krugman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Wells%2C+Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmicroeconomics00krug&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATariff" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output 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has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tariffs" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Tariffs">Tariffs</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tao.wto.org/">Tariff Analysis Online – Detailed information on tariff and trade data</a> by the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_trade" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:International_trade" title="Template:International trade"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:International_trade" title="Template talk:International trade"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:International_trade" title="Special:EditPage/Template:International trade"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="International_trade" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">International trade</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_advantage" title="Absolute advantage">Absolute advantage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_payments" title="Balance of payments">Balance of payments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_trade" title="Balance of trade">Balance of trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_account" title="Capital account">Capital account</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_advantage" title="Comparative advantage">Comparative advantage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_account_(balance_of_payments)" title="Current account (balance of payments)">Current account</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Export-oriented_industrialization" title="Export-oriented industrialization">Export-oriented industrialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_trade" title="Fair trade">Fair trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_exchange_reserves" title="Foreign exchange reserves">Foreign exchange reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Import_substitution_industrialization" title="Import substitution industrialization">Import substitution industrialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_capital_outflow" title="Net capital outflow">Net capital outflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outsourcing" title="Outsourcing">Outsourcing</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tariff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_justice" title="Trade justice">Trade justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_war" title="Trade war">Trade war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trading_nation" title="Trading nation">Trading nation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Organizations<br />and policies</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_Trade_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Conference on Trade and Development">UN Conference on Trade and Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Bank_Group" title="World Bank Group">World Bank Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Trade_Centre" title="International Trade Centre">International Trade Centre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="International Chamber of Commerce">International Chamber of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilateral_investment_treaty" title="Bilateral investment treaty">Bilateral investment treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_integration" title="Economic integration">Economic integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incoterms" title="Incoterms">Incoterms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ATA_Carnet" title="ATA Carnet">ATA Carnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-trade_zone" title="Free-trade zone">Free-trade zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_economic_zone" title="Special economic zone">Special economic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_agreement" title="Trade agreement">Trade agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_barrier" title="Trade barrier">Trade barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_bloc" title="Trade bloc">Trade bloc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">Free trade</a> (<a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Repeal_of_the_Corn_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Repeal of the Corn Laws">Repeal of the Corn Laws</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">Protectionism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Economic_nationalism" title="Economic nationalism">Economic nationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autarky" title="Autarky">Autarky</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dedollarisation" title="Dedollarisation">Dedollarisation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Regional_organization" title="Regional organization">Regional organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andean_Community_of_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Andean Community of Nations">Andean Community of Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Community" title="Caribbean Community">Caribbean Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_American_Integration_System" title="Central American Integration System">Central American Integration System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercosur" title="Mercosur">Mercosur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia-Pacific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Southeast_Asian_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Association of Southeast Asian Nations">Association of Southeast Asian Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Comprehensive_Economic_Partnership" title="Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership">Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe, Central Asia, and North Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customs_Union_of_Belarus,_Kazakhstan,_and_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Russia">Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Union" title="Eurasian Economic Union">Eurasian Economic Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">European Union Customs Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle East and North Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Customs_Union" title="Arab Customs Union">Arab Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_Council_for_the_Arab_States_of_the_Gulf" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf">Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subsaharan Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_African_Community" title="East African Community">East African Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Monetary_Community_of_Central_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa">Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_African_Customs_Union" title="Southern African Customs Union">Southern African Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_African_Economic_and_Monetary_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="West African Economic and Monetary Union">West African Economic and Monetary Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_top_exporting_countries_by_product_category" title="List of top exporting countries by product category">Exports by product</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_aircraft_and_spacecraft_exports" title="List of countries by aircraft and spacecraft exports">Aircraft & Spacecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_aircraft_component_exports" title="List of countries by aircraft component exports">Aircraft parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_aluminium_exports" title="List of countries by aluminium exports">Aluminium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_automotive_component_exports" title="List of countries by automotive component exports">Car parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal#Major_exporters" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_coffee_exports" title="List of countries by coffee exports">Coffee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_computer_exports" title="List of countries by computer exports">Computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_copper_exports" title="List of countries by copper exports">Copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_maize_exports" title="List of countries by maize exports">Corn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_cotton_exports" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by cotton exports">Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_diamond_exports" title="List of countries by diamond exports">Diamonds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_electricity_exports" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by electricity exports">Electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_electronics_exports" title="List of countries by electronics exports">Electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_engine_exports" title="List of countries by engine exports">Engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_gas_turbine_exports" title="List of countries by gas turbine exports">Gas turbines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_gold_exports" title="List of countries by gold exports">Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_integrated_circuit_exports" title="List of countries by integrated circuit exports">Integrated circuits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron-ore_exports_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron-ore exports by country">Iron ore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_live_animal_exports" title="List of countries by live animal exports">Live animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_exports" title="List of countries by natural gas exports">Natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_exports" title="List of countries by oil exports">Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_refined_petroleum_exports" title="List of countries by refined petroleum exports">Petrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_pharmaceutical_exports" title="List of countries by pharmaceutical exports">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_photovoltaics_exports" title="List of countries by photovoltaics exports">Photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_ship_exports" title="List of countries by ship exports">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_steel_production#Exports" title="List of countries by steel production">Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_telecommunications_equipment_exports" title="List of countries by telecommunications equipment exports">Telecommunications equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_telephone_exports" title="List of countries by telephone exports">Telephones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_textile_exports" title="List of countries by textile exports">Textiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_truck_exports" title="List of countries by truck exports">Trucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_vehicle_exports" title="List of countries by vehicle exports">Vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_wheat_exports" title="List of countries by wheat exports">Wheat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine#Exporting_countries" title="Wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:International_trade" title="Category:International trade">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:International_trade" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:International trade">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4137564-6">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85132493">United 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[\"CITEREFHa-Joon_Chang_(Faculty_of_Economics_and_Politics,_University_of_Cambridge)2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHelm2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHugh_MontgomeryPhilip_George_Cambray1906\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIrwin2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeynes2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKluge1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrugman,_PaulWells,_Robin2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrugman1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrugman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrugman2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrugman2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrugmanWells2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLokotsch1927\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuthin1944\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaurin2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMichell2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPham2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoole2004\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFProfessor_Dani_Rodik2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRadcliffe\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenfeld2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchulman2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSid_Marris_and_Dennis_Shanahan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteingass1884\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSubramanian2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTemin1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas_C._Cochran,_William_Miller1942\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_Bernstein2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiseman2024\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 19,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 8,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 20,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 15,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 32,\n [\"Cn\"] = 1,\n [\"Commonscat\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Excessive quotation\"] = 1,\n [\"Further explanation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"In lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 7,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"NIE Poster\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Primary sources\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Secondary source needed\"] = 2,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 5,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 4,\n [\"Taxation\"] = 1,\n [\"Trade\"] = 1,\n [\"US$\"] = 3,\n [\"Undue weight\"] = 1,\n [\"Undue weight inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Update needed\"] = 5,\n [\"Volume needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 5,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-57488d5c7d-hp4wp","timestamp":"20241128042157","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Tariff","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tariff","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q52389","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q52389","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-06-08T17:02:23Z","dateModified":"2024-11-22T18:09:36Z","headline":"tax on the 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